The classification of synthetic (marked by bold) and natural apatites into three groups [15].
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"4783",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Apatites and their Synthetic Analogues - Synthesis, Structure, Properties and Applications",title:"Apatites and their Synthetic Analogues",subtitle:"Synthesis, Structure, Properties and Applications",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Apatite-type minerals and their synthetic analogues are of interest of many industrial branches and scientific disciplines including material sciences, chemical industry, agriculture, geology, medicine and dentistry. This book provides a basic overview of general knowledges of this topic in order to provide the comprehensive survey from a scientific and technological perspective. The book is divided into 10 chapters, which are devoted to the structure and properties of minerals from the supergroup of apatite, experimental techniques of preparation and characterization of synthetic analogues of apatite minerals, substitution in the structure of apatite as well as utilization of these materials in wide range of common and special advanced applications in industry, material sciences and research. Additionally, the phosphate rocks, their classification, geological role, mining and beneficiation of phosphate ore, production of elemental phosphorus, phosphoric acid and fertilizers are also described. Although this book is meant for chemist, material scientist and research engineers, the individual chapters contain theoretical background, historical aspects as well as examples of synthetic and analytical methods which may be also interesting for students and non-expert readers as well.",isbn:"978-953-51-2266-1",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2265-4",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5065-7",doi:"10.5772/59882",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"apatites-and-their-synthetic-analogues-synthesis-structure-properties-and-applications",numberOfPages:514,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"d435b3984fa4d5d2d6921679511fe384",bookSignature:"Petr Ptacek",publishedDate:"April 13th 2016",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4783.jpg",numberOfDownloads:28687,numberOfWosCitations:23,numberOfCrossrefCitations:16,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:10,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:53,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:39,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 11th 2014",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 2nd 2014",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 8th 2015",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"June 6th 2015",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 6th 2015",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Authored by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"76186",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Petr",middleName:null,surname:"Ptáček",slug:"petr-ptacek",fullName:"Petr Ptáček",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76186/images/4911_n.jpg",biography:"Petr Ptáček was born in 1978 in Kutná Hora, Czech Republic. He received his PhD in materials science and technology from Brno University of Technology, Faculty of Chemistry in 2005. Since 2005 up to now he has been working at the Institute of Materials Chemistry and at the Materials Research Centre of Brno University of Technology as an Assistant Professor and a Senior Researcher, respectively. Current teaching and research activities include chemistry, materials structure and thermodynamics, heat treatment of silicates, ceramics and advanced ceramics, refractory materials, special inorganic cements, geopolymers, colloidal chemistry and heterogeneous kinetics. He was awarded several times for his out-standing academic performance in the fields mentioned above. 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Werner. These minerals and their synthetic analogs represent a major class of ionic compounds and the most common crystalline form of calcium phosphates, which are of interest of many industrial branches and scientific disciplines. Since, apatite (fluorapatite) is the most abundant phosphate mineral, apatite bearing phosphate rocks represents an important source of inorganic phosphorus. First chapter of this book introduces the basic concepts of nomenclature, composition, classification, crystal structure, mineralogy and properties of minerals from the supergroup of apatite. Furthermore, the minerals from the group of apatite and polysomatic apatites are described. Since, the most of the topics mentioned in this chapter will be developed in the following chapters, the key concepts provided in this chapter are important to understood before proceeding further.",signatures:"Petr Ptáček",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49970",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49970",authors:[{id:"76186",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Petr",surname:"Ptáček",slug:"petr-ptacek",fullName:"Petr Ptáček"}],corrections:null},{id:"49971",title:"Other Minerals from the Supergroup of Apatite",doi:"10.5772/62210",slug:"other-minerals-from-the-supergroup-of-apatite",totalDownloads:2279,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The supergroup of apatite is divided into five groups of minerals. Therefore, minerals from the group of apatite were described in the first chapter, the second chapter of this book continues with description of minerals from the other four groups, i.e. minerals from the group of britholite, belovite, ellestadite and hedyphane. The structure, properties and known localities of these minerals were described. Although carbonate-apatite species are discredited from the IMA list of minerals, the chapter ends with description of structure and properties of carbonate-hydroxylapatite, carbonate-fluorapatite, and carbonate-rich varieties of apatite, i.e. francolite, dahlite, kurskite and collophane. The introduced three basic types of carbonate-apatites, i.e. type A, B and AB) are then discussed in Chapter 10 in depth.",signatures:"Petr Ptáček",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49971",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49971",authors:[{id:"76186",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Petr",surname:"Ptáček",slug:"petr-ptacek",fullName:"Petr Ptáček"}],corrections:null},{id:"49972",title:"Identification, Characterization and Properties of Apatites",doi:"10.5772/62211",slug:"identification-characterization-and-properties-of-apatites",totalDownloads:2463,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The parameters of unit cell, structure, refractive index, solubility data, PO4/CO3 ratio, surface area, etc., are important parameters for characterization of phosphate rocks. Third chapter of this book introduces methods for identification, characterization and properties of apatites in four main sections. The first part describes techniques used for identification and investigation of properties of phosphate minerals, including X-ray diffraction analysis, powder neutron diffraction, X-ray fluorescence as well as spectroscopic and microscopic methods. Some of these techniques are then demonstrated on the fluorapatite specimen in the second part. The third part of this chapter deals with thermodynamic properties of apatite-type compounds and introduces some of thermodynamic predictive methods. The fourth part is dedicated to dissolution of apatite, where the reaction between solids and liquids according to different dissolution models is described. Chapter ends with methods for the evaluation of reactivity of phosphate rocks.",signatures:"Petr Ptáček",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49972",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49972",authors:[{id:"76186",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Petr",surname:"Ptáček",slug:"petr-ptacek",fullName:"Petr Ptáček"}],corrections:null},{id:"49959",title:"Synthetic Phase with the Structure of Apatite",doi:"10.5772/62212",slug:"synthetic-phase-with-the-structure-of-apatite",totalDownloads:2707,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The previous chapters were dedicated to description of structure and properties of minerals from supergroup of apatite and introduction of method for identification and investigation of properties of phosphate minerals. The first synthesis of apatite was performed by Daubrée by passing the PCl3 vapor over red-hot lime. The fourth chapter of this book introduces techniques for the preparation of synthetic analogs of apatite minerals including solid-state synthesis, wet chemical methods, hydrothermal synthesis as well as methods for preparation of single crystals. Chapter continues with description of structure and properties of synthetic compounds of apatite type and ends with incorporation of 3d-metal ions into the hexagonal channel of apatite.",signatures:"Petr Ptáček",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49959",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49959",authors:[{id:"76186",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Petr",surname:"Ptáček",slug:"petr-ptacek",fullName:"Petr Ptáček"}],corrections:null},{id:"49962",title:"Rare-earth Element-bearing Apatites and Oxyapatites",doi:"10.5772/62209",slug:"rare-earth-element-bearing-apatites-and-oxyapatites",totalDownloads:2588,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A number of prepared alkaline-earth-rare-earth silicates and germanates also have the structure of apatite type. The fifth chapter of this book then continues with description of synthetic compounds of apatite structure. Attention will be directed to description of rare-earth element bearing apatites and oxyapatites. The structure, properties and preparation of apatite-type silicates, germanates and borates were described. This chapter gives also description of oxygen-rich apatites, which are promising material for electrolytes in solid oxide fuel cells and sensors and explain the basic concepts between structure and conductivity of these compounds. The additional information about application of apatites is given in the last chapter of this book. Furthermore, N-apatite, REE vanadocalcic apatite and apatite type yttrium phosphates were described.",signatures:"Petr Ptáček",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49962",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49962",authors:[{id:"76186",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Petr",surname:"Ptáček",slug:"petr-ptacek",fullName:"Petr Ptáček"}],corrections:null},{id:"49963",title:"Substituents and Dopants in the Structure of Apatite",doi:"10.5772/62213",slug:"substituents-and-dopants-in-the-structure-of-apatite",totalDownloads:2722,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The structure of apatites allows large variations of composition given by the generic formula (M10(XO4)6Z2) including partial or complete substitution of both the cationic as well as the anionic sites, formation of nonstoichiometric forms and solid solutions. More than half of naturally occurring elements can be accommodated by apatite structure in a significant extend. The sixth chapter of this book is divided into five sections. The first, second and the third part deals with many examples of substitution including cationic substitution of M sites, anionic substitution of X-site and anionic substitution of Z-site, respectively. The remaining two sections continue with solid solution of apatites and ends with description of trace elements and their isotopes in the structure of apatite, respectively.",signatures:"Petr Ptáček",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49963",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49963",authors:[{id:"76186",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Petr",surname:"Ptáček",slug:"petr-ptacek",fullName:"Petr Ptáček"}],corrections:null},{id:"49984",title:"Phosphate Rocks",doi:"10.5772/62214",slug:"phosphate-rocks",totalDownloads:3205,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Apatite is the most abundant phosphate mineral which include more than 95% of al phosphorus in the Earth´s crust. The seventh chapter of this book provides brief description of sedimentary and igneous phosphate rocks and introduces basic ideas for characterization and classification of phosphate rocks. The chapter continues with description of biogenic apatites, description of phosphate rocks deposits and introduces other sources of phosphorus. Furthermore, geological role of apatite, cycle of phosphorus, weathering of apatite, fission track analysis and extraterrestrial apatites were described. The last section is dedicated to structure and properties important of non-apatitic phosphate minerals, such as atuanite, crandallite, lazulite, millisite, monazite, tobernite, xenotime etc.",signatures:"Petr Ptáček",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49984",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49984",authors:[{id:"76186",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Petr",surname:"Ptáček",slug:"petr-ptacek",fullName:"Petr Ptáček"}],corrections:null},{id:"49964",title:"Mining and Beneficiation of Phosphate Ore",doi:"10.5772/62215",slug:"mining-and-beneficiation-of-phosphate-ore",totalDownloads:4523,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The first commercial production of phosphate rock began in England in 1847. A wide variety of techniques and equipment is used to mine and process phosphate rocks in order to beneficiate low-grade ores and remove impurities. The eighth chapter of this book deals with mining and beneficiation of phosphate ore. The principle and operating conditions of important parts of manufacturing process including separation, classification, removing of carbonates, calcination and flotation was described. The chapter ends with description of techniques used for extraction of rare earth element.",signatures:"Petr Ptáček",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49964",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49964",authors:[{id:"76186",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Petr",surname:"Ptáček",slug:"petr-ptacek",fullName:"Petr Ptáček"}],corrections:null},{id:"49965",title:"Utilization of Apatite Ores",doi:"10.5772/62216",slug:"utilization-of-apatite-ores",totalDownloads:2593,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Phosphate rock is an important mineral commodity used in the chemical industry and production of food. The first section of ninth chapter of this book introduces utilization of apatite ores for manufacturing of phosphorus. The second part deals with production of phosphoric acid via wet and thermal process and utilization of byproducts such as phosphogypsum, phosphorous slag and ferrophosphorus. The last section of this chapter describes the methods for production of fertilizers, such as supephosphates, Thomas slag, ammonium phosphates, thermophosphates, etc., and the chapter ends with environmental demand of phosphate fertilizers.",signatures:"Petr Ptáček",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49965",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49965",authors:[{id:"76186",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Petr",surname:"Ptáček",slug:"petr-ptacek",fullName:"Petr Ptáček"}],corrections:null},{id:"49966",title:"Utilization of Compounds of Phosphorus",doi:"10.5772/62217",slug:"utilization-of-compounds-of-phosphorus",totalDownloads:2545,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The last chapter of this book provides brief description of utilization of apatites and phosphorus-bearing compounds in industry and material science research. Since the chemistry of phosphorus is quite complicated and a quickly developing field of science, the topics described below are only limited insights to chemically bonded ceramics and refractories, dental phosphate cements, oil-well cements, phosphate glasses and glass ceramics. Chapter continues with description of functional phosphate materials applied as solid oxide fuel cells electrolytes, sensors, phosphors, catalysts and coatings. 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Hakan",middleName:null,surname:"Dogan",slug:"kamil-hakan-dogan",fullName:"Kamil Hakan Dogan"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11720",leadTitle:null,title:"Research and Advanced Clinical Practice in the Treatment of Osteoarthritis",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"\r\n\tOsteoarthritis (OA) is the most common arthropathy causing pain and if symptoms persist they can lead to disability. Clinically, it is characterized by a progressive loss of articular cartilage and remodeling of the underlying bone remodeling due to a combination of an active response of chondrocytes and the inflammatory cells in the surrounding tissues. Recent research place greater emphasis to promotes our understanding of the OA pathophysiology. A variety of risk factors have been identified. These include gender, traumatic injury, obesity, metabolic dysfunction, nutrition, mechanical factors, and environmental and genetic factors. Extensive research over the past 20 years provided a better understanding, diagnosis, and management of OA. The first part of this book deals with the current progress of OA imaging diagnosis and treatments. The second part discusses how exercise could benefit those with OA. The third part explores potential shreds of evidence of medicinal plants in the strategies for disease prevention.
\r\n\t
The minerals The mineral classification system developed by German mineralogist K.H. STRUNZ. The variable formula should be written as: (Ca,Sr,Pb,Y,Mn,Na)5(PO4,AsO4,SO4CO3)3(F,Cl,OH).
( A mineral group consists of two or more minerals with the same or essentially the same structure (i.e. isotypic structure belonging to one structural type) and composed of chemically similar elements (i.e. elements with similar crystal-chemical behavior). Crystal structures considered as being “essentially the same” can be denoted by the term The phosphorus element was discovered by a Hamburg alchemist H. Brand. As was described in the book of G.E. Leibnitz (1646–1716)
Apatite minerals can be formally derived from phosphoric acid In 3 moles of H3PO4, 8 H+ ions were replaced by 4 Ca2+, and the last H+ was replaced by Ca-Z (Z = OH, F, Cl…).
