Receptor molecules mediating HCV entry and replication in human lymphocytes.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1929",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Applications of EMG in Clinical and Sports Medicine",title:"Applications of EMG in Clinical and Sports Medicine",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This second of two volumes on EMG (Electromyography) covers a wide range of clinical applications, as a complement to the methods discussed in volume 1. Topics range from gait and vibration analysis, through posture and falls prevention, to biofeedback in the treatment of neurologic swallowing impairment. The volume includes sections on back care, sports and performance medicine, gynecology/urology and orofacial function. Authors describe the procedures for their experimental studies with detailed and clear illustrations and references to the literature. The limitations of SEMG measures and methods for careful analysis are discussed. This broad compilation of articles discussing the use of EMG in both clinical and research applications demonstrates the utility of the method as a tool in a wide variety of disciplines and clinical fields.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-798-7",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6627-6",doi:"10.5772/2349",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"applications-of-emg-in-clinical-and-sports-medicine",numberOfPages:414,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"98e4d91d5be0e307daa960af23a7cdea",bookSignature:"Catriona Steele",publishedDate:"January 11th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1929.jpg",numberOfDownloads:80523,numberOfWosCitations:83,numberOfCrossrefCitations:25,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:12,numberOfDimensionsCitations:96,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:13,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:204,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 24th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 21st 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 28th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 28th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 25th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"29755",title:"Dr.",name:"Catriona",middleName:"M",surname:"Steele",slug:"catriona-steele",fullName:"Catriona Steele",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/29755/images/3535_n.jpg",biography:"Professor Catriona M. Steele is the Director of the Swallowing Rehabilitation Research Laboratory at The KITE Research Institute at the University Health Network, and Professor at the University of Toronto. A speech-language pathologist by training, Dr. Steele is particularly known for her use of instrumentation to measure physiological signals in swallowing, including electromyography, electromagnetic articulography and intraoral manometry. She has used surface electromyography as a tool for biofeedback in exercise-based approaches to therapy for people with dysphagia (swallowing disorders). Dr. Steele is a frequent speaker at conferences and professional training courses around the world. She is known for her commitment to evidence based practice.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1004",title:"Clinical Diagnosis",slug:"clinical-diagnosis"}],chapters:[{id:"25815",title:"Evaluating the Electromyographical Signal During Symmetrical Load Lifting",doi:"10.5772/25732",slug:"evaluating-the-electromyographical-signal-during-symmetrical-load-lifting",totalDownloads:2200,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Jefferson Fagundes Loss, Débora Cantergi, Fábia Milman Krumholz, Marcelo La Torre and Claudia Tarragô Candotti",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/25815",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/25815",authors:[{id:"64355",title:"Prof.",name:"Jefferson",surname:"Loss",slug:"jefferson-loss",fullName:"Jefferson Loss"},{id:"71298",title:"MSc.",name:"Debora",surname:"Cantergi",slug:"debora-cantergi",fullName:"Debora Cantergi"},{id:"71299",title:"Prof.",name:"Fabia",surname:"Milman Krumholz",slug:"fabia-milman-krumholz",fullName:"Fabia Milman Krumholz"},{id:"71300",title:"MSc.",name:"Marcelo",surname:"La Torre",slug:"marcelo-la-torre",fullName:"Marcelo La Torre"},{id:"71301",title:"Prof.",name:"Cláudia",surname:"Candotti",slug:"claudia-candotti",fullName:"Cláudia Candotti"}],corrections:null},{id:"25816",title:"EMG Analysis Methods on Robotic Gait Machines",doi:"10.5772/27701",slug:"emg-analysis-methods-on-robotic-gait-machines",totalDownloads:2711,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Christopher Tomelleri, Andreas Waldner and Stefan Hesse",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/25816",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/25816",authors:[{id:"71169",title:"Prof.",name:"Stefan",surname:"Hesse",slug:"stefan-hesse",fullName:"Stefan Hesse"},{id:"71170",title:"MSc.",name:"Christopher",surname:"Tomelleri",slug:"christopher-tomelleri",fullName:"Christopher Tomelleri"},{id:"71176",title:"Dr.",name:"Andreas",surname:"Waldner",slug:"andreas-waldner",fullName:"Andreas Waldner"}],corrections:null},{id:"25817",title:"Electromyography in the Study of Muscle Reactions to Vibration Treatment",doi:"10.5772/27651",slug:"electromyography-in-the-study-of-muscle-reactions-to-vibration-treatment",totalDownloads:3153,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Antonio Fratini, Mario Cesarelli, Antonio La Gatta, Maria Romano and Paolo Bifulco",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/25817",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/25817",authors:[{id:"24068",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",surname:"Bifulco",slug:"paolo-bifulco",fullName:"Paolo Bifulco"},{id:"24069",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",surname:"Cesarelli",slug:"mario-cesarelli",fullName:"Mario Cesarelli"},{id:"70958",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",surname:"Fratini",slug:"antonio-fratini",fullName:"Antonio Fratini"},{id:"120255",title:"Mr.",name:"Antonio",surname:"La Gatta",slug:"antonio-la-gatta",fullName:"Antonio La Gatta"},{id:"120256",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",surname:"Romano",slug:"maria-romano",fullName:"Maria Romano"}],corrections:null},{id:"25818",title:"The Role of Electromyography (EMG) in the Study of Anticipatory Postural Adjustments",doi:"10.5772/25388",slug:"the-role-of-electromyography-emg-in-the-study-of-anticipatory-postural-adjustments",totalDownloads:4032,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"William P. 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She has\na BSc in Chemistry from the University of the Philippines, an\nMSc in Food Science from Oregon State University, and a Ph.D.\nin Biochemistry from the University of Toronto. Her expertise is\nin bone cell biology with a focus on preventing osteoporosis by studying bone cells\nin the laboratory and carrying out basic and clinical studies of drugs, nutritional\nsupplements, and phytonutrients including carotenoids and polyphenols in postmenopausal women. Her research has been presented at national and international\nconferences and symposia and published extensively in peer-reviewed scientific\njournals. She co-authored The Bone-Building Solution and co-edited several books\non phytochemicals and probiotics in human nutrition and health.",institutionString:"University of Toronto",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Toronto",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"5",title:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"444316",firstName:"Blanka",lastName:"Gugic",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/444316/images/20016_n.jpg",email:"blanka@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1958",title:"Phytochemicals as Nutraceuticals",subtitle:"Global Approaches to Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7a4d422838dabdc758119a7dfc6e7a54",slug:"phytochemicals-as-nutraceuticals-global-approaches-to-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1958.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4528",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"Isolation, Characterisation and Role in Human Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2d32f26b4936bc0cdca01c74bce1a6ec",slug:"phytochemicals-isolation-characterisation-and-role-in-human-health",bookSignature:"A. 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This is mainly because the onset of HCV infection rarely can be identified, the evolution to a symptomatic disease often takes decades, and the majority of predisposing factors and processes contributing to the development of the most important pathological consequences, such as cirrhosis, hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), and coinciding lymphoproliferative disorders, remain unknown. The fate of HCV during prodromal and convalescent phases of infection is also poorly recognized. Moreover, in addition to a symptomatic infection, which is normally accompanied by circulating HCV RNA and antibodies to HCV (anti-HCV), HCV can also persist as a clinically silent (occult) infection [1, 2, 3]. This infection is accompanied by very low levels of HCV RNA in serum (usually below 100–200 virus genome copies per mL), liver, and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), which are detectable with a significant difficulty, if at all, by clinical assays [4, 5]. This occult HCV infection (OCI) continues for decades after either spontaneous (self-limited) or antiviral therapy-induced resolution of hepatitis [1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]. OCI may have epidemiologic (e.g., contamination of blood and organ donations) and pathogenic (e.g., cryptogenic liver disease and oncogenicity) consequences which are not yet well recognized. Furthermore, experimental and clinical data indicate that HCV replicates not only in the liver but also in the lymphatic system, where it can modify development, proliferation, and function of immune cells [1, 2, 4, 5, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18]. It is also apparent that immune cells are reservoirs of persisting HCV where virus may hide from immune surveillance and elimination, similar to that in infections with other lymphotropic viruses [19, 20, 21, 22]. The ability of HCV to infect cells of the immune system is consistent with a significantly greater prevalence of lymphoproliferative disorders in patients chronically infected with HCV, including mixed cryoglobulinemia (MC), B-cell non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma (B-cell NHL), and marginal zone lymphoma [23, 24, 25, 26]. Regression of these diseases in considerable numbers of patients treated with anti-HCV therapies is indicative of the direct role of HCV in the pathogenesis of those diseases [27, 28].
The current approach to the diagnosis of HCV infection, which typically includes testing of only serum samples but not samples from liver or otherwise easily accessible PBMC, using assays detecting only HCV RNA-positive (also termed as non-replicative, genomic, or vegetative) strand and anti-HCV, is an obstacle in the precise determination of HCV clearance, that is, cure. These limitations are also a source of controversies regarding the natural history and the longevity of infection, as well as the sites of virus persistence [29, 30, 31, 32, 33]. Consequently, patients who are considered free of infection may produce low levels of biologically competent virus for an extended time after vanishing of symptoms and biochemical normalization of liver function achieved due to either spontaneous resolution or clinically apparent sustained virologic response (SVR) to antiviral treatment [1, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9]. Testing of serial samples of serum or plasma and, in particular, PBMC collected a few months apart increases the detection of low levels of HCV RNA during follow-up, even when clinical assays of moderate or low sensitivity are applied. This is due to the fluctuating level of circulating virus during OCI that can temporarily increase to the levels detectable by these assays [2, 4, 5].
Identification of HCV infection in immune cells is not just about the mere detection of virus RNA-positive strand, since the occurrence of this strand alone may reflect incidental cell surface attachment or cellular uptake of virus or its genomic material. A combination of a few approaches has been applied to credibly detect replicating HCV in immune cells [4]. They involve the documentation of (1) HCV RNA-negative (also termed as replicative or anti-genomic) strand [1, 6, 9, 34]; (2) viral structural and/or, preferentially, nonstructural proteins within the cytoplasm of infected cells [15, 34]; (3) distinctive HCV variants in total PBMC or their cell subsets when compared to those in plasma or in liver of infected patients, or emergence of HCV variants in cultured cells which are distinct from those occurring in inocula used to infect them [15, 34]; (4) susceptibility of infected cells to
HCV displays a remarkable genetic variability and typically exists in an infected host as a heterologous population of closely related subpopulations of viral particles carrying slightly different genomic sequences, called collectively as quasispecies. The 5′-untranslated region (5′-UTR) of virus genome contains an internal ribosome entry site (IRES) essential for viral RNA translation. This sequence is highly conserved among different HCV genomes, and arise of variants within this region is usually an indicator of a sustained virus change. HCV derived from extrahepatic locations tends to display variations in the IRES sequence when compared to the genomes from plasma and liver [5, 36]. Some of these substitutions are located at particular nucleotide positions, suggesting that they may reflect virus adaptation to replication in a non-hepatic milieu. In addition, variants within the hypervariable region-1 (HVR1) of the virus E2 protein, although much more common than those in the 5′-UTR, may also reflect the site-restricted replication of HCV variants. Overall, compartmentalization of HCV variants in immune cells is considered to be a reliable indicator of hepatocyte-independent virus replication [36].
