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1. Introduction
Salt stress in the form of soil salinity restricts plant growth and limits crop yields. Globally, soil salinity affects 6–10% of the total land surface (~ 800 million ha), 20–33% of which is used for agricultural purposes [1, 2, 3]. The damages caused by soil salinity are more notable in arid and semiarid regions where limited rainfall, high evapotranspiration rates, and extreme temperatures coupled with poor water and soil management practices exacerbate this problem [4, 5]. Despite the current agricultural problems due to soil salinity, world population growth has exerted substantial pressure for increased crop production to meet the global demand for food. Simultaneously, climate change has continued to markedly challenge the growth and production of agricultural crops due to variations in temperature, shifts in precipitation, reduced solar radiation, and increased evaporative demand.
Salinization can be the result of natural causes, such as flooding, wind erosion, and the redistribution of salts in shallow groundwater systems due to the weathering of minerals and salty rocks that release sodium chloride (NaCl) and other soluble salts like magnesium, calcium, sulfates (SO4), and carbonates (CO3) into the environment [6, 7]. Other sources of salinity include high evaporation rates in the tropics and the precipitation of ocean salt by wind and rain, which increase ion concentrations in soils [8]. However, the global increase in salinization is mainly due to anthropogenic activities, such as irrigation, land clearing, deforestation, agricultural intensification, the use of imbalanced fertilizers, or poor drainage systems [7]. Irrigation practices have also elevated groundwater levels, resulting in a subsequent increase in evaporation. Moreover, industrial wastewater and effluents enriched in salts can elevate the salinity levels of agricultural soils.
Salinity has drastic consequences in plants at a physiological level because it restricts the ability of plants to take up water. In plants under salt-stress conditions, the rates of transpiration and photosynthesis decrease while the opening and closing of stomata is generally quick; in addition, ion toxicity, membrane instability, and mineral limitation are observed along with the inhibition of both enzymes and metabolic pathways [9, 10, 11]. Additional problems emerge when excessive amounts of salts enter a plant and reach toxic levels, impairing normal germination, plant growth, lateral bud development, productivity, and senescence [12]. The overall results of salinity stress can be seen in impaired plant growth, physiological functions, and crop yields, although these depend on the severity of the stress, the time scale of the response, and on whether the stress was abruptly or gradually imposed [11].
Plant damage caused by salinity primarily takes place in two phases. First, increases in soil salt content cause an osmotic effect, which reduces the soil water potential and consequently plant water absorption. Second, the excessive uptake of ions, mainly Na+, Cl-, and SO2, interferes with various metabolic processes in plants, including photosynthesis, nitrogen assimilation, malate metabolism, and protein translation [13]. This nutrient imbalance reduces the amounts of calcium, magnesium, and potassium in the plant [14]. In addition, oxidative damage is generated as a result of an increase in ROS due to a reduction in the rate of photosynthesis. The combination of these factors negatively affects plant functions, including those related to metabolism, and may damage plant structures, which can ultimately lead to plant death [15, 16].
The ability of crops to grow and reproduce in saline soil is dependent on the developmental stage of the plant and greatly differs between species, which is mainly due to the variability associated with limiting salt uptake from the soil and effectively compartmentalizing it at the cellular level [17]. To deal with the adverse effects of salinity, plants trigger different physiological and biochemical mechanisms that allow them to survive and grow, including salt exclusion, the control of ion uptake and translocation, ion compartmentalization within different cells and tissues, nutrient ion transport, the synthesis of compatible solutes and osmoprotectants, morphological and anatomical modifications, membrane and hormone changes, and antioxidative metabolism responses based on the production of antioxidant enzymes and compounds [8, 13, 18]. This chapter is focused on presenting the principal determinants of salt-stress tolerance in plants, which include the antioxidant defense system, enzymatic and nonenzymatic compounds, and the most important metabolites involved in osmotic adjustments.
2. Antioxidant defense mechanisms
The antioxidant defense system is a vital mechanism by which plants deal with oxidative stress under saline conditions [19, 20, 21]. Salinization reduces the rate of photosynthesis, which alters the electron flow from central transport chains to oxygen-reduction pathways, leading to an overproduction of ROS, such as superoxide radicals (O2•−), singlet oxygen (O2), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), hydroxyl radicals (OH•), and alkoxy radicals (RO•). ROS are generated in the cytosol, chloroplasts, mitochondria, and apoplastic spaces of cells [22, 23, 24, 25]. Although ROS are formed in biological systems as by-products of respiration and photosynthesis, in low concentrations, they act as signal transduction molecules that are involved in mediating programmed cell death, development, and responses to pathogen infections and environmental stressors [23, 26]. However, an excess of ROS produces phytotoxic reactions, biomolecule oxidation, cell membrane damage, protein degradation, enzyme inhibition, and DNA mutations [27, 28, 29]. Therefore, fluctuations in the properties and functions of ROS will eventually lead to metabolic and physiological problems in plants.
The overproduction of ROS imbalances homeostasis at cellular and subcellular levels and may ultimately lead to cellular death [30]. The intensity of the oxidative stress depends on the types of ROS produced, their concentrations, the sites where they are released, interactions with other cellular molecules, and the developmental stage and potential of the cell [31]. To avoid damage caused by the overproduction of ROS, plants employ an antioxidant defense mechanism that contains several enzymatic and nonenzymatic constituents that mitigate potential negative effects by converting ROS into less toxic molecules [32]. Given that increases in antioxidant levels usually improve plant tolerance, an adjustable control system that balances ROS production and scavenging via antioxidant enzyme and nonenzyme activities is essential for limiting toxicity levels in plants under adverse conditions [33, 34].
Plants rely on enzymes that are specifically involved in ROS detoxification, namely those that act to lower ROS levels or avoid oxidative stress, including superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), and other enzymes involved in the AsA-GSH cycle, such as glutathione reductase (GR), monodehydroascorbate reductase (MDHAR), and dehydroascorbate reductase (DHAR). These antioxidant enzymes are located in different sites within plant cells and work together to detoxify ROS [35]. In addition, low molecular mass antioxidant compounds like ascorbate, glutathione, flavonoids, tocopherols, and carotenoids are also crucial for ROS homeostasis in plants [36, 37, 38].
2.1 Enzymatic antioxidants
2.1.1 Superoxide dismutase
Superoxide dismutase, which shows great variation across different plant species, is a metalloenzyme that plays an important role in combating oxidative stress in all subcellular organelles sensitive to ROS (i.e., chloroplasts, mitochondria, peroxisomes). This metalloenzyme catalyzes the dismutation of O2• − into O2 and H2O2. A particularly interesting property of SODs is that they can only react with O2•−) through diffusion and electrostatic guidance at limited rates, yet they are highly effective at removing O2•− [39]. SOD enzymes can be classified into three types according to their metal cofactors: copper/zinc (Cu/Zn-SOD; found in the cytosol or in plastids), manganese (Mn-SOD; found in mitochondria and peroxisomes), or iron (Fe-SOD; found in chloroplasts). Of note, it is only plants that have all three SOD types [39]. Superoxide dismutases are considered the first line of defense against ROS because an increase in SOD activity has been frequently linked to improved plant tolerance in the presence of environmental stress [40]. For example, the overproduction of SOD has been found to enhance salt-stress tolerance in sweet potatoes [40]. Moreover, SOD activity has been put forth as an indirect means to screen for plants that are salinity resistant.
2.1.2 Catalase
Catalase was the first enzyme to be identified with antioxidant capabilities and is mainly found in peroxisomes and glyoxysomes. The function of CAT is to convert H2O2 into H20 and O2 [41]. H2O2 has been found to be produced in cell organelles during photorespiratory oxidation, the β-oxidation of fatty acids, purine catabolism, and because of the activities of enzymes, such as xanthine oxidase and SOD [42]. CAT plays a dynamic role in eliminating H2O2 by degrading it in an energetically efficient manner. For example, one CAT molecule can transform about 6 million H2O2 molecules into H2O and O2 in roughly one minute [43, 44].
Whereas animals contain a single CAT gene, plants have a multigene family that includes multiple isoenzymes (depending on the species) whose expression is regulated according to how they are distributed within tissues or organs and the environmental conditions present [44]. In plants, there are three classes of catalases that are determined based on location: class I (photosynthetic tissues), class II (vascular tissues), and class III (seeds and young seedlings) [45]. A concomitant increase in CAT activity has been observed as part of the antioxidant defense system in plants. This increase may be a manifestation of the adaptive responses of plants to abiotic stress. It may also be assumed that without any concomitant increase in CAT activity, plant growth is likely to be severely limited. Therefore, different environmental stressors constitute major drivers that either enhance or restrict CAT activity, depending on the intensity, duration, and type of stress [46].
