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1. Introduction
Sugarcane is a major crop in Southern China, and it is the third biggest sugarcane producer in the world. Sugarcane is one of the most important crops grown commercially in the tropical and subtropical region. Sugarcane belongs to the genus Saccharum L. composed of hybrids [1, 2] derived from Saccharum officinarum (noble clones), S. sinense (Chinese clones), S. barberi (North Indian clones), and S. spontaneum. This species has C4 photosynthesis, resulting in a vigorous biomass accumulation under tropical conditions, but it also implies a less growth in temperate regions. It grows well in deep, well-drained soils of medium fertility of sandy loam soil textures with a pH range from 6.0 to 7.7. It plays a major role in the economy of sugarcane-growing areas. Sugarcane can be affected from different organisms with various factors such as environmental and physiological disorders and nutritional deficiencies.
Many biotic and abiotic stresses affected the sugarcane production and are known to be one of the oldest cultivated plants in the world. Improving sugarcane production will greatly help in economic prosperity of the farmers and others associated with sugarcane cultivation. Large numbers of sugarcane pathogens have been recorded all over the world. One of the current major diseases affecting sugarcane and sugar production is pokkah boeng. It is caused by Fusarium species complex, a destructive fungal disease in sugarcane-growing regions.
Fusarium is a devastating phytopathogenic fungi belonging to Division: Ascomycota, Class: Sordariomycetes, Order: Hypocreales and Family: Nectriaceae. The fungal genus Fusarium is composed of a large number of species that can be pathogenic on plants. Within the genus the following 16 sections have been recognized: Eupionnotes, Macroconia, Spirarioides, Submicrocera, Pseudomicrocera, Arachnites, Sporotrichiella, Roseum, Arthrosporiella, Gibbosum, Discolor, Lateritium, Liseola, Elegans, Martiella, and Ventricosum. However, many Fusarium species are abundant in fertile cultivated and rangeland soils rather than in forest soils [3]. Fusarium species are causal agents of various diseases affecting many economically important cereals, crops, etc. Airborne Fusarium species are rarely found in the cultures obtained from soil or the roots of plants.
Fusarium species can grow on a variety of substrates and have efficient dispersal mechanisms owing to their worldwide distribution. Plant debris in soils plays a very important role as nutrient reservoir for Fusarium species to continue living in soils as saprotrophs [4]. Fusarium spp. also produce gibberellic acid [5], fusaproliferin, and beauvericin [6]. Fusaproliferin and beauvericin have been found to be toxic to insects [7, 8]. The pathogens are difficult to control by conventional strategies such as the use of resistant host cultivars and synthetic fungicides.
Pokkah boeng disease on sugarcane has been recorded in almost all countries where sugarcane is grown commercially. It normally appears during periods of hot humid conditions when the cane is growing rapidly. This disease was originally described in Java in 1896, denoting a malformed or distorted top. The temperature, light, and fertilizer regimes are optimized for maximal plant growth, but these conditions may also be favorable for pathogens. Walker and Went (1896) were the first ones who describe the pokkah boeng disease on sugarcane. Generally, it appears that slowly growing fungi, which are less efficient than quickly growing fungi at escaping competition by entering specific niches, have a higher prevalence of enmity against competing fungi. Geh [9] first reported the presence of the disease in Malaysia. It may cause substantial damage to the crop and not severe except in very susceptible varieties.
Pokkah boeng is a reemerging disease of sugarcane—which has been found recently to cause major yield losses—in most sugarcane-producing regions, including South Africa, Malaysia, India, and China [10, 11, 12, 13, 14]. Pokka boeng disease of sugarcane has associated with several diseases of sugarcane such as sett rot, root rot, and wilt [15]. The pathogen is transmitted by air currents, and airborne spores will colonize the leaves, flowers, and stems of the plant [16]. Pokkah boeng causes serious yield losses in commercial plantings. Reported outbreaks of the disease, while looking spectacular, have caused economic losses. The fungus was reported to occur systemically in all plant parts of sugarcane.
Pokka boeng diseases are dependent upon the environmental conditions, quality of setts, and handling of the plants, e.g., exposing sugarcane plants to stress either from water stress, temperature, pH, or soil nutrition. Hail damage can cause cane plants to be easily susceptible to diseases due to the bruised stalks and broken leaves, giving the diseases access to the damaged setts. Some of the favorable conditions for disease development included drenched conditions of the soil, lack of cultural practices that result in the growth of weeds, constant cultivation of same variety in the field, and existence of susceptible varieties in the surroundings. It is very important for a farmer to prevent and control such pests and diseases to avoid losses. Fusarium species complex can produce many kinds of toxic secondary metabolites known as mycotoxins, which can easily enter humans and animals through food and feed because of their resistance to milling, processing, and heating [17].
The taxonomy of Fusarium species complex (FSC) is based on phylogenetic, biological, and morphological species concepts [18, 19]. Species in the FSC produce a wide range of mycotoxins that contaminate food and are harmful to human and animal health. Fusarium species are common and can survive for long periods in soil. The nature of Fusarium disease is that they often become a problem after plant stress occurs. It is now well known that Fusarium causes two different diseases, one in stalk and the other in leaves/spindle, and two different species, namely, F. sacchari and F. verticillioides, respectively, were associated with these diseases. Conventional field-based screening for resistance to pests and diseases is a key component of the breeding program prior to release of a commercial cultivar [20].
Several control measures may be implemented to minimize potential sugarcane yield loss caused by pests and diseases, but an integrated approach is often recommended. Good farming practices are essential but do not guarantee eradication of infections. The planting of resistant cultivars is recommended as the best and most economical approach for controlling pests and diseases, having the least impact on the environment and increasing productivity without the need for other inputs, such as costly chemical applications or labor. Breeding sugarcane that is resistant to multiple pests and diseases is difficult due to the complex genome of sugarcane [21]. Additional genome-scale comparative and functional studies are needed to elucidate the evolution and diversity of pathogenicity mechanisms, which may help inform novel disease management strategies against Fusarium pathogens.
2. Manifestation of pokkah boeng
The initial symptoms were easy to recognize the disease since they attack the top parts and are chlorotic areas at the base of young leaves. Heavily infected plants showed a malformed or damaged top, and stalk may occur in highly susceptible varieties. The base of affected leaves is often narrower than that of normal leaves. Ladder-like lesion on the spindle leaves pronounced yellowing, wrinkling of the spindle, twisting or tangling appearance of the spindle, marketing red stripes, and shortening of the leaves accompanied the malformation or distortion of the young leaves. The most advanced and serious stage of pokkah boeng is a top rot phase. Leaf infection sometimes continued to downward and penetrates in the stalk by way of a growing point. The young spindles are killed and the entire top dies. Leaf sheaths may also become chlorotic and develop asymmetrical necrotic areas of reddish color.
The reddish tissue form ladder-like lesions, often with dark edges. These lesions sometimes break through the surface of the rind. Occasionally, the pathogen also attacks the spindle, and from there it moves down the terminal portion of the stalk causing top rot. The pathogen makes its entry into the host tissues through any sort of injury made by insects or borers or natural growth cracks, etc. The severity of symptoms varies with the susceptibility of a variety and with the congenial environmental conditions and governs the development of the causal organism. During fungal penetration and growth inside the plant, Fusarium proteases and mycotoxins act in a kind of strategic cooperation during spike and core colonization by featuring complementary roles during the host defense suppression and the intracellular colonization of spikelet.
3. Mode of transferal
The pathogens of pokkah boeng disease are transmitted by the movement of spores through airflow. For spores to take off, it depends on the environmental situation that requires different strategies to disperse. Fungal species that dispersed by rain splash are based on the “puff” and “tap” mechanisms that will cause the dry spores to become airborne, and usually the spores are curved like Fusarium species.
The growth of sugarcane is the most important factor in the biological control and prevention and land and natural environmental factor. The processes for controlling are limited, and there is an increasing need for novel and environmental strategies to control diseases of sugarcane. There will be four sections in this chapter, including Fusarium species complex (FSC) and their distribution, comparative genomics of Fusarium species complex (FSC), FSC and nitrogen, and sugarcane resistance to FSC.
3.1. Fusarium species complex (FSC) and their distribution
Fusarium is a genus of filamentous fungi that includes many toxin-producing plant pathogens of agricultural significance and opportunistic human pathogens. The Fusarium collectively represents the most important group of fungal plant pathogens, causing various diseases on nearly every economically important plant species. Besides their economic importance, species of fusarium also serve as key model organisms for biological and evolutionary research. It is the most common and significant pathogen which spread pokkah boeng disease all over the world. Pokkah boeng disease of sugarcane can drastically reduce crop yield and quality. Fusarium species produce a number of secondary metabolites that are dependent on different physiological responses in plants and animals. It also produces a variety of other compounds such as other mycotoxins, pigments, antibiotics, and phytotoxins.
Fusarium species are commonly identified based on their micro- and macroscopic features. But these features are mostly unstable and render the taxonomy of the group problematic. The presence of different taxonomic systems for the genus also contributes to this problem. A number of molecular tools have been used to circumvent these limitations and also to characterize Fusarium isolates in terms of their genetic diversity, population biology, and phylogeny. In the studies presented here, Fusarium strains isolated from agricultural soils and plant tissues were characterized using different DNA-based tools.
Fusarium fujikuroi (formerly Gibberella fujikuroi) species complex (FFSC) members cause important diseases in gramineous crops. The FFSC becomes compatible with the species concept of F. moniliforme as described by Snyder and Hansen or section Liseola as defined by Wollenweber and Reinking. Fusarium fujikuroi is known to produce a broad spectrum of secondary metabolites.