The ratios of the mean sizes of ions “ Despite the fact that this classification is out of fashion, there are some interesting structural consequences with general validity. Therefore, this classification was included to the introduction of this book.
Vanadinite–svabite group with the
Apatite–mimetite group with the
Pyromorphite group with the
The summary of some apatite species is listed in Table 1. The current nomenclature of minerals from apatite supergroup is described in Section
The specific gravity of Latin phrase (abbreviated as s.l.) used, which means “in the broad sense.”
Apatite occurs in a wide range of igneous and sedimentary rocks (
The classification of synthetic (marked by bold) and natural apatites into three groups [15].
Some of known forms of apatite crystals: c (0001), m (11
Some examples of morphology of apatite crystals are shown in Fig. 1. The most abundant crystal faces of apatite possess the Miller–Bravais indices The orientation of planes in crystal was determined by Miller indices, i.e. three integers (hkl), which referee to the plane (or planes Pinacoid {0001} consists of two opposite faces perpendicular to the 6-fold axis. It commonly occurs in combination with hexagonal prism and hexagonal or dihexagonal truncated pyramids [25]. The single face is termed as pedion. The hexagonal (and rhombohedral) crystal system uses four (Miller–Bravais) indices (
Apatite from Gletsch (Switzerland):
This means that the shapes pinacoid {0001}, hexagonal prisms {10 Hexagonal dipyramids {
According to the crystal system, apatite minerals belong to the hexagonal In hexagonal crystal system
Point group–subgroup relationship of point groups [
The projection of hexagonal crystal divided to twelve parts (dodecant) by the lateral axial planes is shown in Fig. 4(a). The pole (×) of each plane requires five other points above as well as six other located on the same place below the projection plane (b). This leads to the formation of hexagonal dipyramid. The cross section provides hexagon (c) inclined to right or left. Therefore, the right or right-handed form (d) and the left or left-handed form (e) of dipyramids were recognized. One is formed from the poles marked by sign (×) and the second one is in the void dodecants of projections (b). The right form can be turned left by the rotation of 180° along one of the crystallographic axis
Hexagonal dipyramidal crystal system: hexagonal lattice (a), stereographic projection (b), hexagon (c) and right (d) and left (e) dipyramids.
The crystal shaper related to the hexagonal–dipyramidal crystal system can be derived via extend or skip altering planes (the same up and down) according to Table 2.
\n1 | \n2 | \n3 | \n4 | \n5 | \n6 | \n7 | \n8 | \n9 | \n10 | \n11 | \n12 | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | \n2 | \n3 | \n4 | \n5 | \n6 | \n7 | \n8 | \n9 | \n10 | \n11 | \n12 | \n
Derivation of shapes in hexagonal–dipyramidal crystal system.
The space group There are 14 Bravais lattices, 32 point groups (crystal classes), and 230 crystallographic space groups in three dimensions [28]. The space groups were independently described by E.S. Federov (1853–1919, Russian), A.M. Schönflies (1853–1928, German), and W. Barlow (1845–1934, English) [32]. The corresponding Schönflies symbol is C6h2. The number of group is 176. Hexad denotes the sixfold rotation axis. The 4-, 3-, 2-, and 1-fold rotation axes are termed as tetrad, triad, diad, and monad [27]. Glide plane combines a reflection with a translation parallel to the plane.
The composition of natural apatites (Ca5(PO4)3(F,Cl,OH)) exhibits large variations in the content of F, Cl and OH. Pure end members, e.g. hydroxylapatite (Ca5(PO4)3OH), fluorapatite (Ca5(PO4)3F) and chlorapatite (Ca5(PO4)3Cl), are uncommon in nature, but binary and ternary compositions are widely reported in igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks. Petrologists proposed that the variations in OH–F–Cl ratio in apatites or between biotite and apatite may be used as a geothermometer [33],[34],[35] and an indicator of volatile fugacity of halogens and water in magmatic and hydrothermal processes [33],[36]. The concentration of OH, F and Cl also directly correlates with the properties such as etching rates, annealing characteristics of U fission track in apatite (
Apatite minerals represent a major class of ionic compounds [37] of interest to many disciplines, including medical and biomaterial sciences (
The mineral apatite was first recognized by German geologist Abraham Gottlob Werner (1950–1817) and named in 1786 from Greek word “
Since 1856–1860, these minerals have been named fluorapatite, chlorapatite, and hydroxylapatite, depending on the dominant The concept of mineral species is defined mainly on the basis of its chemical composition and crystallographic properties. For example, hydroxylapatite and fluorapatite both crystallize in the hexagonal system, with the same space group and have similar unit-cell parameters. They are considered as the separate species because the relevant structural site is predominantly occupied by OH− in hydroxylapatite and by F− in fluorapatite [4]. The nomenclature system based on chemical-symbol suffixes described by Levison [47] and originally applied only to rare-earth mineral species, which are defined to have the total atomic percentage of rare-earth elements and Y greater than any other element within a single set of crystal-structure sites, e.g. (~REE, Ca). A species name is related to a rare-earth mineral whenever the presence of rare-earth element distribution is determined. The chemical symbol for the predominant rare-earth element is appended, in parentheses, by means of a hyphen to the group name; this results in mineral species names such as monazite-(Ce), monazite-(La), and monazite-(Nd) [48]. If a rare-earth mineral appears together with considerable quantities of another rare-earth element which is unusual, or for any reason deserving the notice, two or more chemical symbols may be placed in the parentheses [47]. For example, a monazite–(Ce) with a considerable amount of samarium would be written as monazite–(Ce,Sm). Another examples are strontium apatite named as apatite-(SrOH) and clinohydroxylapatite named as apatite–(CaOH)–M.
One of the rationales for that change was the benefit of having the names of these minerals appear consecutively in alphabetical listings and databases. These changes did not fully consider the structural complexity of minerals with the apatite structure [45],[49],[50]. The name of these minerals was currently changed back from apatite–CaF) apatite–(CaOH), apatite–(CaCl) to fluorapatite, hydroxylapatite and chlorapatite. Furthermore, the monoclinic variants In essence, the polytypes are distinguished by alphanumerical symbols appended to the root name and joined to by a hyphen, for example, wollastonite-3
The recently approved nomenclature scheme [49] could logically be extended to other minerals from the group of apatite, e.g. pyromorphite [52] should be named as apatite–(PbCl) or alforsite [53],[54] as apatite–(BaCl). It is also possible to include various tetrahedral cations (P, As, or V) into the extended suffix, e.g. apatite–(PbAsCl) instead of mimetite [55]. The results would be the mineral names, which are more similar to chemical formula [45]. The name mimetite–M is used for the polymorphic variant of mimetite. The mineral was previously known as clinomimetite and currently is not considered a distinct species [45].
\nThe “apatite group” traditionally includes phosphate, arsenate and vanadate minerals. Other minerals belonging to different chemical classes, namely, silicates (e.g. britholite–(Ce) [56],[57] or britholite–(Y) [57],[58]), silicate-sulfates (e.g. hydroxylellestadite [45],[59], fluorellestadite [45],[60] and chlorellestadite The names of ellestadite–(OH), ellestadite–(F), and ellestadite–(Cl) minerals were changed back to hydroxylellestadite, fluorellestadite, and chlorellestadite, respectively [45],[49].
The valid IMA-accepted mineral species within the apatite supergroup can be divided into five groups [45]:
All of valid species within the apatite supergroup are listed in Table 3. There are also other minerals with the apatite structure [45]:
Borosilicates with REEs atoms strongly prevalent over calcium in M sites, including three valid minerals: tritomite–(Ce), Ce5(SiO4,BO4)3(OH,O) [57], melanocerite-(Ce), Ce5(SiO4,BO4)3(OH,O) Melanocerite–Ce and tritomite–(Ce) are probably the same mineral, and tritomite-(Y) could be the Y-dominant analogue [45].
Carbonate–fluorapatite and carbonate–hydroxylapatite: Although the carbonate–fluorapatite names are extensively used in literature to denote the mineral portion of bones a teeth of vertebrates, their validity as distinct mineral species belonging to the group of apatite remains disputable. CO32− anion is known to occur as subordinate component in the members of apatite group [64],[65], but both minerals mentioned above are discredited.
Group | \nExisting name (IMA list of minerals) | \nApproved name | \nEnd-member formula | \n
---|---|---|---|
Apatite group | \nApatite–(CaF) | \nFluorapatite | \nCa5(PO4)3F | \n
Apatite–(CaCl) | \nChlorapatitea | \nCa5(PO4)3Cl | \n|
Chlorapatite– | \n|||
Apatite–(CaOH) | \nHydroxylapatitea | \nCa5(PO4)3OH | \n|
Apatite–(CaOH)– | \nHydroxylapatite– | \n||
Svabite | \nSvabite | \nCa5(AsO4)3F | \n|
Turneaureite | \nTurneaureite | \nCa5(AsO4)3Cl | \n|
Johnbaumite | \nJohnbaumitea | \nCa5(AsO4)3OH | \n|
Fermorite | \nJohnbaumite– | \n||
2008-009c | \nStronadelphite | \nSr5(PO4)3F | \n|
Pyromorphyte | \nPyromorphyte | \nPb5(PO4)3Cl | \n|
Mimetite | \nMimetitea | \nPb5(AsO4)3Cl | \n|
Clinomimetite | \nMimetite– | \n||
Alforsite | \nAlforsite | \nBa5(PO4)3Cl | \n|
Vanadinite | \nVanadinite | \nPb5(VO4)3Cl | \n|
Hedyphane group | \nHedyphane | \nHedyphane | \nCa2Pb3(AsO4)3Cl | \n
– | \n“ | \nCa2Pb3(AsO4)3OH | \n|
Phosphohedyphane | \nPhosphohedyphane | \nCa2Pb3(PO4)3Cl | \n|
Phosphohedyphane–(F) | \nCa2Pb3(PO4)3F | \n||
– | \n“ | \nCa2Pb3(PO4)3OH | \n|
– | \nCa2Sr3(PO4)3F | \n||
Morelandite | \nMorelandite | \n||
– | \nMn2Ca3(PO4)3Cl | \n||
Cesanite | \nCesanite | \nCa2Na3(SO4)3OH | \n|
Caracolite | \nCaracolite | \nNa2(Pb2Na)(SO4)3Cl | \n|
Aiolosite | \nAiolosite | \nNa2(Na2Bi)(SO4)3Cl | \n|
Belovite group | \nFluorcaphite | \nFluorcaphite | \nSrCaCa3(PO4)3F | \n
Apatite–(SrOH) | \nSrCaSr3(PO4)3Fe | \n||
Deloneite–(Ce) | \n|||
Belovite–(Ce) | \nBelovite–(Ce) | \nNaCeSr3(PO4)3F | \n|
Belovite–(La) | \nBelovite–(La) | \nNaLaSr3(PO4)3F | \n|
Kuannersuite–(Ce) | \nKuannersuite–(Ce) | \nNaCeBa3(PO4)3F0.5Cl0.5 | \n|
Britholite group | \nBritholite–(Ce) | \nBritholite–(Ce) | \n(Ce,Ca)5(SiO4)3OH | \n
Britholite–(Y) | \nBritholite–(Y) | \n(Y,Ca)5(SiO4)3OH | \n|
Fluorbritholite–(Ce) | \nFluorbritholite–(Ce) | \n(Ce,Ca)5(SiO4)3F | \n|
2009-005c | \n(Y,Ca)5(SiO4)3F | \n||
Fluorcalciobritholite | \nFluorcalciobritholite | \n(Ca,REE)5(SiO4,PO4)3F | \n|
Melanocerite–(Ce) | \n–f | \n\n | |
Tritomite–(Ce) | \nTritomite–(Ce) | \nCe5(SiO4,BO4)3(OH,O) | \n|
Tritomite–(Y) | \nTritomite–(Y) | \nY5(SiO4,BO4)3(O,OH,F) | \n|
Ellestadite group | \nEllestadite–(OH) | \nCa5(SiO4)1.5(SO4)1.5OH | \n|
Ellestadite–(F) | \nCa5(SiO4)1.5(SO4)1.5F | \n||
Ellestadite–(Cl) | \n–g | \n– | \n|
Mattheddleite | \nMattheddleite | \nPb5(SiO4)1.5(SO4)1.5Cl | \n|
\n | – | \n“Hydroxylmattheddleite”d | \nPb5(SiO4)1.5(SO4)1.5OH | \n
Existing (IMA) approved names and end-member formulas for the minerals within the apatite supergroup. Approved changes are marked by bold and names in quotes are the most appropriate for potential new minerals.
a The suffix –H could be used to denote the hexagonal polymorph.
b The name of monoclinic polymorph that should no longer to be considered as distinct species.
c Mineral approved by the IMA CNMNC without a name.
d Potentially new mineral species.
e A mistake in the IMA list of minerals, please see Pasero et al [45] for further details. Since the mineral was initially considered to be the Sr-dominant analogue of fluorapatite with simplified formula (Sr,Ca)5(PO4)3(F,OH), it was named as strontium apatite. Later structural study determined the idealized formula of mineral as SrCaSr3(PO4)3F. Recently, the mineral was renamed as apatite–(SrOH) [45],[49]. However, the name should have been changed to apatite–(SrF) given that fluorine is the dominant Z− anion.
f Mineral to be potentially discredited (= tritomite–(Ce)).
g Mineral be discredited (a mineral with ideal end-member formula Ca5(SiO4)1.5(SO4)1.5Cl is assumed not to exist).
The nomenclature of minerals from the apatite group is very confusing because many of the names are initially used to ill-defined varieties, which did not deserve specific status. There are many historical names, These names are no longer accepted by IMA/CNMMN.
