Five-element theory based on traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and Gosei-ho-ha medicine in traditional Japanese medicine (TJM)
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10089",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Microwave Heating - Electromagnetic Fields Causing Thermal and Non-Thermal Effects",title:"Microwave Heating",subtitle:"Electromagnetic Fields Causing Thermal and Non-Thermal Effects",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"More than 80 years of experience in the practical application of electromagnetic energy in various fields of human activity (industry, agriculture, science, medicine, etc.) suggests that microwave heating is an effective application of electromagnetic energy. This book presents the latest investigations on the applications of microwave energy and the effects of microwave radiation on various materials and mediums. Divided into two sections on thermal and nonthermal effects, this volume contains eight chapters that examine the use of microwave energy to extract bioactive compounds from plant materials, for rock-breaking operations, to synthesize functional dyes and nanomaterials, and more.",isbn:"978-1-83968-227-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-226-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-228-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87921",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"microwave-heating-electromagnetic-fields-causing-thermal-and-non-thermal-effects",numberOfPages:202,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"8f6a41e4f5ce0e9c48628516d7c92050",bookSignature:"Gennadiy I. Churyumov",publishedDate:"August 18th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10089.jpg",numberOfDownloads:2510,numberOfWosCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:4,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:9,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 3rd 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 24th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 22nd 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 11th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 9th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"216155",title:"Prof.",name:"Gennadiy I.",middleName:null,surname:"Churyumov",slug:"gennadiy-i.-churyumov",fullName:"Gennadiy I. Churyumov",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/216155/images/system/216155.jfif",biography:"Gennadiy I. Churyumov was born on February 12, 1952, in the former USSR. He received a Dipl.-Ing. in Electronic Engineering and a Ph.D. in Radiophysics from the Kharkiv Institute of Radio Electronics, Kharkiv, Ukraine, in 1974 and 1981, respectively. In 1997, he received a DSc from the Institute of Radio Physics and Electronics of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine. Since 2002, he has been a professor at the Kharkiv National University of Radio Electronics, where he also is a scientific adviser in the Microwave & Optoelectronics Lab. From 2002 to 2018, he served as editor in chief of the International Journal on Applied Radio Electronics. Since 2016, he has been a professor in the Electronics Engineering Department, Harbin Institute of Technology, China. His personal research interests include the theory and simulation of electromagnetic problems, microwave vacuum electron tubes, and practical aspects of electromagnetic energy application. He has published more than 320 research articles including books, book chapters, journal papers, international conference proceedings, and patents. He is a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).",institutionString:"Kharkiv National University of Radio Electronics (NURE)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"86",title:"Physical Chemistry",slug:"chemistry-physical-chemistry"}],chapters:[{id:"75284",title:"Microwave-Assisted Extraction of Bioactive Compounds (Review)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96092",slug:"microwave-assisted-extraction-of-bioactive-compounds-review-",totalDownloads:366,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In recent times, bioactive compounds from plant samples are extracted using a microwave extractor. This is because traditional methods of extraction are need of higher volume of solvents, degrade thermal-sensitive bioactive compounds, and consume much time of extraction. Hence, this chapter unveils the importance of the microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) technique in the recovery of bioactive compounds from plants. The involving extraction steps need to recover higher yields, faster, consumption of lesser extracting solvents, and ensure stable heat-sensitive bioactive compounds. The factors affecting MAE in the recovery of bioactive compounds from plant materials are as well discussed. Additionally, some of the previously reported bioactive compounds from plant samples using MAE are highlighted.",signatures:"Abdurahman Hamid Nour, Alara Ruth Oluwaseun, Azhari Hamid Nour, Manal Suliman Omer and Noormazlinah Ahmed",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75284",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75284",authors:[{id:"204967",title:"Dr.",name:"N.H.",surname:"Azhari",slug:"n.h.