To recognize and define species in the FFSC, various operational species concepts have been applied. However, a variety of genetic, ecological, and biological traits and properties may be used for this purpose. Only morphological species recognition (MSR), biological species recognition (BSR), and phylogenetic species recognition (PSR) have contributed significantly to the classification of Fusarium species in the FFSC. Of these, the MSR was the most widely used and has dominated Fusarium taxonomy since its establishment in 1809. The MSR also takes into account physiological characters such as growth rates at different temperatures, host associations, and secondary metabolite production. The majority of the current GFC species definitions and descriptions are based on such polyphasic or integrative taxonomic approaches that incorporate various types of data. Till now, two species of FFSC have been identified to cause sugarcane pokkah boeng disease in China.
3.1.1. Fusarium verticillioides
Fusarium verticilloides is the most commonly reported fungal species infecting sugarcane. F. verticillioides is the accepted species, which was also known as Fusarium moniliforme. It can able to produce the chemical agent fusaric. Among the Fusarium species, F. verticillioides is the most prominent Fusarium species in China. It is regulated by the fumonisin biosynthetic gene cluster (FUM), responsible for transport proteins. In our previous study, a total of 101 isolates were recovered from the sugarcane plants affected by pokkah boeng, which were collected from the major sugarcane-producing areas (Guangxi, Yunnan, Guangdong, Fujian, Hainan) in China throughout 2012 and 2013. More than 90% of the isolates (94 isolates) belonged to F. verticillioides, which was closely related to F. sacchari, using the morphological observation and the phylogenetic tree of rDNA-ITS region sequence amplified using fungus-conserved ITS1 and ITS4 primers.
Fusarium verticillioides causes seedling decay, stalk rot, and mycotoxin contamination in sugarcane. This destructive disease occurs virtually everywhere that sugarcane is grown worldwide. Airborne spores (conidia) arising from fungal growth on plant debris or current growth on silks or leaves may cause infection. F. verticillioides (teleomorph Gibberella moniliformis) is a filamentous fungus that produces two types of conidia—macroconidia and microconidia. The fungal colony of the F. verticillioides isolate (CNO-1) appeared to be pale in color but became orange at the top as it aged, while it was initially white at the bottom which later changed into a yellow color. The fungus is distributed throughout the world but predominant in humid tropical and subtropical regions and also present in the temperate regions.
3.1.2. Fusarium proliferatum
Fusarium proliferatum is grouped in FFSC and can be found on a wide host range as well as pathogenic on various agricultural crops. F. proliferatum is a common pathogen infecting numerous crop plants and occurring in various climatic zones. It occurs worldwide as a moderately aggressive pathogen of multiple plant species. F. proliferatum is well documented as a fumonisin-producing species, and some strains can produce large quantities of fumonisins, a group of polyketide-derived mycotoxins. F. proliferatum causes diseases on a remarkably wide range of plant species, including asparagus, banana, date palm, fig, mango, pine, and sorghum. F. proliferatum causing sugarcane pokkah boeng disease was firstly detected in 2012 in China. F. proliferatum in sugarcane is important for resistance, for estimating the evolutionary risk of the pathogen, and for planning the agricultural management practices.
During winter or in dry periods, F. proliferatum survives in the soil and on plant debris. It also produces other mycotoxins, including beauvericin, enniatins, fusaric acid, fusarin, fusaproliferin, and moniliformin. F. proliferatum can be distinguished from other species of the FFSC by analysis of molecular markers. Most recent assessments of fungal pathogens have used multilocus markers to detect populations. The ability of strains and species from geographically separated locations to recombine poses the danger of introducing virulence or toxigenic genes into local pathogen populations. The most commonly observed in human infections are F. proliferatum. However, members of FFSC are increasingly identified in especially invasive and disseminated infections in hemato-oncological patients. Many environmental Fusarium species and the human infections they cause have a worldwide distribution. The knowledge of the genetic structure of the F. proliferatum populations might be useful in order to establish effective strategies for controlling the disease.
3.1.3. The other members of Fusarium fujikuroi species complex (FFSC)
Other FFSC, viz., F. sacchari, F. verticillioides, F. proliferatum, and F. subglutinans, have been isolated from sugarcane. The fungus F. sacchari grows on decaying plant material and produces a large number of conidia that are spread by wind and rain. The stem borer D. saccharalis was shown to carry the fungus from plant to plant in different locations and provide access of conidia in the wind and rain to the inner stem, through their damage made to the stalk. Sugarcane infestation by the stem borer E. saccharina is a major problem in the sugar industry. The lepidopteran’s infestation of sugarcane by boring the stalk rind permits Fusarium species access to the stem tissue. As a result, E. saccharina infestation is usually associated with Fusarium infection, which can cause stem rot in sugarcane.
3.1.4. Fusarium oxysporum species complex (FOSC)
Fusarium oxysporum is one of the most economically important pathogens in the genus, but members of this species complex are generally considered to be non-toxigenic. F. oxysporum comprises over 120 known strains or “special forms,” each of which is specific to a unique plant host in which it causes disease. From a traditional taxonomic point of view, F. oxysporum isolates are differentiated from each other based on the pathogenicity as formae speciales, but this has been shown to be an unreliable approach. Vegetative compatibility groups (VCG) have been useful in the FOSC to characterize strains with similar pathogenic properties, and their genetic basis is an active area of research on the toxigenic species and mycotoxins in FOSC.
Fusarium oxysporum can spread short distances by irrigation water and contaminated agricultural machinery and via air or long distances by infected seeds and planting material. This prevents transport of water and nutrients to the rest of the host, causing wilting, discoloration, and ultimately death of the plant. Some strains of Fusarium oxysporum are pathogenic to different plant species; they penetrate into the roots and provoke the vascular system, causing severe damage on many plant species of economic importance.
Fungal growth initiated with white mycelium which subsequently turned pale violet. Ten isolates were recovered from the single-spore cultivation. The mycelia were floccose, sparse, or abundant. The microconidia were oval, elliptical, or kidney shaped and with 0 septate, while the macroconidia usually had three septa. The apical cell was tapered and basal cell was foot shaped. The morphological features and sporulation pattern were consistent with the description of Fusarium oxysporum (Leslie et al., 2006). The pairwise alignment and phylogenetic tree based on three genes (rDNA-ITS, GenBank Accession No. KU863663; pgx4, KU863663; tef, KU933831) and other reference sequences from GenBank also showed that our isolate gx3 belonged to Fusarium oxysporum, close related to FFSC.
3.2. Comparative genomics of Fusarium species complex (FSC)
Comparative genomics allows investigating many questions of evolutionary and functional significance of sequence features. By associating the species-specific genes with the unique characteristic of that species, researchers can find the potential relationship between genotype and phenotype. Various forward and reverse genetic methods have been developed to explore the repertoire of Fusarium genes contributing to disease formation, mycotoxin production, and sporulation. Phylogenetic tree is another application of comparative genomics to infer evolutionary relationship and to estimate diverge time based on the sequence similarity.
The whole genome of three fungal isolates (CNO1, YN41, and BS2–BS6) from the Fusarium species complex (FSC) that caused pokkah boeng disease of sugarcane was sequenced by Illumina and PacBio platforms. The genome coverages ranged from 100× to 200×. The newly sequenced genomes, along with five previously sequenced isolates (F. fujikuroi IMI58289, F. verticillioides 7600, F. mangiferae, F. circinatum FSP34, and F. oxysporum 4287), were selected based on their incidence in geographical locations, taxonomy/species, host isolation, toxin production, and pathology. Overall, the eight sequenced genomes were comparable in size and structure. The sizes of the eight sequenced genomes ranged from 41.9 to 61.4 Mb with approximately 48.0 of GC content (from 47.3 to 48.3). The CDS (protein-coding genes) ranged from 10,522 to 17,753. The gene density ranged from 284 to 356 per Mb.
The development of genomics is allowing the incorporation of new tools and resources to address the important new challenges for agriculture. The commercial sugarcane cultivars used today resulted from crosses of S. officinarum and S. spontaneum. However, the reproductive biology and complex genome of sugarcane complicate breeding of genetically improved varieties by conventional means. The global relationship between the linear sequence of nucleic acid bases in the DNA of the gene and the sequence of amino acids in the protein encoded by the DNA of S. officinarum and S. spontaneum associated these chromosome exchanges occurred through recombinations between the chromosomes of the two species.
A comparative genomics approach was effective in resolving the genetic relationship among fungal species and isolates. The Fusarium fujikuroi species complex (FFC) causes a wide spectrum of devastating diseases on diverse agricultural crops, like sugarcane. This is in part due to the complexity of the sugarcane genome which is probably the most complex of all plant crops. Sugarcane complex genome structure is due to a number of interesting developments that resulted in the sugarcane varieties grown.
FFC species can produce structurally diverse secondary metabolites (SMs), including the mycotoxins fumonisins, fusarins, fusaric acid, and beauvericin and the phytohormones gibberellins, auxins, and cytokinins. Fusarium-induced crop diseases as well as mycotoxin contamination problems result in significant economic losses to world agriculture every year. The major discoveries contributed by genomic analyses of Fusarium focused on plant pathogenicity, production of mycotoxins, and other secondary metabolites. A key theme is the finding that a Fusarium genome is compartmentalized into core and adaptive regions that encode functions associated mostly with primary growth versus adaptation to specific niches (e.g., virulence on specific hosts, growth in specific environments). This genome compartmentalization should enable functional studies focused on the development of improved means for controlling Fusarium diseases and toxin contamination.