Described deeply in
The most frequent color of foliated apatite is snow-white, yellowish-whiter, reddish-white and greenish-white. Several of these colors occur frequently in the same piece. It sometimes occurs also as massive and disseminated in distinct concretions, which are large and small angulo-granular, and sometimes thin and straight lamellar, generally crystallized. The crystals are small, very small and middle-sized and occur sometimes single, sometimes many irregularly superimposed on each other. It is brittle and easily fragile. Foliated apatite becomes electric by heating and by being rubbed with woolen cloth. On glowing coals, it emits a pale grass-green phosphoric light [79]
In Europe, asparagus stone occurs as a porous iron-shot limestone near Cape de Gate, in Murcia in Spain, in granite near Nantes and is basalt at Mont Ferrier, in France, imbedded in green talc, in the Zillertal in Salzburg, in beds of magmatic ironstone, along with sphere or rutilite (the name is used for almandine, rutile, titanate, or rutilized quartz), calcareous-spar, hornblende, quartz and augite, at Arendal in Norway. In America, it was found imbedded in granite at Baltimore, and in mica-slate in West Greenland [86].
Adjectival modifier that gives some information on the chemistry of the mineral, for example, “sodian,” “sodium-rich,” “sodium-bearing,” or “sodium equivalent of” [93].
Please provide the correct symbol for this unconverted character. Dear editor, the symbol (void square) is correct and means a vacancy. Thank you for your notice, the all of corrections and suggestions. Best regards, Petr Ptáček
Breccias are among the most common features in ore deposits. They are associated with numerous types of ores, of either endogenic or supergenic origin, and in both subsurface and submarine environments. Breccia is a rock composed of angular fragments of preexisting rocks embedded in fine-grained matrix cement [101].
The list of calcium phosphate species accepted by Commission on New Minerals and Mineral Names (CNMMN) The Commission on New Minerals, Nomenclature and Classification (CNMNC) of the International Mineralogical Association (IMA) was formed in July 2006 by a merger between the Commission on New Minerals and Mineral Names (CNMMN) and the Commission on Classification of Minerals, at the request of both commissions.
The stoichiometric end-member formula for phosphate-bearing apatites is M10(PO4)6Z2 (Z = 2) (reduced formula M5(PO4)3Z (Z = 2) can be used [45]), where
Representation used for orthophosphate anion [
The PO4 unit in the apatite structure can be partially substituted by AsO4 (e.g. hedyphane (Ca2Pb3(AsO4)3Cl) [102] and minerals from the group of pyromorphite (Pb5(PO4)3Cl [17],[52], etc.), SiO4, SO4, VO4 (vanadinite (Pb5(VO4)3Cl) [103] and CO3 Please see the discussion dedicated to the nomenclature of other minerals with the structure of apatite in
The comparison of properties of isoelectric ortho-oxyanions [106].
The crystal structure of apatite ( The term crystalline means atomic ordering on the scale that can produce an “idexable” (i.e. with Mille indices) diffraction pattern when the substance is traversed by a wave with suitable wavelength (X-ray, electrons, neutrons, etc.). However, some amorphous substances (e.g. georgeite, calciouranoite) were also accepted as minerals by the CNMMN.
where left superscripts indicate ideal coordination numbers.
Minerals from apatite group belong to the hexagonal–dipyramidal crystal system with the space group P63/M (fluorapatite, hydroxylapatite and chlorapatite [45]), to trigonal–pyramidal system with the space group P3 (belovite–Ce [110]), also to trigonal–rhomobohedral system with the space group \n
Fluorapatite (Ca10(PO4)6F2, FA), chlorapatite (Ca10(PO4)6Cl2, ClA) and hydroxylapatite (Ca10(PO4)6OH2, HA) are the most important end members of apatite groups of minerals (Table 7). The hexagonal (P63/M) and monoclinic (P21/B) polymorphs Polymorphic minerals are those that have essentially the same chemical composition but different crystal structures. The polymorphic forms of minerals are considered as different species if their structures are topologically different. For example, graphite and carbon are polymorphs of crystalline carbon; both have the same composition, but their structures are topologically different and therefore the minerals such as these are considered as separate species [4].
Vertical symmetry elements of the space group
The P63/M space group Fig. 6(a) has three kinds of vertical symmetry elements [37]:
Sixfold screw axes passing through the corners of the unit cells. These symmetry elements are equivalent to a threefold rotation axis with a superimposed twofold screw axis.
Threefold rotation axes passing through 2/3, 1/3, 0 and 1/3, 2/3, 0.
Twofold screw axes passing through the midpoints of the cell edges and its center.
There are also mirror planes perpendicular to the
The nearest neighbor of Ca(1)O9 and Ca(2)O5Z(O) cationic polyhedral sites in the apatite structure (a) [
The P63/M structure of calcium apatites Fig. 6(b) consists of isolated PO4 (in general XO4) tetrahedra centered at
Anion column in the hexagonal structure of fluor-, hydroxyl- and chlorapatite (a) [
Adjacent Ca(l) and Ca(2) polyhedra are linked through oxygen atoms shared with PO4 tetrahedra. The relationships among ionic sites and multiplicity and Wyckoff positions in all known space groups of apatite supergroup mineral are shown in Table 5 [33],[38],[45], [66],[104],[117],[118].
\nSite | \nP63/m | \nP63 | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \nP3 | \nP21/m | \nP21 | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
M(1) | \n4f32 32 Consists of Wyckoff letter (f) and multiplicity (4). The multiplicity of the Wyckoff position is equal to the number of equivalent points per unit cell. | \n2 × 2b | \n2i, 2h | \n2 × 2d | \n2 × 1b, 2 × 1c | \n4f | \n2 × 2a | \n
M(2) | \n6h | \n6c | \n3k, 3j | \n6g | \n2 × 3d | \n2a, 2 × 2e | \n3 × 2a | \n
X | \n6h | \n6c | \n3k, 3j | \n6g | \n2 × 3d | \n3 × 2e | \n3 × 2a | \n
O | \n2 × 6h, 12i | \n4 × 4c | \n2 × 3k, 2 × 3j, 2 × 6l | \n4 × 6g | \n8 × 3d | \n6 × 2e, 3 × 4f | \n12 × 2a | \n
Z | \n2a or 2b or 4e (×0.5) | \n2a | \n1a, 1b or 2g | \n1a, 1b | \n2 × 1a | \n2a or 2e | \n2a | \n
Structure site multiplicities and Wyckoff positions for all known space groups of apatite supergroup minerals [45].
The anion column in fluorapatite Fig. 8(F) shows fluoride anion located on the mirror plane at
Each F is bonded to three Ca(2) atoms, which form a triangle within the mirror plane Fig. 8(b) and Fig. 16(b). Because of its larger size and longer Ca–Cl bond length as compared to Ca–OH and Ca–F, Cl anions in chlorapatite are displaced from the (0,0,¼) special position on the mirror plane to two equivalent half-occupied positions at (0,0,0.4323) and (0,0,0.0677). In chlorapatite, Cl anion is displaced so far from the mirror plane (1.2 Å) that a weak bond (0.09 valence units) forms between Ca(2) and the second Cl anion, Cl′, located one-half unit cell away along
The species-forming substitutions at the
Correlation between P63/m and P21/b sites in ternary apatites [
The difference between hexagonal and monoclinic polymorphs (e.g. apatite–(CaOH) and apatite–(CaOH)–M, see Table 3) lies in the position of The positions of noncolumn atoms in P21/b ternary apatite are similar to those in P63/m ternary apatite [116].
Monoclinic symmetry of mineral with the space group
The structure of minerals from the family of apatite allows to formulate seven requirements, including the following [109]:
Cation ordering in chemically complex members with minimal M(1)4(XO4)6 framework distortion (metaprism twist angle <25°) that is accommodated in the P63, \n
Intra- and inter-tunnel anion ordering that leads to P21/B varieties, possible modulation and extension of the (001) basal plane.
Framework topological tuning where the M(2)Z2 tunnel contents are sufficiently small or substoichiometric so that the framework must constrict by increasing M(1)O6 metaprism twist angle to >~25°, which is accompanied by a reduction to P21/M, P21, or P symmetry.
Framework hybrid intergrowth in which oxygen super- and substoichiometry leads to partial or complete replacement of BO4 tetrahedra by BO5 and BO3 polyhedra, sometimes accompanied by a reduction in symmetry.
Polymorphic transformations initiated by the application of temperature/pressure that changes ionic sizes to drive the framework tuning.
Pseudomorfism whereby quite compositional adjustments lead to breaches in the critical limit of the metaprism twist angle and to the change in symmetry.
Polysomatism that arises by rotational twinning of M5X3O18Zδ modules in ordered and disordered sequences [109].
Less known polysomes of apatite are Greek name reflecting luster appearance of mineral. Mineral is named according to American geologist Lewis Nason.
Crystallochemical formulae | \nChemical formulae | \nStacking sequence | \n|
---|---|---|---|
2 | \nM10(XO4)6Z2δ | \nM10X6O24Z2δ 1) | \n… | \n
3 | \nM15(X2O7)3(XO4)3Z3δ | \nM15X9O33Z3δ 2) | \n… | \n
4 | \nM20(X3O10)3(XO3)3Z4δ | \nM20X12O42Z4δ | \n… | \n
M20(X2O7)6Z4δ | \nM20X12O42Z4δ 3) | \n… | \n|
5 | \nM25(X4O13)3(XO4)3Z5δ | \nM25X15O51Z5δ | \n… | \n
M25(X3O10)3(X2O7)3Z5δ | \n… | \n||
6 | \nM30(X5O15)3(XO4)3Z6δ | \nM30X18O60Z6δ | \n… | \n
M30(X4O13)3(X2O7)3Z6δ | \n… | \n||
M30(X3O10)6Z6δ | \n… | \n||
7 | \nM35(X6O19)3(XO4)3Z7δ | \nM35X21O69Z7δ | \n… | \n
M35(X5O16)3(X2O7)3Z7δ | \n… | \n||
M35(X4O13)3(X4O10)3Z7δ | \n… | \n||
8 | \nM40(X7O22)3(XO4)3Z8δ | \nM40X24O78Z8δ | \n… | \n
M40(X5O16)3(X3O10)3Z8δ | \n… | \n||
M40(X4O13)6X6δ | \n… | \n||
∞ | \nM5(X3O9)Xδ | \nM5X3O9Zδ | \n… | \n
1) Apatite | \n2) Ganomalite | \n3) Nasonite | \n
Staking sequence and compositions of polysomic apatites [109].
Certain complex structures are logically considered as intergrowths of chemically or topologically discrete modules. When the proportions of these components vary systematically, a polysomatic series is created. Certain complex structures are logically considered as intergrowths of chemically or topologically discrete modules. When the proportions of these components vary systematically a polysomatic series is created, the creation of which provides a basis for understanding the defects, the symmetry alternation and the trends in physical properties. The composition of polysomic family, which is formed by the condensation of
The apatite modules condense in a configuration to create B
Based on the value of parameter
Apatite: the value of
Ganomalite: the value of
Nasonite: the value of
The
The apatite modules, while topologically identical, are often compositionally or symmetrically distinct and an infinite number of polysomes are feasible. The end members are the
Schematic representation of
Expanded apatite phase space containing all permutations of polymorphs, pseudomorphs, polysomes and hybrid structures, which may be feasible [
An idealized polysome module of apatite has the composition of
The prism of expanded apatite space (Fig. 11) enables to formulate new derivatives via the creation of M(1)4M(2)6(XO3/XO4/XO5)6Z2 hybrids, which may display the polysomatic character [109].
\n\nThe general formula of apatite compounds several times mentioned above (Ca10(PO4)6(F,Cl,O)2 or 3Ca3(PO4)2·Ca(F2,Cl2,O) was given by Voelcker [74] and Hoskyns-Abrahall [137]. Rammelsberg [138] assumed the existence of compound Ca10P6O25 (equivalent to 3Ca3(PO4)2⋅CaO) to explain the chemical composition of various apatites, although he thought the presence of this molecule was due to alteration. Groth [139] substituted hydroxyl for oxygen and gave the formula (PO4)3(Cl,F,OH)Ca5. He was followed by Lacroix, Naumann-Zirkel and others [73]. Many minerals of the apatite group are deficient in combined fluorine and chlorine [73],[74],[140]. This deficiency was generally explained by assuming the compound 3Ca3(PO4)2·Ca(OH)2 [73].
\nBased on the results of chemical analysis, the calculation of apatite formula (M5(XO4)3Z) can be determined according to the following criteria [45]:
Calculation on the basis of 13 total anions
Calculation on the basis of 8 total (M+X) cations
Calculation on the basis of 3X cations
In principle, criterion a is preferable to criteria b and c. In fact, the calculation based on any subset of all atoms does not affect the stoichiometric ration between them but automatically shifts the analytical error to the atoms not belonging to that subset. Criteria b and c would be best to use in cases in which structural vacancies are possible at some sites, but this does not seem to be the case for any apatite supergroup minerals [45].
\nCations P5+, As5+, V5+, Si4+ and S6+ can be assumed to be in tetrahedral coordination and assigned to The abbreviation for The distribution of atoms at cationic sites can be affected also by Coulombic effect as was recognized for the structure of mineral aiolosite (
The apatite group includes minerals listed in Table 3. The most important are three minerals with ideal apatite formula Ca5(PO4)3F, Ca5(PO4)3OH and Ca5(PO4)3Cl known as fluorapatite, hydroxylapatite and chlorapatite, respectively. They are recently renamed as apatite–(CaF), apatite–(CaOH) and apatite–(CaCl). The origin of those three distinct names to denote the F−, OH− and Cl− variants and their distinction with respect to the “original apatite”
Optical properties of fluoro-, hydroxyl- and chlorapatite series based on the values of end-member apatites [
Apatite is optically negative and normally uniaxial, although biaxial varieties with optic angle up to 20° are known. Carbonate bearing apatites (e.g. francolite), in particular way, have anomalous optics. Large variations in the composition within the apatite group make the accurate correlation of optical data difficult. The refractive index is the highest for chlorapatite (Fig. 12) and decreases by the substitutions of OH and F [39].