2.1.3 Enzymes involved in the AsA-GSH cycle
The Asa-GSH cycle, also known as the Halliwell–Asada cycle, is a series of coupled redox reactions involving four enzymes: APX, MDHAR, DHAR, and GR [47]. This cycle plays a crucial role in the antioxidant protection system in the presence of H2O2, which is generated in different cellular compartments like chloroplasts, mitochondria, peroxisomes, and the cytosol and apoplast [48, 49]. H2O2 is scavenged by APX via the oxidation of ascorbate. This enzyme comprises a family of five APX isoforms that are located in several organelles and cellular compartments, including glyoxysomes (gmAPX), thylakoids (tAPX), the cytosol (cAPX), mitochondria (mAPX), and soluble chloroplast stroma (sAPX) [46]. APX uses two molecules of ascorbate to reduce H2O2 to H2O and produces two molecules of monodehydroascorbate (MDHA) from the oxidation of ascorbate. MHDA is converted back to ascorbate by MDHAR, which is a flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) enzyme with high specificity for MHDA. Subsequently, MDHA is further rapidly converted to dehydroascorbate (DHA) by the monomeric thiol enzyme DHAR. DHAR uses reduced glutathione (GSH) as the reducing substrate, which is regenerated by GR from its oxidized form glutathione disulfide (GSSG), and NADPH molecules act as donors of reducing equivalents [29, 43]. Recent studies have shown that these enzymes become active and participate in the ascorbic acid-glutathione cycle under salt-stress conditions, indicating that their increased activity may improve plant tolerance [50, 51, 52]. Figure 1 shows the functions of the antioxidant enzymes described above.
Figure 1.
The orange squares show ROS scavenging by the antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) and the enzymes involved in the Asa-GSH cycle, namely ascorbate peroxidase (APX), monodehydroascorbate (MDHAR), dehydroascorbate reductase (DHAR), and glutathione reductase (GR). The purple circles show the nonenzymatic antioxidant compounds glutathione and ascorbate that are described in section 2.2. The diagram was modified from [48].
2.2 Nonenzymatic antioxidants
2.2.1 Ascorbic acid
Ascorbic acid (well known as Vitamin C) is the main antioxidant in plants and acts as a major redox buffer and cofactor for enzymes. The structure of ascorbic acid is like those of hexose sugars and is comprised of a conjugated structure composed of a five-carbon lactone ring, containing enediol groups on C2 and C3. Ascorbic acid is considered to be the most powerful ROS scavenger due to its ability to donate electrons to a wide range of electron receptors in several enzymatic and nonenzymatic reactions [53]. Ascorbic acid protects cellular membranes by directly scavenging O2• − and OH while acting as a cofactor for violaxanthin deepoxidase, sustaining the dissipation of excess excitation energy in chloroplasts [54]. In addition, ascorbic acid has the redox potential to interact with hydroxyl radicals,, superoxides, oxidized glutathione, and tocopherol radicals [53, 55].
Ascorbic acid is involved in many plant pathways related to photosynthesis, hormone biosynthesis, antioxidant regeneration, defense responses, signal transduction, flowering, cell division, and growth and is abundantly found in meristems and photosynthetic cells [56, 57]. Under normal physiological conditions, ascorbic acid largely remains in a reduced form in leaves and chloroplasts [55] and accumulates in photosynthetic organs, although it can be found in high concentrations in non-photosynthetic tissues with the amounts varying depending on the plant species, variety, tissue type, and growth environment [53, 58].
Multiple experiments have been developed to evaluate the roles of antioxidant compounds, such as glutathione and ascorbic acid, when they are applied to different plant tissues. For example, Aliniaeifard et al. [59] sprayed 2 mM AsA and 3 mM GSH on olive plants treated with 100 mM NaCl and reported that plant growth parameters significantly improved with the application of AsA when compared with those of the plants sprayed with GSH. In addition, the Na + and Cl– concentrations decreased in the olive plants sprayed with AsA while the K+ concentration and K/Na ratio increased. Aliniaeifard et al. concluded that the exogenous application of AsA is recommended for improving the tolerance of olive plants under saline conditions. Similarly, Sadak [60] applied AsA to flax cultivars irrigated with salt water and found that AsA allowed for an increase in antioxidant defense via the activation of ROS scavenging enzymes.
2.2.2 Glutathione
Together with ascorbic acid, glutathione is one of the most important nonenzymatic antioxidants. Glutathione is a thiol tripeptide composed of γ-glutamyl-cysteinylglycine and plays a central role in antioxidant defense by scavenging ROS, thereby maintaining redox homeostasis in plant tissues [61]. The chemical reactivity, relative stability, and high water solubility of the thiol group of glutathione makes it ideal for protecting plants against oxidative stress or stress due to heavy metals and exogenous or endogenous organic chemicals [62]. Glutathione is localized in all cell compartments, such as the chloroplasts, cytosol, vacuoles, mitochondria, and endoplasmic reticulum. In physiological processes, glutathione plays important roles in xenobiotic detoxification, metabolite conjugation, signal transduction, and stress-responsive gene expression [61, 63]. Glutathione also participates in tissue growth and development, cell death and senescence, and the enzymatic regulation of pathogen resistance [64].
Glutathione also appears to be important in controlling O2•−, •OH, and H2O2 levels in cells under stressful conditions given the observed changes in the ratio of its reduced (GSH) and oxidized (GSSG) forms, which provides information on the cellular redox balance [65, 66]. GSH is required for GRX-mediated dithiol and monothiol reduction mechanisms and is important for the activation of GPX, GST, and glyoxalase functions, particularly recycling GSH from GSSG in the presence of NADPH. Therefore, GSH plays a key role in ROS tolerance under oxidative stress in association with other ROS-metabolizing enzymes [57]. In addition, the primary reaction in plants when they are exposed to progressive salinity is the oxidation of GSH, indicating that this reaction is an early response to oxidative stress [33, 67].
Studies have demonstrated the benefits associated with the application of GSH in modulating salt-stress tolerance and positively influencing yield-contributing traits in plants like rice (Oryza sativa L.) [68], while the application of GSH has been found to increase the transcript levels and activities of genes and enzymes related to GSH synthesis and metabolism in tomato plants (Solanum lycopersicum) [69].
2.2.3 Flavonoids
Flavonoids are largely responsible for the pigmentation of seeds, flowers, stems, roots, and fruits. Flavonoids are aromatic compounds that are derived from chalcone, which is obtained from phenylalanine and malonyl-coenzyme A. According to their chemical structures, flavonoids can be classified into flavones, flavanones, flavonols, flavans, flavandiols, isoflavones, anthocyanins, and condensed tannins [70, 71].
Flavonoids act to prevent ROS increase through the inhibition of ROS-generating enzymes, including cyclooxygenase, lipoxygenase, monooxygenase, and xanthine oxidase. The ability to chelate metals is essential for impeding the regeneration of radical ROS molecules, such as superoxide, hydroxyl radicals, and hydrogen peroxide [72, 73]. Given that they contain functional hydroxyl groups, flavonoids constitute a secondary antioxidant system, as they support the function of other ROS scavenging systems when the activities of antioxidant enzymes are reduced. In addition, flavonoids serve as antioxidant barriers that protect cellular components against oxidizing pollutants like ozone (O3) and sulfur dioxide (SO2). Due to their elevated abilities to donate electrons or hydrogen atoms, the antioxidant capacities of flavonoids have been found to be many times higher than those of either ascorbic acid or a-tocopherol [74, 75].
Interestingly, in Ginkgo biloba seedlings, treatment with 100 mmol/L NaCl was found to improve the biosynthesis of flavonoids and flavonol [76]. In addition, the upregulated expression of five flavonoid biosynthesis-related genes was also detected. The authors indicated that G. biloba seedlings could tolerate low-level soil salinity stress via the regulation of flavonoid biosynthesis, which was accelerated in response to environmental stress.
2.2.4 Tocopherols
Tocopherols constitute a group of lipophilic compounds that are important antioxidant and nonenzymatic components capable of inhibiting lipid peroxidation. Tocopherols are also essential for maintaining membrane integrity. These lipophilic compounds are synthesized from homogentisic acid and isopentenyl diphosphate in the plastid envelope. Tocopherol exists in four isomeric forms (α-, β-, γ-, and δ-), with the predominant forms being α- and γ-tocopherol. The composition of tocopherol depends on the genotypic features of the plant, growth conditions, tissue type, and stress intensity. Tocopherols are present in seeds, fruits, roots, tubers, cotyledons, hypocotyls, stems, leaves, and flowers. In addition, α-tocopherol may regulate the concentrations of plant hormones, such as jasmonic acid, which control both growth and development [38, 77].
As a component of thylakoid membranes, tocopherol acts as an important scavenger of 1O2 and OH while maintaining a stable redox status and the structure and function of PSII. Tocopherols have also been found to reduce lipid peroxyl radicals (obtained from lipid peroxidation) to their corresponding hydroperoxides [78]. In addition, tocopherols participate in cell signaling and they may protect embryos during germination from ROS, senescence, and stress [79, 80]. Recent studies have also shown that tocopherol plays a positive role under salt-stress conditions by controlling Na+/K+ homeostasis and the hormonal balance while minimizing oxidative stress [81]. Additionally, it has been demonstrated that the foliar application of a-tocopherol in onion plants and Vicia fava improve salt tolerance with an increase in plant growth and productivity in this condition [82, 83].
