\r\n\tWithin this scenario, special attention needs to be devoted to financial implications, due to their pervasiveness. Nobody would question the key role that finance plays to complement the real sphere of the economy and that has increasingly attracted both academics and practitioners. As a result, traditional pillars – such as financial markets, products, and institutions – have evolved significantly, with financial innovation fueling further progress over time. The global side of the coin features – among others – financially connected markets, international financial exchanges, and financial conglomerates that provide valuable opportunities in terms of international corporate finance. On the other side, recent advances have involved a wider recourse to ESG factors, allowed forward steps towards a more inclusive financial system, and have made digital finance a must, rather than an option, even though much remains to be accomplished, for instance, to facilitate access to formal financial channels in many underdeveloped regions.
\r\n\r\n\t
\r\n\tThis book aims to examine emerging trends, new perspectives, and empirical applications that deal with globalization and sustainability. The goal is to provide a comprehensive overview of these important concepts as valuable support to successfully meet the challenges and take on the opportunities ahead. At the same time, drawing upon empirical evidence can contribute to bridging the gap between theory and practice, which also fits within the scope of this book.
Cultivation of crops in protected structures is relatively a new or advance technology, growing crops in controlled environments (temperature, humidity, light and such other factors can be regulated as per requirement of the crop). It is popular among farmers/growers globally. Commonly used structures are forced ventilated greenhouse, naturally ventilated polyhouse, high-tech polyhouse, insect proof net house, shade net house, plastic tunnel and mulching. Protected structures may be demarcated as “Alteration of environmental condition in such a way to accomplish maximum growth and yield” [1]. Recently, incipient technology for raising high value crop in the country and it has very decent potential in semi-urban areas (nearby cities). Altered environmental conditions, bounces manifolds increase in yield per unit area. Modernized protected cultivation are very popular among growers in all over world and approximately 405000 ha area covered under protected cultivation globally [2] as compared to India 30000 ha area under protected cultivation, is still in infancy stage [3]. In India, protected structures are being initiated by National Horticulture Mission to increase per capita income of framers. Protection of pest and diseases under controlled environmental conditions, farmers are getting very good returns from this technology. Globally, among polyhouse cultivated crops,
In polyhouses, three types of crops are grown,
Protected structures aided crops with altered climatic conditions to get supreme yield potential than open field by shielded from adversities [5]. Ancient records, during 14–37 AD, when Roman Empire was controlled agricultural production, certain limited structures were present. Nevertheless, commercial protected cultivation had been initiated in England trailed by France, Netherlands, Japan and China at ending of eighteenth and nineteenth century [6]. Charles Lucien Bonaparte, French botanist (1803–1857) are accredited for making the first modern greenhouse (http://english.reachgreenhouse. com/news_view_32_105.html). High value agricultural crops are mostly preferred for protected structures to optimize production cost as well as reduced biotic and abiotic stresses.
Root-knot nematode,
Cucumber crop infested wish root-knot nematode,
Tomato crop infested wish root-knot nematode,
Capsicum (Bel pepper) crop infested wish root-knot nematode,
Root galls are the most characteristic symptom of root-knot nematode infection (Figure 1). As vascular feeder, destroy the xylem and phloem, ultimately translocation of water and nutrient uptake was debilitated. Due to poor transportation, above ground symptoms such as yellowing, wilting, poor fruiting has manifested on plants in patches. These patches gradually increase every year as inoculum has increased.
Nematode have long been alleged of playing a bigger role in plant disease scenario with other microorganisms like fungus and bacteria rather than alone. Different role has been played by nematode in complex diseases such as aggravator, predisposer, vector etc. nematodes may act as wounder, host substrate modifier, rhizosphere modifier and vector to make the environment more conducive for development of other secondary pathogens. In complex diseases, root-knot nematode with wilt and root rot fungus causes grater damage to susceptible plants as compared to each pathogen alone [10, 11]. Host physiology has been altered by nematode for secondary pathogens results, complete failure of crop in some instances.
Nematodes provide ready avenues for entry of secondary microbes. Besides avenues, biochemical changes have been initiated in nematode infected plants and enriched giant cells also favor the wilt causing fungi. Seedling mortality was preponed by about a week due to interaction with fungi with nematode. Nematode may also play the role in resistance braker for other pathogens. Some varieties lost the resistance against fungal pathogens in the presence of root-knot nematodes. Due to disease complexes sometimes complete crop failure faces by growers.
Moisture is the foremost important factor for multiplication of nematodes. Continuous moisture availability around root zones through drip irrigation under polyhouses is responsible for fast nematode build-up and movement as compared to open field where flooded and dry conditions prevail. Continuous moisture availability flare-up the nematode population and more infectious.
Temperature affects overall life profile activities of nematode such as hatching, movement, reproduction, development, and survival and also the host plant. Optimum temperature range for survival of plant parasitic nematodes is 15-30°C and become inactive or less active from above and below temperature conditions or may lethal for nematode. Under polyhouses optimum range of temperature for nematode build-up exist. Under optimum moisture and temperature conditions in polyhouses nematodes are able to complete several generations in less period of time as compared to open field conditions.