The existence of HCV quasispecies with affinity to immune cells has been suggested shortly after HCV discovery [37, 38, 39]. Evidence for lymphotropic HCV variants was found in patients with CHC, acute hepatitis C, as well as in asymptomatic individuals with persistent OCI [4, 14, 15, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47]. Analyses of HCV variants residing in PBMC by clonal sequencing and single-stranded conformational polymorphism (SSCP) revealed features which argued against the possibility of carry-over of variants from plasma-derived HCV RNA or from virus nonspecifically attached to the cell surface [5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 13, 15, 42, 48, 49]. Furthermore, HCV variants from lymphoid cells were genetically related, but distinct from those occurring in serum or liver. In some instances, HCV quasispecies identified in lymphoid cells were detectable in serum but not in liver tissue, indicating that the majority of circulating virus could be of extrahepatic origin. In this regard, the analysis of the HVR1 from liver, PBMC, and serum showed that certain virus variants occurring in serum resided only in PBMC but not in the liver [42, 44]. Moreover, HCV quasispecies from one cell type, for example, CD8+ T lymphocytes, were statistically more genetically like one another when compared to variants from other immune cell subsets, such as CD4+ T cells. In one pertinent study, HCV RNA sequences carried by CD8+ T lymphocytes were phylogenetically clustered close to one another, but not to those detected in CD4+ T cells or CD19+ B cells [48]. It has been found that certain sequence polymorphisms within the IRES of the 5′-UTR of the HCV genomes originating from lymphoid cells coincided with a different IRES translational activity which could promote HCV replication in cells carrying those variations [36, 50]. Similarly, it was demonstrated using liver-derived hepatoma Huh7 cells that HCV IRES variants originating from plasma displayed a significantly higher translational activity than those from HCV residing in B cells [51]. On the other hand, the IRES variants of virus replicating in B cells displayed a similarly low translational efficiency in Raji and Daudi B-cell lines as well as in hepatoma Huh7 cells, suggesting not only their extrahepatic origin but also a low capacity to replicate in B cells [51].
As already alluded to, the studies on HCV compartmentalization in the immune system demonstrated the existence of replicating virus in all the main subsets of circulating lymphomononuclear cells, including B cells, T lymphocytes, and monocytes [1, 13, 15, 42, 52]. There is also evidence for HCV replication in other immune cell types, such as dendritic cells (DCs) [53, 54]. In one of our studies, the virus load and the level of HCV replication were quantified in total PBMC as well as in affinity-purified cell subsets from these PBMCs, including CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes, B cells, and monocytes from patients with CHC or OCI [15]. This investigation showed significant differences in the level of immune cell subset infection between patients with CHC and OCI with overall greater HCV loads in immune cells in CHC compared to those with OCI. In addition, monocytes carried the greatest HCV amounts in CHC, while B cells tended to contain the highest virus loads, and monocytes were the least frequently infected in OCI. Interestingly, while the total PBMCs were HCV RNA nonreactive in some individuals, the immune cell subsets isolated from these PBMCs clearly displayed virus RNA and its replicative strand, suggesting preferential or exclusive infection of the particular immune cell subset. This also indicated that the testing of total PBMC may not always identify residing virus and, thus, the analysis of individual immune cell types should be considered. In this study, HCV replication in immune cells was ascertained by the detection of (1) HCV RNA replicative (negative) strand, (2) HCV nonstructural 5a protein (NS5A), and (3) HCV variants distinct from those found in plasma of the same patients. In addition, immune cells were exposed
It should be mentioned that the identification of HCV in the lymphatic system is not limited only to PBMC. HCV genomes and its proteins were also demonstrated in lymph nodes and bone marrow [47, 56]. In regard to lymph nodes, replicating HCV genomes and virus core and NS3 proteins were detected within biopsied B-cell-rich lymphoid follicles from patients with CHC [47]. In one study, not only did B cells appear to be the primary site of HCV infection in this secondary lymphoid tissue, but clonal sequencing analyses also indicated that in certain patients, HCV residing in lymph node-derived B cells could contribute up to 40% of the total level of viremia [47]. Furthermore, it is of note that HCV RNA sequences found in cerebrospinal fluid of patients co-infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1(HIV-1) were identified to be more similar to virus sequences in PBMC and lymph nodes than to those in plasma. This raised a possibility that cells of the monocyte/macrophage lineage may carry HCV into the brain, and that resident microglial cells maintain its replication independently of the liver [56, 57]. In addition, HCV RNA-positive and -negative strands, as well as HCV structural and nonstructural proteins, were readily detectable in CD34+ hematopoietic progenitor cells in the bone marrow of patients with CHC [58], reinforcing the notion of extrahepatic HCV replication. However, there was no evidence of primary CD34+ cells from healthy individuals supporting
Direct support for the inherent propensity of HCV to enter and propagate in cells of the immune system stems from
The studies from our laboratory showed that authentic HCV of different genotypes can infect total T cells enriched in culture from PBMC of healthy donors by their intermittent stimulation with phytohemagglutinin (PHA) in the presence of human recombinant IL-2 [6, 34, 35, 63, 64]. Replication and secretion of infectious HCV virions in this system were ascertained by the detection of (1) HCV RNA replicative strand and NS5a and/or core protein in infected cells [6, 34, 35, 63], (2) the emergence of HCV variants not existing in inocula used to infect the cells [6, 34], (3) the release of HCV RNA-reactive particles with buoyant density and ultrastructural properties of virions [34, 35], (4) virions released by infected cells via IEM [6, 34], and (5) the serial passage of HCV produced by the
The HCV envelope is composed by two glycoproteins, E1 and E2. These proteins are primarily responsible for the virion attachment to the cell surface molecules serving as receptors and for the subsequent steps of viral entry [75]. The ability of HCV to infect human cells has been interpreted almost exclusively in the context of the interactions between HCV JFH-1 strain, related strains, or pseudoparticles and hepatocyte-like Huh7 cells or their subclone Huh7.5. Based on these studies, tetraspanin CD81 [76], glycosaminoglycans [77], low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDL-R) [77], scavenger receptor class B-type 1 (SR-B1) [76, 78], the tight junction protein claudin-1 (CLDN-1) [79], occludin (OCLN) [80, 81, 82], and co-factors, such as epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and ephrin receptor A2 (EphA2) [83], have been proposed to contribute either directly or indirectly to HCV entry into hepatocytes. In addition, the Niemann-Pick C1-like 1 (NPC1L1) cholesterol absorption receptor and transferrin receptor 1 (TfR1) have been implicated in HCV entry [84, 85]. However, the degree to which these individual molecules participate in HCV infection of normal human hepatocytes by naturally occurring virus requires validation, particularly since the majority of these molecules are ubiquitously displayed on many cell types. On the other hand, molecules determining HCV lymphotropism remained entirely unknown until recently.
An important finding toward the recognition of virological determinants mediating HCV lymphotropism was recently provided which showed that a distinct virus subpopulation capable of encoding particular E1E2 (envelope) epitopes might be responsible for the infection of B lymphocytes [86]. Isolated HCV E1E2 glycoproteins from patient B cells were able to confer the ability to enter and replicate in B cells to a non-lymphotropic HCV JFH-1 strain, as demonstrated by the detection of viral RNA and proteins within those cells. Interestingly, the B-cell tropism coincided with a loss of the JFH-1 strain ability to infect liver cancer-derived, hepatocyte-like Huh7 cells, implying that a lymphotropic variant constituted a separate population of viral particles displaying unique E1E2 envelope specificity. These results also supported a notion that a receptor for HCV on B cells is distinct from that on hepatocytes.
The recent finding that a co-stimulatory receptor B7.2 (CD86) is involved in the infection of human memory B cells by the abovementioned HCV SB strain [66] substantiated the involvement of a hepatocyte-distinct receptor in HCV lymphotropism [87] (Table 1). The study showed that the virus E1E2 envelope and 5′-UTR sequences determine lymphotropism of the SB strain and that silencing of the virus sensor retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIGI) or overexpression of micrcoRNA-122 permitted the persistence of viral replication in B cells. Furthermore, the interaction of the SB virus E2 protein with the cell B7.2 protein reduced the surface display of B7.2 on memory B cells and inhibited their function. Interestingly, it was also found that memory B cells in HCV-infected patients expressed significantly lower levels of surface B7.2 when compared to those in HCV-negative individuals, but they carried significantly higher levels of HCV RNA than naïve B cells derived from HCV-positive patients. This comprehensive study provided important data on several aspects of HCV B-cell tropism and its potential functional and pathological consequences.
HCV | HCV genotype | Immune cell target | Receptor molecule | Receptor properties | Receptor physiological function | Expected consequences of HCV-receptor interaction |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Authentic (wild-type), patient plasma-derived (Ref. [63]) | 1–4 | T cell | CD5 | 67-kDa glycoprotein, cysteine-rich scavenger receptor superfamily | Co-stimulatory molecule modulating positively or negatively intracellular signaling pathways induced by the antigen-specific T and B cell receptors | Unknown |
SB variant, B-cell lymphoma-derived (Ref. [87]) | 2b | B cell | B7.2 (CD86) | 60–100-kDa glycoprotein, immunoglobulin superfamily | Co-stimulatory molecule interacting with CD28 for T-cell activation and CTLA4 for T-cell immune regulation | Reduction of B7.2 on memory B cells and inhibition of the cells function in HCV-positive patients |
Receptor molecules mediating HCV entry and replication in human lymphocytes.
By applying the HCV-human T-cell infection system established in our laboratory [35], it was uncovered that CD5, a lymphocyte-specific 67-kDa glycoprotein belonging to the scavenger receptor cysteine-rich family, is essential for the infection of human T cells by authentic, patient-derived HCV [63] (Table 1). This work also demonstrated that CD81 likely contributes as a co-receptor, since both anti-CD5 and anti-CD81 monoclonal antibodies inhibited HCV infection. However, only CD5-positive T cells were susceptible to infection [63]. Thus, it appears that while CD81 contributes to the broad recognition of cells by HCV, CD5 facilitates HCV tropism toward T lymphocytes. In this context, primary human hepatocytes and hepatoma cell lines were found to express trace amounts of CD5 mRNA but not protein [63, 64], clearly indicating that HCV utilizes different receptors to enter different cell targets. This was confirmed in a subsequent study that investigated the expression of hepatocyte HCV candidate receptors on human T lymphocytes prone or resistant to HCV infection with authentic virus [64]. The expression of SR-B1, occludin, CLDN-1 and -6, CD5, and CD81 was determined by real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), and their proteins quantified by immunoblotting in T-cell lines found to be prone or resistant to HCV infection, PBMC, primary T cells and CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell subsets, and compared to hepatoma-derived, well-differentiated Huh7.5 and HepG2 cells. SR-B1 protein was found in T and hepatoma cell lines but not on PBMC or primary T lymphocytes, while CLDN-1 was detected only in HCV-resistant (when unstimulated) PM1 cell line and hepatoma cell lines, and CLDN-6 was equally expressed across all cells investigated. OCLN protein occurred in HCV-susceptible Molt-4 and Jurkat T cells and in trace amounts in primary T cells, but not in PBMC. CD5 was expressed by HCV-prone T-cell lines, primary T cells, and PBMC, but not by non-susceptible T and hepatoma cell lines, while CD81 was detected in all cell types except HepG2. Furthermore, knocking down OCLN in a virus-prone T-cell line inhibited HCV infection, while
The replication of HCV in immune cells, even at low levels, has a potential to affect their function, proliferation kinetics, and yield pathological outcomes, similar to infections with other lymphotropic viruses. Although the data remain overall sparse, there is a meaningful progress in some aspects. In particular, the study of a lymphotropic HCV SB strain brought the recognition of various specific mechanisms by which HCV may modify immune cell proliferation and function [95]. Among others, it has been shown that the transient infection of primary CD4+ T cells and selected T-cell lines with the SB strain distorted the IFN-γ/STAT-1/T-bet signaling leading to the inhibition of IFN-γ production [67, 96]. It was also reported that infection with this strain suppressed the proliferation of primary CD4+ T cells and their differentiation toward the Th1 lineage, as well as inhibited Molt-4 T-cell proliferation while enhancing their CD95 (Fas)-mediated apoptosis [68]. A study from our group showed that naturally occurring, patient-derived HCV inhibited the proliferation of primary CD4+, but not CD8+ T cells, without augmenting cell death [72]. Interestingly, the results also suggested that just an exposure to authentic HCV in the absence of molecularly evident viral replication might be sufficient to inhibit CD4+ T-cell proliferation. It has also been shown that HCV core protein is capable of the transcriptional activation of the IL-2 promoter in T cells [97] and could modulate T-cell responses by inducing spontaneous and T-cell receptor (TCR)-mediated oscillations of calcium ions [98]. Others demonstrated that HCV core protein upregulated the expression of anergy-related genes in Jurkat T cells stably expressing this protein, and this coincided with the activation of nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFAT) and suppression of the IL-2 promoter [99]. In addition, it was reported that the direct binding of HCV core protein to complement receptor, gC1qR, on CD4+ and CD8+ T cells upregulated the expression of programmed death-1 (PD-1). This was accompanied by the dysregulation of T-cell activation, proliferation, and apoptosis [100]. These alterations were restored by blocking the engagement of the PD-1 and programmed death ligand-1 (PDL-1) pathway.