2.2.5 Carotenoids
Carotenoids are hydrophobic pigments derived from isoprene that play essential roles in photosynthesis and nutrition and protect against photo-oxidative damage in higher plants [37]. Carotenoids are mainly present in the form of 40-carbon tetraterpene, which consists of eight isoprene units [84]. In plants, carotenoids are synthesized in plastids from isoprenoid precursors. Lycopene is a principal carotenoid and is a product of the sequential desaturations of phytoene and may be converted into b-carotene by lycopene b-cyclase (Lcy-b) [85, 86]. Carotenoids act as light harvesters by dissipating excess energy as heat, and they also protect the photosynthetic apparatus from the free radicals produced during photosynthesis by stabilizing photosystem I and II and the thylakoid membrane. Furthermore, carotenoids are precursors of hormones like abscisic acid and strigolactones [87].
Carotenoids quench the O2 and H2O2 formed under salt stress due to their low triplet state energy and in this way, protect lipids from peroxidation while suppressing radical chain reactions [88, 89, 90]. Li et al. [91] recently showed that the overexpression of three genes associated with carotenoid biosynthesis from Lycium chinenses enhanced salt tolerance in tobacco plants and suggested that plants may synthesize and accumulate more carotenoids under salt-stress conditions, showing higher resistance to oxidative stress, by an increase of the expression level and activity of antioxidant enzymes.
3. Osmolytes that maintain cell turgor
Salinity decreases the osmotic potential of soil, which in turn limits water absorption by plants. In addition, the toxicity of Na + and Cl- impedes the uptake of essential nutrients. In particular, Na + toxicity can disrupt the absorption of K+ and Ca2+, favoring the production of ROS and inducing oxidative damage [92].
Plants have developed responses to deal with water loss and the transport and accumulation of toxic ions. Given that water loss in plants originates due to the low osmotic potential of the soil, plants must employ compensatory mechanisms [93]. Plant cells permit higher influxes of Na+, which decrease the water potential and cause osmotic stress in cells. Salts are translocated from the roots to shoots to maintain ion homeostasis, although this reduces photosynthetic efficiency due to the inhibition of photosystem II (PSII) [94]. To cope with osmotic stress and maintain ion homeostasis, plants biosynthesize osmolytes.
Osmolytes or compatible solutes are small molecules with low molecular weights that are electrically neutral, highly soluble, and do not affect normal biochemical processes [95]. The biosynthesis and accumulation of osmolytes constitutes an essential protection strategy for plants under abiotic stress. Multiple studies have elucidated the roles that osmolytes play in abiotic stress tolerance due to natural accumulation [96, 97], exogenous application [98, 99], or the transgenic expression of osmolyte pathway genes [100, 101], which are summarized in Table 1.
Studies in plants that directly correlate metabolite accumulation to increased salinity stress tolerance.
The primary function of osmolytes is to accumulate inside the cell to maintain the osmotic balance between the plant cell and its surroundings [120]. Osmolytes can also act as chemical chaperones by stabilizing and protecting proteins and membranes [121] or by acting as ROS scavengers [122]. Some of these compatible solutes are highly effective in reducing the extent of K+ loss in response to salt stress [123]. Overall, osmolytes are chemically diverse, although they can be broadly grouped into amino acids, polyamines, betaines, sugars, and polyols, which are shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2.
Chemical structures of the most common osmolytes observed in salt-stress responses in plants. These structures can be grouped into amino acids, polyamines, betaines, sugars, and polyols.
3.1 Amino acids
Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins, which carry out many biological processes and provide structure and support for cells [124]. In addition, many studies have reported the accumulation of amino acids in plants exposed to drought and salinity conditions [97, 98, 125, 126]. This accumulation may be due to elevated amino acid production and/or the stress-induced breakdown of proteins [127]. Some of the amino acids that have been found to accumulate are alanine, arginine, glycine, serine, leucine, valine, and proline, in addition to non-protein amino acids like citrulline, ornithine, and gamma amino butyric acid (GABA) [128, 129].
Proline is the most important osmolyte and signaling molecule and generally accumulates in the cytosol. Proline also acts as an ROS scavenger and molecular chaperone, stabilizing the structure of proteins and protecting cells from potential damage induced by osmotic and oxidative stress [120, 130, 131]. Proline is mainly synthesized from glutamate by Δ1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate (P5C) synthetase and P5C reductase enzymes, although under nitrogen-limited conditions, proline is synthesized in the ornithine pathway and transformed into P5C/GSA (glutamate-1-semialdehyde) via ornithine-δ-aminotransferase [132, 133].
Proline has been associated with increased salt tolerance in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) [102], soybean (Glycine max) [103], groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) [134], pea (Pisum sativum) [104], sainfoin (Onobrychis viciaefolia), and mung bean (Vigna radiata) plants [100]. Researchers have also reported that the exogenous application of proline enhances its endogenous level, thus promoting growth and the antioxidant defense system and decreasing the uptake rate of Na + and Cl- [99, 135].
Gamma amino butyric acid is a four-carbon non-protein amino acid with an amino group attached to γ-carbon instead of α- carbon. GABA is mainly synthesized from glutamate in the cytosol by glutamate decarboxylase and then transported to the mitochondria [136]. GABA metabolism has been associated with the carbon/nitrogen balance and ROS scavenging [137, 138]. In addition, GABA accumulation and metabolism have been found to be activated by salt exposure in tobacco plants [105]. Moreover, GABA-T Arabidopsis mutants have been found to be hypersensitive to ionic stress, showing elevated levels of amino acids (including GABA) [139]. In sorghum, GABA may also contribute to CSF20 osmoregulation and signaling to increase salt tolerance [106].
3.2 Polyamines
Polyamines (PAs) are low molecular weight aliphatic nitrogenous bases containing two or more amino groups [140]. The most common PAs in higher plants are putrescine, spermidine, and spermine. Putrescine can be produced from ornithine by ornithine decarboxylase or from arginine by arginine decarboxylase. Putrescine is then converted to spermidine (spermidine synthase) and spermidine into spermine (spermine synthase). Both spermidine and spermine can be converted back to putrescine by polyamine-oxidases [36].
PAs regulate diverse cellular functions that are essential for cell growth, including senescence, development, cell proliferation, and signal transduction while also regulating the expression of genes in response to various stressors. However, PA accumulation has been detected in plants under abiotic stress [141]. Polyamines act as osmolytes due to their ability to block ion channels (cationic structures) and scavenge ROS [36]. Exogenous spermidine treatment in both salt-sensitive and salt-tolerant rice cultivars has been found to result in plasma membrane recovery after injury induced by salinity [108]. In addition, the exogenous application of spermidine and putrescine was found to increase the postharvest shelf-life of Capsicum annuum [142], while improving grain filling and drought tolerance in wheat plants [143]. It has also been reported that putrescine exhibits salinity tolerance in the pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) by modulating the anabolic and catabolic enzyme activities responsible for putrescine biosynthesis [107].
3.3 Betaines
Glycine betaine (GB) is a quaternary ammonium compound whose distribution among plants is restricted to certain species like Arabidopsis, and many crop plants do not accumulate it [144]. This organic compound is mainly localized in chloroplasts and plays a vital role in chloroplast adjustments and the protection of thylakoid membranes, which helps to maintain the photosynthetic efficiency of the plant [145, 146]. At the same time, GB encourages water to flow into cells, which helps to maintain intracellular osmotic equilibrium and regulates the signaling transduction cascade under stressful conditions [147]. GB is synthesized in chloroplasts from serine via ethanolamine, choline, and betaine aldehyde. Choline is converted to betaine aldehyde by choline monooxygenase, which is then converted to GB by betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase [148].
The exogenous application of GB mitigates the adverse effects of salinity stress in some plant species. For example, the foliar application of GB was found to result in significantly improved salt tolerance in rice plants [110], and the exogenous application of GB on tomato plants subjected to salt stress resulted in an increase in fruit yield of ~40% compared with that of untreated plants [149]. Salinity tolerance in response to GB has also been observed in mung bean (V. radiata) [150], green bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) [108], and soybean (G. max) plants [111].
3.4 Sugars
Sugars provide carbon and energy for cellular metabolic processes while regulating plant growth and development. However, under stressful conditions, carbohydrate metabolism results in an increase in sugar levels. The production and collection of soluble sugars directly contributes to ROS scavenging, osmotic adjustments, carbon storage, and the stabilization of protein structures like Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase–oxygenase [151]. Sugars are also the main osmolytes that participate in osmotic adjustments and can contribute up to 50% of the total osmotic potential in some plant species [152]. Structurally, all kinds of sugars have been reported in response to salinity, including monosaccharides (glucose and fructose), disaccharides (trehalose and sucrose), and oligosaccharides (raffinose family) (Table 1).
Studies have shown that plants mobilize starch and fructans from storage organs (roots, stems, and amyloplasts in leaves) to increase the accumulation of sugars, such as glucose, fructose, and sucrose. Starch hydrolysis by the b-amolytic pathway represents the primary means of starch degradation in leaves under normal growth conditions and may also be involved in stress-induced starch hydrolysis. Downton [113] shows that Vitis vinifera salt-stressed leaves contained decreased amounts of sucrose and starch but increased levels of reducing sugars. Rathert [153] showed that salt stress induced the restricted utilization of leaf sucrose but not of foliar starch in G. max varieties. In addition, Murakeözy et al. [114] found a high accumulation of soluble carbohydrates in Lepidium crassifolium (Brassicaceae) leaves in response to salinity.