Crops grown under polyhouses are generally susceptible to nematode pest such as tomato, cucumber, ornamentals etc. due to high economic value monoculture has been adopted by growers. Intensive monoculture of susceptible crops leads to nematode build-up and multiplication rate. All three conditions, susceptible host with favorable microclimate favor fast build-up of nematode population and once it introduced it is very difficult to get rid from this.
Favorable climatic conditions concentrated majority of the protected structures in the regions between 25° and 65° latitude [12]. Solar irradiations and temperature is low at higher latitude, that’s wants maintenance of humidity and temperature and the conditions created favor the pest incidence. Intense solar irradiation at lower altitude persuades stress in the crops rendering them susceptible to pest incidence [12]. Irrespective of the diverse protected structures and materials for buildup, the microclimate inside the protected structures favor the multiplication of pest and diseases including plant parasitic nematodes [13]. Henceforth, it become extremely difficult to manage the nematode pest from single management options. Keeping in view of this, integration of all available management techniques/tools for better resolution of the nematode pest. The integrated strategies for control of plant parasitic nematodes can be based upon two basic principles: 1) preventive measures and 2) on-farm techniques. Preventive measures avoid the introduction pest species in newer areas and second one is based upon control measure (cultural, biological and chemical) adopted by growers, to reduce pest population below ETL.
Preventive measures are adopted to avoid the introduction of nematode pest in newer areas where nematode problem not exist before. Some practices have been adopted as preventive measures to control the spread of nematode. New or emerging species spread has been checked by regulatory methods to avoid the introduction in newer areas. Soil testing are mandatory for all the farmers before erection of polyhouses, green houses and net houses for plant parasitic nematodes. Entry points for protected conditions should also contain sanitizing stations for hands, shoes, boots, tools, and other equipment. Nematode free transplanting material is one of the important methods to avoid the nematode infestation under field conditions. Always use nematode-free transplants or plants that build upon soilless substrates from production are increasingly used to exclude soil borne species of nematodes, but also to promote the plant establishment and crop production.
Raising of crop on soilless media: One of the most important method to prevent spreading of nematodes in nematode free areas through growing of nursery crops in soilless media such as organic growing media: peat, coir, bark, sawdust, compost; inorganic: rockwool, perlite, pumice, sand, vermiculite.
Curative measures are used to reduce the nematode population below economic threshold level in nematode infested areas so, growers can get maximum returns. Sanitation can minimize the nematode problems from polyhouses include rapid destruction of infested plant debris and weeds after harvest.
Soil solarization is a most effective method to reduce the nematode population in hot weather areas (temperature around 40-50o c). In India, northern conditions are best to adopt this practice to reduce nematode infestation under polyhouses. Transparent polyethylene plastic (25 μm thick LLDP) mulch is used to cover the moist soil for 4–8 weeks in the month of May–June [14, 15, 16, 17]. Green house effects have been created under transparent polyethylene sheet leading to higher temperature was lethal to nematode.
Cultural practices are non-chemical method such as crop rotation with resistant cultivars or non-host crops to reduce pest population. Rotating or inter cropping tomato/ cucumber with non-hosts such as garlic (
Cucumber intercrop with marigold for the management of root-knot nematode under polyhouse conditions.
Marigold crop rotation with cucumber/tomato for management of root-knot under polyhouse conditions.
Resistant cultivars are one of the convenient options against plant parasitic nematodes. Grafting of commercially desired susceptible cultivars on resistant rootstock is a trending method among vegetable crops under protected conditions [18]. Resistant rootstock of brinjal wild relatives,
Enormous organic amendments are used for suppression of plant parasitic nematodes in protected cultivation. Suppression efficacy of organic amendments depends on the active ingredient and their concentration. Non-edible oil cakes of Neem (
Higher efficiency, targeted results, environmentally sound and local acceptability among the growers gain much popularity of the bio-agents in recent era. Egg parasitic fungus-
Till now, there are not a single nematicide registered for protected cultivation use in India. Thus, the growers depend on other integrated pest management practices for nematode management under polyhouses. Combination of all preventive, curative measures to control nematode under polyhouses is an effective strategy and locally adopted by growers.
Wide susceptibility range, fast multiplication and cause potential treat at low density are the main constraints for management of root-knot nematode under protected structures. Recently, genetic engineering has made it possible to express and incorporate heterologous and indigenous protein from one to other organisms and develop heightened pest resistance in plants. Genetic engineering approaches has made natural resistance with synthetic resistance may be the auspicious tools for management of nematode in tomato production [25, 26, 27].
RNA Interference (RNAi): RNAi has emerging tool to downregulate gene activity and recognized efficient tactic against root-knot nematode [28]. RNAi first performed for
Exploiting Efficient Genome Editing Using the CRISPR-Cas9 Technique: The advancement of the clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) technology has become a commanding alternative to gene silencing [32]. Foreign DNA sequences has incorporated host loci to produce short crRNAs (CRISPR RNAs) that direct sequence-specific cleavage of homologous target dsDNA by Cas endonucleases [33]. Recently, documentation of pathogen and host novel genes responsible for infection help in developing the CRISPR technique for improving the resistance to Meloidogyne spp. under protected systems.