Secondary metabolites are very important in mediating interactions between fungus and host plant. The genes encoded the secondary metabolite often involve particular types of key enzymes, including polyketide synthase (PKS), non-ribosomal peptide synthetase (NPS), and terpenoid synthase. These key enzymes are clustered along with various combinations of additional enzymes for further metabolite catalyzing and with transporters and transcription factors that are essential for the regulation of most of the clustered genes. Based on the fungal SM analyses by antiSMASH software, some SM biosynthetic gene clusters were shared in all Fusarium species complex causing sugarcane pokkah boeng, including aflatrem, fusaric acid, fusarubin, asperfuranone, bikaverin, acetylaranotin, fusaridione A, equisetin, nivalenol/deoxynivalenol/3-acetyldeoxynivalenol, and fujikurins. Ustilagic acid was only produced in F. oxysporum 4287. The gene clusters for azaphilone, fumonisin, and apicidin biosynthesis were only available in F. proliferatum. Gibberellin acid was only produced in F. verticillioides CNO1, but not in F. proliferatum YN41 because the genome of F. proliferatum YN41 lacked one of the key genes (p450) in GA biosynthetic gene cluster, which regulated GA production.
The genotype F. verticillioides isolates exposed the event of non-toxigenic strains and confirmed that their phenotype was likely the deletion of genes which are requisite for fumonisin biosynthesis. Some Fusarium secondary metabolite gene clusters exhibit a discontinuous distribution that does not correlate with phylogenetic relationships of species. For example, the intently distributed fumonisin and gibberellin gene clusters are present in some but not all species of the F. fujikuroi and F. oxysporum species complexes. Along with genes responsible for the biosynthesis of the secondary metabolite, genes with regulatory and transport functions are usually also present in these clusters.
The Fusarium comparative genomics highlighted the existence of lineage-specific chromosomes that are enriched for transposable elements and encoded genes that are pathogenicity related. These lineage-specific chromosomes play significant roles in adaptation to changing environments among this species complex. The well-defined genetic model system, will help to redefine the control strategies for pathogens with such genetic pathogenicity; qualitative genes are more often inherited dominantly and are also normally found clustered together in certain chromosome arms. These genes have major effects and are expressed throughout the life of a plant, tending to produce a plant completely resistant to one or more strains of a particular pathogen.
Modern sugarcane cultivars were derived from the interspecific crosses among a few clones of S. officinarum, S. barberi, and S. sinense and the wild relatives of S. spontaneum and S. robustum. The wild species has played an important role in the development of adaptation or tolerance to varied abiotic and biotic stresses. After the initial interspecific crosses, sugarcane breeders concentrated their attention on intercrossing of the hybrid derivatives. The direct contribution of the chromosomes to pathogenicity is indicated by the fact that they encode known virulence factors such as effector proteins, necrosis-inducing peptides, and a large array of enzymes targeting plant substrates but lack genes involved in primary metabolism. Effectors are “secreted proteins and other molecules which allow plant-associated organisms to modulate plant defense circuitry and enable colonization of plant tissue” [22]. F. verticillioides, F. proliferatum, and several other species can produce a variety of mycotoxins (e.g., trichothecenes or fumonisins) that are associated with plant disease.
3.3. Fusarium species complex and nitrogen source
Nitrogen is one of the most important nutrients for crop growth and production. It is a major component in chlorophyll, which is the most important pigment needed for photosynthesis, as well as amino acids, the key building blocks of proteins. Nitrogen accelerates growth, gives vitality to plants, and promotes dark green color in leaves due to better chlorophyll synthesis. Sugarcane is the world’s largest sugar crop and an economically important crop in China. The symptoms of sugarcane pokkah boeng tend to develop during periods in which high concentrations of nitrogen are applied.
Fungi are able to respond to quantitative and qualitative changes in nitrogen availability through complex regulatory mechanisms. The source of nitrogen has been isolated from sugarcane (Saccharum spp.) as beneficial interaction that promotes plant growth. Nitrogen is the most essential factor having direct effect on cane growth, sugarcane yield, and juice quality. However, nitrogen application at high rates exceeding sugarcane plant utilization has adverse effect on cane quality. The beneficial plant microorganism association has unique features that remain to be characterized. This living microorganism, which has potential for the development of plant growth by civilizing the nutrient condition of the plant and inadequate supply of nitrogen, decreases the plant metabolism and growth.
Nitrogen availability has significant effects not only on physiological and morphological characteristics of the fungus but also on the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites, such as mycotoxins in Fusarium species complex. It is difficult to determine exact N requirements of sugarcane crop. The use of organic nitrogen base may reduce the disease outbreaks and improve antagonistic to pathogens on certain fungi and microorganisms.
On the other hand, it has been observed that in some plants as the N content is increased beyond sufficient levels, the amount of antifungal compounds decreases. Nitrogen fixation is a biological process that reduces molecular N2 into ammonia (NH3), which can be easily absorbed by plants. During this adaptation, nitrogenase plays a very important role in catalysis. Strains with nitrogenase activity were identified on the basis of their phenotypic and 16S rDNA sequence analysis and concluded that isolates had potential for regulation of plant growth. To synthesize the secondary metabolites of nitrogen molecules, ammonia plays the vital role in plant growth and development.
Nitrogen supply can bang plant-pathogen interactions through consequence on pathogen virulence. The well-established virulence factor of Fusarium oxysporum was found to repress the capacity of the fungal species to penetrate cellophane membrane through the nitrogen source. Nitrogen Utilization may be either regular or impartial with phosphorus and potassium so that nitrification can take place properly. Due to swift mobility of nitrogen, its effect is quite visible in the form of rapid growths due to its presence and rapid retardation in growth and of the crop due to its deficiency. The profuse of nitrogen can enhance the production of young, luscious growth, an expanded vegetative period, and tardy ripeness. The N requirements vary with climate, crop growth, cane yield pattern, irrigation frequency and distribution, land preparation, soil types, and soil behavior. The sustainability of prospective crops is strongly reliant on minimization of fertilizer inputs that can be achieved by enhancement of plant-associated nitrogen fixation. The various applications of nitrogen have been allied with increase in yield. Similarly, the heavy use of nitrogen can promote lodging which can reduce potential yield. In exacting, the nitrogen accessibility directly modulates the regulation of nitrogen source.
Biofertilizers are based on effective strains of microorganisms in sufficient numbers, which are useful for nitrogen fixation in plants and synthesis of growth-promoting substances like hormones, vitamins, and auxins. Besides being essential as a source of cheap protein for human nutrition and animal feed, symbiosis with rhizobia is essential in crop rotation to maintain soil fertility. Poultry manure and other animal waste products were used as a source of supplemental nitrogen long before inorganic nitrogen fertilizer came into popular use. The utilization of BNF for agricultural purposes has long been the dynamic force behind N-fixation research. The environmental benefits from using biological N-fixation are seen to be associated with the proxy of chemical-based technologies with a biological system. Some of the main benefits provided through crop rotation include the prevention of soil erosion, increased soil microorganism diversity, decreased pest prevalence, and increased field fertility. The importance of field fertility in the process of growing crop is immense. The process of BNF can be defined as the reduction of dinitrogen to ammonia by means of a prokaryote. BNF is accomplished by a wide variety of prokaryotes; some can accomplish this as free living organisms, while others require a symbiotic association with plants.
The secondary metabolism, also called specialized metabolism, is part of the metabolism of fungi which is not essential for direct survival; such gene will rely on regulatory mechanisms for biosynthesis and their perpetual relations with the nitrogen regulation of other pathways in Fusarium, a paradigmatic model fungus for secondary metabolism. The screening of plant genotypes for their enhanced ability to acquire nitrogen by BNF can reduce the use of expensive nitrogen fertilizers in several important cash crops like sugarcane. In fact, the condition of biologically fixed nitrogen plays a key role in crop production in world cultivation. To understand the role of biological nitrogen fixation, more research work is needed for improving efficiency of nitrogen in order to reduce the use of synthetic fertilizer for production.
Fusarium species having plant growth-promoting activities are exploited for growing agricultural needs. The Fusarium spp. range in their pathogenicity, but they can produce mycotoxins in sugarcane. Such Fusarium includes the Gibberella fujikuroi species complex especially F. verticillioides and F. proliferatum, which can cause stalk root. Under alternating drought/wet conditions, F. verticillioides produces toxic fumonisins and under warm in certain crop variety. The effects of nitrogen sources on F. verticillioides will lead to pigmentation variation derived from bikaverin, fusarubins, and carotenoids. The gene expression in F. verticillioides was established to analyze processes modulated by different sources of nitrogen and to identify new regulatory mechanisms. Historically, a small amount of N fertilizers was recommended at planting to aid in early season fall growth as well as a mid-season N fertilization application in early spring. Excess N can lead to prolonged vegetative growth and reduced sucrose concentration mainly due to increased moisture in stalks. Crop response to immunization with symbiotic nitrogen has established their important role in supplementing nitrogen to the plant, allowing a sustainable use of nitrogen fertilizers. Today, nitrogen source of applications on sugarcane tends to be a complicated issue due to previous research showing contradicting results. However, economic factors and soil reaction must be considered while selecting the forms of fertilizers.
3.4. Preventive and control measures
Sugarcane is a highly industrious crop which suffers from numerous diseases caused by different organisms and factors such as environmental and physiological disorders and nutritional deficiencies. Historically, planting susceptible varieties in a large area encouraged the outbreak of a certain diseases in a particular period of time. Several control measures may be implemented to reduce potential sugarcane yield loss caused by pests and diseases, but an incorporated approach is often recommended.
Disease control in sugarcane is based on an integration of legislative control, resistant cultivars, and other management procedures. Short-term spraying options are available, but their economic viability may not be sustained. Machine harvest can also transmit disease. Many sugarcane diseases are also managed through the use of disease-free planting material supplied through Cane Protection and Productivity Boards. The genetical resistant cultivars is the most cost-effective method to control the disease, and the presence of genetic variations against pokkah boeng and its associates is well documented. Because of the more serious disease problem, a progressive effort to socialize and conduct integrated management for controlling the disease.
Several control measures may be implemented to reduce potential sugarcane yield loss caused by pests and diseases, but an incorporated approach is often recommended. To remove and destruct of infected plants on the first appearance of the disease in case of pokkah boeng established that frequent breakdown of varietal resistance against pokkah boeng is due to the appearance of new pathotypes matching the resistance of cane genotypes.