Similarly, trehalose accumulates in many organisms due to various abiotic stressors and has been reported to act as an osmolyte [154]. Trehalose is a disaccharide that is synthesized by a two-step process in which trehalose-6-phosphate is first synthesized from glucose-6-phosphate and then dephosphorylated to trehalose by trehalose-6-phosphate phosphatase [155]. Several studies have evaluated the transgenic expression of trehalose biosynthesis genes, which have been shown to enhance trehalose metabolism and tolerance to abiotic stress. For instance, the overexpression of otsA and otsB in transgenic rice plants was found to result in the increased accumulation of trehalose content and an overall improved photosynthetic capacity, reducing oxidative damage and improving ion uptake and partitioning under conditions of salt stress [115]. Also, the induction of OsTPP1 and OsTPP2 by the exogenous application of ABA was found to enhance cold, salinity, and drought tolerance in rice plants [156].
The raffinose family oligosaccharides (RFO), such as raffinose, stachyose, and verbascose, are macromolecules that act to protect plants from drought, salt, cold, freezing, and oxidative stress [157]. In addition, RFOs have been implicated in membrane protection and radical scavenging. Furthermore, Arabidopsis plants overexpressing Arabidopsis GolS1 or GolS2 were found to accumulate high levels of galactinol and raffinose and were more tolerant to salinity stress [116].
3.5 Polyols
Polyols or sugar alcohols are polyhydric alcohols that are widely distributed in the plant kingdom, and they can be grouped into linear and cyclic structures. The most common polyols are mannitol, glycerol, sorbitol (linear), and myo-inositol, along with the methylated derivatives ononitol and pinitol (cyclic) [158, 159]. Polyols accumulate in the cytoplasm and act as osmoprotectants and ROS scavengers, preventing water loss and oxidative damage to membranes and enzymes. Polyols originate via the reduction of aldoses or their phosphate esters and are generally water soluble in nature [160].
Williamson [161] reported that mannitol, sorbitol, and inositol increase drought and salinity tolerance in some plants. Transgenic tobacco plants overexpressing bacterial mannitol-1-phosphate dehydrogenase were found to accumulate high concentrations of mannitol in their leaves and roots and exhibited a high degree of salt tolerance [101]. Moreover, Adams et al. [162] reported that myo-inositol, ononitol, and pinitol accumulated under salt-stress conditions in several halotolerant plant species. Furthermore, the over-expression of MIPS and IMT from halotolerant plants was found to increase cyclic polyol levels and salt-stress tolerance in tobacco plants [118, 119].
4. Conclusions and perspectives
Salt stress is one of the most important factors that limits the productivity of agricultural crops and threatens global food security. Salinity produces osmotic stress and ionic toxicity in plants, which alters cell homeostasis and reduces plant water absorption, adversely affecting growth and plant productivity. Osmotic imbalances have been found to cause an overproduction of ROS that leads to the oxidation of biomolecules, cell membrane damage, protein degradation, enzyme inhibition, DNA mutations, and cellular death. To limit the damage, cells turn on enzymatic and nonenzymatic antioxidant machinery. The ROS detoxification system is very complex and controlled at multiple levels because ROS participate in biological processes like photosynthesis, signal transduction, development, and programmed cell death. Therefore, to evaluate the negative and positive roles of ROS, it is important to understand tolerance mechanisms in plants and the ability to control or moderate ROS levels. Recently, it has been proposed that ROS homeostasis may be modulated through the use of nanoparticles that activate the expression of antioxidant enzyme genes or that have the ability to scavenge ROS [22], thus improving salt tolerance.
Another response to salinity in plants is the induction of osmolyte biosynthesis to stave off water loss and the accumulation of toxic ions. The production and accumulation of osmolytes inside the cell is essential for the protection and survival of plants under salt stress and other forms of environmental stress, although their production is taxonomically restricted. It has been shown that the exogenous application of osmolytes, such as aminoacids, betaines, or sugars, and the overexpression of osmolyte genes constitute viable options to improve plant resistance to salinity. Thus, the use and application of osmolytes in agricultural settings should continue to expand. Current studies have shown that when taken together, metabolic and physiological plant responses can provide valuable information of the possible mechanisms required for plants to adapt to stress. Thus, modulating one component of the antioxidative defense system or a particular metabolite might be insufficient to confer resistance to the entire plant. To generate salt-tolerant species, it is essential to use modified plants that incorporate more than one component, such as the use of multiple antioxidants or metabolites or a combination of both. In this way, further progress in genomics, proteomics, and metabolomics, together with improvements in biotechnological tools, will allow for the underlying mechanisms of salt-tolerant species to be fully elucidated and understood.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Programa para el Desarrollo Profesional Docente (PRODEP), University of Guadalajara, Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACYT), and Laboratorio Nacional PlanTECC for the use of facilities and the support provided via the project 315918.
\n',keywords:"salinity, ROS, scavenging enzyme, antioxidant compound, osmolyte",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/79403.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/79403.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79403",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79403",totalDownloads:172,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"August 26th 2021",dateReviewed:"October 4th 2021",datePrePublished:"November 22nd 2021",datePublished:"April 28th 2022",dateFinished:"November 22nd 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Salinity is one of the most severe environmental problems worldwide and affects plant growth, reproduction, and crop yields by inducing physiological and biochemical changes due to osmotic and ionic shifts in plant cells. One of the principal modifications caused by osmotic stress is the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which cause membrane damage and alter proteins, DNA structures, and photosynthetic processes. In response, plants increase their arsenal of antioxidant compounds, such as ROS scavenging enzymes and nonenzymatic elements like ascorbate, glutathione, flavonoids, tocopherols, and carotenoids, and their rates of osmolyte synthesis to conserve ion homeostasis and manage salt stress. This chapter describes the principal biochemical mechanisms that are employed by plants to survive under salt-stress conditions, including the most recent research regarding plant tolerance, and suggests strategies to produce valuable crops that are able to deal with soil salinity.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/79403",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/79403",signatures:"Julio Armando Massange-Sánchez, Carla Vanessa Sánchez-Hernández, Rosalba Mireya Hernández-Herrera and Paola Andrea Palmeros-Suárez",book:{id:"10795",type:"book",title:"Plant Stress Physiology",subtitle:"Perspectives in Agriculture",fullTitle:"Plant Stress Physiology - Perspectives in Agriculture",slug:"plant-stress-physiology-perspectives-in-agriculture",publishedDate:"April 28th 2022",bookSignature:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman and Kamran Nahar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10795.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83969-867-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-866-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-868-2",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"422262",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Paola Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Palmeros-Suárez",fullName:"Paola Andrea Palmeros-Suárez",slug:"paola-andrea-palmeros-suarez",email:"paola.palmeros@academicos.udg.mx",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Guadalajara",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"422841",title:"Dr.",name:"Julio Armando",middleName:null,surname:"Massange-Sánchez",fullName:"Julio Armando Massange-Sánchez",slug:"julio-armando-massange-sanchez",email:"jmassange@ciatej.mx",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"422843",title:"Dr.",name:"Carla Vanessa",middleName:null,surname:"Sánchez-Hernández",fullName:"Carla Vanessa Sánchez-Hernández",slug:"carla-vanessa-sanchez-hernandez",email:"carla.shernandez@academicos.udg.mx",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"429711",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosalba Mireya",middleName:null,surname:"Hernández-Herrera",fullName:"Rosalba Mireya Hernández-Herrera",slug:"rosalba-mireya-hernandez-herrera",email:"rosalba.hernandez@academicos.udg.mx",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Guadalajara",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Antioxidant defense mechanisms",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Enzymatic antioxidants",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"2.1.1 Superoxide dismutase",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.1.2 Catalase",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.1.3 Enzymes involved in the AsA-GSH cycle",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.2 Nonenzymatic antioxidants",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.2.1 Ascorbic acid",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.2.2 Glutathione",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"2.2.3 Flavonoids",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"2.2.4 Tocopherols",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"2.2.5 Carotenoids",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13",title:"3. Osmolytes that maintain cell turgor",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"3.1 Amino acids",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"3.2 Polyamines",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"3.3 Betaines",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"3.4 Sugars",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"3.5 Polyols",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19",title:"4. 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J Am Soc Hortic Sci. 2002; 127(4):467-73'},{id:"B162",body:'Adams P, Thomas JC, Vernon DM, Bohnert HJ, Jensen RG. Distinct cellular and organismic responses to salt stress. Plant Cell Physiol. 1992;33(8):1215-23. DOI:10.1093/oxfordjournals.pcp.a078376'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Julio Armando Massange-Sánchez",address:null,affiliation:'
Centro de Investigación y Asistencia en Tecnología y Diseño del Estado de Jalisco A.C. Guadalajara, México
Centro Universitario de Ciencias Biológicas y Agropecuarias, University of Guadalajara, México
'},{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Paola Andrea Palmeros-Suárez",address:"paola.palmeros@academicos.udg.mx",affiliation:'
Centro Universitario de Ciencias Biológicas y Agropecuarias, University of Guadalajara, México