\nMineral | \nHydroxylapatite38 38 In some works termed as hydroxylapatite. | \nFluorapatite | \nChlorapatite | \nCarbonate–apatite | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Apatite–(CaOH) | \nApatite–(F) | \nApatite–(Cl) | \n– | \n|
Formula | \nCa5(PO4)3OH | \nCa5(PO4)3F | \nCa5(PO4)3Cl | \nCa5[(PO4)3− | \n
Abbreviation39 39 The symbol Ap, e.g. in HAp, reflects the abbreviation of mineral in rocks and ores, i.e. apatite = Ap. | \nHAP, OHAp, HAp | \nFAP, FAp | \nCLAP | \nCHAP, CFAP, CCLAP | \n
M [g mol−1] | \n502.31 | \n504.30 | \n520.76 | \n483.3040 40 Depends on the type of carbonated apatite ( | \n
Crystal system | \nHexagonal–bipyramidal, space group P63/M | \n|||
a [Å] | \n9.42 | \n9.39 | \n9.60 | \n9.36–9.32 | \n
c [Å] | \n6.87 | \n6.88 | \n6.78 | \n6.89 | \n
a:c | \n1:0.73 | \n1:0.73 | \n1:0.71 | \n1:0.73–0.74 | \n
V [Å3] | \n527.59 | \n526.03 | \n540.59 | \n520.97–529.06 | \n
Z | \n2 | \n|||
CaO [%] | \n55.82 | \n55.60 | \n53.84 | \n57.83 (CHAP) 57.60 (CFAP) | \n
P2O5 [%] | \n42.39 | \n42.22 | \n40.89 | \n36.66 (CHAP) 36.45 (CFAP) | \n
X [%] | \n1.79 | \n3.77 | \n6.81 | \n4.54(CO2),1.86(H2O) 4.52(CO2),3.90(F) | \n
Ca:P ratio | \n1.67 (5/3, ideal Ca:P ratio in the stoichiometric apatite41 41 Apatite is known to be often nonstoichiometric, especially on the surface [41]. | \n|||
density42 42 Measured/calculated density of mineral. | \n3.10–3.21/3.16 | \n3.10–3.25/3.18 | \n3.17–3.18/3.17 | \n3.04 (CHAP) 3.12 (CFAP) | \n
Hardness | \n5 (Mohs scale) | \n|||
Refractive index, | \nNegative uniaxial (-) | \n|||
1.651 - 1.644 = 0.007 | \n1.633 - 1.1.629 = 0.004 | \n1.677 - 1.676 = 0.001 | \n1.603 - 1.598 = 0.005 1.628 - 1.619 = 0.009 | \n
Composition and properties of calcium apatite end-member Ca5(PO4)3Z.
Fluorapatite (Ca10(PO4)6F2, F-rich apatite, FAP and FAp) [45],[141] is the most common member in the group of apatite that can be found mainly in igneous rocks (fluorapatite is a common accessory mineral in syenites [39] and metamorphic environments, for example, in carbonatites and mica-pyroxenites [142]. The mineral crystallizes in the form of well-formed hexagonal crystals elongated on [0001], forms tabular to discoidal crystals flattened on {0001} or occurs as granular, globular to reniform, nodular and massive. The properties and chemical composition of fluorapatite mineral are listed in Table 7.
\nFluorapatite from (a) Cerro de Mercado Mine, Victoria de Durango, Mexico and (b) Sljudjanka, Bajkal, Russia.
The color of fluorapatite mineral (Fig. 13) is pale green, green, light blue, yellow, purple, or white. Some varieties are colorless. Very brittle mineral gets broken to small fragments showing conchoidal fractures. Apatite shows poor cleavage on {0001} and {10
Habit of fluorapatite crystals.
As was mentioned above (
Atom | \nSite symmetry | \n|||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ca(1) | \n4 | \nC3h | \n2/3 | \n1/3 | \n0.0010 | \n0.91 | \n
Ca(2) | \n6 | \nC3 | \n-0.00712 | \n0.24227 | \n¼ | \n0.77 | \n
P | \n6 | \nCs | \n0.36895 | \n0.39850 | \n¼ | \n0.57 | \n
O1 | \n6 | \nCs | \n0.4849 | \n0.3273 | \n¼ | \n0.99 | \n
O2 | \n6 | \nCs | \n0.4667 | \n0.5875 | \n¼ | \n1.19 | \n
O3 | \n12 | \nCs | \n0.2575 | \n0.3421 | \n0.0705 | \n1.32 | \n
F | \n2 | \nE | \n0 | \n0 | \n¼ | \n1.93 | \n
The lengths of bonds in the fluorapatite structure are listed in Table 9.
\nBond | \nLength [Å] | \nBond | \nLength [Å] | \n
---|---|---|---|
P-O(1) | \n1.537 | \nCa(2)-F | \n2.3108 | \n
P-O(2) | \n1.539 | \nCa(2)-O(1) | \n2.701 | \n
P-O(3) | \n1.532 | \nCa(2)-O(2) | \n2.374 | \n
Ca(1)-O(1) | \n2.399 | \nCa(2)-O(3) | \n2.349 | \n
Ca(1)-O(2) | \n2.457 | \nCa(2)-O(3) | \n2.501 | \n
Ca(1)-O(3) | \n2.807 | \n– | \n– | \n
Bond lengths in the structure of fluorapatite [33].
Primitive unit cell of fluorapatite (C10(PO4)6F2) with atoms labeled according to symmetric type of element (a). The crystal structure of apatite (b, perspective view along the
The hexagonal crystal structure of fluorapatite of P63/M space group is shown in Fig. 15. The atoms of Ca occupy two distinct sites [146], [147]:
Ca(I)O9 polyhedra in sevenfold coordination
Ca(II)O5Z(O) polyhedra in ninefold coordination
The length of Ca(2)-F bond is 2.311 Å (Table 7). As was described in
Schematic depiction of a portion of four unit cells of the fluorapatite structure projected onto the (0001) plane. (a) Solid, dashed and dotted lines indicate bonds in different polyhedra. (b) The arrangement of Ca- and O-triangle on the screw axis (
The structure field of fluorapatite Fig. 17 was investigated by Kreidler and Hummel [149]. It is defined within the limits of radii of ions occupying the positions of phosphorus (
0.29 ≤
0.95 ≤
The size limitations of ions occupying the calcium positions were less well defined because upper limit radius of ion was not found from the following reasons:
The only divalent cation larger than Ba2+ is Ra2+.
Near the lower limit, apatites tended to have distorted structures, which no longer enabled hexagonal symmetry.
From practical proposes, the upper limit of
The structure field of fluorapatite (Ahrens’s radii): filled circles = apatite; open circles = no apatite [
The structure of monoclinic polymorph of fluorapatite is related to the space group P21/B with the crystallographic parameters
Hydroxylapatite (Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2, HAP, pentacalcium monohydroxyorthophosphate) can be found mainly in igneous and metamorphic environments but also in biogenic deposits, e.g. in bone deposits [38],[44],[142]. Hydroxylapatite is very rare mineral. Wax yellow crystals up to 6 × 6 × 11 mm have been described from talc schist Medium-grade metamorphic rock occurred in almost infinite varieties, which was formed by the metamorphosis at high temperatures and pressure which leads to preferred orientation of flat (sheet-like) grains. The schist is medium to coarse grained.
The structure (view according to the
The comparison of size of ions in the structure of hydroxylapatite [
The crystal habit and the structure of monoclinic polymorphs is show in Fig. 20. The monoclinic structure of hydroxylapatite (apatite–(CaOH)–M) appears to exist only in completely pure stoichiometric hydroxylapatite, and it is transformed to hexagonal form above about 250°C. The properties such as acid solubility and OH infusibility along the channels are related to the degree of disorder of OH positions. Hydroxyl anions lie in ordered positions in channels, whereas in hexagonal variety there is some disorder. Electrical properties are probably also dependent on exact channel position [106].
\n\nThe atomic parameters (Table 10) and the length of bonds (Table 11) in the structure of hydroxylapatite were refined by Posner et al [150] from the structural data collected on the crystal of synthetic hydroxylapatite specimen. The results of natural sample of near-end member hydroxylapatite were provided by Hughes et al [33] and these data are also listed in Table 10 and Table 11.
\nHabit of hexagonal (a) and monoclinic (b) hydroxylapatite crystals.
Hydroxylapatite is mainly used in the biomedical field for the preparation of bioceramics Bioceramics can be divided into two large groups: bioinert and bioactive ceramics. The bioinert ceramics have almost no influence on surrounding living tissues like ZrO2 and Al2O3. In contrast, the bioactive ceramics like calcium phosphates are able to bond with living tissues (
Atom | \n|||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ca(1) | \n4 | \n0.333/2/3 | \n0.667/1/3 | \n0.001/0.00144 | \n0.666/0.929 | \n
Ca(2) | \n6 | \n0.246/-0.00657 | \n0.993/0.24706 | \n0.250/1/4 | \n0.328/0.859 | \n
P | \n6 | \n0.400/0.36860 | \n0.369/0.39866 | \n0.250/1/4 | \n0.192/0.62 | \n
O1 | \n6 | \n0.329/0.4850 | \n0.484/0.3289 | \n0.250/1/4 | \n0.295/1.00 | \n
O2 | \n6 | \n0.589/0.4649 | \n0.466/0.5871 | \n0.250/1/4 | \n0.496/1.25 | \n
O3 | \n12 | \n0.348/0.2580 | \n0.259/0.3435 | \n0.073/0.0703 | \n0.632/1.57 | \n
OH | \n2 | \n0.0/0.0 | \n0.0/0.0 | \n0.250/0.1979 O(H) | \n0.875/1.31 | \n
–/0.04 H | \n–/3.3 | \n
Bond | \nLength [Å] | \nBond | \nLength [Å] | \n
---|---|---|---|
P-O1 | \n1.533/1.534 | \nCa(2)-OH | \n2.354/2.3851 | \n
P-O2 | \n1.544/1.537 | \nCa(2)-O1 | \n2.712/2.711 | \n
P-O3 | \n1.514/1.529 | \nCa(2)-O2 | \n2.356/2.353 | \n
Ca(1)-O1 | \n2.416/2.404 | \nCa(2)-O3 | \n2.367/2.343 | \n
Ca(1)-O2 | \n2.449/2.452 | \nCa(2)-O3 | \n2.511/2.509 | \n
Ca(1)-O3 | \n2.802/2.802 | \n– | \n– | \n
The dehydroxylation of stoichiometric hydroxylapatite to oxyapatite takes place within the temperature range from 900°C to 1200°C [114]:
Further heating to temperatures higher than 1450°C leads to the thermal decomposition of oxyapatite into tricalcium phosphate (TCP,
Calcium deficient hydroxylapatite decomposes at lower temperatures (at about 800°C) to stoichiometric hydroxylapatite and tricalcium phosphate according to their stoichiometry:
Another important option for utilization of hydroxylapatite is the preparation of porous high-temperature sorbent for carbon dioxide [155]. Apatite materials can be employed in discontinuous operations for removing CO2 from gaseous streams in the form of structured monoliths or foams, with reduced pressure drops and enhanced refractory properties. High-temperature capture of carbon dioxide by hydroxylapatite proceeds via following reversible chemical reaction The preparation of carbonated apatites (
A similar reaction is also possible with oxy-apatites:
The highest CO2 carrying capacity of HA macrogranules was detected at temperatures from 1000°C to 1100°C, achieving the values close to the theoretical limits. The changes in the HA microstructure induced during the thermal treatment (sintering) reduce the reactivity [155].
\nSince in the next decades the exploitation of fossil resources will continue and is expected to increase, rising the impact of fossil energy on the pollution and greenhouse effect, current technologies must be improved to become less harmful to the environment and more sustainable (zero emissions). The capture and the sequestration of CO2 generated from the conversion of fossil fuels are being investigated as effective measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions [156]. The apatite materials seem to be suitable sorbents for this purpose [155].
\nCalcium chlorapatite, as mineral, is relatively much less frequent than fluorapatite or hydroxylapatite and is formed primarily in flour-deficient environment [157]. The mineral crystallizes in the hexagonal system and the crystals are prismatic in habit, usually long, sometimes short and may have rounded ends or be terminated by pyramidal faces. Sometimes it occurs in granular massive to compact form [158]. The crystal habit and the structure of chlorapatite and monoclinic polymorphs chlorapatite–M are shown in Fig. 21. The crystallographic parameters and the properties are listed in Table 7.
\nChlorapatite mineral can be found as a mineral in calcium silicate marble, is an accessory mineral in layered mafic intrusions, occurs in veins such as “diabase,” and replaces “triphylite” in some granite pegmatites. Such deposits are found in the USA; Quebec, Canada; Bushveld complex of Transvaal, South Africa; Angarth-Sud Tazenekht Plain of Morocco; Rajagarth, India; Kurokura, Japan; and Snarum, Norway [157].