Interesting findings have been recently reported regarding the effect of exposure of primary human T cells to authentic, plasma-occurring HCV and to virus E2 protein or E2 encoding RNA on the TCR-signaling pathways [101]. It is of note that TCR signaling is critical for the normal functioning of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, including their differentiation, activation, proliferation, and effector functions. The study showed that HCV interferes with TCR signaling and impairs T-cell activation
The propensity of HCV to infect B cells is consistent with a significantly greater prevalence of certain B-cell proliferative disorders, particularly B-cell NHL, in HCV-infected individuals. Several lines of evidence support a link between HCV infection and B-cell NHL. These include (1) a strong epidemiological association of B-cell NHL with persistent HCV infection [25], (2) clinical data demonstrating that successful anti-HCV therapy often results in the remission of B-cell NHL [27, 28], (3) experimental data showing that transgenic mice expressing the full-length HCV genome specifically in B cells spontaneously develop B-cell NHL [103], and (4) both
The mechanisms of lymphomagenesis associated with HCV infection were investigated by several groups, and a few concepts have been proposed (reviewed in [17]). However, it should be taken into consideration the fact that MC frequently precedes the development of B-cell NHL in HCV-infected individuals, indicating that MC might be a transitional step in the progression to lymphoma [104]. The proposed mechanisms of the pathogenesis of HCV-associated of lymphoma (i.e., lymphomagenesis) can be divided into two main categories. One includes the protracted stimulation of B cells by HCV antigens leading to pathologically augmented proliferation of the cells; a process that may involve different intracellular mechanisms. Another category relates to direct HCV infection and replication within B cells causing alterations in B-cell receptor (BCR) signaling or mutagenic changes in the cellular DNA leading to oncogenic transformation of the infected B cells. It should be noted that BCR signaling is essential for the development and activation of normal B cells and is recognized as a critical pathway in the pathogenesis of several B-cell malignancies [105]. The expected role of HCV antigens in the stimulation of B cells is exemplified by the findings from the
The authenticity of HCV lymphotropism is now evident, and sizable progress was made in deciphering this event. The accumulated experimental, clinical, and, to some degree, epidemiological data indicate that HCV not only propagates in the liver but also within the immune system, where the virus can modify the proliferation and function of affected cells and induce lymphoproliferative disease. It also became apparent that immune cells constitute a site of long-term persistence of HCV, where virus hides from immune surveillance and elimination, similar to other lymphotropic viruses. Accumulated evidence indicates that HCV replication in immune cells is a constant feature of both symptomatic and occult infections, although the degree to which individual immune cell types support infection significantly varies between patients. Despite recent progress, there remains a substantial void in the data on several fundamental aspects of HCV lymphotropism and the biological effects of lymphotropic variants. In addition, the range of immunological and pathological implications of HCV lymphotropism, in particular, the contribution to aiding virus persistence and protraction of liver disease, and the mechanisms of virus-triggered lymphoproliferation, required further studies. The progress achieved to date provides strong justification for the need to intensify research in this field.
The author acknowledges contributions to the HCV studies conducted in his laboratory of post-doctoral fellows and graduate students, including Drs. Tram NQ Pham, Sonya A. MacParland, Patricia M. Mulrooney-Cousins, Mohammed A. Sarhan, Annie Y. Chen, and Georgia Skardasi, and research associates Norma D. Churchill, Christopher P. Corkum, Danielle P. Ings, and Dr. Charlene Simonds. These studies were supported by operating grants EOP-41538, MOP-77544, and MOP-126056 from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR). T.I.M. is a former Canada Research Chair (Tier 1) in Viral Hepatitis/Immunology sponsored by the Canada Research Chair Program and funds from the CIHR, the Canada Foundation for Innovation, and Memorial University, St. John’s, NL, Canada.
Nothing to declare.
Continental shelf is an extraordinary place for life in the oceans and vital for life support for the planet. Extended periods under high autotrophic biomass and primary production make the area the most productive in the oceans. Despite occupying an area of about 8.9% of the world’s ocean, coastal ecosystems generate nearly 25% of the global biological productivity and more than 90% of total fish catch. Seasonal wind-driven water masses promote intense suspension of bottom sediments with consequent rapid return of nutrients to the euphotic zone. Here, the physical transport and biogeochemical transformation processes affect the fluxes of nitrogen and carbon into and out of the system. The relative shallowness of the shelf facilitates the recycling process and is the structural cause of the high biomass found. Indeed, the major part of the atmospheric carbon fixation through photosynthesis occurs in potentially fertile shelves where it becomes incorporated to pelagic and benthic organisms besides bottom detritus.
Continental shelf surrounds every continent and represents the submerse extension of the land. With shallow seas associated forms a dynamic transitional system between the shoreline and deep sea. Width is variable and dependent on local topography with some areas more extensive than others. Mean values are about 70–80 km, and oceans with passive continental margins, like the Atlantic Ocean, present broader shelves than those of active tectonic margins, as the Pacific Ocean. In Brazil, the equatorial northernmost Amazon Shelf is about 330 km wide, whereas in the northeast coast, on parallel 14°S, the narrowest shelf is about 10 km wide [1].
The shelf is a low-sloping platform, with gradients lower than 1:1000 (1 m of decline for 1000 m of extension). However, local variability occurs due to the presence of canyons, valleys, and channels formed mainly during glacial and interglacial periods when sea level fluctuated. The coastline is the landward limit of the shelf that increases in depth to about 100–200 m where the gradient abruptly changes to about 1:40 forming the slope. The shelf break marks the offshore limit of the continental shelf.
Shelves can be divided into different areas according to distance from the coast. Generally, two areas are present, the inner or coastal shelf and outer or external shelf. Sometimes, depending on the shelf’s width and hydrological regime, a middle region may appear between the two. The shelf division occurs due to differences in topography, hydrology, or sediment type, and there is no abrupt change between habitats when the frequent species overlap.
Climatic and hydrological processes act intensively on the shelf in several scales of time and space, and consequently, the environment is highly dynamic. Another important characteristic is that stability increases with distance from the coast and depth. Depth is a driving factor, but many others contribute to coastal instability as the seasonal change in temperature and salinity, water mass circulation, waves and storms, type of sediments, rivers inflow with chemical and geochemical alterations, and light. For benthic communities, the type of sediment, food availability, and benthopelagic coupling are essential among other biological and environmental interactions.
Sediments present in shelves are continental in origin and transported mainly by rivers but also by glaciers and winds. Light intensity may extend down 200 m, favoring photosynthesis and plant growth in both the water column and at the sea bottom, with consequent abundance and diversity of benthic life. Also important are the nonliving resources on the seabed such as the oil and gas resources. A great part of the petroleum production nowadays has been drawn out from the shelf.
The loss of marine diversity is higher in shallow coastal areas as a result of conflicting uses of coastal habitats [2]. It is closely connected with ocean pollution and acidification and results from man’s interference. More than 50% of the human population lives near the coast, and the intense development of cities and use and abuse of marine waters and bottoms threaten the integrity of shelf systems. Sustainable usage of marine shelf systems continues to be imperative in addition to the living resource management. The pressing need for estimating the species diversity has been a significant asset for conservation programs, and several and useful tools were developed in the last few decades for that. Taxonomic sufficiency [3] and biotic indices among others allow a rapid diversity and structural assessment of the benthic communities of tropical and subtropical areas scarcely studied [4].
The Brazilian coastline extends for more than 8500 km along the South American continent. It goes from the country’s equatorial north to the temperate south, between latitudes 4°N and 34°S, and represents one of the world’s longest continental coasts. Narrow in the northeast (c.a. 10 km at 14°S) and wide in the southeast (c.a. 180 km), coastal shelf presents a variety of ecosystems and habitats that brings expressive biodiversity and endemism to the region. Mangroves, coastal lagoons, and coralline calcareous algal reefs are important ecosystems of the coast, but marine sediments by far provide the largest area for benthic plants and animals. Indeed, after the ocean water column, marine sediments constitute the second biggest habitat on the planet.
The southeast Brazilian continental shelf (SBCS), or south Brazil bight (SBB), is one out of six characteristic physical environments found in the Brazilian continental shelf and the most studied (Figure 1). Its coastal limit lies between 23°S and 28.5°S approximately, and the inner, middle, and outer shelves are present on the extensive sea floor and separated by slight declines from each other. Broadly, sediments are distributed in strips along the coastline. Terrigenous bottoms predominate on the inner shelf in contrast with the outer shelf where carbonate sediments are the principals. Inner shelf and proximal bottoms of middle shelf are composed by sand, but near 70 m a sharp change occurs on the middle shelf due to the presence of a large deposit of silt and clay. Based on the bottom topography [5] and benthic macrofauna distribution [6], the north shelf of the southern Brazil bight was divided into two major areas, inner and outer shelf, separated by the 50 m isobath due to the strong coupling of macrofauna and sedimentary variables. Such division is valid for benthic animals with restricted locomotion and lifestyle dependent on geochemical characteristics of sediment grains.
Location of the southeast Brazilian continental shelf. The isobaths depict the brad shelf configuration and the geographic position of the studied sites.
In the major part of the southeast Brazilian continental shelf, water movement is driven in different time scales by wind, the Brazil Current (BC), and tides [1]. The Brazil Current is part of the southward branch of the South Equatorial Current when it approaches the coast of South America between 7 and 17°S [7]. It flows southwestward along the shelf break to the Subtropical Convergence, between 33 and 38°S. In wider shelves the Brazil Current approximates to the coastline and fills at least outer shelf [1].