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"10795",type:"book",title:"Plant Stress Physiology",subtitle:"Perspectives in Agriculture",fullTitle:"Plant Stress Physiology - Perspectives in Agriculture",slug:"plant-stress-physiology-perspectives-in-agriculture",publishedDate:"April 28th 2022",bookSignature:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman and Kamran Nahar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10795.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83969-867-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-866-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-868-2",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"347889",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Basma",middleName:null,surname:"Marzougui",email:"basma_marzougui@yahoo.com",fullName:"Basma Marzougui",slug:"basma-marzougui",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:null},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{id:"76095",title:"Polycrystalline Powder Synthesis Methods",slug:"polycrystalline-powder-synthesis-methods",abstract:"The synthesis of polycrystalline powder is a key step for materials sciences. In this chapter, we present the well-known methods of preparation of powders such as: solid-state reaction, sol–gel, hydrothermal, combustion, co-precipitation. Moreover, synthesis methods by arc furnace, by heating in a “high frequency” induction furnace and by high energy grinding are presented. The obtained powders could be defined by their purity, gain size, crystallinity, and morphology, which are influenced by the synthesis method. In addition, each method is dependent on some parameters like pH, concentration and temperature.",signatures:"Mosbah Jemmali, Basma Marzougui, Youssef Ben Smida, Riadh Marzouki and Mohamed Triki",authors:[{id:"290142",title:"Dr.",name:"Riadh",surname:"Marzouki",fullName:"Riadh Marzouki",slug:"riadh-marzouki",email:"riadh.marzouki@hotmail.fr"},{id:"311698",title:"Dr.",name:"Youssef",surname:"Ben Smida",fullName:"Youssef Ben Smida",slug:"youssef-ben-smida",email:"youssef_smida@yahoo.fr"},{id:"339980",title:"Dr.",name:"Mosbah",surname:"Jemmali",fullName:"Mosbah Jemmali",slug:"mosbah-jemmali",email:"jmosbah@yahoo.fr"},{id:"347889",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Basma",surname:"Marzougui",fullName:"Basma Marzougui",slug:"basma-marzougui",email:"basma_marzougui@yahoo.com"},{id:"347890",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",surname:"Triki",fullName:"Mohamed Triki",slug:"mohamed-triki",email:"mhtriki@gmail.com"}],book:{id:"10504",title:"Crystallization and Applications",slug:"crystallization-and-applications",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"290142",title:"Dr.",name:"Riadh",surname:"Marzouki",slug:"riadh-marzouki",fullName:"Riadh Marzouki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/290142/images/system/290142.png",biography:"Riadh Marzouki is an Assistant Professor in International Cooperation between the Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, King Khalid University, Saudi Arabia, and the Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Sfax, Tunisia. He is also a researcher in the Laboratory of Materials and Crystallography, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunisia. His research activities include investigating the synthesis, crystal structure, electrical properties, and biological activities of new crystalline materials. He is also the author and the co-author of more than sixty scientific papers, four book chapters, and four book editions.",institutionString:"King Khalid University",institution:{name:"King Khalid University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"311698",title:"Dr.",name:"Youssef",surname:"Ben Smida",slug:"youssef-ben-smida",fullName:"Youssef Ben Smida",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311698/images/system/311698.png",biography:"Youssef Ben Smida obtained a Ph.D. in Chemistry at the Faculty of Sciences of Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunisia, in 2015. He completed a postdoc at the Materials and Crystal Chemistry Laboratory, Faculty of Sciences of Tunis, where he was responsible for the X-ray diffractometers. Since June 2017, he has held a permanent position as a young researcher at the National Research Center in Materials Science, Parke Technology of Borj Cedria Tunisia. He works on energy (Na-ion batteries and fuel cells) and the environment (photocatalysis). His other areas of interest include computational methods (DFT and MD) and crystallography. 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Orders have to be prepaid in advance and before printing. We accept payment in GBP, EUR and USD. Payments can be made by bank transfer or cheque, by credit card (Visa, MasterCard, American Express, Discover Card) and PayPal worldwide online payments system. In accordance with the best security practice, we do not accept card orders via email.
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Orders have to be prepaid in advance and before printing. We accept payment in GBP, EUR and USD. Payments can be made by bank transfer or cheque, by credit card (Visa, MasterCard, American Express, Discover Card) and PayPal worldwide online payments system. In accordance with the best security practice, we do not accept card orders via email.
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The combined printing and delivery times for orders vary from 12-20 business days, depending on the printed quantity and destination. This period does not include any customs clearance difficulties that may arise and that are beyond our control. Once your order has been printed and shipped, you will receive a confirmation email that includes your DHL tracking number. You can then track your order at www.dhl.com.
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Taxes: Residents of European Union countries need to add a Book Value-Added Tax of 5%. Institutions and companies, registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state, will not pay VAT by providing us their VAT registration number. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
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In 2010, he received the international award, Daria Borghese, for studies on the history of the Renaissance in Rome. Among his main research interests includes the socioeconomic transformation of agriculture.",institutionString:"University of Perugia",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Perugia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10752",title:"Communication Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d772f9eae2fbf3543d69d14a4046a8f5",slug:"communication-management",bookSignature:"František Pollák, Jakub Soviar and Roman Vavrek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10752.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"304707",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"František",middleName:null,surname:"Pollák",slug:"frantisek-pollak",fullName:"František Pollák"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10450",title:"Evolutionary Psychology Meets Social Neuroscience",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bd4df54e3fb185306ec3899db7044efb",slug:"evolutionary-psychology-meets-social-neuroscience",bookSignature:"Rosalba Morese, Vincenzo Auriemma and Sara Palermo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10450.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"214435",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosalba",middleName:null,surname:"Morese",slug:"rosalba-morese",fullName:"Rosalba Morese"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9535",title:"Education in Childhood",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"edc0b902fe67ee1b6fab1df4992cb55d",slug:"education-in-childhood",bookSignature:"Olga María Alegre de la Rosa, Luis Miguel Villar Angulo and Carla Giambrone",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9535.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"338767",title:"Prof.",name:"Olga María",middleName:null,surname:"Alegre de la Rosa",slug:"olga-maria-alegre-de-la-rosa",fullName:"Olga María Alegre de la Rosa"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10680",title:"Product Life Cycle",subtitle:"Opportunities for Digital and Sustainable Transformation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"52fbd37bc41094c7f82d1112e6ef3682",slug:"product-life-cycle-opportunities-for-digital-and-sustainable-transformation",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo and Fabio De Felice",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10680.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:114,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"42656",doi:"10.5772/55538",title:"Conceptual Frameworks of Vulnerability Assessments for Natural Disasters Reduction",slug:"conceptual-frameworks-of-vulnerability-assessments-for-natural-disasters-reduction",totalDownloads:9928,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:75,abstract:null,book:{id:"3054",slug:"approaches-to-disaster-management-examining-the-implications-of-hazards-emergencies-and-disasters",title:"Approaches to Disaster Management",fullTitle:"Approaches to Disaster Management - Examining the Implications of Hazards, Emergencies and Disasters"},signatures:"Roxana L. Ciurean, Dagmar Schröter and Thomas Glade",authors:[{id:"163703",title:"Prof.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Glade",slug:"thomas-glade",fullName:"Thomas Glade"},{id:"164141",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Roxana",middleName:"Liliana",surname:"Ciurean",slug:"roxana-ciurean",fullName:"Roxana Ciurean"},{id:"164142",title:"Dr.",name:"Dagmar",middleName:null,surname:"Schroeter",slug:"dagmar-schroeter",fullName:"Dagmar Schroeter"}]},{id:"45760",doi:"10.5772/56967",title:"Parenting and Culture – Evidence from Some African Communities",slug:"parenting-and-culture-evidence-from-some-african-communities",totalDownloads:9488,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:null,book:{id:"3440",slug:"parenting-in-south-american-and-african-contexts",title:"Parenting in South American and African Contexts",fullTitle:"Parenting in South American and African Contexts"},signatures:"Patricia Mawusi Amos",authors:[{id:"162496",title:"Mrs.",name:"Patricia",middleName:"Mawusi",surname:"Amos",slug:"patricia-amos",fullName:"Patricia Amos"}]},{id:"44219",doi:"10.5772/54973",title:"Disaster Management Discourse in Bangladesh: A Shift from Post-Event Response to the Preparedness and Mitigation Approach Through Institutional Partnerships",slug:"disaster-management-discourse-in-bangladesh-a-shift-from-post-event-response-to-the-preparedness-and",totalDownloads:4078,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:null,book:{id:"3054",slug:"approaches-to-disaster-management-examining-the-implications-of-hazards-emergencies-and-disasters",title:"Approaches to Disaster Management",fullTitle:"Approaches to Disaster Management - Examining the Implications of Hazards, Emergencies and Disasters"},signatures:"C. Emdad Haque and M. Salim Uddin",authors:[{id:"163390",title:"Dr.",name:"C. Emdad",middleName:null,surname:"Haque",slug:"c.