\nStructure (perspective view according to the
Atom | \n|||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ca(1) | \n4 | \n2/3 | \n1/3 | \n0.0027 | \n0.99 | \n
Ca(2) | \n6 | \n0.00112 | \n0.25763 | \n1/4 | \n1.14 | \n
P | \n6 | \n0.37359 | \n0.40581 | \n1/4 | \n0.77 | \n
O1 | \n6 | \n0.4902 | \n0.3403 | \n1/4 | \n1.34 | \n
O2 | \n6 | \n0.4654 | \n0.5908 | \n1/4 | \n1.47 | \n
O3 | \n12 | \n0.2655 | \n0.3522 | \n0.0684 | \n1.88 | \n
Cl | \n2 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0.4323 | \n2.68 | \n
Positional parameters and equivalent isotropic factor for chlorapatite [33].
The atomic parameters and equivalent isotropic temperature factor for chlorapatite by Hughes et al [33] are listed in Table 12. The lengths of bonds in the chlorapatite structure are listed in Table 13.
\n\nBond | \nLength [Å] | \nBond | \nLength [Å] | \n
---|---|---|---|
P-O1 | \n1.533 | \nCa(2)-F | \n2.759 | \n
P-O2 | \n1.538 | \nCa(2)-O1 | \n2.901 | \n
P-O3 | \n1.524 | \nCa(2)-O2 | \n2.306 | \n
Ca(1)-O1 | \n2.407 | \nCa(2)-O3 | \n2.331 | \n
Ca(1)-O2 | \n2.448 | \nCa(2)-O3 | \n2.254 | \n
Ca(1)-O3 | \n2.793 | \n– | \n– | \n
Bond lengths in the structure of chlorapatite [33].
The structure field of chlorapatite (Ahrens’s radii) [
Together with fluorapatite, chlorapatite forms the solution Activated by Sb3+ and Mn2+, the resulting phosphor was used in fluorescent lamps until about 1990 when it was replaced by rare-earth activated alkaline earth aluminates [157].
The chlorapatite structural field (Fig. 22) was investigated by Kreidler and Hummel [149]. It has the boundaries of 0.19 ≤
Structurally distorted chlorapatite does not occur near the lower limit of
The chlorapatite structure could tolerate much smaller cations at the calcium sites than the fluorapatite structure.
Both of these differences are probably related to the difference in the position of halide ions in the fluor- and chlorapatite structure, but more detailed explanation of how the structural difference enables chlorapatite to accept smaller cations without the distortion will not be attempted.
\n\nSvabite is rare accessory mineral in calc-silicate skarns and arsenate analogue of fluorapatite [15] with the composition given by the formula Ca10(AsO4)6F2 (calcium fluorarsenate, CAAP). The mineral was named in 1981 by Sjögren [159] according to the Swedish chemist Anton von Swab (1703–1768), who distilled zinc from calamine (smithsonite, ZnCO3 [160]) [161]. Svabite has the same crystal habit as apatite, with rough hexagonal prisms, some of which show rounded pyramidal termination [162]. The structure of mineral svabite is shown in Fig. 23.
\nThe structure (perspective view along the
Known localities for the mineral svabite.
It is brittle mineral that can be white, gray, gray-green, or colorless and transparent. The mineral is considered to be the intermediate between the apatite and the pyromorphite series. Svabite has the average density of 3.7 g·cm−3, and the hardness on the Mohs scale ranges from 4 to 5. It is hexagonal mineral belonging to the space group P63/M,
Turneaureite (Ca5(AsO4)3Cl, calcium chloroarsenate [7],[163]) is hexagonal mineral with the space group P63/M with following crystallographic parameters
The structure of turneaureite (perspective view along the
The mineral occurs Turneaureite was found at three localities, but only the sample from Längban, Varmland, Sweden, provided single crystals of a size and quality adequate for the characterization of the specie [163]. Holotype is the definition for single specimen (designated by the author) from which all the data from the original description were obtained. If the portion of such a specimen was send to other museum for preservation, the author shall designate this portion as “part of holotype.” Other types of specimen are the cotype and the neotype. The cotype is a specimen used to obtain quantitative data for the original description (specimen examined only visually should not be considered a cotype). The neotype is a specimen chosen by author for a redefinition or reexamination of a species to represent the species when the holotype or cotypes cannot be found [5].
Johnbaumite (Ca5(AsO4)3OH [165],[166]) is a hexagonal mineral from the Franklin mine from Franklin, Sussex County, New Jersey, in 1944. The mineral is arsenate analogue of hydroxylapatite and hydroxyl analogue of svabite (
The structure (perspective view along the
The space group of johnbaumite is P63/M or P63 with
The monoclinic variant of mineral, which was previously named strontiumarsenapatit and fermorite (3[(Ca,Sr)3(P,As)2O8]·Ca(OH,F)2 [74],[167], is now named johnbaumite–M and is not considered a distinct species [45]. The mineral crystallizes in the space group P21/M with crystallographic parameters
Pyromorphite (lead chlorophosphate, Pb5(PO4)3Cl [52],[168],[169],[170],[171],[172],[188], Fig. 27) was named by F.L. Hausmann in 1813. The name was derived from Greek words for “fire” and “form” to describe the recrystallization of a mineral from the melt. The structure and the example of shape of pyromorphite are shown in Fig. 28. Since the structures of vanadinite and pyromorphite are similar except for the tetrahedrally coordinated cations, it is described in
Pyromorphite: (a) Brandy Gill Mine, Great Britain and (b) Friedrichsegen Mine, Bad Ems, Nassau, Germany.
The structure of pyromorphite mineral (perspective view according to the
Lead bearing minerals pyromorphite, mimetite (
Pyromorphite is brittle hexagonal mineral that crystallizes in the space group
The mineral is named after the chemical element strontium and αδελϕóσ, Greek word for “brother,” as the full strontium analogue of fluorapatite, the most widespread member of the apatite supergroup. The mineral chemically close to stronadelphite, found in peralkaline pegmatite and Mt. Karnasurt, Lovozero alkaline complex, Kola Peninsula, Russia (Fig. 29), was first reported as “strontium-apatite.”
\nKnown localities for the mineral stronadelphite.
Stronadelphite (Sr5(PO4)3F, strontium fluorophosphates, strontium apatite, Strontium apatite was also used as the old name for the mineral named apatite-(SrOH). The original name strontium–apatite was given before the structural study of the mineral and incorrectly reflects its relationship with apatite (please consult with Table 3). The name fluorostrophite (
Structure (view according to the
Alforsite (Ba5(PO4)3Cl, barium analogue of chlorapatite, barium chlorapatite, pentabarium tris[arsenate(V)] chloride [53],[54],[180]) is a colorless hexagonal mineral from the group of apatite named according to the geologist J.T. Alfors. The mineral occurs in the localities introduced in Fig. 31.
\nKnown localities for the mineral alforsite.
The structure of mineral alforsite (perspective view along the
Alforsite occurs as isolated small subhedral grains, generally less than 0.05 mm in diameter but rarely up to 0.2 mm. These colorless grains resemble typical fluorapatite, exhibiting low birefringence and high relief. This makes it difficult to distinguish alforsite from fluorapatite and from many of the associated high-relief barium minerals except by using the electron microprobe. Mineral is uniaxial and negative, with extremely low birefringence [53].
\n\nThe structure of mineral alforsite is shown in Fig. 32. The space group of alforsite is P63/M with the crystallographic parameters
Mimetite (arsenopyromorphite, lead chloroarsenate, mimetite-H, Pb5(AsO4)3Cl ) [45],[55], [181],[182]), is the end member in the ternary system pyromorphite–vanadinite–mimetite. This is also the reason why the name of mineral is derived from Greek word “ Symbol of mineral for rock- and ore-forming minerals.
Mimetite (Příbram, Czech Republic).
Mimetite usually crystallizes in oxidized zones of lead deposits as small hexagonal prism with colors ranging from pale to bright yellow, orange, yellowish-brown, white, translucent, to opaque [184]. In accordance with other hexagonal apatite-group minerals, it crystallizes in the space group P63/M. The unit cell parameters are
The structure (perspective view along the
The polymorphs of mimetite Both monoclinic polymorphs were discredited from the IMA list of minerals in 2010.
Vanadinite was named with regard to the content of vanadium The most common vanadinite minerals are vanadate, descloizite (PbZnVO4(OH), orthorhombic [191]), and mottramite (PbCuVO4(OH), orthorhombic [193]) [204]. Vanadium was discovered in 1891 within lead vanadate ore by a Mexican mineralogist Andres Manuel del Rio (and named as erythronium), but it was mistaken as a form of chromium. The new element was recognized and named in 1830 by Swedish chemist Nils Gabriel Seftström. Vanadium was named after the Norse goddess Vanadis, who represented beauty and fertility [199],[205]. About 80% of vanadium is used for the production of special steel and alloys. Other applications include catalysts (e.g. in the production of sulfuric acid), pigments, and the manufacture of batteries [210]. Vanadium is used as alloy with a number of metals, e.g. ferro-vanadium (40–80% of vanadium), nickel-vanadium, alumino-vanadium, etc. [189]. There are about 65 vanadium minerals, the most important sources of vanadium are titaniferous magnetites, carnotite (potassium uranyl vanadate used for the extraction of uranium, vanadium and radium), vanadinite, roscoelite (K(V,Al,Mg)2AlSi3O10(OH)2), patronite (VS4), sulvanite (Cu3V2+S4), uvanite (U2V5+6O21·15H2O), bravoite, and davidite [210]. Vanadium is also found in clays, crude oil [189], and vanadium-rich variety of lignite (quisqueite). Monoclinic mineral (space group C2/m) of the composition PbFe3+2(VO4)2(OH)2. Monoclinic mineral (space group C2/m) of the composition PbMn2+2(VO4)2(OH)2.
Vanadinite (Mibladén, Morocco).
Vanadinite mineral is the lead chlorovanadate (lead chloro orthovanadate) analogue of minerals mimetite (
The structure (perspective view along the
Vanadinite is formed as the secondary product in oxidized zone of lead-bearing deposits Almost all base-metal vanadate deposits occur in oxidized zones of the base-metal vein and replacement deposits. They also occur in other vanadium minerals in sediments. Vanadate deposits are largely restricted to tropical and temperature zones and to regions of dry climate [204],[206].
The structure of hexagonal vanadinite belongs to the space group P63/M. The unit cell parameters are
Vanadinite and pyromorphite (
The major structural difference between vanadinite and pyromorphite occurs in XO4 tetrahedra, which are occupied by V5+ (radius 0.59 Å) in vanadinite and by P5+ (0.35 Å) in pyromorphite. The O-V-O and O-P-O angle in vanadate (VO43−) and phosphate ion (
The production of vanadium metal from vanadinite ore consists of the following steps [188],[212]:
The method of reactive distillation of metal compounds (or also the chemical vapor transport reactions [214] developed by Dutch chemists Anton Eduard van Arkel and Jan Hendrik de Boer in 1925. The process can be applied if volatile iodides (from that they are also termed as the iodine process) of metal were formed and if the metal has higher melting point than the dissociation temperature of formed iodide. This technique has practical importance for Ti, Zr, Hf, Th, Cr, and V. The method which uses CO reactive gas instead of I2 is known as the carbonyl or Chemical vapor transport (CVT) or vaporization reaction with iodine [214]. The investigation of the vaporization processes for several vanadium halide systems shown the existence of mixed halides VX4−
After traumatic first-time shoulder dislocation followed by conservative treatment, the re-dislocation rate is >70% in patients <30 years. With age, the risk of re-dislocation after traumatic shoulder dislocation and conservative treatment decreases. Surgical treatment via either open or arthroscopic stabilization minimizes the risk of re-dislocation [1, 2, 3, 4].
In cases without severe chronic bone loss at the glenoid site, anterior shoulder stabilization by arthroscopic refixation of the labroligamentous complex with suture anchors is the standard therapeutic procedure [1, 5]. The so-called „Lasso-loop stitch “was described by Lafosse et al [6, 7, 8, 9]. This technique allows positioning of the knot away from the joint and at the same time it establishes the sought labral bump. With the “Oblique mattress lasso-loop stitch” Parnes et al. published a resembling arthroscopic technique, but without giving clinical results [10].
The goal of the surgery is refixation of the anterior labrum-capsule-ligament complex to the glenoid with positioning of the knot at distance to the joint as well as bulking up the labrum. This stabilizes the gleno-humeral joint and therefore avoids further dislocations and associated pathologies. Using lasso-loop stitches probably leads to more bulging up of the labrum than other stitching techniques as for example the single interrupted stitch or the mattress stitch. The lasso-loop stitch accentuates the physiological bumper effect of the glenoid labrum and can therefore avoid re-dislocation.
Indications for this operation are shoulder instabilities with repairable damage to the labrum: Bankart lesion, bony Bankart lesion, ALPSA, Perthes lesion, and reversed (posterior) Bankart lesions as well as injuries to the long head biceps tendon anchor (SLAP). Contraindications for this operation are arbitrary shoulder dislocations during growth period without damage to the labrum and chronic bony glenoid defects >15% of the glenoid surface [11, 12, 13]. HAGL lesions require soft-tissue refixation at the humeral site [14].
Patient consent should contain the following issues apart from the standard operation risks: cartilage damage, lesion to the axillary nerve, suture rupture, switching to open surgical procedure in case of larger bony defects, standardized postoperative treatment, restriction of motion (especially external rotation), re-dislocation, anchor dislocation, osteolysis in case of resorbable anchors, posttraumatic arthritis, pain, hospitalization for 1–2 days, day surgery possible, work leave dependent on job and arm dominance 2 days to 16 weeks.
While recording the patient history, it is critical to differentiate between traumatic and habitual cause and evaluate the main symptom, either pain or instability. It is followed by a standardized clinical examination including apprehension sign and determination of the instability direction as well as evaluating an existing hyperlaxity. X-rays of the shoulder in three planes (true a.p., y-view, axial) and MRI (Figure 1) are performed [15, 16]. The surgical site should be shaved, if strongly covered by hair. An examination under anesthesia is performed to record the passive glenohumeral range of motion following the neutral-zero method as well as evaluation of glenohumeral stability and translation according to the modified Hawkins classification [6] and exclusion of multidirectional instability. In case of larger glenoid defects, a CT scan is necessary [17].