-azhari",fullName:"N.H. Azhari"},{id:"328776",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdurahman",surname:"Nour",slug:"abdurahman-nour",fullName:"Abdurahman Nour"},{id:"330385",title:"Dr.",name:"Oluwaseun",surname:"Alara",slug:"oluwaseun-alara",fullName:"Oluwaseun Alara"},{id:"330386",title:"Dr.",name:"Manal",surname:"Omer",slug:"manal-omer",fullName:"Manal Omer"},{id:"343658",title:"Dr.",name:"Noormazlinah",surname:"Ahmad",slug:"noormazlinah-ahmad",fullName:"Noormazlinah Ahmad"}],corrections:null},{id:"74664",title:"Microwave-Assisted Solid Extraction from Natural Matrices",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95440",slug:"microwave-assisted-solid-extraction-from-natural-matrices",totalDownloads:263,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The extraction of secondary metabolites from plants, and natural sources in general, is a cornerstone in medicinal chemistry and required the development of sustainable extraction techniques. Microwave-Assisted Solid Extraction (MASE) is a promising extractive methodology being more effective than traditional extraction techniques. It offers higher and faster extraction performance ability with less solvent consumption and protection toward thermolabile constituents. For these reasons, MASE resulted in a suitable extractive methodology in all aspects, including economical and practical, compared to traditional extraction techniques, especially over Soxhlet or solid–liquid extraction. In this chapter, a brief theoretical background about the use of microwave energy for extraction has been presented for better understanding. Then, the potential of MASE for the extraction of secondary metabolites from natural resources, for evaluating the plant productivity and for evaluating the quality of the natural matrices will be reviewed. The discussion is supported by reporting recent applicative examples of MASE applied to the extraction of the most representative chemical classes of secondary metabolites, with a special focus on some drugs or compounds of pharmaceutical and nutraceutical interest.",signatures:"Valeria Cavalloro, Emanuela Martino, Pasquale Linciano and Simona Collina",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74664",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74664",authors:[{id:"328127",title:"Prof.",name:"Simona",surname:"Collina",slug:"simona-collina",fullName:"Simona Collina"},{id:"328270",title:"Dr.",name:"Pasquale",surname:"Linciano",slug:"pasquale-linciano",fullName:"Pasquale Linciano"},{id:"328271",title:"Dr.",name:"Valeria",surname:"Cavalloro",slug:"valeria-cavalloro",fullName:"Valeria Cavalloro"},{id:"328272",title:"Dr.",name:"Emanuela",surname:"Martino",slug:"emanuela-martino",fullName:"Emanuela Martino"}],corrections:null},{id:"74338",title:"Microwave Synthesized Functional Dyes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94946",slug:"microwave-synthesized-functional-dyes",totalDownloads:279,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Microwave chemistry involves the application of microwave radiation to chemical reactions and has played an important role in organic synthesis. Functional dyes are those with hi-tech applications and this chapter attempts to provide an overview of the recent developments in microwave-assisted synthesis of functional dyes. Emphasis has been paid to the microwave-assisted synthesis of dye molecules which are useful in hi-tech applications such as optoelectronics (dye-sensitized solar cells), photochromic materials, liquid crystal displays, newer emissive displays (organic-light emitting devices), electronic materials (organic semiconductors), imaging technologies (electrophotography viz., photocopying and laser printing), biomedical applications (fluorescent sensors and anticancer treatment such as photodynamic therapy). In this chapter, the advantages of microwaves as a source of energy for heating synthesis reactions have been demonstrated. The use of microwaves to functional dyes is a paradigm shift in dye chemistry. Until recently most academic laboratories did not practice this technique in the synthesis of such functional dyes but many reports are being appeared in the journals of high repute.",signatures:"Sheetal Marganakop, Pramod Kattimani, Sudha Belgur Satyanarayana and Ravindra Kamble",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74338",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74338",authors:[{id:"328061",title:"Prof.",name:"Ravindra",surname:"Kamble",slug:"ravindra-kamble",fullName:"Ravindra Kamble"},{id:"328073",title:"Dr.",name:"Sheetal",surname:"Marganakop",slug:"sheetal-marganakop",fullName:"Sheetal