The Brazil Current transports three water masses with characteristic thermohaline properties that interact along the shelf and shelf break according to the large-scale wind field: Tropical Water (TW), relatively warm (T > 20°C) and salty (S > 36); South Atlantic Central Water (SACW), relatively cold (T < 20°C) and low saline (S < 36); and Coastal Water (CW), warm and low saline (T > 20°C and S < 36) [8].
Tropical Water occupies the surface of the Tropical South Atlantic and is known as oceanic or offshore water. South Atlantic Central Water is oceanic in origin and formed by subduction of surface waters of the Subtropical Convergence. After a complex flow, it reaches the Brazilian coast most probably at Cabo de São Tomé (22°S) from which it is transported southwestward by the Brazil Current. It flows along the slope and can reach the shelf to compensate the Ekman transport of surface waters offshore caused by northeast winds. Winds are intense in the austral summer when South Atlantic Central Water intrudes from slope to shelf shallower depths in a cross-shelf transport. Continental waters (from rivers, estuarine plumes) mix with South Atlantic Central Water and Tropical Water resulting in the Coastal Water predominant on the inner shelf [1].
The Brazil Current presents also meandering and formation of mesoscale eddies (nearly around 100 km in diameter) in its frontal edge that facilitates the ascension of nutrients from deep areas and causes upwelling at the shelf break, with the consequent fertilization of large areas of outer shelf. When this process occurs, the regenerated production characteristic of oligotrophic open seawaters is temporarily substituted by new production based on input of new nutrients to the area. Besides the shelf break resurgences, coastal upwellings occur near to the coast and have local effects only. It is caused by northeast winds that when strong and intense deviate the surficial waters to offshore with the consequent ascension of water rich in nutrients from the South Atlantic Central Water. The most studied coastal resurgence in the southeast Brazil bight is that of Cabo Frio shelf (23°S), north of Rio de Janeiro State. Here shelf is narrow (nearly 90 km wide) and steep, which facilitates local water resurgence. As wind-driven the shelf upwelling of SACW is more recurrent and constant in the period from austral late spring to early autumn.
Water masses dynamics linked to the presence of vortices of local and mesoscales are in great part responsible for water column fertilization with direct impact on planktonic and benthic shelf communities. Waters acting on southeast Brazil bight are a result of the three water masses mixed in variable volumes. Coastal Water plus the seasonal intrusion of South Atlantic Central Water coastal wards enhance abundance and diversity of biological communities on the shelf as they feed from the new production at the base of the euphotic layer, a labile and fresh organic matter colonized by heterotroph bacteria. SACW is rich in minerals from deep water and when breaks the thermocline during its ascending to surface, reaches the photosynthetic layer and fertilizes shelf from bottom to mid-waters. The biological consequence is an expressive primary production and improvement of the local food web.
Continental fertilization of seawater comes from medium- or small-sized outflows that contribute to the low saline waters of the inner shelf. Large rivers or estuaries are absent in the southeast Brazil coast (SBB). The coastal lagoon system of Cananeia in south SBB and Santos Estuary in the central part are important freshwater local inputs. Coastal currents are parallel to the coast, mainly northeast directed, and can be intensified in speed by winds of cold fronts more frequent and stronger during austral winter. These fronts can resuspend bottom sediments and bring the particulate organic matter to the water column promoting the recycling of nutrients and enhancement of the benthopelagic coupling. Wind is the main forcing agent on water circulation in SBB, while tidal currents have a negligible influence [1].
According to the characteristics and dynamics of the water masses present, hydrographic fronts may occur on inner and outer shelves. The front is the water masses interface with distinct physical, chemical, and biological characteristics. The presence of SACW in contact with Coastal Water and Tropical Water in the euphotic zone configures a frontal zone. Also, fronts are horizontal gradients of temperature and salinity formed due to differences in depth, wind direction and intensity, and water density, among others. Detection of thermal fronts, for instance, can help to identify zones of ecological importance for marine fauna and to better understand habitat dynamics as a function of its spatial and temporal extent and variability [9]. Evidence of the influence of thermodynamic fronts on benthic megafauna living in central and northern southeast Brazil bight will be presented later in this chapter.
On the southeast Brazil bight, the inner side of the Deep Thermal Front tidal circulation maintains a mixed layer from surface to bottom in contrast with the side outward from the front that is constantly stratified. Especially in summer, when the offshore SACW intrudes coastward, the physical stratification is enhanced though the shelf. As a consequence of the two-layered water column establishment, the changing of substances and organisms between the surface and the seafloor is inhibited. The 20°C isotherm indicates the limit beyond that South Atlantic Central Water dominates the shelf bottom layer. Similar to temperature, salinity has the Shelf Hyaline Front (SHF) originated between the coastal low saline-mixed waters and the stratified high saline waters from South Atlantic Coastal Water and Tropical Water on the outermost shelf.
The shelf eutrophication promoted by the upwelling of deep water is intermittent and more frequent in summer. During winter SACW retreats to the shelf break more often due to the change in the direction of prevailing winds. In this case, the shelf’s bottom is filled with the warm less enriched Coastal Water, while the oligotrophic Tropical Water dominates at the surface.
To summarize, the southern Brazil bight has oligotrophic upper waters (Coastal Water and Tropical Water) in most parts of the shelf in the absence of an external source of nutrients. When the environment is perturbed by SACW intrusion, rich in nutrient salts, an increase in phytoplankton biomass occurs due the presence of new species better adapted to compete in the new condition. On the inner shelf, phytoplankton biomass data are in the range of coastal oligo-mesotrophic areas, and values between 0.16 and 6.42 mg Chl-a m−3 were observed for São Sebastião shelf and similar neighboring places [20]. The presence of cross-shelf intrusions, meanderings, and resurgences of SACW permits entrance of new nutrients at the base of euphotic layers of both inner and middle shelves in summer and outer shelf in the winter. The chlorophyll maximum layer is formed in subsurface following the SACW superior limit. The continental shelf is then fertilized in summer by large autotrophic plankton, mainly diatoms, and local primary production frequently enhances several times. In the stratified waters of Ubatuba shelf, the maximum value of chlorophyll-a equal to 14.7 mg m−3 was found at 18 m depth in the SACW, which is 13 times higher than that obtained at the surface in the Coastal Water [10]. Another example is that of the Vitoria Eddy, Abrolhos Bank, where the increase of nutrients from deep water turns the area nearly 40% more productive than that out of the vortex [11]. The deep chlorophyll maximum (DCM) layer may reach several meters in thickness depending on wind force and shelf depth. The eutrophication benefits from wind strength for reaching shallower depths on the shelf. Also, in summer, more than one event can occur independently on the middle and outer shelves as was demonstrated offshore of Santa Catarina State, southern southeast Brazil bight [12]. New nutrients significantly improved carbon net biomass and exportation of organic matter to benthic system with a consequent increment of secondary production. A diagrammatic model of the biological and physical interactions for the southeast Brazilian continental shelf is presented in Figure 2.
Diagrammatic model of the main physical and biological processes in the Southeast Brazilian continental shelf in summer and wintertime. Shelf division is based on seasonal hydrodynamics. AC = coastal water, SACW = South Atlantic central water, TW = tropical water, DTF = deep thermal front, SHF = surficial hyaline front, DCML = deep chlorophyll maximum layer, ο = phytoplankton cells, ~ = detritus, ↓ = phytoplankton sinking and benthos enrichment, ↑ = resuspension of bottom sediments.
With the main mechanisms of shelf eutrophication understood, it was possible to estimate the quantity of organic matter on southeast Brazil bight fuelled to the sediments. Knowledge about the relationships between macrofauna and organic matter input is crucial for understanding the structure and dynamics of benthic communities. The role of the remote source of nutrients represented by the South Atlantic Central Water shelf intrusion has been studied intensively on southeastern Brazilian continental shelf in a multidisciplinary approach. In the São Sebastião Channel (SSC), NE São Paulo State, a clear relationship between high quantities of fresh organic matter and SACW intrusion was observed on bottom sediments [13] and in the Cabo Frio resurgence as well [14].
The quality of sedimenting particles, however, is difficult to be evaluated due mainly to the complexity of intrinsic variables involved and the inexistence of a universal marker for quality. Prevailing oceanographic condition, depth, time and duration, concentration, and heterogeneity of organic content act directly on the organic matter constitution. Considering biomarkers, fatty acids, sterols, and isotopic composition (δ13C and δ15N) have been frequently used nowadays besides chlorophyll-a and the relation between chlorophyll-a and phaeopigments. Lipid content stocks energy and brings to food high nutritional power and consequently is considered a good indicator of the quality of the particle ingested.
The organic matter concentration and its chemical composition contribute in regulating the metabolism and distribution of organisms as well as the biomass and diversity of communities. Differences in composition show, for instance, the source of the organic matter present on the shelf’s bottom. In shallow shelf areas, detritus of continental origin dominates, whereas in middle and outer shelves, organic matter is mainly from oceanic waters.
The impact of food quality on benthic macrofauna communities was evaluated on the São Sebastião Channel (23°30′ to 24°00′ S; 45°05′ to 45°30′ W), São Paulo State, north of southeast Brazil bight [15]. The study searched for differences in species composition, vertical distribution, trophic habits, and bioturbation effects on benthic assemblages (alive bacterial biomass and polychaetes from meio- and macrofauna) submitted to two dissimilar oceanographic conditions, with and without South Atlantic Central Water influence. Different responses for each situation of food input based on fatty acid classes, particulate organic matter quality, and relative contribution of other sources of organic matter to the detritus pool are expected.
However, why do we work with polychaetes and why are there so many ecological studies focused on these animals? The answer is that they are frequently the most abundant infaunal component of macrofauna in sediments, representing 40–50% of the whole macrofauna on coastal and shallow areas of southeast Brazil bight [11]. A wide range of feeding habits and lifestyles give the species capacity to modify bottom deposits by bioturbation, changing geochemical processes such as oxygen and phosphate fluxes [16]. An important part of the benthic research developed on the southeastern Brazilian shelf has been accomplished employing polychaetes as a proxy of the total macrofauna.
São Sebastião Channel is a peculiar area in the southeast Brazil bight inner shelf due to its geomorphology and hydrodynamic complexity. With nearly 25 m of length, it separates the continent from the large São Sebastião Island (SSI). The SSC with a width of 6–7 km and a depth of 20–25 m at the south and north entrances, respectively, narrows to about 2 km in the middle length where it is as deep as 45 m and curves northwest. It functions as a tunnel for winds from the open sea magnifying its strength. In the channel Coastal Water flows from the northeasternmost part of the year. Intense and strong winds in late spring and summer months promote SACW inflow through the channel’s south entrance where a paleo-valley runs out on the island side. At this time a well-defined thermocline establishes in the water column with the two water masses running in the opposite direction, the warm low saline Coastal Water at the surface in SW direction and the cold saline South Atlantic Central Water on the bottom in a NE direction. The hydrology is more complex due to a counterclockwise vortex promoting the flow attenuation in the north insular side [17].