Advantages of protected cultivation
Higher productivity and higher income
Quality produce
Off season or round the year cultivation
Hardening of tissue culture plants
Better management of insect pest
Less use of chemicals
Efficient use of resources
In spite of protected structures crops grown under these structures are not fully protected from insect pest. Hostile environment, intensive or mono cropping, availability of moisture (drip irrigation) and poor hygienic conditions are increasing the pest problems mainly nematodes under protected environment [34]. Among plant parasitic nematodes root-knot nematodes is the important parasite under polyhouses [4]. Once nematode introduced in the protected cultivation, it’s impossible to eradicate the nematode problem. It can build up in less time and causes huge number of losses among the crops. Major source of adulterations in protected structures are planting material, soil and pooting media, water and general cleanliness.
Recently, nematode and soil borne pathogens under protected structures paid much attention. Till now efficient management practices under protected structures are very less and are not uses due to certain limitations. Researchers has focused on the environmentally sound conventional and modern management practices under protected structures. Biological and ecological aspects are the fundamental science to manage nematodes.
During a product development process, information becomes available to, and is requested by, many partners, design teams and organisations. Information about properties and performance of components and subsystems is the basis of decisions made in the development process. This information has many sources ranging from mathematical models, simulations, testing of physical models and prototypes and customer use data. It has many destinations, in the primary design phase and then through the product life in operations of maintenance, refit and redesign. Product Lifecycle Management (PLM) is primarily concerned to create product models to cover the full range of processes, operations and activities required to support a product through its lifecycle. A critical and current issue is the extent that these product models provide the basis for generating corresponding process models particularly dynamically so that process models continuously reflect the current state of the product models [1]. One aim is to enhance through improvements in workflow for planning product development processes, the significant gains that PLM systems have delivered over a period of 25 years in reducing both the duration and costs of product development [2]. Research by the authors [3, 4] has concentrated on the processes of testing and their ubiquity through product development. Critical testing processes such as field testing ([2], for example) are identified in these workflows, which deliver product development. However, the way that these testing processes form a critical part of all the processes from start to finish of the product lifecycle, whether as inputs, as drivers for iteration, for establishing alignment to regulations or for confirmation of completion of a satisfactory design, has received limited consideration in the literature. Tests are long and expensive activities and most product development activities and tasks depend on the results of test, whether, physical test, simulations or field data gathered during customer operations. This chapter examines methods to integrate testing more closely with other product development processes as well as to improve the planning of the processes of testing so that testing activities are scheduled optimally. Further, the chapter examines how the results of tests can be applied to assist other product development processes. Critically, it analyses how preliminary test results can be of significant assistance to these other processes, speeding their completion.
\nPrevious research by the authors has addressed two particular issues. First, combining information from both physical and virtual testing (simulation) can bring forward in time the availability of a workable product model suitable for the next design stage [3]. This helps planning a design process in an iterative cycle of proposal, test and redesign through developing a method to analyse the overlap between steps in this cycle and optimise this overlap to reduce overall development time. In particular, the long duration of some physical tests, which are necessary to ensure performance and conformance to regulations and standards, are a bottleneck in product development. Starting downstream design activities dependent on these tests before the tests are completed can ease this bottleneck. Essentially, the proposed method applies information from two distinct product models, simulation and physical test to change the process model, allowing significant overlap between activities. The method relies on observing the degree of convergence between simulation and test data.
\nThe second piece of research [4, 5] examines more closely how testing activities can be explicitly integrated into the product development process for complex engineering products. This research highlights the mismatch between several models of product development which tend to relegate testing to be an activity late in the design process or primarily concerned with quality issues. In fact, examination of practice shows that testing is integrated throughout. The misconception in product development process models has possibly arisen because the long duration of physical tests means that the results of testing are not available until later stages, although the activity itself necessarily starts early in the process. This research therefore points to a significant reappraisal of appropriate process models resulting from how data is available in product models. Both strands of previous research have focused on testing for design, rather than wider product development through lifecycle. However, they provide useful insights into the relationship between the product models of PLM [1, 2] and the process models [6] in product development.
\nThis chapter applies the results of this research to integrate testing and design more widely in the product lifecycle. Section 2 introduces some background and literature of PLM with particular reference to testing. Testing is considered from a general perspective as activities which analyse properties and performance of designs. A short review of existing research on the relationship between testing and PLM in Section 3 covers the mixes of testing activities at various stages of the product lifecycle based on some industry observations. Section 4 extends the proposition, first proposed by Tahera et al. [3] for testing and design, and reviews a three-way mix of testing types comprising simulation, use data (from embedded product monitoring) and physical testing. Further, wider implications of these methods are drawn in Section 5, especially in how PLM systems coordinate product models generated through design, testing and product monitoring activities. Section 6 discusses the tentative nature of these findings, the requirements for further research and the potential benefits for PLM systems. In particular, the refinements in process models recognise testing activities explicitly and their close integration with other processes in product development. Changes in process models drive changes to product models and PLM. This research does not cover the latter stages [as referred as End of life (EOL)] of product lifecycle.
\nTwo observations are relevant when considering testing in product lifecycle. First, testing is a continuing activity, whether physical or virtual, throughout lifecycle. Testing data sets up maintenance schedules and product use data assists in updating these schedules. Periodic refit and redesign may emerge from testing new materials, components and subsystems to track upgrades and changes to customer requirements.