Marganakop"},{id:"328076",title:"Dr.",name:"Pramod",surname:"Kattimani",slug:"pramod-kattimani",fullName:"Pramod Kattimani"},{id:"342653",title:"Dr.",name:"Sudha Belgur",surname:"Satyanarayana",slug:"sudha-belgur-satyanarayana",fullName:"Sudha Belgur Satyanarayana"}],corrections:null},{id:"74744",title:"Doping of Semiconductors at Nanoscale with Microwave Heating (Overview)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95558",slug:"doping-of-semiconductors-at-nanoscale-with-microwave-heating-overview-",totalDownloads:400,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Incorporation of dopants efficiently in semiconductors at the nanoscale is an open challenge and is also essential to tune the conductivity. Typically, heating is a necessary step during nanomaterials’ solution growth either as pristine or doped products. Usually, conventional heating induces the diffusion of dopant atoms into host nanocrystals towards the surface at the time of doped sample growth. However, the dielectric heating by microwave irradiation minimizes this dopant diffusion problem and accelerates precursors’ reaction, which certainly improves the doping yield and reduces processing costs. The microwave radiation provides rapid and homogeneous volumetric heating due to its high penetration depth, which is crucial for the uniform distribution of dopants inside nanometer-scale semiconducting materials. This chapter discusses the effective uses of microwave heating for high-quality nanomaterials synthesis in a solution where doping is necessary to tune the electronic and optoelectronic properties for various applications.",signatures:"Sandhya K. M., Litty Thomas Manamel and Bikas C. Das",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74744",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74744",authors:[{id:"328196",title:"Dr.",name:"Bikas C.",surname:"Das",slug:"bikas-c.-das",fullName:"Bikas C. Das"},{id:"328198",title:"Mrs.",name:"Sandhya",surname:"K. M",slug:"sandhya-k.-m",fullName:"Sandhya K. M"},{id:"341800",title:"Ms.",name:"Litty Thomas",surname:"Manamel",slug:"litty-thomas-manamel",fullName:"Litty Thomas Manamel"}],corrections:null},{id:"74623",title:"Influence of the Microwaves on the Sol-Gel Syntheses and on the Properties of the Resulting Oxide Nanostructures",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94931",slug:"influence-of-the-microwaves-on-the-sol-gel-syntheses-and-on-the-properties-of-the-resulting-oxide-na",totalDownloads:372,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Among the chemical methods in the liquid phase, the sol–gel technique is a versatile and efficient method for pure or doped metal oxide films or powders preparation, showing some advantages over other preparation techniques (high homogeneity, the possibility to introducing dopants in large amount, low processing temperature and control over the stoichiometry). Combining the sol–gel (SG)method with the effect of ultrasounds(US) or microwaves (MW) leads to improving the sol–gel procedure. The microwave-assisted sol–gel method is most frequently used for obtaining nanocrystalline, monodispersed oxide nanoparticles, or to transform amorphous gels into well-crystallized nanopowders. Less studied is the influence of the microwaves on the sol–gel reactions in solutions. The benefit of using microwave-assisted sol–gel preparation highly depends on the reagents used and on the composition of the studied systems. In the present chapter, results on the influence of the microwaves on the chemical reactions that take place during the sol–gel synthesis and on the properties of the resulted samples are discussed.",signatures:"Luminita Predoanǎ, Dániel Attila Karajz, Vincent Otieno Odhiambo, Irina Stanciu, Imre M. Szilágyi, György Pokol and Maria Zaharescu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74623",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74623",authors:[{id:"299793",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria",surname:"Zaharescu",slug:"maria-zaharescu",fullName:"Maria Zaharescu"},{id:"328337",title:"Prof.",name:"Szilagyi",surname:"Imre Miklos",slug:"szilagyi-imre-miklos",fullName:"Szilagyi Imre Miklos"},{id:"332804",title:"Dr.",name:"Luminita",surname:"Predoana",slug:"luminita-predoana",fullName:"Luminita Predoana"},{id:"332807",title:"Dr.",name:"Irina",surname:"Stanciu",slug:"irina-stanciu",fullName:"Irina Stanciu"},{id:"333117",title:"Prof.",name:"György",surname:"Pokol",slug:"gyorgy-pokol",fullName:"György Pokol"},{id:"333119",title:"MSc.",name:"Dániel Attila",surname:"Karajz",slug:"daniel-attila-karajz",fullName:"Dániel Attila Karajz"},{id:"333120",title:"MSc.",name:"Vincent Otieno",surname:"Odhiambo",slug:"vincent-otieno-odhiambo",fullName:"Vincent Otieno Odhiambo"}],corrections:null},{id:"76124",title:"Microwave Heating of Low-Temperature Plasma and Its Application",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97167",slug:"microwave-heating-of-low-temperature-plasma-and-its-application",totalDownloads:259,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, the