The main transport of sediments on São Sebastião Channel occurs from southwest to northeast with a tendency for more intense deposition of silt and clay along the continental margin and middle part, places of low current speed. The existence of distinct sediment patches is one of the leading causes associated with the high benthic diversity found in the area [18]. Another critical factor to be considered is the chronic oil and sewage contamination present in the central narrower part of the channel due to the presence of the São Sebastião Harbor, the DTCS large oil terminal, and the Araçá sewage pipe responsible for discharges of a quarter of the urban sewage of São Sebastião city. Low current speed makes difficult the dispersion of contaminants that are deposited in the fine sediments below. The resulting effect is a change in the quality of the bottom environment. Analyses of total organic carbon (TOC) of sediments in the central area of SSC showed high values that are indicative of organic enrichment [19]. This condition associated with the sewage discharge and petroleum-derived hydrocarbon creates a eutrophic environment that puts the benthic species at risk of damage [4, 14]. Indeed, loss of abundance and diversity of species of the whole macrofauna were observed earlier in that area characterized by an unbalanced community [18]. So, although the waters of the São Sebastião Channel were described as meso-oligotrophic [20], the bottom can be considered eutrophic either by natural or by anthropogenic causes.
In the southeastern continental inner shelf, two mechanisms have been evoked to support the benthic communities along the year. One is associated with SACW bottom inflow and seasonal enhancement of the quantity and quality of benthic organic load. The other is present when Coastal Water is the only water mass flowing in the area. In shallow depths (<50 m) frequent and intense mixing occurs in the water column especially in winter months due to the passage of cold fronts. As the input of nutrients is low and constant, the quantity of organic particles is not a food stressor for the communities, but quality is. In these areas partially degraded organic detritus with lower nutritional capacity composes the bottom organic matter. In springtime 2004 only the relative deeper (15 m) north station on the São Sebastião Channel was under the South Atlantic Central Water influence, and the quantity of labile organic material peaked to 206.14 μg g− 1, a value four times higher than those found at the same place in autumn under domination of Coastal Water [15]. On the non-upwelling scenario of the same shallow area, a rapid loss of the labile component occurred, and the major part of the organic matter is partially degraded and accumulated as pointed out by the high values of short-chain saturated fatty acids found [15]. An important aspect of the mid-water upwelling of SACW is that its effects on benthos enhancement lasts even after the water mass returns to offshore. The high quantity of the organic matter settled goes to the bottom subsurface layers due to the reworking of macrofauna. In that manner it stays available in the sediments for a few months [15, 21].
Organic matter quantity and quality is the primary driver for changes in the structure of benthic communities. However, besides the organic matter load, it is necessary to consider the trophic group structure and degree of faunal mobility in the sediments (or bioturbation) for a better understanding of the process. Benthic fauna work on the food particles through fractioning and moving them into the sediments and so making the smaller food parts available to the organisms in a constant action/reaction with the environment. Many studies have been developed in the area of São Sebastião, Ubatuba, and Santos shelves and north and central areas of the southeast Brazilian continental shelf, with species of total macrofauna [13, 19], polychaetes [15, 18], amphipod crustaceans [23], bacteria biomass, and meiofauna [21]. The results recognized the organic matter quality and quantity as the main determinants of the structure of benthic assemblages. The fauna seems to be not food-limited by the quantity of the organic particles loaded, but by their quality that can alter species composition, abundance, and diversity. The constant input and prevalence of local partially degraded organic detritus (refractory material) in the sediments were shown to be significant and able to maintain the benthic assemblages on shallow coastal areas [15, 21]. On the other hand, places under the South Atlantic Central Water influence showed more abundant and diverse benthic communities that are most probably supported by the high proportion of recently produced planktonic organic matter present in the sediments [15, 18, 22].
The relationships between feeding mode and species mobility are complex, and their study helps to understand the functioning of benthic communities. In the São Sebastião and Santos shelves, several studies were conducted with polychaete and crustacean species to identify their trophic guilds and link them with sediment type and organic matter content [23, 24]. Five trophic groups are reported for the SBB shelf and recently were associated with four bioturbation categories, for a better understanding of the functional structure of polychaete assemblages in the São Sebastião Channel and vicinities [15]. In shallow places with predominance of local input of degraded organic material, as the São Sebastião Channel margins and other coastal areas, the diffusive mixing (rapid redistribution of the organic matter within the sedimentary column) is reported as the main process associated with dominance of the subsurface deposit feeders. The result is the disturbance of the whole sediment column by relatively high bioturbation rates. Species composition of the assemblages can vary along the year, but relevant functional changes were not observed in the system, i.e., different species may occur through time but play the same role. Large quantities of small opportunist species occurred in the São Sebastião Channel continental margin, like
Benthic assemblages behave differently in the presence of SACW’s eutrophication. In such places, the major part of the species belongs to the conveyor belt transport category, that is, individuals that promote rapid movement of recently produced organic matter downward in the sediment. The procedure favors both surface deposit feeders and diffusive mixers equally by combining old and fresh organic matter. So, with the pulses of intense and high bottom eutrophication, a modification of the species composition occurs together with functional changing.
Between 1985 and 1988, a multidisciplinary oceanographic project was conducted on the São Paulo State northeastern shelf, by the Oceanographic Institute of the University of São Paulo, to understand the structure and functioning of the continental shelf system from the coast to offshore of Ubatuba, north-south Brazil bight [25]. The study detailed the complex hydrodynamics of the water masses and their role on the large episodic input of new nutrients to the shelf and the consequences on pelagic and benthic communities. It also established the founding knowledge about the functioning of the system based on a seasonal local trophic model. This project was the pioneer in southeast Brazilian shelf by assembling researchers of the many branches of oceanography to understand shelf functioning addressed by its physical, chemical, and biological characteristics. Some other multi- and interdisciplinary projects came along the following 25 years and contributed to improving the knowledge by answering questions opened at every study end.
Without any doubt, the central and north parts of the SBB, in front of São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro States, are the best areas studied. Along the long coastline, few geographical features can modify local sedimentary and hydrographic main processes with consequences on benthic communities’ structure and distribution. The first one is the large São Sebastião Island, northeast São Paulo State, separated from the continent by a long narrow channel, the São Sebastião Channel that constitutes the second feature. The third modifier is the sudden east to the northeast inflection of coastline in front of Cabo Frio, northeast Rio de Janeiro State, with consequent expressive shelf narrowing (Figure 1). Another critical factor to the change in coastline is that caused by the opening of estuaries: the southern Cananeia/Iguape lagoon system, the larger central Santos-São Vicente estuarine complex, and the northern Bertioga.
São Sebastião Island is an important geomorphologic marker of the coastline as it divides the adjacent shelf in northern and southern sectors. The northern sector is more complex due to the irregular littoral of many small bays and islands associated with the irregular isobaths outline. A clear difference exists between sediments from W to SW and N to NE of the island, with a predominance of fine and very fine sands in the southwest and muddy sediments (silt and clay) in the east and northeast. The SSI functions as a physical barrier to marine currents from S to SW linked to the passage of cold fronts in the winter and is a perennial source of sediments and detritus to the region. São Sebastião Channel is a particular area from the inner shelf and was divided into three sectors (central, south, and north) based on sediment type coupled to depth, channel wall declivity, quantity of suspension matter, and dominant hydrographic processes. Regarding Cabo Frio, the change in the direction of coastline in the area favors the approximation of the Brazilian Current to the continent and, associated with strong northeast winds, promotes the coastal upwelling of deep cold waters that modify local food quantity and quality to benthic assemblages, as explained earlier.
Reports on the importance of sediments for benthic species distribution are numerous in the literature. In the central and north parts of southeast Brazil, shelf studies of the megabenthos have shown that hydrothermal dynamics is the driver factor structuring the communities, whereas for macrofauna the variables associated with sediments are the most important. Megafauna is here defined as large organisms captured by fishnets, like crabs, shrimps, and sea stars, and macrofauna are those invertebrates ≥ 0.5mm length from both infauna and epifauna of almost all phyla. Except for Peracarida crustaceans (as isopods, tanaids, and amphipods) that protect their eggs and embryos in the ventral marsupium, most of the other benthic species are benthopelagic with initial free-swimming larval stages and posterior bottom settlement. Sediment is then required in the initial and crucial stage of the species life cycle. Some other organisms, as many shrimps are pelagic, but bottom dependent for feeding. On the other hand, several megabenthic species are large agile animals that need to move long distances for feeding and reproduction and, consequently, are affected by water motion. Recently attention has been paid in studying the role of thermohaline fronts on the habitat dynamics in function of its temporal and spatial extensions. One of these studies was developed in the Ubatuba shelf, SBB shelf, and later expanded to São Sebastião and Santos shelves. The results showed a constant temporal and spatial change of habitat between
Species | Water mass | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Places | Inner | Outer | Inner | Outer | Inner | Outer |
shelf | shelf | shelf | shelf | shelf | shelf | |
Ubatuba1 | ||||||
Summer 1985 | 0 | 0 | 3281 | 5152 | SACW | SACW |
Winter 1986 | 5892 | 0 | 34 | 0 | CW | SACW |
São Sebastião2 | ||||||
Summer 1994 | 54 | 0 | 5 | 578 | SACW | SACW |
Winter 1997 | 385 | 0 | 11 | 407 | CW | SACW |
Santos2 | ||||||
Summer 2006 | 47 | 0 | 4 | 1675 | SACW | SACW |
Winter 2005 | 5413 | 0 | 0 | 1224 | CW | SACW |
Cabo Frio3 | ||||||
Summer 2002 | 0 | 0 | 43 | 0 | SACW | SACW |
Winter 2001 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1968 | CW | SACW |
In Cabo Frio and Ubatuba, a study that lasted over 2 years was developed to compare the megabenthic community structure in relation to different physical processes that occur in those areas, the local upwelling in Cabo Frio and the mesoscale South Atlantic Central Water middle depth intrusion in Ubatuba [27]. Density, biomass, and species richness were evaluated on inner and outer shelves in the austral winter of 2001 and summer and spring of 2002. Substantial spatial and temporal changes occurred in species composition and dominance of key species on both areas and suggested the close linkage between megabenthic communities and water masses seasonal dynamics associated with differences in sediment type.
Considering the inner shelf, diversity in Ubatuba was higher than in Cabo Frio, and both areas presented different species dominance also. In Cabo Frio the sea star s, differences in species composition between both places were also detected, despite their proximity (only 463 km distant) and permanent SACW influence. In this case, the contrast in sediment type explains the faunistic changes: Ubatuba has a sandy bottom (coarse and medium sands) at 100 m, whereas in Cabo Frio the sediment is silted at the same depth. The hydrodynamic characteristics associated with sediments are responsible for the major part of the shift on the structure of the communities of both areas. This is especially true for the slow-moving megabenthic species as the sea stars and anomuran crustaceans (s on the sediment characteristics, as grain size and organic content [26].
Spatial distribution of the communities of benthic macrofauna has been usually related to seafloor characteristics, like topography, sedimentary texture, oxygen content, organic matter, and depth. Studies developed in the south Brazil bight have shown that besides those variables, the oceanographic and meteorological processes (as SACW intrusion and cold fronts, respectively) play an important role also. Spatial and temporal changes in the communities of macrofauna were intensely studied on the São Paulo State shelf, the central part of the SBB. Based on bottom topography, water circulation, sediment deposition, and sedimentary organic matter content, the area was characterized by three subareas: the northern Ubatuba and São Sebastião shelves [13, 25, 26], the central Santos shelf [24, 29] and the southern Cananeia/Iguape shelf. Since sediment was identified to be the structural driving factor for the macrobenthic communities, a detailed explanation of its distribution in the complex continental shelf of São Paulo becomes necessary. The presence near the coast of the large São Sebastião Island, associated with water fluxes from Santos, Peruíbe, and Bertioga estuaries, adds to the sedimentary system complexity.