\nSecond, testing supplies information which becomes part of a product description. PLM systems handle several product descriptions [7, 8] and a major challenge is maintaining consistency and integrity of multiple descriptions In the simple case this might mean ensuring that changes to a design in one description, perhaps CAD geometry, are propagated accurately to descriptions for manufacture and assembly such as BoMs and tolerancing schemes. Results of testing update these multiple descriptions in PLM systems. As observed above, testing takes place continuously through product development and product use. However, the schedules for physical testing activities have long duration.
\nProduct performance data is gathered over a range of use conditions and longitudinally over time. Data of two types is relevant in testing. Special tests can be set to investigate particular characteristics such as thermal dynamics of an engine which formed one of the areas of previous research [3]. Other data is gathered from product monitoring in the field. Increasingly the latter data, which may include component wear, degradation in performance or replacement of components, for determining preventative maintenance or redesign of failing components, is well established for complex products such as aerospace [9]. However, quick and effective use of this testing data depends on levels of confidence when only partial data is available. A similar situation to testing in the initial stages [3] occurs throughout lifecycle, where reliable decisions on maintenance, retrofit and redesign when taken early can reduce operational product cost to customers as well as more speedily remove potential causes of failure.
\nThe broader challenge for PLM systems with their multiple decisions of different aspects of a product is two-fold. Figure 1 indicates these two broad challenges as updating performance and product descriptions iteratively. The first is to ensure that testing data updates performance and operational user descriptions consistently. The second occurs, when testing or use monitoring data prompts component or subsystem redesign. The underlying configurational product descriptions such as (Bill of materials) BoMs for manufacture and assembly will change accordingly, and updating these new product descriptions consistently is critical. With the focus of this chapter on the interplay of simulations, physical testing and monitoring data, it is noted that simulations depend on design descriptions and that inconsistent descriptions will reduce the accuracy of simulations leading to slower alignment between the results of simulations and the results from physical test. PLM has a design focused view in which the processes of product development effectively ‘call for’ testing and monitoring to validate and verify a design proposal. A critical circumstance in product lifecycle is the incorporation of new technologies in components and systems. Testing is often mandatory to meet regulations before new components can be fitted and operated, especially for complex products in the automotive and aerospace sectors which have a long service life. Conversely it is suggested here that a testing and use data view of PLM can drive design. It is argued that testing and design are equal partners in the product development process and promoting closer integration through PLM will give competitive advantage. This chapter explores how product development teams can reduce redesign iteration cycle time at several points in the product lifecycle. Incremental reductions in product cost and improvements in customer service at each cycle accumulate as the number of cycles increases yielding a significant benefits over the whole lifecycle.
\nIterative updating of product and performance descriptions.
Several pieces of research have examined how early availability of data from testing can reduce overall design duration [10, 11, 12]. However, these methods generally take an abstract perspective looking at optimising a given set of design and testing activities. However, they do not really question the assumed relationship between design (generally interventions in product such as design, maintenance or retrofit) and testing (generally derived data from analysis, simulation, physical test, or product use monitoring). Previous research [3] has examined the relationship between design and testing in their narrow senses and concluded that rebalancing leads to a more feasible and realistic model of process. Data from testing (in the wider sense throughout lifecycle) is expensive and time consuming to provide. How and when it is used is a critical part of process models. Conversely these descriptions of performance and functionality derived from testing require support from PLM alongside descriptions of product components, configurations and architectures derived from design activities [13].
\nDynamic process models have been identified as critical to delivering the benefits of PLM systems [1, 14]. Methods to construct evolving process models from PLM product models use Design Structure Matrices and workflow networks. This research theme presents a new framework for PLM systems so that they can support these evolving process models. Conversely, process models which highlight the balance (and integration) of design and testing (in their wider senses outlined above) assist in the construction of product models in PLM systems.
\nFigure 2 presents a generic sequential process model [1] of the stages of a product’s lifecycle from identifying market needs to recycling. This also represents the overall information flows in product lifecycle.
\nDevelopment process model (taken from [
Another view of information flow within product lifecycle is presented in Figure 3 adopted from [15], which consists of three main phases: beginning of life (BOL) includes idea generation, product development and production, middle of life (MOL), includes use, service and maintenance and end of life (EOL) comprises of reuse, recycle and disposal.
\nLevels of information flow achieved between the different product lifecycle phases [
At every stage of the product lifecycle, information such as design specification, Computer Aided Design (CAD) drawings, Computer aided Engineering (CAE), physical test results and technical documents are generated [16]. These pieces of information are captured, stored, managed, and transferred between different people and application system during product lifecycle management. In general, PLM includes the planning, execution, control, and documentation of all processes in the product lifecycle [17]. Information flow from the BOL phase to other phases is managed through several information systems, such CAD tools, product data management (PDM) and knowledge management (KM). However, the information flow from/to MOL and EOL is not well supported or managed through current tools and information systems, therefore the critical information from these phases about product use data often do not adequately feedback to the BOL phase [17]. This may cause the decision- making process in the product lifecycle to be inaccurate and incomplete.
\nDifferent descriptions make up a product model in PLM. These are created during stages of the product lifecycle to facilitate the next stage of the process. The descriptions of product, design and performance are particularly relevant for PLM management. The definitions for these descriptions vary and for this research the following definitions are adopted.