Successive ratoons are characterized by reductions in cane yield due to systemic diseases or physical damage to stools, and the number of ratoons obtained from a single harvest also depends on genotypic and environmental factors. Ratoon productivity has been proved to increase with proper management involving timely agricultural operations, proper nutrition management and integrated pest management, and maintenance of adequate plant population. A number of ratoon management practices currently in use, such as inter-row ripping, burning of crop residues at harvest, harvesting under wet conditions, and using heavy infield transport, were found to be contrary with the substantial, chemical, and biological properties of the soil. The incidence was figured out as five grades (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Symptoms of sugarcane pokkah boeng disease in China.
Based on the disease severity index (DSI) of pokkah boeng disease of sugarcane, the resistance of sugarcane against pokkah boeng was classified into five levels from 0 to 5. Level 0 was defined as highly resistant (HR) with DSI≦1.0, Level 1 as resistant (R) with DSI ranged from 1.1 to 5.0, Level 2 as moderately resistant (MR) with DSI from 5.1 to 10.0, Level 3 as moderately susceptible (MS) with DSI from 10.1to 15.0, Level 4 as susceptible (S) with DSI from 15.1 to 20.0, and Level 5 as highly susceptible (HS) with DSI > 20.0.
The disease severity index (DSI) was calculated as follows:
DSI=Sumofallnumerical gradesTotal number of plants counted×maximum grade×100E1
Conidial suspensions of the isolates (CNO-1 and YN41, 106 conidia mL−1, 100 μL) were dripped into the young spindle of 89 sugarcane germplasm, and the symptoms were observed on the inoculated plants in 6–8 days post-inoculation, respectively. Our results showed that 34 of 89 tested clones (38.2%) were susceptible to both CNO1 and YN41, 32 clones (36.0%) susceptible to CNO-1 but resistant to YN-41, 14 clones (15.7%) susceptible to YN41 but resistant to CNO-1, and only 8 clones (9.0%) resistant to both CNO-1 and resistant YN41. Both these resistant clones included CP84-1198, GT94-40, GT05-3846, ROC1, ROC27, YC58-14, YC64-173, and YT94-128. Moreover, our results also showed that CNO-1 had higher infection than YN-41 by this inoculation with a success of up to 89.8%.
Chemical control is often expensive and has downstream unconstructive effects on the environment. Nine compounds were tested at three concentrations (100, 50, and 10 ppm) for their ability to inhibit mycelial growth of Fusarium species complex. Two antibacterial compounds including copper 8-hydroxyquinoline and validamycins had no effect on the mycelial growth of Fusarium species complex at 10 ppm and partially inhibited mycelial growth at the concentration of 50 and 100 ppm. In addition, two compounds, including thifluzamide and chloroisobromine cyanuric acid, had great effect on inhibition of fungal growth at 10 ppm rather than at 50 and 100 ppm.
In the field test, spraying of different fungicides like Bavistin or Blitox or copper oxychloride or carbendazim is efficient for reducing the pokkah boeng disease. Planting of healthy seed, the use of resistant varieties, and following the integrated disease management practices are the best ways to prevent disease incidence. The use of resistant cultivars is particularly useful, as it reduces the use of harmful chemicals which can disturb the balance of nature and result in other pests becoming a problem. Furthermore, Fusarium spp. prevalence in the soil can be affected considerably by crop rotation practices. Although the use of resistant varieties is the best means of control, some strains have been found to overcome resistance, and the once-resistant varieties were reported to be susceptible.
Host plant resistance shows major advantages compared to chemical, biological, and cultural control components for management programmes. However, it needs to be supported with additional management practices to ensure durability in the field. Biological control of plant pathogens is an attractive alternative to the strong dependence of modern agriculture on chemical fungicides, which cause environmental pollution and development of resistant strains. The endophytic bacterial community associated with sugarcane harbors multiple genera with potential for plant growth promotion and disease control.
\n',keywords:"sugarcane, pokkah boeng, Fusarium species complex, nitrogen, secondary metabolism",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/59119.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/59119.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59119",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59119",totalDownloads:1368,totalViews:445,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:51,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"May 24th 2017",dateReviewed:"December 14th 2017",datePrePublished:"February 19th 2018",datePublished:"July 25th 2018",dateFinished:"February 1st 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Sugarcane is one of the most important crops for sugar production in sugarcane-growing areas. Many biotic and abiotic stresses affected the sugarcane production which leads to severe losses. Pokkah boeng is now playing a very important role due to its economic threats. Currently, the occurrence and rigorousness of pokkah boeng disease have been spread like wildfire from major sugarcane-growing countries. Pokkah boeng is a fungal disease that can cause serious yield losses in susceptible varieties. Infection of the disease is caused either by spores or ascospores. It may cause serious yield losses in commercial plantings. However, there have been many reported outbreaks of the disease which have looked spectacular but have caused trade and industry loss. Fusarium species complex is the major causal agent of this disease around the world, but some researchers have documented the increased importance of Fusarium. Three Fusarium species have been identified to cause the sugarcane pokkah boeng disease in China. Moreover, Fusarium may be accompanied of its mycotoxin production, genomic sequencing, and association with nitrogen application in China. Many studies on disease investigations, breeding of disease-resistant varieties, and strategy of disease control have also been carried out in China.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/59119",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/59119",book:{id:"6329",slug:"fusarium-plant-diseases-pathogen-diversity-genetic-diversity-resistance-and-molecular-markers"},signatures:"Muqing Zhang and John Martin Jerome Jeyakumar",authors:[{id:"211925",title:"Dr.",name:"Muqing",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",fullName:"Muqing Zhang",slug:"muqing-zhang",email:"mqzhang@ufl.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Guangxi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"220904",title:"Dr.",name:"John Martin",middleName:null,surname:"Jerome Jeyakumar",fullName:"John Martin Jerome Jeyakumar",slug:"john-martin-jerome-jeyakumar",email:"jeromejeyakumarj@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Manifestation of pokkah boeng",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Mode of transferal",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1. Fusarium species complex (FSC) and their distribution",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"3.1.1. Fusarium verticillioides",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"3.1.2. Fusarium proliferatum",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"3.1.3. The other members of Fusarium fujikuroi species complex (FFSC)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"3.1.4. Fusarium oxysporum species complex (FOSC)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.2. Comparative genomics of Fusarium species complex (FSC)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.3. Fusarium species complex and nitrogen source",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.4. Preventive and control measures",level:"2"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Price S. Interspecific hybridisation in sugarcane breeding. Proceedings of the International Society of Sugar Cane Technologists. 1965;12:1021-1026'},{id:"B2",body:'Arceneaux G. Cultivated sugarcanes of the world and their botanical derivation. Proceedings of the International Society of Sugar Cane Technologists. 1967;12:844-854'},{id:"B3",body:'Jeschke N, Nelson PE, Marasas WFO. Fusarium spp. isolated from soil samples collected at different altitudes in the Transkei, Southern Africa. Mycologia. 1990;82(6):727-733'},{id:"B4",body:'Burgess LW, Nelson PE, Toussoun TA, Forbes GA. Distribution of Fusarium species in section Roseum, Arthrosporiella, Gibbosum and discolor recovered from grassland, pasture and pine nursery soils of Eastern Australia. Mycologia. 1988;80(6):815-824'},{id:"B5",body:'Bryden WL, Logrieco A, Abbas HK, Porter JK, Vesonder RF, Richard JL, Cole RJ. Other significant Fusarium mycotoxins. In: Summerell BA, Leslie JF, Backhouse D, Bryden WL, Burgess LW, editors. Fusarium: Paul E. Nelson Memorial Symposium. St. Paul, MN: APS Press; 2001. pp. 360-339'},{id:"B6",body:'Logrieco A, Doko MB, Moretti A, Frisullo S, Visconti A. Occurrence of FB1 and FB2 in Fusarium proliferatum infected asparagus plants. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 1998;46:5201-5204'},{id:"B7",body:'Gupta S, Krasnoff SB, Underwood NL, Renwick JAA, Roberts DW. Isolation of beauvericin as an insect toxin from Fusarium semitectum and Fusarium moniliforme var. Subglutinans. Mycopathologia. 1991;115:185-189'},{id:"B8",body:'Logrieco A, Moretti A, Fornelli F, Fogliano V, Ritieni A, Caiaffa MF, Randazzo G, Bottalico A, Macchia L. Fusaproliferin production by Fusarium subglutinans and its toxicity to Artemia Salina, SF-9 insect cells, and IARC/LCL 171 human B lymphocytes. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 1996;62:3378-3384'},{id:"B9",body:'Geh SL. Current status of diseases and pests of sugarcane in West Malaysia. 1973. pp. 4-6. MARDI Report'},{id:"B10",body:'Lin Z, Xu S, Que Y, Wang J, Comstock JC, Wei J, McCord PH, Chen B, Chen R, Zhang M. Species-specific detection and identification of fusarium species complex, the causal agent of sugarcane pokkah boeng in China. PLoS One; 2014;9:e104195. DOİ: 10.1371/journal.pone.0104195'},{id:"B11",body:'McFarlane S. A, Rutherford R.S. Fusarium species isolated from sugarcane in kwazulu-natal and their effect on Eldana saccharina (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) development in vitro. South African Sugar Technology Association. 2005;79:120-123'},{id:"B12",body:'Sidique M, Nordahliawate S. Pathogenicity and aethiology of Fusarium species associated with pokkah boeng disease on sugarcane. [Master’s thesis]. Universiti Sains Malaysia; Pulau Pinang, Malaysia: 2007 [sb 741. F9 s623 2007 frb]'},{id:"B13",body:'Singh M, Singh SP, Singh JP, Prasad K. Farming Systems Characterization – A Case Study of Meerut. Bulletin No. 2006-1 PDCSR, Modipuram Meerut − 250 110. 2006. p. 73'},{id:"B14",body:'Vishwakarma SK, Kumar P, Nigam A, Singh A, Kumar A. Pokkah boeng: An emerging disease of sugarcane. Journal of Plant Pathology and Microbiology. 2013;4:2-7'},{id:"B15",body:'Waraitch KS, Kumar B. Pathogenic behaviour and varietal performance of Fusarium causing sugarcane wilt. Indian Sugar. 1982;32:317-320'},{id:"B16",body:'Burgess LW. General ecology of Fusaria. In: Nelson PE, Toussoun TA, Cook RJ, editors. Fusarium, Diseases, Biology, and Taxonomy. University Park, Pennsylvania, USA: Pennsylvania State University Press; 1981. pp. 276-286'},{id:"B17",body:'Marasas WF, In O, Smith JE, Henderson RS, editors. Mycotoxins and Animal Foods. CRC Press, Boca Raton; 1991. p. 120'},{id:"B18",body:'Kvas M, Marasas WFO, Wingfield BD, Wingfield MJ, Steenkamp ET. Diversity and evolution of Fusarium species in the Gibberella fujikuroi complex. Fungal Diversity. 2009;34:1-21'},{id:"B19",body:'Summerell BA, Laurence MH, Liew ECY, Leslie JF. Biogeography and phylogeography of Fusarium: A review. Fungal Diversity. 2010;43:3-13'},{id:"B20",body:'O’Reilly G. The South African sugar industry. International Sugar Journal. 1998;100:266-268'},{id:"B21",body:'Butterfield MK, D’Hont A, Berding N. The sugarcane genome: A synthesis of current understanding, and lessons for breeding and biotechnology. South African Sugar Technology Association. 2001;75:1-5'},{id:"B22",body:'Hogenhout SA, Van der Hoorn RA, Terauchi R, Kamoun S. Emerging concepts in effector biology of plant-associated organisms. Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions. 2009;22:115-122'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Muqing Zhang",address:"mqzhang@ufl.edu",affiliation:'
State Key Lab for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-Biological Resources, Guangxi University, Nanning, Guangxi, China
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"John Martin Jerome Jeyakumar",address:null,affiliation:'
State Key Lab for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-Biological Resources, Guangxi University, Nanning, Guangxi, China
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1. Introduction
The influx of data in the world today needs analysis that no method can handle. Some reports estimated the influx of data to reach 163 zettabytes by 2025 and hence the need for simulation and modeling theory and practice. Simulation and modeling tools and techniques are of most importance in this day and age. While simulation carries the needed work, tools of visualizing the results help in decision-making process. Simulation ranges of simple queue to molecular dynamics include seismic reliability analysis, structural integrity assessment, games, reliability engineering, and system safety. This book will introduce simulation and modeling to practitioners, researchers, and novice users to the world of imagination.