The regional distribution of the superficial sediments indicated the presence of three regions. In the south region, corresponding to the continental shelf in front of the Peruíbe river mouth, the sediment presents an average diameter corresponding to fine sand with isolated silt patches. In the central portion of the area, the continental shelf of Santos has very fine and fine sands, which form the homogeneous bottom, with muddy sediments deposited in the deeper portions. In the north region, situated north of the São Sebastião Island, the deposition pattern is much more complex; in areas shallower than 60 m very fine sand interspersed with bands of fine sand predominate, while near to the coast, spots of medium and coarse sand overlay the bottom. The major part of the smaller grains is retained into the bays, but some quantity can be carried on the water surface layer by the Coastal Water during the South Atlantic Central Water bottom intrusion and deposited around the 50–60 m isobath at the middle shelf. Another shallow depositional environment is that at E/NE of the São Sebastião Island. The island functions as a shield to waves from the highly dynamic southern frontal systems by changing current direction and diminishing its velocity. Consequently, the finer sediments are deposited behind the island on an area known as “island shadow zone.” Considering the outer shelf of the three regions, there is a clear relation between increase of depth and decrease in the sediment granulometry; the 120 m isobath practically delimits the zone of the predominance of sand from that of muddy sediments [30].
Macrofauna of São Paulo continental shelf is numerous, diversified, and firstly distributed according to sedimentary characteristics. Polychaetes show up as the most numerous group collected accounting for 51% of total fauna on São Sebastião shelf [28]. Polychaetes and crustaceans Peracarida were studied to species level in order to understand benthic community structure and function [24, 31]. Working with several benthic marine groups of invertebrates proved to be important for bringing consistency and generality to the results obtained. Broadly, density was significantly higher in sediments with a sufficient content of labile organic matter. Also, species richness was higher on the coarser sediments of the inner shelf, whereas diversity and evenness increase at sites of intermediate depths (40–50 m) on the middle shelf. In contrast, the outer shelf houses deepwater species that live preferentially in muddy sediments as deep as 70–80 m. As an example, the diversity of amphipods on the northern Ubatuba shelf decreased with the increase of sedimentary silt and clay, whereas abundance of the tube-dwellers follows the contrary [31], which shows the role of the muddy belt from the outer shelf for the shift in community composition along the shelf.
Several ecological models were constructed for the southeast Brazil bight with environmental parameters (grain size and angularity, organic matter quantity and quality, temperature, salinity, and depth, among the principals) and biological indicators (as abundance, biomass, diversity, evenness, feeding groups, behavioral groups, microbial biomass) to interpret the benthic species distribution on the shelf. Results demonstrated that the species are grouped into three main areas parallel to the coastline, forming communities with particular physical, sedimentary, and geochemical characteristics and controlled by different species. Three main groups of species characterized three benthic areas, the inner, the middle, and the outer shelf groups that delimit the coastal zone, the intermediary zone, and the deep zone. The most striking differences occur between the inner and outer shelf groups; the middle shelf functions as an ecotone with species from both areas.
The coastal zone (12 to 30–40 m) includes shallow warmwater species related to well-sorted and very fine sand bottoms with labile and refractory organic matter mixed, subjected to a strong hydrodynamics associated with water masses and cold fronts; density and diversity are generally high, and the fauna is composed mainly by r-strategists as
The coastal zone may present patches of finer sediments in front of river outflow or of physical coastal modifiers, as in the case of San Sebastião Island that creates a “shadow zone” behind. The accumulation of such very different sediments, muddy and rich in refractory organic matter, modifies the inner shelf bottom and creates a local environment with a new sedimentary process and particular geochemical properties. As a consequence, an abrupt change occurs and disrupts the sandy community pattern present in the rest of the area. This is the case of the shallow bottom in front of Peruíbe river mouth, south of Santos shelf. The community of the less saline muddy sediment (salinity of 34.6 to 35 in winter (2006) and 33.1 to 33.9 in summer (2007)) is characterized by
The southern Brazilian continental shelf ecosystem is characterized by both high species diversity and complex biotic interactions among the component species. The region is physically controlled by the dynamics of three water masses. One of them, the South Atlantic Central Water intrudes from the shelf break to the coast seasonally bringing nutrients to the euphotic zone and, consequently, enhancing primary productivity. The thermal front formed in the frontal zone between South Atlantic Central Water and the shallow Coastal Water is responsible for the concentration of an extremely dense population of the swimming crab s to be independent of the periods of high food availability, but the differential quality of the sediments can change community species composition by differences in trophic habits and mobility behavior. Diversity is high, mainly on the middle shelf and outer shelf. Dominance of few species is a characteristic of the inner and outer shelf zones. The reciprocal interaction between sediments and species helps in maintaining the community dynamics through time.
I would like to thank Ricardo Pires Vanin for the graphic design of the figures; to colleagues, students, and all the people who collaborated somehow for data achievement; and to Fundação de Apoio à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) and Conselho Nacional de Pesquisa e Tecnlogia (CNPQ) for giving me financial support for several research projects whose data were in part presented here.
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Shohel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"1411",title:"Oenology",slug:"oenology",parent:{id:"1410",title:"Viticulture",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences-viticulture"},numberOfBooks:2,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:122,numberOfWosCitations:95,numberOfCrossrefCitations:63,numberOfDimensionsCitations:136,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"1411",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"8054",title:"Advances in Grape and Wine Biotechnology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f6b9b3b3d887ed9e7c0ad09cb07edf2b",slug:"advances-in-grape-and-wine-biotechnology",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata and Iris Loira",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8054.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6077",title:"Grapes and Wines",subtitle:"Advances in Production, Processing, Analysis and Valorization",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"61fe601d66e441800c8ed9503f86280f",slug:"grapes-and-wines-advances-in-production-processing-analysis-and-valorization",bookSignature:"António Manuel Jordão and Fernanda Cosme",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6077.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"186821",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:null,surname:"M. Jordão",slug:"antonio-m.-jordao",fullName:"António M. Jordão"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:2,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"58633",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72800",title:"The Evolution of Polyphenols from Grapes to Wines",slug:"the-evolution-of-polyphenols-from-grapes-to-wines",totalDownloads:2029,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Polyphenols play an important role in the quality of wines, due to their contribution to the wine sensory properties: color, astringency and bitterness. They act as antioxidants, having positive role in human health. They can be divided into non-flavonoid (hydroxybenzoic and hydroxycinnamic acids and stilbenes) and flavonoid compounds (anthocyanins, flavan-3-ols and flavonols). Anthocyanins are responsible for the color of red grapes and wines, hydroxycinnamic and hydroxybenzoic acids act as copigments, stilbenes as antioxidants and the flavan-3-ols are mainly responsible for the astringency, bitterness and structure of wines, being involved also in the color stabilization during aging. This chapter will focus on the chemical structures of the main polyphenols, their identification and quantification in grapes and wines by advanced analytical techniques, highlighting also the maceration and aging impact on the polyphenols evolution. The factors influencing the phenolic accumulation in grapes are also reviewed, emphasizing as well the relationship between phenolic content in grapes versus wine. Polyphenolic changes during the wine making process are highlighted along with the main polyphenol extraction methods and analysis techniques. This research will contribute to the improvement in the knowledge of polyphenols: their presence in grapes, the relationship with wine quality and the influence of the external factors on their evolution.",book:{id:"6077",slug:"grapes-and-wines-advances-in-production-processing-analysis-and-valorization",title:"Grapes and Wines",fullTitle:"Grapes and Wines - Advances in Production, Processing, Analysis and Valorization"},signatures:"Violeta-Carolina Niculescu, Nadia Paun and Roxana-Elena Ionete",authors:[{id:"187102",title:"Dr.",name:"Roxana",middleName:null,surname:"Ionete",slug:"roxana-ionete",fullName:"Roxana Ionete"},{id:"206056",title:"Dr.",name:"Violeta",middleName:"Carolina",surname:"Niculescu",slug:"violeta-niculescu",fullName:"Violeta Niculescu"},{id:"207020",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nadia",middleName:null,surname:"Paun",slug:"nadia-paun",fullName:"Nadia Paun"}]},{id:"58638",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72823",title:"Occurrence and Analysis of Sulfur Compounds in Wine",slug:"occurrence-and-analysis-of-sulfur-compounds-in-wine",totalDownloads:1956,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Sulfur compounds play an important role in the sensory characteristics of wine. These molecules can derive from the grape, in which the non-volatile forms are usually present as glycosylated molecules, the metabolic activities of yeast and bacteria, the chemical reactions taking place during the wine aging and storage, and the environment. The sulfur compounds include molecules positively correlated to the aromatic profile of wine, namely the volatile thiols, and are responsible for certain defects, imparting notes described as cabbage, onion, rotten egg, garlic, sulfur and rubber. Due to the low concentration of these molecules in wine, their high reactivity and the matrix complexity, the analytical methods which enable their detection and quantification represent a challenge. The solid phase microextraction (SPME) technique has been developed for sulfur compounds associated with off-flavors. The analysis of volatile thiols usually requires a derivatization followed by gas chromatography (GC)-MS or UPLC-MS methods. Besides the sulfur-containing aromas, another sulfur compound that deserves mention is the reduced glutathione (GSH) which has been widely studied due to its antioxidant properties. The analysis of GSH has been proposed using a liquid chromatography technique (HPLC or UPLC) coupled with fluorescence, MS and UV detectors.",book:{id:"6077",slug:"grapes-and-wines-advances-in-production-processing-analysis-and-valorization",title:"Grapes and Wines",fullTitle:"Grapes and Wines - Advances in Production, Processing, Analysis and Valorization"},signatures:"Daniela Fracassetti and Ileana Vigentini",authors:[{id:"207271",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniela",middleName:null,surname:"Fracassetti",slug:"daniela-fracassetti",fullName:"Daniela Fracassetti"},{id:"220967",title:"Dr.",name:"Ileana",middleName:null,surname:"Vigentini",slug:"ileana-vigentini",fullName:"Ileana Vigentini"}]},{id:"66619",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85692",title:"Contribution of the Microbiome as a Tool for Estimating Wine’s Fermentation Output and Authentication",slug:"contribution-of-the-microbiome-as-a-tool-for-estimating-wine-s-fermentation-output-and-authenticatio",totalDownloads:1094,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Wine is the alcoholic beverage which is the product of alcoholic fermentation, usually, of fresh grape must. Grape microbiome is the source of a vastly diverse pool of filamentous fungi, yeast, and bacteria, the combination of which plays a crucial role for the quality of the final product of any grape must fermentation. In recent times, the significance of this pool of microorganisms has been acknowledged by several studies analyzing the microbial ecology of grape berries of different geographical origins, cultural