\nThis section outlines testing and associated activities at various stages of the product lifecycle as observed in a major international company which designs and manufactures automotive diesel engines. First, the company-based product lifecycle management process model is described. Next, types and sequencing of testing in the product development process of the company is examined. The scope of testing is then broadened to include other aspects of PLM, especially maintenance and new generation product design.
\nIt is a UK based diesel engine design and manufacturing company, that offers a wide range of diesel and gas engines and power packages from 8.2 kW to 1886 kW and has the capacity to produce up to 800,000 units per year. There are product families with different power ranges to meet the requirements from different markets. Products also vary in families depending on the number of cylinders, aspiration and control mechanism. Figure 4 shows the series of engines in the company’s product range. Eighteen semi-structured interviews were carried out at the company premises from February 2011 to February 2014. Eight engineers including a senior engineer, a development engineer, a business manager, a verification and validation manager and a validation team leader were interviewed. The case studies involved a series of interviews ranging from 40 to 180 minutes in duration.
\nCompany’s product range (taken from [
Figure 5 presents the view of the diesel engine company on their product lifecycle management process model. The top layer of the model shows key stages of the product lifecycle from the business strategy to the disposal of the product. The beginning, middle and end of life (BOL, MOL, EOL) classification, introduced in Section 2, is shown on the bottom layer. The middle layers show key activities that are undertaken during the stages of product development. Although, this chapter will only discuss the product design and development activities but it is important to highlight that development of the company’s product support starts in parallel with product design and development. Further, to aid support, the product is monitored by the company during its operation and up to its disposal.
\nProduct lifecycle management process model.
The company’s product development process mainly comprises two wide-ranging processes; the New Technology Introduction (NTI) process and the New Product Introduction (NPI) process. The general research and development exercise occurs through New Technology Induction (NTI) process in their research and Development (R&D) department before the NPI process starts. Emission-related legislation is a key driver in technology development for this company. New technology, for instance, an after-treatment system that will reduce engine emission, would be developed in the NTI stage, and this system would be integrated with the engine through NPI process. This chapter focuses on the NPI process as most directly aligned with generic product development and PLM. However, it is noted that the background processes of NTI critical in product lifecycle especially as new technologies come on stream during life, enabling redesign and retrofitting of new components and subsystems.
\nAs shown in Figure 6, this NPI process in the company has seven stages starting from the identification of market needs to the review of a product’s performance in the field, i.e. “Requirements” to the “Review of Market Performance” (see Tahera [4] for further details of the company processes). Each stage leads to a formal gate review. Based on prescribed criteria, a product must pass through review at the gateways (GW1, GW2,…GW7) before the product development project proceeds to the next stage.
\nStage-gate process for new product introduction in a company study.
Testing and the key activities of design, computer aided design and engineering (CAE), and procurement of prototypes are considered in this study. The latter is a major activity since these need specialist design and manufacturing expertise, often involving new manufacturing processes, materials and technologies. A more detailed flow diagram of these stages is presented in Figure 6 to show the integration of the key activities.
\nAs the diesel engine is a mature product and design changes happen incrementally, engineers in the company start with an existing analysis of the previous generation of products. For a new product introduction (NPI) programme, product objectives are checked against a current product issues (CPI) database. The CPI database provides information about failure modes and effects of current products, which will need special attention for next generation products. This process is carried out by lead team members who are the technical specialists, component owners, design owners and the verification and validation managers.
\nThe NPI process starts in the requirement gathering phase, and should be finished before Gateway 1 (GW1), i.e. before the concept demonstration phase, however spread across the SD phase. Initially, the design alternatives are included in the analysis, because selection of a design is made based on the risk with that particular design and the associated time and cost of its validation program. All design options are considered during this phase. These help to analyse the trade-offs that can be made across different design options. If this analysis identifies high risks in design decisions, CAE analysis and design changes are undertaken until the risk is reduced to an acceptable level to proceed with the project. These CAE analyses typically fall into three main areas: structural analysis, mechanism or dynamic analysis and thermo-fluid-flow dynamics. They result in the determination of parameters like material properties, geometric idealisation, and physics, which help to define the scope of the design activity. When the overall risks are assessed, design verification and validation actions are decided and planned to mitigate risk. Verification and validation activities can range from design changes, further CAE analysis to testing.
\nIdeally, most of the development related testing should start after the requirements have been identified i.e. after the Gateway 1 (GW1) and continue till the product is validated, i.e. until Gateway 5 (GW5), after which the engine is released to production. However, as depicted in Figure 6, these testing activities can spread further across subsequent stages of the process. At each stage, functional tests include the performance and emission (P&E) tests and mechanical tests for durability and reliability. Performance testing measures engines properties. For example, power and fuel consumption of an engine may be measured given a regulated fuel and air intake into the engine cylinder under steady state conditions of constant speed and load. While ensuring the performance, engines need to satisfy legislative conditions, for instance, the chemical constitution of the exhaust gases. The durability and reliability tests are conducted in peak harshness and tougher condition for a reasonably short period of time, called accelerated tests, forcing components or engine to fail/pass. For example, a gross thermal test procedure specifies the test cycle for determining the thermal fatigue resistance of core engine components. Typically, performance and emission related tests are performed before the mechanical durability and reliability testing.