Simulation and modeling programs are not like any other computer program. Section 1 can look at the amount of research being conducted in the scientific community, and the facts are reflected in Section 2. Section 3 shows the distinguishing factors of simulation. Section 4 presents classical simulation approaches and their handling of the time elements which is one of the distinguishing factors of simulation. Section 5 sheds light on the reasons why we simulation. Section 6 explains furthermore the different uses of simulation especially in training. Section 7 discusses the answer of proof of correctness or validation and verification question that is the second distinguishing feature of simulation.
2. Simulation in research
Simulation is a very important topic in the research community. According to the IEEE digital library in the year 2014, scientific journals and magazines published 9478 scientific research papers. In the year 2015, 10,371 scientific research papers were published, while in the year 2016, 11,133 scientific papers were published in journals and magazines. According to the same source in the year 2017, 12,206 scientific research papers were published. Hence, in the 4 years (2014–2017), 43,188 scientific research papers were published. The number indicates how rich the simulation topic is with undiscovered topics and many unsolved problems. Hence, the simulation topic is worth investigating.
3. Distinguishing features of simulation
There are four distinguishing characteristics that differentiate simulation from any computer program: time use simulation is an indexing variable, simulation objective is to achieve correctness, simulation is computational intensive, and there is no typical use of simulation [1]. As time is an indexing variable, the use of such variable can be discrete or continues. Such use of the time variable is reflected in the approaches and method of simulation.
The second feature is reflected in the discussion of validation and verification of the simulation program. The section lists ways of validation and verification. To achieve correctness is a major goal of any simulation program; furthermore, the proof of correctness is a challenge of simulation.
The third feature is also another challenge in simulation world. Simulation major feature is the time indexing variable, which is a challenge on its own. Another element that makes simulation computational intensive is animation. Animation in relation with time variable is very challenging to master in any simulation program.
The fourth feature is distinguishing of simulation; there is no typical use of simulation. Simulation is colored with its use. The uses of simulation range from transport systems to molecule interactions. Hence, simulation is colored from within its use.
4. Classical simulation approaches
Simulation and modeling is an approach used when everything fails. Simulation and modeling applications range from nuclear reactions to transport systems. Hence, there are two types of simulation approaches: discrete simulation approaches and continuous simulation approaches. Process interaction approach, event scheduling approach, activity scanning approach, stock and flow approach, and three-phase approach all belong to the first family. In process interaction approach, the computer program emulates the flow of an object through the system. Transaction flow approach is a simpler version of process interaction approach. Event scheduling approach advances time to the moment when something happens next. The third approach, activity scanning approach, is based on two phases: the first phase is the execution after a fixed amount of time, and the second phase is the execution after the satisfaction of some condition. The third approach is a three-phase approach; as the name is suggesting, it has three phases: A, B, and C. To better understand the simulation approaches, Figure 1 reflects the flow charts of each of them.
Figure 1.
Flow charts of the three classical simulation approaches [1].
To handle concurrent discrete event dynamic systems, Petri nets were developed by Carl Adam in the beginning of the 1960s, a theory for discrete parallel system. Such idea is reflected in the chapter “Petri Net Models Optimized for Simulation.”
5. Why simulate?
Simulation and modeling needs imagination and innovations to be developed from scratch. Yet, simulation is needed and hence the question “why do we simulate?” Simulation allows experimentation rather than direct, costly, time-consuming experimentation. Simulation allows time control where the user can compress and expand time element. Simulation experiments can be replicated, so as to answer questions like “why did this happen?” Simulation allows the user to explore possibilities. Simulation allows the user to explore different possibilities while identifying constrains and predict obstacles. Playing with what-if scenarios, simulation is used to train pilots as well as medical professionals in the case of new technology.
6. Simulation uses in training
Simulation is used to train people in a number of arenas for many reasons: either the training situation is too dangerous to conduct or too delicate or too expensive. A study by Abu-Taieh and Abutayeh [2], they listed 12 areas where simulation is used for vocational training: to train pilots, many simulators are used. Rather than using the real plane to teach the pilot to fly, a simulator is used to train the pilot. Another use is to conduct chemical experiments by simulating the experiments. As such, the experimenter is in a safe environment while knowledge is transferred on handling chemical materials.
Another training arena is physics experiments. Simulators are used to conduct physics experiments. To teach things like motion, energy, power, sound, heat, electricity, magnets, circuits, light, and radiation, a simulator is used to teach their attributes and to visualize the experiments as seen in [3].
Mathematics, algebra, number theory, mathematical functions, trigonometry, data analysis, graphs, trees, networks, enumerative combinations, iteration, and recursion are hard topics to understand and visualize. Simulation is used as an explanatory tool and a visualizing method. Nelson [4] listed five reasons to use simulation in mathematics.
Simulation is used to study environmental and ecological systems. Since such arena is overwhelmed with variables that no mathematical formula can solve, simulation is used to study, visualize, understand, and explain environmental phenomena.
To study, understand, and explain cosmology and astrophysics, many computer-based simulators are used. Simulation in this case enhances the understanding of cosmology and astrophysics by visualization. Simulators are also used to train medical students in surgery training. Such concept is used to train novice surgeons to gain expertise and self-confidence before conducting the real surgery.
Simulators are also used in civil engineering, interior design, and architectural engineering designs. Since real-life experimentation is lengthy and expensive, simulators in such arena save time, money, and effort by delivering virtual product which can be altered rather than delivering real-life product. In Marshall et al. [5], healthcare delivery is discussed using simulation. Other uses of simulation are to design, understand, test, and visualize computers and communication networks as seen in [6, 7].
To learn financial planning and to model marketing simulation is used, namely, in Crystal Ball and Analytica, among others. Business modeling, risk analysis, cost/benefit analysis, and risk management are also taught using simulators. In military training, virtual reality (VR) and virtual augmented reality (VAR) are used. Simulators like mission rehearsal exercise (MRE).
A published research [8, 9] classified 56 simulation environment according to their 22 uses: air traffic control and space systems, supply chain management, business process reengineering and workflows, transportation systems, complex system design evaluation, aerospace, computer and communication networks, oil and gas, computer performance evaluation, construction, education and training, financial modeling, healthcare systems, parcels and parcel handling(queue), manufacturing systems, de-bottlenecking, military/combat systems, what-if scenarios, satellite and wireless communications systems, robotic and mechanical systems, service systems, and decision and risk analysis.
7. Validation, verification, and testing (VV&T) in simulation
This section is an answer to the second distinguishing feature of simulation. VV&T in simulation is the most important quest. There is no point in simulating the wrong model and no point in simulating the model incorrectly. Validation answers to the question “Are we building the right model?” Verification answers to the question “Are we building the product right?” These two questions have been raised back in 1995 when Balci [10] published a research paper listing 15 simulation VV&T principles, as follows:
V&V must be conducted throughout the entire M&S life cycle.
The outcome of VV&A should not be considered as a binary variable where the model or simulation is absolutely correct or absolutely incorrect.
A simulation model is built with respect to the M&S objectives, and its credibility is judged with respect to those objectives.
V&V requires independence to prevent developer’s bias.