-emdad-haque",fullName:"C. Emdad Haque"},{id:"168399",title:"Mr.",name:"Mohammed S",middleName:null,surname:"Uddin",slug:"mohammed-s-uddin",fullName:"Mohammed S Uddin"}]},{id:"63707",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80780",title:"Drinking Water Treatment and Challenges in Developing Countries",slug:"drinking-water-treatment-and-challenges-in-developing-countries",totalDownloads:7897,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:"Safe drinking water remains inaccessible to many humans in the developing countries. Research continuously innovates to develop efficient and cheap methods to sustain clean water for developing countries. Developing nations are a broad term that includes countries that are less industrialised and have lower per capita income levels than developed countries. This chapter will discuss clean water for drinking water purposes. Pollution concerns of water in developing countries will be categorised in terms of physical, chemical and biological pollutants such as turbidity, organic matter and bacteria. Natural and anthropogenic pollution concerns linking with seasonal factors will be outlined. The multi-barrier approach to drinking water treatment will be discussed. Abstraction points used will be researched. Water treatment systems, medium- to small-scale approaches, will be discussed. The processes involved in removing the contaminants including physical processes such as sedimentation, filtration such as slow-sand filtration, coagulation and flocculation, and disinfectant processes such as chlorination will be reviewed. Other important methods including solar disinfection, hybrid filtration methods and arsenic removal technologies using innovative solid phase materials will be included in this chapter. Rainwater harvesting technologies are reviewed. Safe storage options for treated water are outlined. Challenges of water treatment in rural and urban areas will be outlined.",book:{id:"6682",slug:"the-relevance-of-hygiene-to-health-in-developing-countries",title:"The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries",fullTitle:"The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries"},signatures:"Josephine Treacy",authors:[{id:"238173",title:"Dr.",name:"Josephine",middleName:null,surname:"Treacy",slug:"josephine-treacy",fullName:"Josephine Treacy"}]},{id:"59705",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74943",title:"Augmented Reality Trends in Education between 2016 and 2017 Years",slug:"augmented-reality-trends-in-education-between-2016-and-2017-years",totalDownloads:2428,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"The aim of this chapter is to review literature regarding using augmented reality (AR) in education articles published in between 2016 and 2017 years. The literature source was Web of Science and SSCI, SCI-EXPANDED, A&HCI, CPCI-S, CPCI-SSH, and ESCI indexes. Fifty-two articles were reviewed; however, 14 of them were not been included in the study. As a result, 38 articles were examined. Level of education, field of education, and material types of AR used in education and reported educational advantages of AR have been investigated. All articles are categorized according to target groups, which are early childhood education, primary education, secondary education, high school education, graduate education, and others. AR technology has been mostly carried out in primary and graduate education. “Science education” is the most explored field of education. Mobile applications and marker-based materials on paper have been mostly preferred. The major advantages indicated in the articles are “Learning/Academic Achievement,” “Motivation,” and “Attitude”.",book:{id:"6543",slug:"state-of-the-art-virtual-reality-and-augmented-reality-knowhow",title:"State of the Art Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Knowhow",fullTitle:"State of the Art Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Knowhow"},signatures:"Rabia M. Yilmaz",authors:[{id:"225838",title:"Dr.",name:"Rabia",middleName:null,surname:"Yilmaz",slug:"rabia-yilmaz",fullName:"Rabia Yilmaz"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"58890",title:"Philosophy and Paradigm of Scientific Research",slug:"philosophy-and-paradigm-of-scientific-research",totalDownloads:13486,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"Before carrying out the empirical analysis of the role of management culture in corporate social responsibility, identification of the philosophical approach and the paradigm on which the research carried out is based is necessary. Therefore, this chapter deals with the philosophical systems and paradigms of scientific research, the epistemology, evaluating understanding and application of various theories and practices used in the scientific research. The key components of the scientific research paradigm are highlighted. Theories on the basis of which this research was focused on identification of the level of development of the management culture in order to implement corporate social responsibility are identified, and the stages of its implementation are described.",book:{id:"5791",slug:"management-culture-and-corporate-social-responsibility",title:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility",fullTitle:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility"},signatures:"Pranas Žukauskas, Jolita Vveinhardt and Regina Andriukaitienė",authors:[{id:"179629",title:"Prof.",name:"Jolita",middleName:null,surname:"Vveinhardt",slug:"jolita-vveinhardt",fullName:"Jolita Vveinhardt"}]},{id:"52475",title:"Teenage Pregnancies: A Worldwide Social and Medical Problem",slug:"teenage-pregnancies-a-worldwide-social-and-medical-problem",totalDownloads:8042,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Teenage pregnancies and teenage motherhood are a cause for concern worldwide. From a historical point of view, teenage pregnancies are nothing new. For much of human history, it was absolutely common that girls married during their late adolescence and experienced first birth during their second decade of life. This kind of reproductive behavior was socially desired and considered as normal. Nowadays, however, the prevention of teenage pregnancies and teenage motherhood is a priority for public health in nearly all developed and increasingly in developing countries. For a long time, teenage pregnancies were associated with severe medical problems; however, most of data supporting this viewpoint have been collected some decades ago and reflect mainly the situation of per se socially disadvantaged teenage mothers. According to more recent studies, teenage pregnancies are not per se risky ones. A clear risk group are extremely young teenage mothers (younger than 15 years) who are confronted with various medical risks, such as preeclampsia, preterm labor, and small for gestational age newborns but also marked social disadvantage, such as poverty, unemployment, low educational level, and single parenting. In the present study, the prevalence and outcome of teenage pregnancies in Austria are focused on.",book:{id:"5392",slug:"an-analysis-of-contemporary-social-welfare-issues",title:"An Analysis of Contemporary Social Welfare Issues",fullTitle:"An Analysis of Contemporary Social Welfare Issues"},signatures:"Sylvia Kirchengast",authors:[{id:"188289",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvia",middleName:null,surname:"Kirchengast",slug:"sylvia-kirchengast",fullName:"Sylvia Kirchengast"}]},{id:"58060",title:"Pedagogy of the Twenty-First Century: Innovative Teaching Methods",slug:"pedagogy-of-the-twenty-first-century-innovative-teaching-methods",totalDownloads:8685,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"In the twenty-first century, significant changes are occurring related to new scientific discoveries, informatization, globalization, the development of astronautics, robotics, and artificial intelligence. This century is called the age of digital technologies and knowledge. How is the school changing in the new century? How does learning theory change? Currently, you can hear a lot of criticism that the classroom has not changed significantly compared to the last century or even like two centuries ago. Do the teachers succeed in modern changes? The purpose of the chapter is to summarize the current changes in didactics for the use of innovative teaching methods and study the understanding of changes by teachers. In this chapter, we consider four areas: the expansion of the subject of pedagogy, environmental approach to teaching, the digital generation and the changes taking place, and innovation in teaching. The theory of education, figuratively speaking, has two levels. At the macro-level, in the “education-society” relationship, decentralization and diversification, internationalization of education, and the introduction of digital technologies occur. At the micro-level in the “teacher-learner” relationship, there is an active mix of traditional and innovative methods, combination of an activity approach with an energy-informational environment approach, cognition with constructivism and connectivism.",book:{id:"5980",slug:"new-pedagogical-challenges-in-the-21st-century-contributions-of-research-in-education",title:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century - Contributions of Research in Education"},signatures:"Aigerim Mynbayeva, Zukhra Sadvakassova and Bakhytkul\nAkshalova",authors:[{id:"201997",title:"Dr.",name:"Aigerim",middleName:null,surname:"Mynbayeva",slug:"aigerim-mynbayeva",fullName:"Aigerim Mynbayeva"},{id:"209208",title:"Dr.",name:"Zukhra",middleName:null,surname:"Sadvakassova",slug:"zukhra-sadvakassova",fullName:"Zukhra Sadvakassova"},{id:"209210",title:"Dr.",name:"Bakhytkul",middleName:null,surname:"Akshalova",slug:"bakhytkul-akshalova",fullName:"Bakhytkul Akshalova"}]},{id:"58894",title:"Research Ethics",slug:"research-ethics",totalDownloads:3288,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Research ethics is closely related to the ethical principles of social responsibility. This research covers a wide context of working with people, so the researchers raised a task not only to gain confidence in the respondents’ eyes, to receive reliable data, but also to ensure the transparency of the science. This chapter discusses the theoretical and practical topics of research, after evaluation of which ethical principles of organization and conducting the research are presented. There is a detailed description of how and what ethical principles were followed on the different stages of the research.",book:{id:"5791",slug:"management-culture-and-corporate-social-responsibility",title:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility",fullTitle:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility"},signatures:"Pranas Žukauskas, Jolita Vveinhardt and Regina Andriukaitienė",authors:[{id:"179629",title:"Prof.",name:"Jolita",middleName:null,surname:"Vveinhardt",slug:"jolita-vveinhardt",fullName:"Jolita Vveinhardt"}]},{id:"61746",title:"Facilitation of Teachers’ Professional Development through Principals’ Instructional Supervision and Teachers’ Knowledge- Management Behaviors",slug:"facilitation-of-teachers-professional-development-through-principals-instructional-supervision-and-t",totalDownloads:3288,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"With the rise of global competition and the focus on teacher quality, teacher professional development is becoming increasingly crucial, and the stress and challenges for principals are more severe than ever. Teachers can improve their professional abilities through principals’ instructional supervision and their own knowledge-management (KM) behaviors to benefit students. Thus, this chapter analyzes the relationship among principals’ instructional supervision, teachers’ KM, and teachers’ professional development. The author believes that principals’ instructional supervision and effective KM can facilitate the professional development of teachers. The author also believes the readers can know the relationships among them, and teachers’ professional development can be improved through principal’s instructional supervision and teachers’ KM behaviors.",book:{id:"6674",slug:"contemporary-pedagogies-in-teacher-education-and-development",title:"Contemporary Pedagogies in Teacher Education and Development",fullTitle:"Contemporary Pedagogies in Teacher Education and Development"},signatures:"Chien-Chin Chen",authors:[{id:"232569",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Chien Chih",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"chien-chih-chen",fullName:"Chien Chih Chen"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"23",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81762",title:"Why Knowledge Sharing Increases Well-being - The Case of Adult Fans of LEGO",slug:"why-knowledge-sharing-increases-well-being-the-case-of-adult-fans-of-lego",totalDownloads:7,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104556",abstract:"Since 2020, we have faced drastic changes in our lives due to the pandemic. This caused a big paradigm shift in working styles. Parallel careers or multiple jobs are getting more common, and people are ascertaining their own competencies. The utilization of personal knowledge will continue to accelerate and this study sheds light on its societal value; the other side of sharing economy. Aoki (2021) revealed that participation in knowledge sharing has a significant positive impact on contributors’ well-being. Those findings are more pertinent as utilization of personal knowledge increases under the ongoing paradigm shift in work style, and the expansion of C-to-C business. However, the reason for the correlation between knowledge sharing and well-being has not been identified. Thus, this study explores this issue by carefully examining knowledge-sharing contributors and their experiences. Finally, this study finds that contributors increased their well-being by deepening their knowledge and experience via competitive co-creation. Furthermore, their concerns shifted towards passing on their knowledge and experience to the next generation. Stakeholders of this study’s results are those who utilize