practices, grape varieties, and climatic conditions. Furthermore, the microbial evolution of must during fermentation process has been overstudied. The combination of the microbial evolution along with metabolic and sensorial characterizations of the produced wines could lead to the suggestion of the microbial terroir. These aspects are today leading to open a new horizon for products such as wines, especially in the case of PDO-PGI products. The aims of this review is to describe (a) how the microbiome communities are dynamically differentiated during the process of fermentation from grape to ready-to-drink wine, in order to finalize each wine’s unique sensorial characteristics, and (b) whether the microbiome could be used as a fingerprinting tool for geographical indication, based on high-throughput sequencing (HTS) technologies. Nowadays, it has been strongly indicated that microbiome analysis of grapes and fermenting musts using next-generation sequencing (NGS) could open a new horizon for wine, in the case of protected designation of origin (PDO) and protected geographical indication (PGI) determination.",book:{id:"8054",slug:"advances-in-grape-and-wine-biotechnology",title:"Advances in Grape and Wine Biotechnology",fullTitle:"Advances in Grape and Wine Biotechnology"},signatures:"Dimitrios A. Anagnostopoulos, Eleni Kamilari and Dimitrios Tsaltas",authors:[{id:"180885",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Dimitris",middleName:null,surname:"Tsaltas",slug:"dimitris-tsaltas",fullName:"Dimitris Tsaltas"},{id:"203761",title:"MSc.",name:"Dimitris",middleName:null,surname:"Anagnostopoulos",slug:"dimitris-anagnostopoulos",fullName:"Dimitris Anagnostopoulos"},{id:"271801",title:"Ms.",name:"Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Kamilari",slug:"elena-kamilari",fullName:"Elena Kamilari"}]},{id:"67444",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86443",title:"Somatic Variation and Cultivar Innovation in Grapevine",slug:"somatic-variation-and-cultivar-innovation-in-grapevine",totalDownloads:1036,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Paradoxically, continuous vegetative multiplication of traditional grapevine cultivars aimed to maintain cultivar attributes in this highly heterozygous species ends in the accumulation of considerable somatic variation. This variation has long contributed to cultivar adaptation and evolution under changing environmental and cultivation conditions and has also been a source of novel traits. Understanding how this somatic variation originates provides tools for genetics-assisted tracking of selected variants and breeding. Potentially, the identification of the mutations causing the observed phenotypic variation can now help to direct genome editing approaches to improve the genotype of elite traditional cultivars. Molecular characterization of somatic variants can also generate basic information helping to understand gene biological function. In this chapter, we review the state of the art on somatic variation in grapevine at phenotypic and genome sequence levels, present possible strategies for the study of this variation, and describe a few examples in which the genetic and molecular basis or very relevant grapevine traits were successfully identified.",book:{id:"8054",slug:"advances-in-grape-and-wine-biotechnology",title:"Advances in Grape and Wine Biotechnology",fullTitle:"Advances in Grape and Wine Biotechnology"},signatures:"Pablo Carbonell-Bejerano, Carolina Royo, Nuria Mauri, Javier Ibáñez and José Miguel Martínez Zapater",authors:[{id:"287215",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Martinez Zapater",slug:"jose-miguel-martinez-zapater",fullName:"Jose Miguel Martinez Zapater"},{id:"287226",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Ibáñez",slug:"javier-ibanez",fullName:"Javier Ibáñez"},{id:"300441",title:"Dr.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Carbonell-Bejerano",slug:"pablo-carbonell-bejerano",fullName:"Pablo Carbonell-Bejerano"},{id:"300442",title:"Dr.",name:"Carolina",middleName:null,surname:"Royo",slug:"carolina-royo",fullName:"Carolina Royo"},{id:"300444",title:"Dr.",name:"Nuria",middleName:null,surname:"Mauri",slug:"nuria-mauri",fullName:"Nuria Mauri"}]},{id:"57946",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71627",title:"Microbiological, Physical, and Chemical Procedures to Elaborate High-Quality SO2-Free Wines",slug:"microbiological-physical-and-chemical-procedures-to-elaborate-high-quality-so2-free-wines",totalDownloads:1616,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is the most preservative used in the wine industry and has been widely applied, as antioxidant and antibacterial agent. However, the use of sulfur dioxide implicates a range of adverse clinical effects. Therefore, the replacement of the SO2 content in wines is one of the most important challenges for scientist and winemakers. This book chapter gives an overview regarding different microbiological, physical, and chemical alternatives to elaborate high-quality SO2-free wines. In the present chapter, original research articles as well as review articles and results obtained by the research group of the Wine Technology Center (VITEC) are shown. This study provides useful information related to this novel and healthy type of wines, highlighting the development of winemaking strategies and procedures.",book:{id:"6077",slug:"grapes-and-wines-advances-in-production-processing-analysis-and-valorization",title:"Grapes and Wines",fullTitle:"Grapes and Wines - Advances in Production, Processing, Analysis and Valorization"},signatures:"Raúl Ferrer-Gallego, Miquel Puxeu, Laura Martín, Enric Nart, Claudio\nHidalgo and Imma Andorrà",authors:[{id:"207221",title:"Dr.",name:"Raúl",middleName:null,surname:"Ferrer-Gallego",slug:"raul-ferrer-gallego",fullName:"Raúl Ferrer-Gallego"},{id:"208597",title:"Dr.",name:"Miquel",middleName:null,surname:"Puxeu",slug:"miquel-puxeu",fullName:"Miquel Puxeu"},{id:"208598",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Martín",slug:"laura-martin",fullName:"Laura Martín"},{id:"208599",title:"Mr.",name:"Enric",middleName:null,surname:"Nart",slug:"enric-nart",fullName:"Enric Nart"},{id:"208600",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudio",middleName:null,surname:"Hidalgo",slug:"claudio-hidalgo",fullName:"Claudio Hidalgo"},{id:"208601",title:"Dr.",name:"Imma",middleName:null,surname:"Andorrà",slug:"imma-andorra",fullName:"Imma Andorrà"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"58638",title:"Occurrence and Analysis of Sulfur Compounds in Wine",slug:"occurrence-and-analysis-of-sulfur-compounds-in-wine",totalDownloads:1953,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Sulfur compounds play an important role in the sensory characteristics of wine. These molecules can derive from the grape, in which the non-volatile forms are usually present as glycosylated molecules, the metabolic activities of yeast and bacteria, the chemical reactions taking place during the wine aging and storage, and the environment. The sulfur compounds include molecules positively correlated to the aromatic profile of wine, namely the volatile thiols, and are responsible for certain defects, imparting notes described as cabbage, onion, rotten egg, garlic, sulfur and rubber. Due to the low concentration of these molecules in wine, their high reactivity and the matrix complexity, the analytical methods which enable their detection and quantification represent a challenge. The solid phase microextraction (SPME) technique has been developed for sulfur compounds associated with off-flavors. The analysis of volatile thiols usually requires a derivatization followed by gas chromatography (GC)-MS or UPLC-MS methods. Besides the sulfur-containing aromas, another sulfur compound that deserves mention is the reduced glutathione (GSH) which has been widely studied due to its antioxidant properties. The analysis of GSH has been proposed using a liquid chromatography technique (HPLC or UPLC) coupled with fluorescence, MS and UV detectors.",book:{id:"6077",slug:"grapes-and-wines-advances-in-production-processing-analysis-and-valorization",title:"Grapes and Wines",fullTitle:"Grapes and Wines - Advances in Production, Processing, Analysis and Valorization"},signatures:"Daniela Fracassetti and Ileana Vigentini",authors:[{id:"207271",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniela",middleName:null,surname:"Fracassetti",slug:"daniela-fracassetti",fullName:"Daniela Fracassetti"},{id:"220967",title:"Dr.",name:"Ileana",middleName:null,surname:"Vigentini",slug:"ileana-vigentini",fullName:"Ileana Vigentini"}]},{id:"57497",title:"Recovering Ancient Grapevine Varieties: From Genetic Variability to In Vitro Conservation, A Case Study",slug:"recovering-ancient-grapevine-varieties-from-genetic-variability-to-in-vitro-conservation-a-case-stud",totalDownloads:1768,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"A great number of varieties have been described in grapevine; however, few of them are currently in use. The increasing concern on varietal diversity loss has encouraged actions for recovering and preserving grapevine germplasm, which represents valuable resources for breeding as well as for diversification in grapevine-derived products. On the other hand, it is expected that this important crop, which is distributed in warm areas worldwide, will suffer the climate changes. Therefore, it is also convenient the identification of intravarietal variability and the recovery of accessions well adapted to particular environments. In this chapter, we will contribute to highlight the importance of recovering ancient materials, the usefulness of SSR markers to determine their molecular profile, the importance to analyze their virus status, and the possibilities that offer biotechnological tools for virus sanitation and in vitro storage as a complement of field preservation. In this context, we have evaluated different grapevine accessions and developed in vitro culture protocols for micropropagation, sanitation, and storage grapevine cultivars. In this work, we report the results obtained for the historic variety “Valencí Blanc” (or “Beba”) and the historic and endangered variety “Esclafagerres” (“Esclafacherres” or “Esclafacherris”).",book:{id:"6077",slug:"grapes-and-wines-advances-in-production-processing-analysis-and-valorization",title:"Grapes and Wines",fullTitle:"Grapes and Wines - Advances in Production, Processing, Analysis and Valorization"},signatures:"Carmina Gisbert, Rosa Peiró, Tania San Pedro, Antonio Olmos,\nCarles Jiménez and Julio García",authors:[{id:"207745",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmina",middleName:null,surname:"Gisbert",slug:"carmina-gisbert",fullName:"Carmina Gisbert"},{id:"207748",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Peiró",slug:"rosa-maria-peiro",fullName:"Rosa María Peiró"},{id:"207749",title:"Ms.",name:"Tania",middleName:null,surname:"San Pedro Galán",slug:"tania-san-pedro-galan",fullName:"Tania San Pedro Galán"},{id:"207750",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Olmos",slug:"antonio-olmos",fullName:"Antonio Olmos"}]},{id:"58633",title:"The Evolution of Polyphenols from Grapes to Wines",slug:"the-evolution-of-polyphenols-from-grapes-to-wines",totalDownloads:2023,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Polyphenols play an important role in the quality of wines, due to their contribution to the wine sensory properties: color, astringency and bitterness. They act as antioxidants, having positive role in human health. They can be divided into non-flavonoid (hydroxybenzoic and hydroxycinnamic acids and stilbenes) and flavonoid compounds (anthocyanins, flavan-3-ols and flavonols). Anthocyanins are responsible for the color of red grapes and wines, hydroxycinnamic and hydroxybenzoic acids act as copigments, stilbenes as antioxidants and the flavan-3-ols are mainly responsible for the astringency, bitterness and structure of wines, being involved also in the color stabilization during aging. This chapter will focus on the chemical structures of the main polyphenols, their identification and quantification in grapes and wines by advanced analytical techniques, highlighting also the maceration and aging impact on the polyphenols evolution. The factors influencing the phenolic accumulation in grapes are also reviewed, emphasizing as well the relationship between phenolic content in grapes versus wine. Polyphenolic changes during the wine making process are highlighted along with the main polyphenol extraction methods and analysis techniques. This research will contribute to the improvement in the knowledge of polyphenols: their presence in grapes, the relationship with wine quality and the influence of the external factors on their evolution.",book:{id:"6077",slug:"grapes-and-wines-advances-in-production-processing-analysis-and-valorization",title:"Grapes and Wines",fullTitle:"Grapes and Wines - Advances in Production, Processing, Analysis and Valorization"},signatures:"Violeta-Carolina Niculescu, Nadia Paun and Roxana-Elena Ionete",authors:[{id:"187102",title:"Dr.",name:"Roxana",middleName:null,surname:"Ionete",slug:"roxana-ionete",fullName:"Roxana Ionete"},{id:"206056",title:"Dr.",name:"Violeta",middleName:"Carolina",surname:"Niculescu",slug:"violeta-niculescu",fullName:"Violeta Niculescu"},{id:"207020",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nadia",middleName:null,surname:"Paun",slug:"nadia-paun",fullName:"Nadia