VV&A is difficult and requires creativity and insight.
Credibility can be claimed only for the prescribed conditions for which the model or simulation is verified, validated, and accredited.
Complete simulation model testing is not possible.
VV&A must be planned and documented.
Type I, II, and III errors must be prevented.
Errors should be detected as early as possible in the M&S life cycle.
Multiple response problem must be recognized and resolved properly.
Successfully testing each submodel (module) does not imply overall model credibility.
Double validation problem must be recognized and resolved properly.
Simulation model validity does not guarantee the credibility and acceptability of simulation results.
A well-formulated problem is essential to the acceptability and accreditation of M&S results.
In the same paper, Balci [10] divided the V&V techniques into two categories: V&V techniques for simulation models and V&V techniques for object-oriented simulation models. The V&V techniques for simulation models were further divided into four subcategories: informal, static, dynamic, and formal. V&V techniques for object-oriented simulation models were divided into three subcategories: conventional, adaptive, and specific. The informal subcategory included 8 V&V techniques, and the static subcategory included 19 techniques. The dynamic subcategory included 50 techniques. The formal subcategory included eight techniques. The adaptive subcategory included 15 techniques, while the specific subcategory included 31 techniques. In total, Balci listed more than 130 validation and verification techniques; as such, this only reflects the importance of validation and verification in simulation.
Some published work like [8, 9, 11, 12] discussed the validation and verification quest. The first two sources listed the different methods and tools for VV&T, and the third source developed a method from within the system development life cycle of simulation.
8. Conclusion
Playing the virtual world with time element is a joy and challenge. Hence, simulation to simulators is an open-ended question. This chapter showed the importance of simulation from academic and scientific point of view and then the distinguishing elements of simulation. Two distinguishing features stood out: time element and the correctness of the simulation program. Time element handling is reflected in Section 4. Correctness of the simulation program is discussed in Section 7. In the overall picture, simulation and modeling is like an addictive game that one can never get tired of.
Acknowledgments
I would like to acknowledge the efforts and support of Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University College of Computer and Information Sciences Dean Prof. Auhood Alfaries and the University of Jordan for their moral support and encouragement. Also, I would to acknowledge the Publisher intechopen.com and their people (Dajana Pemac, Author Service Manager, and Danijela Vladika), for the opportunity and their support, patience, and hard work.
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Gaming and Simulations: Concepts, Methodologies, Tools and Applications. Hershey, PA: IGI Global; 2011. pp. 854-866. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60960-195-9.ch317'},{id:"B3",body:'Maghsoodlou S, Afzali A. Simulation in classical nanomaterials: New development and achievements. Physics and Chemistry of Classical Materials: Applied Research and Concepts;2014. 235'},{id:"B4",body:'Nelson BL. Using simulation to teach probability. In: Proceeding of the 2002 Winter Simulation Conference; San Diego, CA, USA; 2002. p. 1815'},{id:"B5",body:'Marshall DA, Burgos-Liz L, IJzerman MJ, Crown W, Padula WV, Wong PK, et al. Selecting a dynamic simulation modeling method for health care delivery research—Part 2: Report of the ISPOR dynamic simulation modeling emerging good practices task force. Value in Health. 2015;18(2):147-160'},{id:"B6",body:'Al-Bahadili H, Issa G, Sabri A. Enhancing the performance of the DNDP algorithm. The International Journal of Wireless and Mobile Networks. 2011;3(2):113-124'},{id:"B7",body:'Al-Bahadili H. Enhancing the performance of adjusted probabilistic broadcast in MANETs. The Mediterranean Journal of Computers and Networks (MEDJCN). 2010;6(4):1992-1995'},{id:"B8",body:'Abu-Taieh EM, Rahman El Sheikh AA. Discrete event simulation process validation, verification, and testing. In: Dasso A, Funes A, editors. Verification, Validation and Testing in Software Engineering. Hershey, PA: IGI Global; 2007. pp. 177-212. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-59140-851-2.ch008'},{id:"B9",body:'Abu-Taieh E, El Sheikh A. Commercial simulation packages: A comparative study. International Journal of Simulation. 2007;8(2):66-76'},{id:"B10",body:'Balci O. Principles and techniques of simulation validation, verification, and testing. In: Alexopoulos C and Kang K, editors. Proceedings of the 27th conference on Winter simulation (WSC \'95). Washington, DC, USA: IEEE Computer Society; 1995. pp. 147-154. DOI: 10.1145/224401.224456'},{id:"B11",body:'Abu-Taieh EM, Rahman El Sheikh AA. A road map for the validation, verification and testing of discrete event simulation. In: Khosrow-Pour M, editor. Encyclopedia of Information Science and Technology. 2nd ed. Hershey, PA: IGI Global; 2009. pp. 3306-3313. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60566-026-4.ch526'},{id:"B12",body:'Abu-Taieh EM, Rahman El Sheikh AA, Abu Tayeh J. Relay race methodology (RRM): An enhanced life cycle for simulation system development. In: El Sheikh A et al., editors. Simulation and Modeling: Current Technologies and Applications. Hershey, PA: IGI Global; 2008. pp. 156-174. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-59904-198-8.ch005'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Evon Abu-Taieh",address:"abutaieh@gmail.com",affiliation:'
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It was initially conceived for organic substances but actually embraced by metal–organic products, especially in the study of coordination polymers. All of the technologic advances have provided profound insights on the control of crystal structures formation revealing that any applied stimulus over a substance can undergo a structural transformation. This has led to the implementation of several methodologies in the industrial and academic segment shedding light on the source of hitherto, not well understood results.",signatures:"Francisco Sánchez-Férez and Josefina Pons",authors:[{id:"344057",title:"Dr.",name:"Josefina",surname:"Pons",fullName:"Josefina Pons",slug:"josefina-pons",email:"josefina.pons@uab.es"},{id:"344064",title:"Mr.",name:"Francisco",surname:"Sánchez-Férez",fullName:"Francisco Sánchez-Férez",slug:"francisco-sanchez-ferez",email:"francisco.sanchez.ferez@uab.cat"}],book:{id:"10504",title:"Crystallization and Applications",slug:"crystallization-and-applications",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"290142",title:"Dr.",name:"Riadh",surname:"Marzouki",slug:"riadh-marzouki",fullName:"Riadh Marzouki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/290142/images/system/290142.png",biography:"Riadh Marzouki is an Assistant Professor in International Cooperation between the Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, King Khalid University, Saudi Arabia, and the Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Sfax, Tunisia. He is also a researcher in the Laboratory of Materials and Crystallography, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunisia. His research activities include investigating the synthesis, crystal structure, electrical properties, and biological activities of new crystalline materials. He is also the author and the co-author of more than sixty scientific papers, four book chapters, and four book editions.",institutionString:"King Khalid University",institution:{name:"King Khalid University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"311698",title:"Dr.",name:"Youssef",surname:"Ben Smida",slug:"youssef-ben-smida",fullName:"Youssef Ben Smida",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311698/images/system/311698.png",biography:"Youssef Ben Smida obtained a Ph.D. in Chemistry at the Faculty of Sciences of Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunisia, in 2015. He completed a postdoc at the Materials and Crystal Chemistry Laboratory, Faculty of Sciences of Tunis, where he was responsible for the X-ray diffractometers. Since June 2017, he has held a permanent position as a young researcher at the National Research Center in Materials Science, Parke Technology of Borj Cedria Tunisia. He works on energy (Na-ion batteries and fuel cells) and the environment (photocatalysis). His other areas of interest include computational methods (DFT and MD) and crystallography. Dr. Smida has co-supervised and supervised master’s degree students, end-of-study engineering projects, and theses.",institutionString:"Technology Park of Borj Cedria",institution:{name:"University of Carthage",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Tunisia"}}},{id:"327261",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Atef",surname:"Korchef",slug:"atef-korchef",fullName:"Atef Korchef",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"330797",title:"Dr.",name:"Maite",surname:"Rada-Mendoza",slug:"maite-rada-mendoza",fullName:"Maite Rada-Mendoza",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cauca",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Colombia"}}},{id:"339980",title:"Dr.",name:"Mosbah",surname:"Jemmali",slug:"mosbah-jemmali",fullName:"Mosbah Jemmali",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King Khalid University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"344057",title:"Dr.",name:"Josefina",surname:"Pons",slug:"josefina-pons",fullName:"Josefina Pons",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Barcelona",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"346659",title:"Dr.",name:"José Luis",surname:"Arciniegas Herrera",slug:"jose-luis-arciniegas-herrera",fullName:"José Luis Arciniegas Herrera",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cauca",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Colombia"}}},{id:"346848",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricia",surname:"Vélez Varela",slug:"patricia-velez-varela",fullName:"Patricia Vélez Varela",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"347889",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Basma",surname:"Marzougui",slug:"basma-marzougui",fullName:"Basma Marzougui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"347890",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",surname:"Triki",slug:"mohamed-triki",fullName:"Mohamed Triki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"publication-agreement-chapters",title:"Publication Agreement - Book Chapter",intro:'
IntechOpen aims to ensure that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. To that end we maintain a flexible Copyright Policy guaranteeing that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their Work.
',metaTitle:"Publication Agreement - Chapters",metaDescription:"IN TECH aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our authors. For that matter, we uphold a flexible copyright policy meaning that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and authors retain exclusive copyright to their work.\n\nWhen submitting a manuscript the Corresponding Author is required to accept the terms and conditions set forth in our Publication Agreement as follows:",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/publication-agreement-chapters",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
The Corresponding Author (acting on behalf of all Authors) and INTECHOPEN LIMITED, incorporated and registered in England and Wales with company number 11086078 and a registered office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, United Kingdom, SW7 2QJ conclude the following Agreement regarding the publication of a Book Chapter:
\\n\\n
1. DEFINITIONS
\\n\\n
Corresponding Author: The Author of the Chapter who serves as a Signatory to this Agreement. The Corresponding Author acts on behalf of any other Co-Author.