personal knowledge. For example, policymakers who wish to shed light on people with hidden potential, managers of knowledge-sharing platforms, such as crowdsourcing, marketing managers who collaborate with consumers, employers who wish to motivate their employees, and so on.",book:{id:"10912",title:"Psychosocial, Educational, and Economic Impacts of COVID-19",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10912.jpg"},signatures:"Kei Aoki"},{id:"81734",title:'Cosmogonies of Alterity: Origin and Identity in Mesoamerican Narrative*',slug:"cosmogonies-of-alterity-origin-and-identity-in-mesoamerican-narrative",totalDownloads:7,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104496",abstract:"Through a comparative analysis, which uses as references Nahua narrative and Western thought, this chapter examines the relevance of the notion of alterity in different Mesoamerican myths, whose narratives display different ideas regarding origin and identity. In this case, comparative analysis allows us to distinguish between two different narrative traditions, one of which emphasizes the role of continuity and genealogy and another, on the contrary, which reveals the importance of otherness and discontinuous processes.",book:{id:"11429",title:"Sustainability, Ecology, and Religions of the World",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11429.jpg"},signatures:"Saúl Millán"},{id:"81575",title:"Caring about Early Childhood Education",slug:"caring-about-early-childhood-education",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104674",abstract:"Early Childhood Education (ECE) is a broad term encompassing the care and education of children in the years before the commencement of primary school education. The purpose of ECE as the beginning of children’s educational journey versus childcare for working parents is widely contested, contributing to a care and education dichotomy within the sector. Education and care are inseparable constructs and particularly so within the early years. Attempts to distinguish between early years care and education support the establishment of a skills hierarchy where care is regarded less favorably than education. This chapter discusses ‘edu-care’ as an alternative way of understanding ECE whereby education and care are recognized as inseparable and equally valued. As the professionalization of ECE continues to gain momentum, this process must take a holistic conceptualization of ECE within which ‘edu-care’ is fundamental. Regulation, increased levels of qualification for early childhood educators and quality provision dominate the discourse of ECE professionalization. However, this narrow emphasis on performativity must not overshadow the immeasurable but essential components of ECE, that of care and love.",book:{id:"11281",title:"Early Childhood Education - Innovative Pedagogical Approaches in the Post-modern Era",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11281.jpg"},signatures:"Dawn Murphy"},{id:"81724",title:"The Sustainability of Islamic Boarding Schools in the Era of Modernization and Globalization",slug:"the-sustainability-of-islamic-boarding-schools-in-the-era-of-modernization-and-globalization",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103912",abstract:"The objective of this study is to determine the strategy of the classical Islamic boarding school in maintaining its existence amid the rapid development of the globalization era and also to find out the curriculum formulations used to equip students to face the modernization era. This research is qualitative, using the deductive-interpretive analysis method, with a sociological-phenomenological approach. The research was conducted at the classic Islamic boarding school Tremas, Pacitan, East Java. The research was conducted at the Tremas classical Islamic boarding school, Pacitan, East Java, which is an open institution for modernization and globalization. The results of the study indicate that the pesantren’s strategy to maintain its existence and sustainability in the modernization era is as follows. (1) Optimizing the management function of Islamic boarding schools by distributing authority in five aspects, namely ma’hadiyah, ma’arif majlis, anasyathoth, finance, and secretariat. (2) Organizing formal education starting from Kindergarten, Madrasah Tsanawiyah (middle-level school), Madrasah Aliyah (high school), Vocational High School, and Ma’had Aly. (3) Carrying out various non-formal and informal educational activities as a characteristic of salafiyah education. (4) Establishing vocational institutions to equip students with skills. (5) Founding Ma’had Aly as an effort to produce a cadre of scholars. As for the curriculum, this Islamic boarding school assembled its curriculum independently based on the vision and mission of Pondok Tremas, absorbed the aspirations of the community, and adopted some curriculum content from the Ministry of Religion and the Education Office. This curriculum contained several characteristics: (1) implanting faith, morality and enriching Islamic scholarship through the study of kitab kuning. (2) Arabic strengthening. (3) Pesantren adaptation by adding general science lessons. (4) equipping students with skills education. (5) enriching the repertoire of Islamic thought by studying the works of ulama ‘Nusantara.",book:{id:"11429",title:"Sustainability, Ecology, and Religions of the World",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11429.jpg"},signatures:"Muthoifin and Surawan"},{id:"81631",title:"Land Redistribution: A Thorny Issue towards Reconciliation in a Post Apartheid South Africa: A Practical Theological Perspective1",slug:"land-redistribution-a-thorny-issue-towards-reconciliation-in-a-post-apartheid-south-africa-a-practic",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104380",abstract:"South Africa is a country with a history of racial divides and those divides are still visible today. One of the many issues that characterise such divisions is inequality with regard to land ownership. The bigger part of the land is still owned by the minority white people while the blacks, who are the majority; or previously disadvantaged people, are still landless. This is evident from the escalation of informal settlements in areas surrounding the cities of Johannesburg and Pretoria, which have millions of black people cramped into small areas in shacks while most whites are enjoying large portions of land with few people to live on it. Many black people even lack land for shelter. On the other hand, the message of reconciling the country is being made loud to both who has the land and those who do not have it. Therefore, it becomes a serious challenge to imagine and look for reconciling strategies while these two camps still have this unresolved issue. The dilemma that is faced with is how will the different camps embrace the same message while they remain in these different situations. It is argued in this article that justice on the land issue should be first attended to so that it serves as a door to reconciliation.",book:{id:"11429",title:"Sustainability, Ecology, and Religions of the World",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11429.jpg"},signatures:"Baloyi Magezi Elijah"},{id:"81524",title:"Impact of Integrated Science and Mathematics Instruction on Middle School Science and Mathematics Achievement",slug:"impact-of-integrated-science-and-mathematics-instruction-on-middle-school-science-and-mathematics-ac",totalDownloads:11,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104082",abstract:"Despite the impetus from professional organizations for science and math integration, evidence in support of such efforts in raising both science and mathematics achievement is scarce, particularly for underrepresented students. The available literature is mixed especially regarding impact on mathematics outcomes. This exploratory study documents the impact of the Middle School Math and Science (MS)2 Integration project based on the results of the internal evaluation of an intensive teacher training model for integrated science and mathematics in middle school. Multivariate analysis of variance shows (MS)2 positively impacted middle school students’ science and mathematics knowledge in this sample of diverse students. Overall, the (MS)2 group outperformed the comparison group. There was also evidence that students who received (MS)2 integrated instruction in science classrooms slightly outperformed those who received (MS)2 integrated instruction in math classrooms. Multiple regression results indicated that (MS)2 group membership and opportunity to learn through integrated instruction were significant predictors of students’ science and mathematics scores. Although students in (MS)2 classrooms were more likely to have higher achievement scores, the frequency of integrated instruction opportunities also significantly predicted student achievement, particularly in mathematics classrooms. Ethnicity and gender were not significant predictors of student scores. Implications are discussed.",book:{id:"11279",title:"Advances in Research in STEM Education",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11279.jpg"},signatures:"Zenaida Aguirre-Muñoz, Brian Dang and Elias S. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261",scope:"Modern physiology requires a comprehensive understanding of the integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, including the cooperation between structure and function at the cellular and molecular levels governed by gene and protein expression. While a daunting task, learning is facilitated by identifying common and effective signaling pathways mediated by a variety of factors employed by nature to preserve and sustain homeostatic life. \r\nAs a leading example, the cellular interaction between intracellular concentration of Ca+2 increases, and changes in plasma membrane potential is integral for coordinating blood flow, governing the exocytosis of neurotransmitters, and modulating gene expression and cell effector secretory functions. Furthermore, in this manner, understanding the systemic interaction between the cardiovascular and nervous systems has become more important than ever as human populations' life prolongation, aging and mechanisms of cellular oxidative signaling are utilised for sustaining life. \r\nAltogether, physiological research enables our identification of distinct and precise points of transition from health to the development of multimorbidity throughout the inevitable aging disorders (e.g., diabetes, hypertension, chronic kidney disease, heart failure, peptic ulcer, inflammatory bowel disease, age-related macular degeneration, cancer). With consideration of all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, gut, skeletal and smooth muscle, liver, pancreas, kidney, eye) and the interactions thereof, this Physiology Series will address the goals of resolving (1) Aging physiology and chronic disease progression (2) Examination of key cellular pathways as they relate to calcium, oxidative stress, and electrical signaling, and (3) how changes in plasma membrane produced by lipid peroxidation products can affect aging physiology, covering new research in the area of cell, human, plant and animal physiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/10.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 14th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:11,editor:{id:"35854",title:"Prof.",name:"Tomasz",middleName:null,surname:"Brzozowski",slug:"tomasz-brzozowski",fullName:"Tomasz Brzozowski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35854/images/system/35854.