MRI of the right shoulder of a 20-year-old male after primary traumatic anterior-inferior shoulder dislocation. The red arrow marks a classic Bankart lesion. The green arrow marks a concomitant hill-Sachs lesion.
With this technical modification to the classic arthroscopic Bankart repair, we reliably experienced very good clinical results and high patient satisfaction. It is the aim of this work to give an illustrated instruction of the surgical technique of arthroscopic Bankart repair using the lasso-loop stitch.
Surgery is performed under general anesthesia. Preoperatively, a prophylactic antibiotic single shot dose of 2 g Ampicillin and 1 g Sulbactam i. v. is administered. Dependent on preference, the operation can be done in beach chair position or lateral decubitus position with lateral tension. The latter increases the intraarticular space by putting traction on the arm. Alternatively, a special arm holder with free positioning of the arm in slight abduction and external rotation can be used. We routinely used the latter option.
After diagnostic arthroscopy, fixation of the anterior capsulo-labral complex with suture anchors in lasso-loop technique is performed. The following arthroscopy equipment and instruments are used during surgery:
Arthroscopy tower with arthroscope (4 mm, 30°), monitor, camera, and documentation unit, cold light source, light cable, shaver, hook probe
Working cannula 8.25 mm x 70 mm (transparent)
Working cannula 5.5 mm x 72 mm (transparent)
Bankart raspatory 30°
Bankart rasp 30°
PDS no. 0 as hold-suture
Birdpeak
Optional: Suture-lasso
Drill
Gliding all-suture anchor (Alternatively: singular armed resorbable suture anchor)
For developing a posterior arthroscopy portal, a stab incision of the skin is made 2 cm caudal and 2 cm medial of the posterolateral corner of the acromion. After entering the glenohumeral joint with a switching stick, the arthroscopy sheath is introduced, the joint is filled up with water, and the arthroscope is inserted. At first, a diagnostic arthroscopic evaluation and incision for the anterior inferior working portal in outside-in technique just above the subscapular tendon is performed. In this antero-inferior working portal, a working cannula (8.25 mm) is inserted. Alternatively, a 5:30 o’clock portal can be used about 8 cm distal to the coracoid through the inferior (muscular) part of the subscapularis tendon. This facilitates placement of the first suture anchor as low as recommended.
An additional antero-superior portal is developed directly anterior to the acromio-clavicular joint (ACJ) in outside-in technique and a working cannula (5.5 mm) is introduced here. The Figures 2–4 illustrate the surgical technique: Examination with a hook probe, mobilization of the labrum with the Bankart raspatory and debridement of the glenoid neck with the Bankart rasp.
The lasso-loop stitch (a-d). A Birdpeak is pushed through the capsulolabral complex from anterior (a). Then, one suture end of the anchor is grasped (b), pulled through the capsulolabral complex anteriorly, and formed into an intraarticular loop (c). The Birdpeak is pushed through the loop and the same suture end is grasped again (d). Now, the Birdpeak is kept closed and the suture end is pulled out of the shoulder joint through the working cannula. During this procedure, the other suture end outside of the shoulder joint is secured by a clamp.
Tying of the knot (a) and shortening of both FibreWire ends with arthroscopic scissors (b).
Right shoulder after arthroscopic anterior stabilization.
Trial cranialisation of the capsulo-labral complex is performed via a grasper through the anterior superior portal followed by insertion of a hold-suture (PDS no. 0).
The first single-armed resorbable suture anchor is positioned through the anterior inferior portal onto the anterior glenoid rim as caudal as possible at the anterior cartilage border. The anchor is inserted ca. 135° to the glenoid plane. Not too steep and not too flat. The anchor should not be inserted too deep either; under no circumstances should the end of the anchor stick out. Because this could lead to cartilage damage and it could potentially cause anchor dislocation.
Cranialisation of the labrum is accomplished using the hold-suture. Then, refixation of the capsulo-labral complex in lasso-loop technique is performed. Also the second suture end is stitched through and behind the labrum, so the knot comes to lie away from the joint. This suture end represents the drawstring. Seven singular knots are made.
Then, the clamp is switched and with the birdpeak (or a suture lasso) the second suture end is pulled anteriorly through the labrum and outside of the joint through the antero-inferior working cannula.
Now, the hold-suture can be removed as it is no longer needed after tying of the first antero-inferior suture anchor.
Slightly further cranial, labral refixation is undertaken in the same way with the second anchor. A further hold-suture is not needed after the first anchor is sutured.
In most cases, an additional third anchor is necessary further cranial for secure labral refixation using the same technique. Enough distance has to be kept from the long head biceps tendon origin not to compromise this tendon mobility.
Final examination of labrum stability with a hook probe and careful clinical verification of joint stability.
Removal of instruments, skin disinfection, closure of the arthroscopic portals via interrupted single Donati backstitches, and sterile wound dressing as well as immobilization with a sling.
For improved arthroscopic evaluation of potential glenoid bone loss and subluxation of the humeral head, we recommend arthroscopic view via the anterior superior portal.
Only if the second suture end is also positioned behind the labrum, the knot will come to lie away from the joint surface.
Pulling on the one suture end without the loop reattaches the capsulo-labral ligament complex to the glenoid. Strain to the other suture end – the one creating the loop – would pull the tissue away from the glenoid. Therefore, the singular stitched suture end has to be the drawstring while tying the knot.
When using the lasso-loop technique, only one of the anchor dependent suture ends can slide through the tissue. Therefore, no arthroscopic slip knots can be made. Seven half hitches come into use. Alternating half hitches lead to a secure blocking of the knot.
Postoperatively, physical therapy out of a sling or Gilchrist bandage for four to six weeks with external rotation limited to 20° is applicated. Clinical follow up with the surgeon at six weeks postoperatively is recommended for clinical control. Then, careful unlimited motion is allowed. No forced external rotation should be performed for further six weeks. Training of the active and dynamic stabilizers of the shoulder girdle is important. Throwing and contact sports can be taken up again at the earliest six months postoperatively, if power and coordination are fully restored [18, 19, 20, 21, 22].
For one year, we followed up our operatively treated patients using the described technique after antero-inferior shoulder dislocation with damage to the glenoid labrum. We identified all 30 consecutive patients (3 females, 27 males), who had been treated for shoulder dislocation with anterior-inferior damage to the glenoid labrum by arthroscopic refixation of the anterior capsulolabral complex with suture anchors in lasso-loop technique. Patients with relevant anterior-inferior bone loss or Bankart fracture >15% of the glenoid joint surface received either bony augmentation or osteosynthesis and were not part of the patient cohort used for this analysis.
Five patients were either not available or not prepared to take part in the follow-up examination. 25 of 30 patients could be followed up. One patient had to be excluded for a recent ipsilateral elbow fracture dislocation. In this case, no shoulder re-dislocation occurred. In total, we followed up three female and 21 male patients completely. The mean age was 27.8 years (17–49 years). The average follow-up took place 30.4 months (25–36 months) postoperatively.
In 96% of all cases, there was an excellent subjective and objective outcome. The average Rowe Score was 96.3 points (80–100 points; SD = 3.9). The mean QuickDash was 2.8 points (0–14 points, SD = 3.9). The Constant Score had an average of 93.7 points (65–100 points, SD = 8.8). The average pain level on the numeric analogue pain scale (NAS 0–10) was very low with reported 0.4 points (0-3 points, SD = 1.0). The average passive and active range of motion of the operated glenohumeral joint was Ext/Flex 30/0/170°, Abd/Add 70/0/20°, and Ero/Iro 60/0/95°. There was no restriction of movement greater than 10° compared to the other side. No significant difference in passive or active range of motion in comparison to the healthy side could be seen. The rotator cuff tests were negative. The anterior apprehension sign was negative in all cases; in one case accompanied by slight pain. Apart from one traumatic re-dislocation during handball there were no further complications.
An anatomic reconstruction of the capsulo-labral complex is one of the advantages of the described surgical technique. It is possible to address SLAP lesions (Superior labrum anterior to posterior) and rotator cuff tears at the same time. The subscapular muscle or its insertion are not compromised as in an open surgical procedure. Compared to other arthroscopic techniques, the procedure presented here leads to an accentuated labral bump and enables secure knot-tying with positioning of the knot away from the articular cartilage while avoiding the suture cutting through the tissue.
As shown, the arthroscopic Bankart repair using the lasso-loop stitch leads to very good results, which are comparable to other studies of arthroscopic shoulder stabilization with good clinical outcomes [16, 17, 18]. Possible disadvantages of the lasso-loop stitch compared to arthroscopic single interrupted or mattress sutures are a relatively demanding and slightly more time-consuming technique, and not being able to use slip knots. Iatrogenic cartilage damage, misplacement of anchors, or lesions to the axillary nerve can occur intraoperatively; the latter when too much tissue is taken while performing a capsular shift in the anterior inferior recessus.
Malcompliance by the patient with risk to the healing process of the anterior capsulo-labral complex with strong tensile forces during external rotation require extensive patient consent and education. In the event of re-dislocation, a detailed investigation of causes in the patient history and further diagnostics including MRI should be performed before possibly attempting revision surgery [23, 24]. Postoperative infection requires arthroscopic irrigation and systemic antibiotics, beginning with Ampicillin/Sulbactam and possibly changing to the antibiogram.
If a bony Bankart fragment is big enough to allow screw fixation, this should be undertaken either openly or arthroscopically. If the labrum remains partially unstable, a further labrum reconstruction following screw fixation may be necessary [25].
The arthroscopic refixation of the capsulo-labral complex with suture anchors using the lasso-loop stitch is slightly more elaborate due to the suturing technique than single interrupted sutures or mattress sutures. But this technique leads to a stronger bulging of the glenoid labrum and might therefore increase the physiological bumper effect of the labrum. At the same time, the knot can be positioned away from the joint to avoid irritation without cutting through the tissue like it is possible with mattress sutures for glenoid labrum refixation [26]. For further clarification of possible advantages and disadvantages of this technical modification, prospective studies comparing the described procedure with other stitching techniques are recommended.
The lasso-loop stitch in arthroscopic Bankart repair is useful and safe. It leads to an accentuated labral bump and enables secure knot-tying with positioning of the knot away from the articular cartilage while avoiding the suture cutting through the tissue.
The authors declare that they have no Conflict of Interest.
Acromio-clavicular joint Anterior Labroligamentous Periosteal Sleeve Avulsion A Bankart lesion is a tear of the labrum-capsule-ligament complex from the glenoid Glenoid-Labral Articular Disruption Humeral Avulsion of the Glenohumeral Ligament Magnetic Resonance Imaging Polydioxanone (Suture) The Perthes lesion is a soft-tissue decollement at the scapular neck (no tissue rupture) leading to a pouch of the joint capsule Superior Labrum Anterior to Posterior
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',metaTitle:"Odredbe i uvjeti",metaDescription:"Ove Odredbe i uvjeti ističu pravila i regulacije u svezi korištenja IntechOpenove stranice www.intechopen.com i svih poddomena u vlasništvu IntechOpena, tvrtke sa sjedištem u 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/cro-terms-and-conditions",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Pristupom na stranicu www.intechopen.com slažete se s ovim odredbama, sa svim primjenjivim zakonskim odredbama, te se slažete s poštovanjem svih lokalnih zakona. Korištenje i/ili pristup ovoj stranici temelji se na potpunom prihvaćanju ovih odredbi. Svi materijali na ovoj stranici zaštićeni su primjenjivim zakonima o autorskim pravima i žigu.