\nTesting occurs at different levels of the product. Component level testing happens primarily at suppliers of components, although the case study company also carries out testing to investigate areas of design concern. Engine level testing involves standalone engines on a test bed. Machine level testing involves engines mounted in a machine or vehicle to reproduce expected conditions of use. Figure 7 indicates how engine level and machine level testing are mainly conducted in parallel in the three consecutive stages, for different purposes in the product development and PLM. The stages are characterised by the type of testing activity. Stage 2 has Concept/System Demonstration (SD), stage 3 has Design Verification (DV), stage 4 has Product Validation (PV) and stages 5 and 6 focus on Certification.
\nFlow diagram of testing and associated activities in diesel engine design and manufacture (adapted from [
Testing for certification happens in stages 5 and 6 before product is released to customers. Global emission regulations for diesel engine manufacturers provide requirements for the testing and evaluation of new components and new engine designs. It is an imperative for certification that the company follows the standard regulations during product development in terms of how a product needs to build and tested during validation for certification. For instance, to meet the in-use compliance, the company needs to demonstrate that the engine will meet specific levels of particulate emissions that will be detected and measured at the end of the useful life of the product.
\nThe case study company considers that testing of their product continues into use. As one senior engineer in the company remarked “
to monitor: how a product is used by a specific customer groups to identify any inappropriate and misuse,
to monitor the current health of the product to plan and design their aftermarket service, i.e. repairs and maintenance services.
to feedback to the beginning of the lifecycle as the product health monitoring data are the key input for designing the next generation of the product. This enables a reliable specification for the design phase and the development of a product description.
To help deliver these benefits the company creates two descriptions for monitoring and new product development in addition to the PLM descriptions mentioned in Section 2 for product, design and performance:
Current product governance—during product in operation/ field data to help new product development,
Product support development—during product development to help product monitoring.
In the diesel engine company, the ‘voice of the customer’ (VOC) is captured in many ways: directly, through discussions, interviews and workshops with customers, and indirectly through analysing customer specifications, warranty data, and field reports etc. and through dealers and distributor channels. Quality Functional Deployment (QFD) is applied to identify critical technical requirements of the design which will need verification and validation by testing.
\nThe company uses Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA) to evaluate a potential design for possible failures and to prevent them by proactively changing the design rather than reacting to adverse events after failures have occurred. This emphasis on prevention may reduce risk of failure in field. FMEA is particularly useful in evaluating a New Product Introduction programme prior to implementation as well as in assessing the impact of a proposed change to an existing design. More details about FMEA and steps of FMEA analysis can be found in [21]. FMEA is one of the most widespread methods used in determining priorities for technical risks in the PD process especially during the testing phase [22].
\nTo identify the potential effects, the company reviews documents, including historical data, warranty documents, field service data, and customers’ complaints. The company rates the severity of the effects of a failure mode. Any failure occurring in the field is considered as a high risk. Issues identified in use significantly drive next generation product development and testing procedures. The company continuously monitors and captures a product’s performance and durability when engines are used in a field. For a new product development, the company uses information from the ‘use in the field’ to assess how the product is performing and from the ‘use of the customer’ (how customers are using the product) to judge when a potential failure is likely to occur.
\nField data is particularly valuable as it consists of information about failures and repair actions that have been taken place under real operating conditions. This enables the acquisition of statistically significant reliability and repair data [23]. Issues in recording field incidents are addressed by Smith [23] particularly how reliance on people means that recording is subject to errors, omissions and misinterpretation.
\nMaintainability is characterised as the ease of retaining or restoring a product in effective use conditions by using specific procedures and resources [24]. It is an important factor in the economic success of an engineering system. “Design for maintainability requires an evaluation of the accessibility and reparability of the inherent systems and their related equipment in the event of failure, as well as of integrated systems shutdown during planned maintenance” [25]. Maintainability procedures and techniques not only avoid and fix failures they also consider how a system might fail. Three types of maintenance can be distinguished: breakdown maintenance (corrective maintenance), preventive maintenance, and predictive maintenance (condition-based maintenance).
\nCondition monitoring and fault diagnosis techniques are used for predictive maintenance [26]. Product health monitoring is a research area that covers failure detection, current health assessment and remaining useful life prediction [26, 27]. According to Fu et al. [28], most failures do not occur instantaneously. There is degradation and associated symptoms before the actual failure. The main objective of the predictive maintenance is to reliably identify these degradation processes so that maintenance can be affected before the actual breakdown. Predictive maintenance is based on the product’s performance and condition monitoring data. For example, in well-established methods, vibration data is analysed to find the frequency responses to identify the type of fault present in the equipment [27].
\nAt the design and development design stage the main characteristics of a product are determined and product performance is evaluated. Therefore, design for maintainability should be considered during the product development. However, according to Coulibaly et al. [29], there is lack of an efficient tool for considering maintainability and serviceability at the early design. Also, there is limited research on how information from design, CAE and tests can support product maintenance.