\\n\\n
Co-Author: All other Authors of the Chapter besides the Corresponding Author.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen: IntechOpen Ltd., the Publisher of the Book.
\\n\\n
Book: The publication as a collection of chapters compiled by IntechOpen including the Chapter. Chapter: The original literary work created by Corresponding Author and any Co-Author that is the subject of this Agreement.
\\n\\n
2. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\\n\\n
2.1 Subject to the following Article, the Corresponding Author grants and shall ensure that each Co-Author grants, to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright and any extensions or renewals of that term the following:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
An irrevocable, worldwide, royalty-free, perpetual, transferable, sublicensable, non-exclusive right to publish, communicate to the public, reproduce, republish, transmit, sell, distribute and otherwise use and make available the Chapter in whole, partial or adapted from and/or incorporated in or in conjunction with other works, in electronic and print editions of the Publication and in derivative works and on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen, throughout the world, in all languages, and in all media and formats now known or later developed.
\\n\\t
An irrevocable, worldwide, royalty-free, perpetual, transferable, sublicensable, non-exclusive right to create and store electronic archival copies of the Chapter, including the right to deposit the Chapter in open access digital repositories.
\\n\\t
An irrevocable, worldwide, royalty-free, perpetual, transferable, sublicensable, non-exclusive right to license others to reproduce, translate, republish, transmit and distribute the Chapter in whole, partial or adapted from and/or incorporated in or in conjunction with other works under the condition that the Corresponding Author and each Co-Author is attributed (currently this is carried out by publishing the Chapter under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License).
\\n
\\n\\n
The aforementioned licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Agreement for any reason.
\\n\\n
2.2 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of any Co-Author) reserves the following rights to the Chapter but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Chapter as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\\n\\n
The Corresponding Author confirms that they (and any Co-Author) are and will remain a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\\n\\n
Subject to the license granted above, copyright in the Chapter and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process (including the published version) is retained by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\\n\\n
Subject to the license granted above, the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author retains patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Chapter.
\\n\\n
2.3 All rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the Corresponding Author's or any Co-Author’s specific approval.
\\n\\n
2.4 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author) will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Chapter as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Chapter arising from translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits.
\\n\\n
3. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S DUTIES
\\n\\n
3.1 When distributing or re-publishing the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Corresponding Author warrants that each Co-Author will also credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Chapter.
\\n\\n
3.2 When submitting the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Comply with all instructions and guidelines provided by IntechOpen;
\\n\\t
Produce the Chapter with all due skill, care and diligence, and in accordance with good scientific practice;
\\n\\t
Submit all the corrections in due time as defined during the publishing process schedule.
\\n
\\n\\n
The Corresponding Author will be held responsible for the payment of the Open Access Publishing Fees.
\\n\\n
All payments shall be due 30 days from the date of the issued invoice. The Corresponding Author or the payer on the Corresponding Author's and Co-Authors' behalf will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\\n\\n
3.3 The Corresponding Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Chapter worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen upon request the original copies of such consents for inspection (at IntechOpen's option) or photocopies of such consents.
\\n\\n
The Corresponding Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from people who might recognize themselves or be identified by others (e.g. from case reports or photographs).
\\n\\n
3.4 The Corresponding Author and any Co-Author shall respect confidentiality rights during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author are confidential and are intended only for the recipient. The contents may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\\n\\n
4. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\\n\\n
4.1 The Corresponding Author represents and warrants that the Chapter does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Chapter contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy. The Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) the Chapter is the original work of themselves and any Co-Author and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Chapter has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) they themselves and any Co-Author are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) they themselves and any Co-Author have not assigned and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\\n\\n
The Corresponding Author also warrants and represents that: (i) they have the full power to enter into this Publication Agreement on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) they have the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Chapter to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licenses expressed to be granted in this Publication Agreement. If the Chapter was prepared jointly by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, the Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) each Co-Author agrees to the submission, license and publication of the Chapter on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) they have the authority to enter into this Publication Agreement on behalf of and bind each Co-Author. The Corresponding Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each such Co-Author.
\\n\\n
The Corresponding Author agrees to indemnify and hold IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses and all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of or in connection with any breach of the aforementioned representations and warranties. This indemnity shall not cover IntechOpen to the extent that a claim under it results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\\n\\n
4.2 Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\\n\\n
5. TERMINATION
\\n\\n
5.1 IntechOpen has a right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being an individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being a company) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for or enters into any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\\n\\n
In case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
\\n\\n
6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\\n\\n
6.1 Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control, IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Chapter attributing it to the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\\n\\n
6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Chapter and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Chapter is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\\n\\n
6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Chapter, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\\n\\n
7. MISCELLANEOUS
\\n\\n
7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\n
7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\\n\\n
7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\\n\\n
7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\\n\\n
7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
\\n\\n
7.6 Severance: If any provision or part-provision of this Publication Agreement is or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted.
\\n\\n
Any modification to or deletion of a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\n
7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\\n\\n
7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
The Corresponding Author (acting on behalf of all Authors) and INTECHOPEN LIMITED, incorporated and registered in England and Wales with company number 11086078 and a registered office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, United Kingdom, SW7 2QJ conclude the following Agreement regarding the publication of a Book Chapter:
\n\n
1. DEFINITIONS
\n\n
Corresponding Author: The Author of the Chapter who serves as a Signatory to this Agreement. The Corresponding Author acts on behalf of any other Co-Author.
\n\n
Co-Author: All other Authors of the Chapter besides the Corresponding Author.
\n\n
IntechOpen: IntechOpen Ltd., the Publisher of the Book.
\n\n
Book: The publication as a collection of chapters compiled by IntechOpen including the Chapter. Chapter: The original literary work created by Corresponding Author and any Co-Author that is the subject of this Agreement.
\n\n
2. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\n\n
2.1 Subject to the following Article, the Corresponding Author grants and shall ensure that each Co-Author grants, to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright and any extensions or renewals of that term the following:
\n\n
\n\t
An irrevocable, worldwide, royalty-free, perpetual, transferable, sublicensable, non-exclusive right to publish, communicate to the public, reproduce, republish, transmit, sell, distribute and otherwise use and make available the Chapter in whole, partial or adapted from and/or incorporated in or in conjunction with other works, in electronic and print editions of the Publication and in derivative works and on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen, throughout the world, in all languages, and in all media and formats now known or later developed.
\n\t
An irrevocable, worldwide, royalty-free, perpetual, transferable, sublicensable, non-exclusive right to create and store electronic archival copies of the Chapter, including the right to deposit the Chapter in open access digital repositories.
\n\t
An irrevocable, worldwide, royalty-free, perpetual, transferable, sublicensable, non-exclusive right to license others to reproduce, translate, republish, transmit and distribute the Chapter in whole, partial or adapted from and/or incorporated in or in conjunction with other works under the condition that the Corresponding Author and each Co-Author is attributed (currently this is carried out by publishing the Chapter under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License).
\n
\n\n
The aforementioned licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Agreement for any reason.
\n\n
2.2 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of any Co-Author) reserves the following rights to the Chapter but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Chapter as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\n\n
The Corresponding Author confirms that they (and any Co-Author) are and will remain a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\n\n
Subject to the license granted above, copyright in the Chapter and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process (including the published version) is retained by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\n
Subject to the license granted above, the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author retains patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Chapter.
\n\n
2.3 All rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the Corresponding Author's or any Co-Author’s specific approval.
\n\n
2.4 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author) will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Chapter as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Chapter arising from translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits.
\n\n
3. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S DUTIES
\n\n
3.1 When distributing or re-publishing the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Corresponding Author warrants that each Co-Author will also credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Chapter.
\n\n
3.2 When submitting the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to:
\n\n
\n\t
Comply with all instructions and guidelines provided by IntechOpen;
\n\t
Produce the Chapter with all due skill, care and diligence, and in accordance with good scientific practice;
\n\t
Submit all the corrections in due time as defined during the publishing process schedule.
\n
\n\n
The Corresponding Author will be held responsible for the payment of the Open Access Publishing Fees.
\n\n
All payments shall be due 30 days from the date of the issued invoice. The Corresponding Author or the payer on the Corresponding Author's and Co-Authors' behalf will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\n\n
3.3 The Corresponding Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Chapter worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen upon request the original copies of such consents for inspection (at IntechOpen's option) or photocopies of such consents.
\n\n
The Corresponding Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from people who might recognize themselves or be identified by others (e.g. from case reports or photographs).
\n\n
3.4 The Corresponding Author and any Co-Author shall respect confidentiality rights during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author are confidential and are intended only for the recipient. The contents may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\n\n
4. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\n\n
4.1 The Corresponding Author represents and warrants that the Chapter does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Chapter contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy. The Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) the Chapter is the original work of themselves and any Co-Author and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Chapter has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) they themselves and any Co-Author are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) they themselves and any Co-Author have not assigned and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\n
The Corresponding Author also warrants and represents that: (i) they have the full power to enter into this Publication Agreement on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) they have the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Chapter to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licenses expressed to be granted in this Publication Agreement. If the Chapter was prepared jointly by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, the Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) each Co-Author agrees to the submission, license and publication of the Chapter on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) they have the authority to enter into this Publication Agreement on behalf of and bind each Co-Author. The Corresponding Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each such Co-Author.
\n\n
The Corresponding Author agrees to indemnify and hold IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses and all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of or in connection with any breach of the aforementioned representations and warranties. This indemnity shall not cover IntechOpen to the extent that a claim under it results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\n
4.2 Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\n
5. TERMINATION
\n\n
5.1 IntechOpen has a right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being an individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being a company) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for or enters into any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\n\n
In case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
\n\n
6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\n\n
6.1 Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control, IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Chapter attributing it to the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\n
6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Chapter and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Chapter is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\n
6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Chapter, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\n
7. MISCELLANEOUS
\n\n
7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n
7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\n
7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
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7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
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7.6 Severance: If any provision or part-provision of this Publication Agreement is or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted.