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Thomas Brzozowski works as a professor of Human Physiology and is currently Chairman at the Department of Physiology and is V-Dean of the Medical Faculty at Jagiellonian University Medical College, Cracow, Poland. His primary area of interest is physiology and pathophysiology of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, with the major focus on the mechanism of GI mucosal defense, protection, and ulcer healing. He was a postdoctoral NIH fellow at the University of California and the Gastroenterology VA Medical Center, Irvine, Long Beach, CA, USA, and at the Gastroenterology Clinics Erlangen-Nuremberg and Munster in Germany. He has published 290 original articles in some of the most prestigious scientific journals and seven book chapters on the pathophysiology of the GI tract, gastroprotection, ulcer healing, drug therapy of peptic ulcers, hormonal regulation of the gut, and inflammatory bowel disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jagiellonian University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:7,paginationItems:[{id:"10",title:"Animal Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/10.jpg",editor:{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"306970",title:"Mr.",name:"Amin",middleName:null,surname:"Tamadon",slug:"amin-tamadon",fullName:"Amin Tamadon",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002oHR5wQAG/Profile_Picture_1623910304139",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bushehr University of Medical Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",institutionString:"Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, Spain",institution:null},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/11.jpg",editor:{id:"133493",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/133493/images/3091_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Angel Catalá \r\nShort Biography Angel Catalá was born in Rodeo (San Juan, Argentina). He studied \r\nchemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where received aPh.D. degree in chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From\r\n1964 to 1974, he worked as Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of MedicineUniversidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. From 1974 to 1976, he was a Fellowof the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor oBiochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Angel Catalá belongto the Editorial Board of Journal of lipids, International Review of Biophysical ChemistryFrontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics, World Journal oExperimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International, W orld Journal oBiological Chemistry, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, Diabetes and thePancreas, International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, International Journal oNutrition, Co-Editor of The Open Biology Journal.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"186048",title:"Prof.",name:"Ines",middleName:null,surname:"Drenjančević",slug:"ines-drenjancevic",fullName:"Ines Drenjančević",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186048/images/5818_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Osijek",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"79615",title:"Dr.",name:"Robson",middleName:null,surname:"Faria",slug:"robson-faria",fullName:"Robson Faria",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/79615/images/system/79615.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"84459",title:"Prof.",name:"Valerie",middleName:null,surname:"Chappe",slug:"valerie-chappe",fullName:"Valerie Chappe",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/84459/images/system/84459.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalhousie University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}]},{id:"12",title:"Human Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. Her main research interest is sarcopenia in older adults, especially its association with nutritional status. Additionally, to understand how to maintain and improve physical function in older adults, to conduct studies about the mechanism of sarcopenia and determine when possible interventions are needed.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ritsumeikan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorialBoard:[{id:"213786",title:"Dr.",name:"Henrique P.",middleName:null,surname:"Neiva",slug:"henrique-p.-neiva",fullName:"Henrique P. Neiva",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/213786/images/system/213786.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Beira Interior",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"39275",title:"Prof.",name:"Herbert Ryan",middleName:null,surname:"Marini",slug:"herbert-ryan-marini",fullName:"Herbert Ryan Marini",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/39275/images/9459_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Messina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"196218",title:"Dr.",name:"Pasquale",middleName:null,surname:"Cianci",slug:"pasquale-cianci",fullName:"Pasquale Cianci",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196218/images/system/196218.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Foggia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}]},{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/13.jpg",editor:{id:"332229",title:"Prof.",name:"Jen-Tsung",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"jen-tsung-chen",fullName:"Jen-Tsung Chen",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031RJmlQAG/Profile_Picture_1600760167494",biography:"Dr. Jen-Tsung Chen is currently a professor at the National University of Kaohsiung in Taiwan. He teaches cell biology, genomics, proteomics, medicinal plant biotechnology, and plant tissue culture in college. Dr. Chen's research interests are bioactive compounds, chromatography techniques, in vitro culture, medicinal plants, phytochemicals, and plant biotechnology. He has published over 60 research papers, reviewed over 260 manuscripts, and edited at least 150 papers in international peer-review journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of Kaohsiung",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"313856",title:"Dr.",name:"Christophe",middleName:"F.E.",surname:"Hano",slug:"christophe-hano",fullName:"Christophe Hano",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313856/images/system/313856.png",institutionString:"University of Orléans",institution:{name:"University of Orléans",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"33993",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Jimenez-Lopez",slug:"jose-carlos-jimenez-lopez",fullName:"Jose Carlos Jimenez-Lopez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/33993/images/system/33993.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Spanish National Research Council",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"191770",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed A.",middleName:null,surname:"El-Esawi",slug:"mohamed-a.-el-esawi",fullName:"Mohamed A. 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His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 255 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 2 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",institution:{name:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. degree in chemistry in 2000 and Ph.D. degree in physical chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. He moved to School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia in 2009 and joined Dr. Ron Clarke as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+/K+-ATPase and dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+/K+-ATPase by ATP; then he went back to Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum as an assistant professor, and in 2014 he was promoted as an associate professor. In 2011, he joined the staff of Department of Chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently an assistant professor. His research interests include the following: P-Type ATPase enzyme kinetics and mechanisms, kinetics and mechanisms of redox reactions, autocatalytic reactions, computational enzyme kinetics, allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP, exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases, and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. The interest of Javier's lab is the study of cell signaling with a special focus on Ca2+ signaling, and how Ca2+ transport modulates the cytoskeleton, migration, differentiation, cell death, etc. He is especially interested in the study of Ca2+ channels, and the role of STIM1 in the initiation of pathological events.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217323/images/8027_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148546/images/4640_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272889/images/10758_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",middleName:null,surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda",position:"Investigador Cinvestav 3B",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242491/images/6765_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"88631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Petyaev",slug:"ivan-petyaev",fullName:"Ivan Petyaev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lycotec (United Kingdom)",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"423869",title:"Ms.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Rai",slug:"smita-rai",fullName:"Smita Rai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424024",title:"Prof.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"swati-sharma",fullName:"Swati Sharma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"439112",title:"MSc.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"touseef-fatima",fullName:"Touseef Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424836",title:"Dr.",name:"Orsolya",middleName:null,surname:"Borsai",slug:"orsolya-borsai",fullName:"Orsolya Borsai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"422262",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Paola Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Palmeros-Suárez",slug:"paola-andrea-palmeros-suarez",fullName:"Paola Andrea Palmeros-Suárez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Guadalajara",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"8",type:"subseries",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11404,editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343"},editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",slug:"hitoshi-tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",slug:"marcus-vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",slug:"ramana-vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:0,paginationItems:[]},publishedBooks:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"9008",title:"Vitamin K",subtitle:"Recent Topics on the Biology and Chemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9008.jpg",slug:"vitamin-k-recent-topics-on-the-biology-and-chemistry",publishedDate:"March 23rd 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hiroyuki Kagechika and Hitoshi Shirakawa",hash:"8b43add5389ba85743e0a9491e4b9943",volumeInSeries:27,fullTitle:"Vitamin K - Recent Topics on the Biology and Chemistry",editors:[{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9759",title:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease",subtitle:"Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9759.jpg",slug:"vitamin-e-in-health-and-disease-interactions-diseases-and-health-aspects",publishedDate:"October 6th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Júlia Scherer Santos",hash:"6c3ddcc13626110de289b57f2516ac8f",volumeInSeries:22,fullTitle:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease - Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoğlu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoğlu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109978/images/system/109978.jpg",institutionString:"Hacettepe University",institution:{name:"Hacettepe University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7004",title:"Metabolomics",subtitle:"New Insights into Biology and Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7004.jpg",slug:"metabolomics-new-insights-into-biology-and-medicine",publishedDate:"July 1st 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Wael N. 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Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. 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It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment"},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology"},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. 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Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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