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The chapter is focused on the bimodal actions of ROS, which can be summarized as both beneficial and negative. The beneficial aspects of ROS are related to their effects on the redox state of cells and the important role that some ROS play in signaling cascade. The detrimental effects of ROS are related excess amounts of these chemical moieties, which are caused by excessive production and/or insufficient actions of endogenous antioxidants. The generation of these species is also discussed.",book:{id:"6333",slug:"reactive-oxygen-species-ros-in-living-cells",title:"Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) in Living Cells",fullTitle:"Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) in Living Cells"},signatures:"Roma Patel, Lindsey Rinker, Joanna Peng and William M. Chilian",authors:[{id:"192680",title:"Dr.",name:"Wiliam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Chilian",slug:"wiliam-m.-chilian",fullName:"Wiliam M. Chilian"},{id:"212032",title:"Ms.",name:"Lindsey",middleName:null,surname:"Rinker",slug:"lindsey-rinker",fullName:"Lindsey Rinker"},{id:"212033",title:"Ms.",name:"Roma",middleName:null,surname:"Patel",slug:"roma-patel",fullName:"Roma Patel"},{id:"212034",title:"Ms.",name:"Joanna",middleName:null,surname:"Peng",slug:"joanna-peng",fullName:"Joanna Peng"}]},{id:"58369",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72747",title:"Reactive Oxygen Species in Skin Repair, Regeneration, Aging, and Inflammation",slug:"reactive-oxygen-species-in-skin-repair-regeneration-aging-and-inflammation",totalDownloads:2101,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:29,abstract:"As the most important and largest surface barrier, the skin provides a necessary protection to the organism from the external factors, including chemical, biological, and physical irritation, injury, and others. External environmental irritants or their metabolites are inherent oxidants and/or directly or indirectly drive the production of various reactive oxidants, reactive oxygen species (ROSs), owing to the redox imbalances. ROSs, the most common free oxygen radicals, participate in a series of physiological and pathological skin processes. Here, we discussed the role of oxidative events in injury, repair, photoaging, and cutaneous disease development. Intrinsic and extrinsic factors lead to the skin barrier damage, which leads to the disequilibrium in oxidant and antioxidant balance and induces excessive ROS production. The underlying mechanisms include DNA damage, MAPK/AP-1, NF-κB, and JAK/STAT-signaling pathways, apoptosis and autophagy, and autoimmune reaction of melanocytes and keratinocytes. The skin employs a number of antioxidant agents to protect the oxidative balance, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), ascorbic acid, and tocopherols. The results presented here indicate that antioxidant treatments may be effective when applied in the therapy of cutaneous diseases where oxidative stress plays a prominent pathogenic role.",book:{id:"6333",slug:"reactive-oxygen-species-ros-in-living-cells",title:"Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) in Living Cells",fullTitle:"Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) in Living Cells"},signatures:"Hui Xu, Yun-Wen Zheng, Qi Liu, Li-Ping Liu, Feng-Lin Luo, Hu-Chen\nZhou, Hiroko Isoda, Nobuhiro Ohkohchi and Yu-Mei Li",authors:[{id:"63284",title:"Prof.",name:"Nobuhiro",middleName:null,surname:"Ohkohchi",slug:"nobuhiro-ohkohchi",fullName:"Nobuhiro Ohkohchi"},{id:"216569",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Yun-Wen",middleName:null,surname:"Zheng",slug:"yun-wen-zheng",fullName:"Yun-Wen Zheng"},{id:"216572",title:"Dr.",name:"Hui",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",slug:"hui-xu",fullName:"Hui Xu"},{id:"216574",title:"Dr.",name:"Qi",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",slug:"qi-liu",fullName:"Qi Liu"},{id:"216576",title:"Dr.",name:"Yu-Mei",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"yu-mei-li",fullName:"Yu-Mei Li"},{id:"234877",title:"BSc.",name:"Feng-Lin",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-lin-luo",fullName:"Feng-Lin Luo"},{id:"234878",title:"BSc.",name:"Zhou",middleName:null,surname:"Hu-Chen",slug:"zhou-hu-chen",fullName:"Zhou Hu-Chen"},{id:"234880",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroko",middleName:null,surname:"Isoda",slug:"hiroko-isoda",fullName:"Hiroko Isoda"},{id:"234884",title:"Dr.",name:"Li-Ping",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",slug:"li-ping-liu",fullName:"Li-Ping Liu"}]},{id:"34558",doi:"10.5772/35847",title:"The Epididymis: Embryology, Structure, Function and Its Role in Fertilization and Infertility",slug:"the-epididymis-embryology-structure-function-and-its-role-in-fertilization-and-infertility",totalDownloads:13361,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:null,book:{id:"1699",slug:"embryology-updates-and-highlights-on-classic-topics",title:"Embryology",fullTitle:"Embryology - Updates and Highlights on Classic Topics"},signatures:"Kélen Fabiola Arrotéia, Patrick Vianna Garcia, Mainara Ferreira Barbieri, Marilia Lopes Justino and Luís Antonio Violin Pereira",authors:[{id:"106080",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Antonio",surname:"Violin Pereira",slug:"luis-violin-pereira",fullName:"Luis Violin Pereira"},{id:"112722",title:"Dr.",name:"Kélen",middleName:null,surname:"Arrotéia",slug:"kelen-arroteia",fullName:"Kélen Arrotéia"},{id:"112724",title:"MSc.",name:"Patrick",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia",slug:"patrick-garcia",fullName:"Patrick Garcia"},{id:"112726",title:"BSc.",name:"Mainara",middleName:null,surname:"Barbieri",slug:"mainara-barbieri",fullName:"Mainara Barbieri"},{id:"112727",title:"BSc.",name:"Marília",middleName:null,surname:"Justino",slug:"marilia-justino",fullName:"Marília Justino"}]},{id:"58039",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72217",title:"Role of Antioxidant Phytochemicals in Prevention, Formation and Treatment of Cancer",slug:"role-of-antioxidant-phytochemicals-in-prevention-formation-and-treatment-of-cancer",totalDownloads:1687,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Reactive oxygen species (ROS) played an important role in cancer. Although low levels of ROS can be beneficial in normal physiological functions, chronic exposure to ROS is associated with increased risk of cancers. Increased ROS levels can also induce apoptosis and cell death in various types of cancer. Taken together, the role of ROS in cancer prevention, formation and therapy is extremely complex and very challenging to study. Although the antioxidant activity of phytochemicals is well recognized and generally used to prevent cancer, they can have pro-oxidant and ROS generating activities under certain conditions, especially at high doses or in the presence of metal ions. The basal redox levels of cancer cells are also different from those of normal cells. Therefore, higher levels of free form of metal ions and higher levels of endogenous ROS production in cancer cells sensitizes them to phytochemicals mediated pro-oxidant cytotoxicity. In conclusion, people tend to intake of antioxidant phytochemicals for the detrimental effects of ROS. However, excessive intake of phytochemicals could have cancer development or therapeutic potential by generating ROS. In this section, the role of phytochemicals in the prevention, development and removal of cancer has been discussed.",book:{id:"6333",slug:"reactive-oxygen-species-ros-in-living-cells",title:"Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) in Living Cells",fullTitle:"Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) in Living Cells"},signatures:"Abdurrahim Kocyigit, Eray Metin Guler and Murat Dikilitas",authors:[{id:"87750",title:"Dr.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Dikilitas",slug:"murat-dikilitas",fullName:"Murat Dikilitas"},{id:"213091",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdurrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Koçyiğit",slug:"abdurrahim-kocyigit",fullName:"Abdurrahim Koçyiğit"},{id:"223224",title:"Dr.",name:"Eray Metin",middleName:null,surname:"Guler",slug:"eray-metin-guler",fullName:"Eray Metin Guler"}]},{id:"62993",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80056",title:"Role of Apoptosis in Cancer Resistance to Chemotherapy",slug:"role-of-apoptosis-in-cancer-resistance-to-chemotherapy",totalDownloads:1811,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"Cancer is a leading cause of death in human beings. Surgery, chemotherapy, radiotherapy, immunotherapy, and biologically targeted therapy are common modalities for cancer treatment. However, cancer resistance is common in chemotherapy and often leads to therapeutic failure. This chapter addresses the role of apoptosis in tumor’s resistance to chemotherapy and the underlying mechanisms. Cancer cells are always resistant to apoptotic signals via a series of biochemical changes. Cancer cells are resistant to chemotherapeutic agents that are potent apoptosis inducers via multiple mechanisms, such as upregulated anti-apoptotic signals and downregulated pro-apoptotic signals, faulty apoptotic signaling, faulty apoptosis initiation and implementation, etc. We also discuss the possible approaches to overcoming cancer resistance to chemotherapy due to altered apoptosis.",book:{id:"6618",slug:"current-understanding-of-apoptosis-programmed-cell-death",title:"Current Understanding of Apoptosis",fullTitle:"Current Understanding of Apoptosis - Programmed Cell Death"},signatures:"Lichan Chen, Yanyun Zeng and Shu-Feng Zhou",authors:[{id:"229027",title:"Prof.",name:"Shu-Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"shu-feng-zhou",fullName:"Shu-Feng Zhou"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"18220",title:"How do Mesenchymal Stem Cells Repair?",slug:"how-do-mesenchymal-stem-cells-repair-",totalDownloads:6051,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:null,book:{id:"216",slug:"stem-cells-in-clinic-and-research",title:"Stem Cells in Clinic and Research",fullTitle:"Stem Cells in Clinic and Research"},signatures:"Patricia Semedo, Marina Burgos-Silva, Cassiano Donizetti-Oliveira and Niels Olsen Saraiva Camara",authors:[{id:"28751",title:"Prof.",name:"Niels",middleName:"Olsen Saraiva",surname:"Camara",slug:"niels-camara",fullName:"Niels Camara"},{id:"30464",title:"Prof.",name:"Patricia",middleName:null,surname:"Semedo",slug:"patricia-semedo",fullName:"Patricia Semedo"},{id:"30465",title:"BSc.",name:"Cassiano",middleName:null,surname:"Donizetti-Oliveira",slug:"cassiano-donizetti-oliveira",fullName:"Cassiano Donizetti-Oliveira"},{id:"30466",title:"BSc.",name:"Marina",middleName:null,surname:"Burgos-Silva",slug:"marina-burgos-silva",fullName:"Marina Burgos-Silva"}]},{id:"57536",title:"Reactive Oxygen Species: The Good and the Bad",slug:"reactive-oxygen-species-the-good-and-the-bad",totalDownloads:3607,totalCrossrefCites:23,totalDimensionsCites:42,abstract:"This chapter summarizes recent research on the biology of reactive oxygen species (ROS). The chapter is focused on the bimodal actions of ROS, which can be summarized as both beneficial and negative. The beneficial aspects of ROS are related to their effects on the redox state of cells and the important role that some ROS play in signaling cascade. The detrimental effects of ROS are related excess amounts of these chemical moieties, which are caused by excessive production and/or insufficient actions of endogenous antioxidants. The generation of these species is also discussed.",book:{id:"6333",slug:"reactive-oxygen-species-ros-in-living-cells",title:"Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) in Living Cells",fullTitle:"Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) in Living Cells"},signatures:"Roma Patel, Lindsey Rinker, Joanna Peng and William M. Chilian",authors:[{id:"192680",title:"Dr.",name:"Wiliam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Chilian",slug:"wiliam-m.-chilian",fullName:"Wiliam M. Chilian"},{id:"212032",title:"Ms.",name:"Lindsey",middleName:null,surname:"Rinker",slug:"lindsey-rinker",fullName:"Lindsey Rinker"},{id:"212033",title:"Ms.",name:"Roma",middleName:null,surname:"Patel",slug:"roma-patel",fullName:"Roma Patel"},{id:"212034",title:"Ms.",name:"Joanna",middleName:null,surname:"Peng",slug:"joanna-peng",fullName:"Joanna Peng"}]},{id:"62993",title:"Role of Apoptosis in Cancer Resistance to Chemotherapy",slug:"role-of-apoptosis-in-cancer-resistance-to-chemotherapy",totalDownloads:1811,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"Cancer is a leading cause of death in human beings. Surgery, chemotherapy, radiotherapy, immunotherapy, and biologically targeted therapy are common modalities for cancer treatment. However, cancer resistance is common in chemotherapy and often leads to therapeutic failure. This chapter addresses the role of apoptosis in tumor’s resistance to chemotherapy and the underlying mechanisms. Cancer cells are always resistant to apoptotic signals via a series of biochemical changes. Cancer cells are resistant to chemotherapeutic agents that are potent apoptosis inducers via multiple mechanisms, such as upregulated anti-apoptotic signals and downregulated pro-apoptotic signals, faulty apoptotic signaling, faulty apoptosis initiation and implementation, etc. We also discuss the possible approaches to overcoming cancer resistance to chemotherapy due to altered apoptosis.",book:{id:"6618",slug:"current-understanding-of-apoptosis-programmed-cell-death",title:"Current Understanding of Apoptosis",fullTitle:"Current Understanding of Apoptosis - Programmed Cell Death"},signatures:"Lichan Chen, Yanyun Zeng and Shu-Feng Zhou",authors:[{id:"229027",title:"Prof.",name:"Shu-Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"shu-feng-zhou",fullName:"Shu-Feng Zhou"}]},{id:"58369",title:"Reactive Oxygen Species in Skin Repair, Regeneration, Aging, and Inflammation",slug:"reactive-oxygen-species-in-skin-repair-regeneration-aging-and-inflammation",totalDownloads:2101,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:29,abstract:"As the most important and largest surface barrier, the skin provides a necessary protection to the organism from the external factors, including chemical, biological, and physical irritation, injury, and others. External environmental irritants or their metabolites are inherent oxidants and/or directly or indirectly drive the production of various reactive oxidants, reactive oxygen species (ROSs), owing to the redox imbalances. ROSs, the most common free oxygen radicals, participate in a series of physiological and pathological skin processes. Here, we discussed the role of oxidative events in injury, repair, photoaging, and cutaneous disease development. Intrinsic and extrinsic factors lead to the skin barrier damage, which leads to the disequilibrium in oxidant and antioxidant balance and induces excessive ROS production. The underlying mechanisms include DNA damage, MAPK/AP-1, NF-κB, and JAK/STAT-signaling pathways, apoptosis and autophagy, and autoimmune reaction of melanocytes and keratinocytes. The skin employs a number of antioxidant agents to protect the oxidative balance, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), ascorbic acid, and tocopherols. The results presented here indicate that antioxidant treatments may be effective when applied in the therapy of cutaneous diseases where oxidative stress plays a prominent pathogenic role.",book:{id:"6333",slug:"reactive-oxygen-species-ros-in-living-cells",title:"Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) in Living Cells",fullTitle:"Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) in Living Cells"},signatures:"Hui Xu, Yun-Wen Zheng, Qi Liu, Li-Ping Liu, Feng-Lin Luo, Hu-Chen\nZhou, Hiroko Isoda, Nobuhiro Ohkohchi and Yu-Mei Li",authors:[{id:"63284",title:"Prof.",name:"Nobuhiro",middleName:null,surname:"Ohkohchi",slug:"nobuhiro-ohkohchi",fullName:"Nobuhiro Ohkohchi"},{id:"216569",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Yun-Wen",middleName:null,surname:"Zheng",slug:"yun-wen-zheng",fullName:"Yun-Wen Zheng"},{id:"216572",title:"Dr.",name:"Hui",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",slug:"hui-xu",fullName:"Hui Xu"},{id:"216574",title:"Dr.",name:"Qi",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",slug:"qi-liu",fullName:"Qi Liu"},{id:"216576",title:"Dr.",name:"Yu-Mei",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"yu-mei-li",fullName:"Yu-Mei Li"},{id:"234877",title:"BSc.",name:"Feng-Lin",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-lin-luo",fullName:"Feng-Lin Luo"},{id:"234878",title:"BSc.",name:"Zhou",middleName:null,surname:"Hu-Chen",slug:"zhou-hu-chen",fullName:"Zhou Hu-Chen"},{id:"234880",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroko",middleName:null,surname:"Isoda",slug:"hiroko-isoda",fullName:"Hiroko Isoda"},{id:"234884",title:"Dr.",name:"Li-Ping",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",slug:"li-ping-liu",fullName:"Li-Ping Liu"}]},{id:"61053",title:"Adult Stem Cell Membrane