\nKiritsis et al. [30] have commented that clear definition of the information for maintenance is required if appropriate and adequate information is to be collected. Usually, data collected during Middle of Life (MOL) phase of product is for maintenance management purposes and may not be appropriate for feeding back to the Beginning of Life (BOL) phase to redesign or improve a product. Although people involved in this process often have a clear understanding of the required information, it is not straightforward to define or determine exactly what information will be required.
\nA baseline performance description would allow degradation over a period of use to be assessed. As mentioned before, advanced engineering products such as the diesel engines studied here are equipped with instruments such as sensors, meters, controllers, and computational devices and have the processing capacity to self-detect/ predict certain problems. Next section proposes a conceptual model to facilitate this process. Design and testing data from the EOL stages can be a useful reference point for comparing with monitoring data for predictive maintenance. Also, this model can help to clearly define the information required to be collected to comparison.
\nThis section extends a method for managing the iteration of design and testing during the product development stage [3] to predictive maintenance during the product use phase. First, the previous work will be described briefly, then how the work can be extended for the purpose of the predictive maintenance will be explained.
\nIn an iterative design and testing process, testing results usually drive the subsequent re(design) activities. A control system analogy can be used to describe an iterative design and testing process. A control system monitors, compares and adjusts at a sequence of time points. A monitoring device makes a measurement, and reports it to the comparator, which compares it with the pre-determined desired value. A decision rule uses the result from the comparator to adjust an effector. Similarly, in a test, actual measurements of a parameter are taken and compared with pre-determined values identified in design analysis to identify if the design is satisfactory.
\nDuring a lengthy durability test, for example in a “Deterioration Factor” test, intermediary test measurements are taken at a sequence of time points between start ts and finish tf (ts, t1, t2…tn…tf), as in Figure 7. Engineers know that the performance of an engine will change over the time and they allow an acceptable margin for each time point. This is illustrated in Figure 8 with a range of expected values specified by design and CAE prior to the test. Engineers will know how much they expect the product to deteriorate after say 200 or 500 hours of running the test. If the product deteriorates below an allowable limit, or margin, at that time, then it is deemed under-designed. If an engine performs above the margin then it is assumed to be over-designed. Therefore, if the engine produces any value under or above the expected values (including margins) then these deviations are not acceptable (see Figure 8) and indicate that redesign is required. ‘Deviation’ is the difference between the expected value of a parameter and an actual measurement of that parameter, at the time of an assessment (e.g. test).
\nA schematic of expected and measured value and associated deviations at different times during a test.
Figure 9 shows a schematic, which presents a simplified case of Figure 8 in which the expected value is a single value rather than a range. In practice this might be the mean of the distribution of expected values and is represented as the upper straight line (in red). The lower line (in green) represents the measured values. A physical test starts at ts and finishes at tf. Since the design meets specification based on the best knowledge available at ts, (or rather there is no information to indicate that it does not) the red and green line meet at ts. During the testing process, test measurements are taken and the actual value of a parameter at any point is identified.
\nA simplified model of deviations between expected and measured values during a test.
Deviation, at a time point, is identified as the difference between test measurements and expected value. The magnitude of the deviation is shown with a double-headed arrow in Figure 10 which depicts a case of under-design, with measured product performance gradually degrading and the deviation increasing monotonically. This considerable simplification is an assumption of the model developed here. The sloping line represents the evolution of test results over time, which tends to show increases in deviation of the design from expected performance. The deviation does not, in practice, decline linearly.
\nComparison of CAE and test data with field data to identify product’s performance level.
The difference between test measurements at different times, can reveal the ‘degree of evolution’ [12], i.e. how fast the deviation is changing in approach to the final value of the deviation at tf. Details can be found in [12].
\nA similar proposition can be used for predictive maintenance. The design stage identifies the expected product performance in use, i.e. a range of expected values of a parameter can be specified by design, CAE and tests during the development stages. Product’s health measurements are taken at a sequence of time points between start ts and finish tf (ts, t1, t2 …..tn….tf), as in Figure 9. Using a similar approach as explained above, the “amount of deviation” and the ‘degree of evolution’ can identified.
\nOnce, these two factors are identified, i.e. how fast and how much within a time interval a product is degrading can be determined, an effective maintenance plan can be made.
\nThe extension to include user and service data, combined with CAE simulations and test data to the latter stages of the product lifecycle in maintenance schedules and the refit of critical components is straightforward. As noted above the user and service data of previous products is used extensively in initial new product development, especially in FMEA and QFD processes. With a product currently in service, a history of user data will be accumulating. This serves several purposes. First to help specify and tune the maintenance schedules. Statistically significant data will be available from a large population of products about the behaviour, performance profiles and probabilities of failure of critical components in the product. This data is at the core of establishing service schedules and swop outs for potentially failing components.
\nSecond, failing components can be identified for redesign and refitting. The use conditions and the causes of failure may be clear from the data. The cycle of product development will be repeated with simulation, physical test, often necessary for regulation conformance, and redesign. The methods of Section 4 which allowed convergence of simulation and virtual test results with those of emerging physical tests will enable a quicker time to redesign and replacement of the failing component with corresponding significant improvements in product performance and customer satisfaction.