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Any modification to or deletion of a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
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7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
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Last updated: 2020-11-27
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The model validation was found to be in excellent accords with experimental and numerical results from other previous studies.",book:{id:"5150",slug:"electronics-cooling",title:"Electronics Cooling",fullTitle:"Electronics Cooling"},signatures:"Mohammad Reza Safaei, Marjan Gooarzi, Omid Ali Akbari, Mostafa\nSafdari Shadloo and Mahidzal Dahari",authors:[{id:"178854",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Safaei",slug:"mohammad-reza-safaei",fullName:"Mohammad Reza Safaei"},{id:"179807",title:"Dr.",name:"Mostafa",middleName:null,surname:"Safdari Shadloo",slug:"mostafa-safdari-shadloo",fullName:"Mostafa Safdari Shadloo"},{id:"179809",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahidzal",middleName:null,surname:"Dahari",slug:"mahidzal-dahari",fullName:"Mahidzal Dahari"},{id:"179813",title:"MSc.",name:"Marjan",middleName:null,surname:"Goodarzi",slug:"marjan-goodarzi",fullName:"Marjan Goodarzi"},{id:"185093",title:"MSc.",name:"Omid",middleName:null,surname:"Ali Akbari",slug:"omid-ali-akbari",fullName:"Omid Ali Akbari"}]},{id:"6084",doi:"10.5772/6575",title:"Multisensor Data Fusion Strategies for Advanced Driver Assistance Systems",slug:"multisensor_data_fusion_strategies_for_advanced_driver_assistance_systems",totalDownloads:5108,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:null,book:{id:"3594",slug:"sensor_and_data_fusion",title:"Sensor and Data Fusion",fullTitle:"Sensor and Data Fusion"},signatures:"Mahdi Rezaei Ghahroudi and Reza Sabzevari",authors:null},{id:"6083",doi:"10.5772/6574",title:"Sensor Data Fusion in Automotive Applications",slug:"sensor_data_fusion_in_automotive_applications",totalDownloads:5555,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:null,book:{id:"3594",slug:"sensor_and_data_fusion",title:"Sensor and Data Fusion",fullTitle:"Sensor and Data Fusion"},signatures:"Panagiotis Lytrivis, George Thomaidis and Angelos Amditis",authors:null},{id:"50065",doi:"10.5772/62279",title:"Heat Pipes for Computer Cooling Applications",slug:"heat-pipes-for-computer-cooling-applications",totalDownloads:5140,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"There is an increasing demand for efficient cooling techniques in computer industry to dissipate the associated heat from the newly designed and developed computer processors to accommodate for their enhanced processing power and faster operations. Such a demand necessitates researchers to explore efficient approaches for central processing unit (CPU) cooling. Consequently, heat pipes can be a viable and promising solution for this challenge. In this chapter, a CPU thermal design power (TDP), cooling methods of electronic equipments, heat pipe theory and operation, heat pipes components, such as the wall material, the wick structure, and the working fluid, are presented. Moreover, we review experimentally, analytically and numerically the types of heat pipes with their applications for electronic cooling in general and the computer cooling in particular. Summary tables that compare the content, methodology, and types of heat pipes are presented. Due to the numerous advantages of the heat pipe in electronic cooling, this chapter definitely leads to further research in computer cooling applications.",book:{id:"5150",slug:"electronics-cooling",title:"Electronics Cooling",fullTitle:"Electronics Cooling"},signatures:"Mohamed H.A. 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Sohel Murshed"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"50065",title:"Heat Pipes for Computer Cooling Applications",slug:"heat-pipes-for-computer-cooling-applications",totalDownloads:5133,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"There is an increasing demand for efficient cooling techniques in computer industry to dissipate the associated heat from the newly designed and developed computer processors to accommodate for their enhanced processing power and faster operations. Such a demand necessitates researchers to explore efficient approaches for central processing unit (CPU) cooling. Consequently, heat pipes can be a viable and promising solution for this challenge. In this chapter, a CPU thermal design power (TDP), cooling methods of electronic equipments, heat pipe theory and operation, heat pipes components, such as the wall material, the wick structure, and the working fluid, are presented. Moreover, we review experimentally, analytically and numerically the types of heat pipes with their applications for electronic cooling in general and the computer cooling in particular. Summary tables that compare the content, methodology, and types of heat pipes are presented. Due to the numerous advantages of the heat pipe in electronic cooling, this chapter definitely leads to further research in computer cooling applications.",book:{id:"5150",slug:"electronics-cooling",title:"Electronics Cooling",fullTitle:"Electronics Cooling"},signatures:"Mohamed H.A. Elnaggar and Ezzaldeen Edwan",authors:[{id:"178453",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Elnaggar",slug:"mohamed-elnaggar",fullName:"Mohamed Elnaggar"},{id:"184278",title:"Dr.",name:"Ezzaldeen",middleName:null,surname:"Edwan",slug:"ezzaldeen-edwan",fullName:"Ezzaldeen Edwan"}]},{id:"50535",title:"Introductory Chapter: Electronics Cooling — An Overview",slug:"introductory-chapter-electronics-cooling-an-overview",totalDownloads:3554,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:null,book:{id:"5150",slug:"electronics-cooling",title:"Electronics Cooling",fullTitle:"Electronics Cooling"},signatures:"S M Sohel Murshed",authors:[{id:"24904",title:"Prof.",name:"S. M. Sohel",middleName:null,surname:"Murshed",slug:"s.-m.-sohel-murshed",fullName:"S. M. Sohel Murshed"}]},{id:"50699",title:"Heat Pipe and Phase Change Heat Transfer Technologies for Electronics Cooling",slug:"heat-pipe-and-phase-change-heat-transfer-technologies-for-electronics-cooling",totalDownloads:3538,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The heat pipe is a well-known cooling module for advanced electronic devices. The heat pipe has many applications, particularly in electronics and related area such as PC, laptop, display, artificial satellite, and telecommunication modules. The heat pipe utilizes phase change heat transfer inside enveloped structures, where the working fluid evaporates in heated zone, and vapor moves to the condenser, and the condensed liquid is pumped back through microporous structure call wick. The performance of applicability in electronics of heat pipe is strongly dependent on the geometry, working fluid, and microstructure of wick. Therefore, it is worth considering the theory and technologies related to heat pipes for advanced electronics cooling. According to the purpose of this chapter mentioned above, the author considers fundamental aspects regarding heat pipe and phase change phenomena. First, the working principle of heat pipe is introduced. Important parameters in heat pipe are considered, and theoretical model for predicting the thermal performance of the heat pipe is introduced. In addition, design method for heat pipe is presented. Finally, applications of heat pipe to electronics cooling are presented. This chapter covers knowledge and state-of-art technologies in regard to heat pipe and phase change heat transfer. For a reliable operation of future electronics that have ultra-high heat flux amounts to 1000 W/m2, heat pipe and phase change heat transfer are essential. This chapter provides the most valuable opportunity for all readers from industry and academia to share the professional knowledge and to promote their ability in practical applications.",book:{id:"5150",slug:"electronics-cooling",title:"Electronics Cooling",fullTitle:"Electronics Cooling"},signatures:"Chan Byon",authors:[{id:"178434",title:"Prof.",name:"Chan",middleName:null,surname:"Byon",slug:"chan-byon",fullName:"Chan Byon"}]},{id:"50421",title:"MEMS-Based Micro-heat Pipes",slug:"mems-based-micro-heat-pipes",totalDownloads:2745,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS)-based micro-heat pipes, as a novel heat pipe technology, is considered as one of the most promising options for thermal control applications in microelectronic circuits packaging, concentrated solar cells, infrared detectors, micro-fuel cells, etc. The operating principles, heat transfer characteristics, and fabrication process of MEMS-based micro-grooved heat pipes are firstly introduced and the state-of-the-art of research both experimental and theoretical is thoroughly reviewed. Then, other emerging MEMS-based micro-heat pipes, such as micro-capillary pumped loop, micro-loop heat pipe, micro-oscillating heat pipe, and micro-vapor chamber are briefly reviewed as well. Finally, some promising and innovatory applications of the MEMS-based micro-heat pipes are reported. This chapter is expected to provide basic reference for future researches.",book:{id:"5150",slug:"electronics-cooling",title:"Electronics Cooling",fullTitle:"Electronics Cooling"},signatures:"Qu Jian and Wang Qian",authors:[{id:"178950",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jian",middleName:null,surname:"Qu",slug:"jian-qu",fullName:"Jian Qu"},{id:"184907",title:"Prof.",name:"Qian",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"qian-wang",fullName:"Qian Wang"}]},{id:"50240",title:"Theoretical Derivation of Junction Temperature of Package Chip",slug:"theoretical-derivation-of-junction-temperature-of-package-chip",totalDownloads:2371,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Junction temperature is the highest operating temperature of the actual semiconductor in an electronic device. In operation, junction temperature is higher than the case temperature and the temperature of the part’s exterior. The difference is equal to the amount of heat transferred from the junction to case multiplied by the junction-to-case thermal resistance. When designing integrated circuits, predicting and calculating the chip junction temperature is a very important task. This chapter describes how to derive the junction temperature from the thermal transport model.",book:{id:"5150",slug:"electronics-cooling",title:"Electronics Cooling",fullTitle:"Electronics Cooling"},signatures:"Professor Wei-Keng Lin",authors:[{id:"178475",title:"Prof.",name:"Wei-Keng",middleName:null,surname:"Lin",slug:"wei-keng-lin",fullName:"Wei-Keng Lin"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"554",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[],lsSeriesList:[],hsSeriesList:[],sshSeriesList:[],testimonialsList:[]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\t
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
\r\n
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
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\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
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