Markers: Their Importance and Critical Role in Their Proliferation and Differentiation Potentials",slug:"adult-stem-cell-membrane-markers-their-importance-and-critical-role-in-their-proliferation-and-diffe",totalDownloads:1337,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The stem cells are part of the cells that belong to the stromal tissue. These cells remain in a quiescent state until they are activated by different factors, usually those generated by an alteration in the parenchymal tissue. These cells have characteristic membrane markers such as CD73, CD90, and CD105. Those are a receptor, which in response to their ligand induces strong changes in different metabolic pathways that lead to these cells, both to generate molecules with different activities and to leave their stationary phase to reproduce and even differentiate. This review describes the metabolic pathways dependent on these membrane markers and how they influence on parenchymal tissue and other stromal cells.",book:{id:"6658",slug:"stromal-cells-structure-function-and-therapeutic-implications",title:"Stromal Cells",fullTitle:"Stromal Cells - Structure, Function, and Therapeutic Implications"},signatures:"Maria Teresa Gonzalez Garza",authors:[{id:"181389",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Maria Teresa",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Garza",slug:"maria-teresa-gonzalez-garza",fullName:"Maria Teresa Gonzalez Garza"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"171",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81298",title:"Roles of Extracellular Vesicles in Cancer Metastasis",slug:"roles-of-extracellular-vesicles-in-cancer-metastasis",totalDownloads:36,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103798",abstract:"Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are biological active vesicles and carriers of information in intercellular communication. In cancer settings, EVs especially exosomes (Exo), play a focal role in modulating the tumor microenvironment mainly by increasing tumor proliferation, facilitating the crosstalk between tumor and tumor-neighboring cells, and influencing the host immune response. Amongst these functions in tumor growth, Exo modulate fundamental steps of tumor progression, such as growth, invasion, and immune modulation. On the endocrine level, Exo released from tumors were shown to mediate distant cell-cell communication processes via secretory factors and miRNAs, which result in the set-up of pro-tumorigenic microenvironments supportive of metastatic dissemination. This is achieved through processes such as fibroblast activation, extracellular matrix ECM production, angiogenesis, and immune modulation.",book:{id:"10796",title:"Extracellular Vesicles - Role in Diseases, Pathogenesis and Therapy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10796.jpg"},signatures:"Eman Helmy Thabet"},{id:"80871",title:"Tumor-Derived Exosome and Immune Modulation",slug:"tumor-derived-exosome-and-immune-modulation",totalDownloads:56,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103718",abstract:"Tumor cells, like most other cells, release exosomes called tumor-derived exosomes (TEX) and are vital for intercellular communication. TEX are membrane-bound extracellular vesicles (EVs), containing unique cargo reminiscent of the parent tumor cells and possess immunomodulatory functions. TEX carries factors that directly promote immunosuppression in the tumor microenvironment and indirectly attract immunosuppressive T-regulatory (Treg) cells. The tumor-secreted exosomes can transfer their cargo by multiple mechanisms like fusion, phagocytosis, and receptor-mediated endocytosis, activating the recipient cells. TEX directly engages and releases cytokines, inactivating natural killer (NK) cells and T-cells and activating apoptosis. Tumor-derived exosomes also release soluble factors to suppress dendritic cell (DC) maturation while activating the expansion of immune-suppressive cells like Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) and Regulatory T (Treg) cells. Several studies have shown the relevance of TEX containing tumor-associated antigens (TAA) in reducing the efficacy of cancer immunotherapy and adoptive cell therapy. Hence understanding the basic biology and mechanism of TEX-mediated immunosuppression is critical in discovering cancer biomarkers and finding better immunotherapy and cell therapy approaches. In this chapter, we have discussed TEX biogenesis, TEX’s structural and molecular features, TEX-mediated immunosuppression, and its relation to immunotherapy.",book:{id:"10796",title:"Extracellular Vesicles - Role in Diseases, Pathogenesis and Therapy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10796.jpg"},signatures:"Deepak S. Chauhan, Priyanka Mudaliar, Soumya Basu, Jyotirmoi Aich and Manash K. Paul"},{id:"79834",title:"Morphology and Formation Mechanisms of Cellular Vesicles Harvested from Blood",slug:"morphology-and-formation-mechanisms-of-cellular-vesicles-harvested-from-blood",totalDownloads:61,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101639",abstract:"Theoretical and experimental evidence on cellular vesicles (CVs) isolated from blood is presented. It is suggested that comparison of the observed shapes with theoretical shapes obtained by minimization of membrane-free energy in combination with electron microscopy is key in the assessment of CV identity. We found that shapes of CVs isolated from blood by repetitive centrifugation (up to 20.000 g) and washing, and observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) agreed well with theoretically observed shapes. It is indicated that these CVs are colloids deriving from residual blood cells, mostly platelets. SEM images of washed erythrocytes undergoing budding and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images of isolated erythrocyte microvesicles likewise showed smooth shapes that we described as characteristic for colloidal CVs. Besides these, the CV isolates may contain other small particles, such as exosomes and viruses, as observed in isolates from tomato homogenate, however, we could not identify such particles in isolates from healthy human blood. Theory of deviatoric elasticity underlaying minimization of the membrane free energy and simulated two-component vesicles with the orientational ordering of anisotropic constituents are presented to indicate the interdependence of curvature—sorting of membrane constituents and their orientational ordering in strongly anisotropically curved regions.",book:{id:"10796",title:"Extracellular Vesicles - Role in Diseases, Pathogenesis and Therapy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10796.jpg"},signatures:"Veronika Kralj-Iglič, Gabriella Pocsfalvi and Aleš Iglič"},{id:"80195",title:"Diversity of Extracellular Vesicles (EV) in Plasma of Cancer Patients",slug:"diversity-of-extracellular-vesicles-ev-in-plasma-of-cancer-patients",totalDownloads:81,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101760",abstract:"Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are produced by all cells and are found in all body fluids. They function as intercellular messengers that carry and deliver signals regulating cellular interactions in health and disease. EVs are emerging as potential biomarkers of diseases and responses to therapies, and much attention is being devoted to understanding their role in physiological as well as pathological events. EVs are heterogenous in their origin, size, molecular characteristics, genetic content and functions. Isolation of EV subsets from plasma and characterization of their distinct properties have been a limiting factor in ongoing efforts to understand their biological importance. Here, we discuss the immunoaffinity-based strategies that are available for isolating distinct subsets of EVs from plasma and provide a road-map to their successful immunocapture and molecular profiling, with special attention to tumor-derived EVs or TEX.",book:{id:"10796",title:"Extracellular Vesicles - Role in Diseases, Pathogenesis and Therapy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10796.jpg"},signatures:"Theresa L. Whiteside and Soldano Ferrone"},{id:"79955",title:"The Role of Extracellular Vesicles in Immunomodulation and Pathogenesis of Leishmania and Other Protozoan Infections",slug:"the-role-of-extracellular-vesicles-in-immunomodulation-and-pathogenesis-of-leishmania-and-other-prot",totalDownloads:112,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101682",abstract:"Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have lately emerged as crucial mediators in parasite infections. Recent research suggests that protozoan parasites, including Leishmania, employ EVs as transport vehicles to deliver biologically active effector molecules such as parasitic virulence factors to modulate the host immune system and their microenvironment. The immunomodulatory effects of EVs play an essential role in the formation and progression of parasitic diseases. The immunomodulatory strategies applied by EVs of protozoan origin have similarities to the development and progression of other infections or diseases such as cancer. In this chapter, we will provide recent insights into the role of EVs in host-pathogen interactions, intercellular-communication, immunomodulation and pathogenesis of Leishmania and other protozoan parasites, including Plasmodium spp., Toxoplasma spp. and Trypanosoma spp. In addition, biologically inspired by the immunomodulation strategies of protozoan parasites, new immunotherapeutic models are being currently investigated to implement EVs more intensively in both therapy and diagnostics. Therefore, besides highlighting the role of EVs in protozoan infections, this chapter sheds light briefly on new immunotherapeutic approaches utilizing the strategies of protozoan EVs in medicine.",book:{id:"10796",title:"Extracellular Vesicles - Role in Diseases, Pathogenesis and Therapy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10796.jpg"},signatures:"Zeynep Islek, Batuhan Turhan Bozkurt, Mehmet Hikmet Ucisik and Fikrettin Sahin"},{id:"80126",title:"Extracellular Vesicles as Biomarkers and Therapeutic Targets in Cancers",slug:"extracellular-vesicles-as-biomarkers-and-therapeutic-targets-in-cancers",totalDownloads:107,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101783",abstract:"Extracellular vesicles refer to exosomes, apoptotic bodies, microvesicles and large oncosomes, which are membrane bound structures secreted by cells including cancer cells. The pathological role and translational potential of extracellular vesicles (EVs) in cancers are receiving research attention recently. The cargoes of cancer-derived EVs retain the molecular properties of their sources and cancer cells actively release EVs into body fluids that are easy to access. EVs released from cancer cells not only promote cancer progression through the delivery of cancer-associated molecules but also reflect alterations in the state of cancers during therapy. They are considered promising biomarkers for therapeutic response evaluation, especially resistance to therapy and diagnostics. This chapter discusses the various roles of extracellular vesicles in cancers and their potential as therapeutic targets.",book:{id:"10796",title:"Extracellular Vesicles - Role in Diseases, Pathogenesis and Therapy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10796.jpg"},signatures:"Prince Amoah Barnie, Justice Afrifa, Eric Ofori Gyamerah and Benjamin Amoani"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:16},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,editor:null,editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:10,paginationItems:[{id:"82380",title:"Evolution of Parasitism and Pathogenic Adaptations in Certain Medically Important Fungi",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105206",signatures:"Gokul Shankar Sabesan, Ranjit Singh AJA, Ranjith Mehenderkar and Basanta Kumar Mohanty",slug:"evolution-of-parasitism-and-pathogenic-adaptations-in-certain-medically-important-fungi",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11400.jpg",subseries:{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82367",title:"Spatial Variation and Factors Associated with Unsuppressed HIV Viral Load among Women in an HIV Hyperendemic Area of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105547",signatures:"Adenike O. Soogun, Ayesha B.M. Kharsany, Temesgen Zewotir and Delia North",slug:"spatial-variation-and-factors-associated-with-unsuppressed-hiv-viral-load-among-women-in-an-hiv-hype",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"HIV-AIDS - Updates, Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11575.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82193",title:"Enterococcal Infections: Recent Nomenclature and emerging trends",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104792",signatures:"Kavita Raja",slug:"enterococcal-infections-recent-nomenclature-and-emerging-trends",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Streptococcal Infections",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10828.jpg",subseries:{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82207",title:"Management Strategies in Perinatal HIV",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105451",signatures:"Kayla Aleshire and Rima Bazzi",slug:"management-strategies-in-perinatal-hiv",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"HIV-AIDS - Updates, Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11575.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:13,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"6667",title:"Influenza",subtitle:"Therapeutics and Challenges",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6667.jpg",slug:"influenza-therapeutics-and-challenges",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",hash:"105e347b2d5dbbe6b593aceffa051efa",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Influenza - Therapeutics and Challenges",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7064",title:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7064.jpg",slug:"current-perspectives-in-human-papillomavirus",publishedDate:"May 2nd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",hash:"d92a4085627bab25ddc7942fbf44cf05",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",hash:"61c627da05b2ace83056d11357bdf361",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",editors:[{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. 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He obtained a Master’s degree in Public Health and PhD in Public Health and Epidemiology. He has a background in Clinical Medicine and has taken courses at higher diploma levels in public health from University of Transkei, Republic of South Africa, and African Medical and Research Foundation (AMREF) in Nairobi, Kenya. Dr. Kasenga worked in different places in and outside Malawi, and has held various positions, such as Licensed Medical Officer, HIV/AIDS Programme Officer, HIV/AIDS resource person in the International Department of Diakonhjemet College, Oslo, Norway. He also managed an Integrated HIV/AIDS Prevention programme for over 5 years. He is currently working as a Director for the Health Ministries Department of Malawi Union of the Seventh Day Adventist Church. Dr. Kasenga has published over 5 articles on HIV/AIDS issues focusing on Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission of HIV (PMTCT), including a book chapter on HIV testing counseling (currently in press). 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In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. 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Animals need to receive a properly balanced diet. One of the new challenges we are now faced with is sustainable animal diets (STAND) that involve the 3 P’s (People, Planet, and Profitability). We must develop animal feed that does not compete with human food, use antibiotics, and explore new growth promoters options, such as plant extracts or compounds that promote feed efficiency (e.g., monensin, oils, enzymes, probiotics). These new feed options must also be environmentally friendly, reducing the Carbon footprint, CH4, N, and P emissions to the environment, with an adequate formulation of nutrients.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11416,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. He teaches various degree courses in zootechnics, sheep production, and agricultural sciences and natural resources.\n\nDr. Ronquillo’s research focuses on the evaluation of sustainable animal diets (StAnD), using native resources of the region, decreasing carbon footprint, and applying meta-analysis and mathematical models for a better understanding of animal production.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517"},editorialBoard:[{id:"175762",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfredo J.",middleName:null,surname:"Escribano",slug:"alfredo-j.-escribano",fullName:"Alfredo J. 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