\nThird, the emergence of new technologies at high technology readiness levels means that designs which were not feasible originally, because of the risks associated with low TRL can now be incorporated into the product. The purpose is to reduce costs, both to manufacturer and to consumer of the product. This process is frequently complicated by the dependence of the product developer on the processes of a specialist supplier. The advantages of the new and now mature technologies can be assessed against the use and service data. This will determine the benefits to all parties of the new technology and thus the business and engineering pressures on timescales. With an intense pressure on speed of product improvement through new technologies, there is considerable advantage in being able to overlap test and simulation of the performance of new technology. It is noted that as these processes continue further use data is continually made available. Using targeted use data in the mix of virtual and physical testing can assist in tuning the overlap, indeed there is the opportunity to install prototype new technology components in the current product and monitor use. This may help the convergence of simulation, test and use data.
\nFourth, and consequential on the third, are the benefits of retrofitting. With a new technology embedded in a redesigned component, the opportunity may arise for variants, tailored to a range of use conditions. Which variant to retrofit and the associated programme of retrofit integrated with new maintenance schedules will depend on (i) performance characteristics of the variants from test and simulation and (ii) the specialised use data to match variant to user. This integration of test and use data, can assist the optimal choice of variants.
\nAcross these processes for maintenance, refit and retrofit, the aggregated benefits of combining physical test, simulation and use data can be considerable. This can result in reducing time to introduction of revised maintenance schedules, to designing and fitting new technologies, as well as reduced costs to manufacturers and users. When all taken together the benefits to product lifecycle accumulate and make the argument for PLM systems to provide consistent and up to date information flows in supporting these processes.
\nIn extending the model of overlapping test and design, using convergence between data sources, to these processes in the product lifecycle several additional descriptions arise in the PLM product model. These are driven by the necessity to manage the revised processes of product lifecycle which arise from the new data and new information flows, particularly in use and service data.
\nNew process models and new product models develop hand in hand. This section has considered how product development and support through life cycle combines test, simulation and use data. Some general issues affecting PLM product models include how to compare this field data with simulation and test, the potential effects on information flows in the process models and the application of field data from one phase of product to the development process for next generation products, where fundamental analysis of the configuration and architecture of a product is undertaken over and above retrofitting new components and new technologies to the existing products.
\nComparing field data with physical test is not straight forward. Usually, the case study company uses the accelerated testing methods in which tests are conducted in peak harshness and tougher condition for a reasonably short period of time. Most of the accelerated testing is to verify that the product will perform reliably during the useful life, until it starts to wear out. Physical test results might not be readily useful for comparing with the field data as the use conditions could be different, load cycle and sensor loading location could be different, for instance, CAE analysis and virtual testing can play an important role in comparing these test and field data. CAE analysis can model and control these conditions and can focus on individual parameters. The information of CAE analysis can be disaggregated into cycles, for example. Parameters can be analysed individually if required to support decision making. Analysis of these three data, i.e. CAE analysis, physical test and field data could provide useful information for predictive maintenance, as to analysis why and how a product might fail. This may also help to record/capture field data in an appropriate manner to be used by the design engineers for the next generation of the product.
\nThe potential implications for PLM systems of the integration of design, test and field data in making information available in preliminary form to be used by PLM for dependent activities. This effectively overlaps activities previously linearly sequenced and reduces times and costs for customers and suppliers. However, such integration comes with a significant overhead. Increased numbers of cycles of revisions to the PLM descriptions is entailed as some preliminary information although sufficient to start subsequent activities may not be enough to finish them especially when on-site assurance and regulatory conformation are necessary before customer use.
\nPLM systems assemble and manipulate product descriptions, maintaining a product model. These descriptions come from many sources in the product development process including design, simulation, test and field data. To some extent the timely availability of descriptions is dependent on the process model used to organise and manage tasks. This chapter has addressed this issue through examining how a change to process models through integrating activities has an impact on PLM descriptions.
\nThe main argument of this chapter is delineating further the relationship between the product models of PLM and the process models for planning product development. Karniel and Reich [1] make the case that product models of PLM, updated throughout product development, have the potential to drive the planning of adaptable and dynamic processes for product development. Along with other research (e.g. [14]), they develop methods and algorithms to derive dynamic process models from the updating product models of PLM. This view gives, in a sense, a priority to the product models of PLM. The ‘new paradigm’ of Karniel and Reich [1] provides a critical role for PLM in planning dynamic processes. Updated product models in PLM are used to update process models. Although, in many industry contexts, available information in PLM and other information systems is necessary for the management and organisation of the dynamic processes of product development, which are by nature contingent and dependent, it is not sufficient. There are imperatives and opportunities in managing processes can drive the modes and forms of information available to PLM.
\nThis chapter has examined one aspect of this mutual dependency between product and process models. Making changes to process models through increasing the integration of test, simulation and acquiring field data, changes the requirements for product models and associated PLM systems. This research adds to the understanding of ways that process models drive the types of PLM systems necessary to support them. It complements the extensive body of research on the how PLM systems can drive dynamic and adaptable process models for product development. Considerable further research is required both in theoretical methods and in industry cases to optimise the costly and time consuming processes of testing, simulation and field data collection as well as integrating them with PLM systems.
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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. 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In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRqB9QAK/Profile_Picture_1626163237970",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/333372",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"333372"},fullPath:"/profiles/333372",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()