Paun"}]},{id:"67760",title:"Production and Marketing of Low-Alcohol Wine",slug:"production-and-marketing-of-low-alcohol-wine",totalDownloads:1300,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Moderate wine consumption may be associated with specific health benefits and a healthy lifestyle. However, increased amounts of ethanol are cytotoxic and associated with adverse health outcomes. Alcohol reduction in wine might be an avenue to reduce alcohol related harm without forcing consumers to compromise on lifestyle and benefit from positive aspects of moderate consumption. The aim of this review is to give an overview of viticultural and pre and post fermentation methods to produce low-alcohol wine, and to summarize the current evidence on the consumer acceptance and behaviour related to low-alcohol wine. Strategies for the labelling and marketing of wines with reduced alcohol content are discussed.",book:{id:"8054",slug:"advances-in-grape-and-wine-biotechnology",title:"Advances in Grape and Wine Biotechnology",fullTitle:"Advances in Grape and Wine Biotechnology"},signatures:"Tamara Bucher, Kristine Deroover and Creina Stockley",authors:[{id:"289140",title:"Dr.",name:"Creina",middleName:null,surname:"Stockley",slug:"creina-stockley",fullName:"Creina Stockley"},{id:"289141",title:"Dr.",name:"Tamara",middleName:null,surname:"Bucher",slug:"tamara-bucher",fullName:"Tamara Bucher"},{id:"289142",title:"Ms.",name:"Kristine",middleName:null,surname:"Deroover",slug:"kristine-deroover",fullName:"Kristine Deroover"}]},{id:"57946",title:"Microbiological, Physical, and Chemical Procedures to Elaborate High-Quality SO2-Free Wines",slug:"microbiological-physical-and-chemical-procedures-to-elaborate-high-quality-so2-free-wines",totalDownloads:1613,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is the most preservative used in the wine industry and has been widely applied, as antioxidant and antibacterial agent. However, the use of sulfur dioxide implicates a range of adverse clinical effects. Therefore, the replacement of the SO2 content in wines is one of the most important challenges for scientist and winemakers. This book chapter gives an overview regarding different microbiological, physical, and chemical alternatives to elaborate high-quality SO2-free wines. In the present chapter, original research articles as well as review articles and results obtained by the research group of the Wine Technology Center (VITEC) are shown. This study provides useful information related to this novel and healthy type of wines, highlighting the development of winemaking strategies and procedures.",book:{id:"6077",slug:"grapes-and-wines-advances-in-production-processing-analysis-and-valorization",title:"Grapes and Wines",fullTitle:"Grapes and Wines - Advances in Production, Processing, Analysis and Valorization"},signatures:"Raúl Ferrer-Gallego, Miquel Puxeu, Laura Martín, Enric Nart, Claudio\nHidalgo and Imma Andorrà",authors:[{id:"207221",title:"Dr.",name:"Raúl",middleName:null,surname:"Ferrer-Gallego",slug:"raul-ferrer-gallego",fullName:"Raúl Ferrer-Gallego"},{id:"208597",title:"Dr.",name:"Miquel",middleName:null,surname:"Puxeu",slug:"miquel-puxeu",fullName:"Miquel Puxeu"},{id:"208598",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Martín",slug:"laura-martin",fullName:"Laura Martín"},{id:"208599",title:"Mr.",name:"Enric",middleName:null,surname:"Nart",slug:"enric-nart",fullName:"Enric Nart"},{id:"208600",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudio",middleName:null,surname:"Hidalgo",slug:"claudio-hidalgo",fullName:"Claudio Hidalgo"},{id:"208601",title:"Dr.",name:"Imma",middleName:null,surname:"Andorrà",slug:"imma-andorra",fullName:"Imma Andorrà"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1411",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81659",title:"State-of-the-Art Knowledge about 2,4,6-Trichloroanisole (TCA) and Strategies to Avoid Cork Taint in Wine",slug:"state-of-the-art-knowledge-about-2-4-6-trichloroanisole-tca-and-strategies-to-avoid-cork-taint-in-wi",totalDownloads:27,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103709",abstract:"Cork stoppers have been used for many centuries to seal wine in various vessels. Therefore, corks have become a traditional part of wine packaging in many countries and still play an important role for the entire wine industry. Nowadays, there is a wide option of bottle cork stoppers on the market, such as natural corks, agglomerated and technical stoppers (1 + 1), etc. These cork closures have a number of advantages, including positive sustainable and ecological aspects. Natural cork material can also be responsible for cork taint, which imparts musty/moldy or wet cardboard off-odors to the wine. However, corks are not the only source of cork taint in wine, as will be shown in the present chapter. Over the past decades, a number of compounds have been detected that can contribute to the cork taint. Among them, haloanisoles play a major role, in particular 2,4,6-trichloroanisole (TCA), which has been shown to be responsible for 50–80% or more of musty defect cases in wine. Currently, the cork and wine industries have developed a number of tools and technologies to effectively prevent cork tait in wine or to remove it if the wine is already contaminated. These practical as well as analytical questions about the TCA defects are the subject of the actual chapter.",book:{id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg"},signatures:"Andrii Tarasov, Miguel Cabral, Christophe Loisel, Paulo Lopes, Christoph Schuessler and Rainer Jung"},{id:"78620",title:"Table Grapes: There Is More to Vitiviniculture than Wine…",slug:"table-grapes-there-is-more-to-vitiviniculture-than-wine",totalDownloads:141,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99986",abstract:"Table grapes are fruits intended for fresh human consumption due to their sensory attributes and nutritional value. The objective of this chapter is to review the existing knowledge about table grapes, including a description of different varieties, with particular emphasis on the new highly appreciated seedless varieties. Following an introductory note on the world distribution and production of table grapes, also considering the impact of climate change, selected varieties of table grapes will be characterized in terms of their physiology, postharvest features, and consumer preferences. A morphological description of each variety, with emphasis on grape skin, grape rachis and grape cluster will be included. A final note on the drying of table grapes into raisins, and the most appropriate varieties for drying, will be given. The major changes occurring throughout the growth, development, and ripening phases of table grapes production will be discussed, regarding both physical (skin color and skin and pulp texture) and chemical (phenolic compounds, sugar content and acidity) parameters, as well as growth regulators.",book:{id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg"},signatures:"Ana Cristina Agulheiro-Santos, Marta Laranjo and Sara Ricardo-Rodrigues"},{id:"79500",title:"New Insights about the Influence of Yeasts Autolysis on Sparkling Wines Composition and Quality",slug:"new-insights-about-the-influence-of-yeasts-autolysis-on-sparkling-wines-composition-and-quality",totalDownloads:94,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101314",abstract:"Sparkling wines elaborated using the traditional method undergo a second fermentation in the bottle. This process involves an aging time in contact with the lees, which enriches the wine in various substances, especially proteins, mannoproteins and polysaccharides, thanks to the autolysis of the yeasts. As a result of this yeast autolysis, sparkling wines benefit from better integration of carbon dioxide and a clear sensory improvement, especially in the case of long aging. This chapter synthetizes the main results that our research group has obtained about the influence of yeasts autolysis on sparkling wines composition and quality during last years, making special emphasis on the capacity of the lees to release proteins and polysaccharides as well as on their capacity to consume oxygen and thus protect the sparkling wines from oxidation.",book:{id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg"},signatures:"Pere Pons-Mercadé, Pol Giménez, Glòria Vilomara, Marta Conde, Antoni Cantos, Nicolas Rozès, Sergi Ferrer, Joan Miquel Canals and Fernando Zamora"},{id:"79110",title:"Microbial Decontamination by Pulsed Electric Fields (PEF) in Winemaking",slug:"microbial-decontamination-by-pulsed-electric-fields-pef-in-winemaking",totalDownloads:81,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101112",abstract:"Pulsed Electric Fields (PEF) is a non-thermal technique that causes electroporation of cell membranes by applying very short pulses (μs) of a high-intensity electric field (kV/cm). Irreversible electroporation leads to the formation of permanent conductive channels in the cytoplasmic membrane of cells, resulting in the loss of cell viability. This effect is achieved with low energy requirements and minimal deterioration of quality. This chapter reviews the studies hitherto conducted to evaluate the potential of PEF as a technology for microbial decontamination in the winemaking process for reducing or replacing the use of SO2, for guaranteeing reproducible fermentations or for wine stabilization.",book:{id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg"},signatures:"Carlota Delso, Alejandro Berzosa, Jorge Sanz, Ignacio Álvarez and Javier Raso"},{id:"78993",title:"pH Control and Aroma Improvement Using the Non-Saccharomyces Lachancea thermotolerans and Hanseniaspora spp. Yeasts to Improve Wine Freshness in Warm Areas",slug:"ph-control-and-aroma-improvement-using-the-non-saccharomyces-lachancea-thermotolerans-and-hanseniasp",totalDownloads:90,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100538",abstract:"Lachancea thermotolerans is a yeast species that works as a powerful bio tool capable of metabolizing grape sugars into lactic acid via lactate dehydrogenase enzymes. The enological impact is an increase in total acidity and a decrease in pH levels (sometimes >0.5 pH units) with a concomitant slight reduction in alcohol (0.2–0.4% vol.), which helps balance freshness in wines from warm areas. In addition, higher levels of molecular SO2 are favored, which helps to decrease SO2 total content and achieve better antioxidant and antimicrobial performance. The simultaneous use with some apiculate yeast species of the genus Hanseniaspora helps to improve the aromatic profile through the production of acetyl esters and, in some cases, terpenes, which makes the wine aroma more complex, enhancing floral and fruity scents and making more complex and fresh wines. Furthermore, many species of Hanseniaspora increase the structure of wines, thus improving their body and palatability. Ternary fermentations with Lachancea thermotolerans and Hanseniaspora spp. sequentially followed by Saccharomyces cerevisiae are a useful bio tool for producing fresher wines from neutral varieties in warm areas.",book:{id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg"},signatures:"Antonio Morata, Carlos Escott, Iris Loira, Juan Manuel Del Fresno, Cristian Vaquero, María Antonia Bañuelos, Felipe Palomero, Carmen López and Carmen González"},{id:"78970",title:"Alternatives to CU Applications in Viticulture. How R&D Projects Can Provide Applied Solutions, Helping to Establish Legislation Limits",slug:"alternatives-to-cu-applications-in-viticulture-how-r-d-projects-can-provide-applied-solutions-helpin",totalDownloads:180,totalDimensionsCites:2,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100500",abstract:"Copper (Cu) and its based preparations have been used for over 200 years to control fungi and bacterial diseases in cultivated plants. Downy mildew caused by the obligate biotrophic oomycete Plasmopara viticola is one of the most relevant and recurrent diseases of grapevines. Recently, the use of Cu is being limited by some regulations because of its high impact at different levels (health and environmental problems). Due to its accumulation in soil, this metal causes a little controversy with the principles of sustainable production. Therefore, international legislation and initiatives have recently been arisen to start limiting its use, with the main goal to replace it. In this framework, some alternatives have been tested and others are recently being developed to replace, at least partially, the use of Cu in viticulture. Many of them, are being developed and tested under the scope of research and development EU funded projects. To not compromise sustainability targets in viticulture, results from these R&D projects need to be considered to assess the present risks of using Cu in viticulture and to better support establishing limits for its applications, considering soils vulnerability, while no sustainable alternatives are available in the market.",book:{id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg"},signatures:"Mario De La Fuente, David Fernández-Calviño, Bartosz Tylkowski, Josep M. 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Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRqB9QAK/Profile_Picture_1626163237970",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/344680",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"344680"},fullPath:"/profiles/344680",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()