results of theoretical and experimental studies of the interaction of an electromagnetic field with a plasma (fundamental interaction of the wave-particle type) both in the regime of standing waves (in the case of a resonator) and in the case of traveling waves in a waveguide are presented. The results of computer modeling the distribution of a regular electromagnetic field for various designs of electrodynamic structures are considered. The most attractive designs of electrodynamic structures for practical application are determined. A brief review and analysis of some mechanisms of stochastic plasma heating are given as well as the conditions for the formation of dynamic chaos in such structures are determined. Comparison analysis of microwave plasma heating in a regular electromagnetic field (in a regime with dynamical chaos) with plasma heating by random fields is considered. It is shown, that stochastic heating of plasma is much more efficient in comparison with other mechanisms of plasma heating (including fundamental interaction of the wave-wave type). The results obtained in this work can be used to increase the efficiency of plasma heating as well as to develop promising new sources of electromagnetic radiation in the microwave and optical ranges.",signatures:"Tetyana Frolova, Vyacheslav Buts, Gennadiy Churyumov, Eugene Odarenko and Vladimir Gerasimov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76124",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76124",authors:[{id:"216155",title:"Prof.",name:"Gennadiy I.",surname:"Churyumov",slug:"gennadiy-i.-churyumov",fullName:"Gennadiy I. Churyumov"},{id:"216158",title:"Dr.",name:"Tetyana",surname:"Frolova",slug:"tetyana-frolova",fullName:"Tetyana Frolova"},{id:"328090",title:"Prof.",name:"Vyacheslav",surname:"Buts",slug:"vyacheslav-buts",fullName:"Vyacheslav Buts"},{id:"328091",title:"Prof.",name:"Eugene",surname:"Odarenko",slug:"eugene-odarenko",fullName:"Eugene Odarenko"},{id:"328093",title:"Dr.",name:"Vladimir",surname:"Gerasimov",slug:"vladimir-gerasimov",fullName:"Vladimir Gerasimov"}],corrections:null},{id:"75087",title:"Experimental Investigation on the Effect of Microwave Heating on Rock Cracking and Their Mechanical Properties",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95436",slug:"experimental-investigation-on-the-effect-of-microwave-heating-on-rock-cracking-and-their-mechanical-",totalDownloads:290,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Due to various advantages including high efficiency, energy-saving, and having no secondary pollution (no dust or noise), the technology of microwave-induced fracturing of hard rock has been considered as a potential method for rock fracturing and breaking. Realizing microwave-assisted mechanical rock cutting using the microwave-induced hard rock fracturing technique can prolong the mechanical life and improve the efficiency of rock-breaking operations. For example, to realize microwave-assisted TBM excavation for hard rock tunnel. At present, this technology is still in the laboratory research stage. By summarizing the research results of relevant scholars in this field, this paper generalizes the mechanism of microwave heating of rock, microwave heating system, heating characteristics, and the effect of microwave heating on rock cracking and mechanical properties. Microwave heating causes microscopic cracks on the surface of the rock and microscopic cracks inside the rock. The higher the microwave power, the longer the irradiation time, the more serious the cracks propagation. Uniaxial compressive, Brazilian tensile, and point load strengths all decreased with increasing microwave irradiation time at rates that were positively related to the power level. The conventional triaxial compressive strength of basalt samples decreased linearly with microwave irradiation time, and the higher the confining pressure, the smaller the reduction in the strength of basalt samples after microwave treatment. In addition, the elastic modulus and Poisson’s ratio of basalts decreased in a quasi-linear manner with the growth of microwave irradiation time under uniaxial compression. While microwave irradiation has a slight influence on elastic modulus and Poisson’s ratio under triaxial compression. The cohesion decreases with increasing microwave irradiation time and shows an approximately linear decrease over time.",signatures:"Gaoming Lu and Jianjun Zhou",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75087",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75087",authors:[{id:"327844",title:"Dr.",name:"Gaoming",surname:"Lu",slug:"gaoming-lu",fullName:"Gaoming Lu"}],corrections:null},{id:"76388",title:"Microwave Heating of Liquid Crystals and Ethanol-Hexane Mixed Solution and Its Features (Review)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97356",slug:"microwave-heating-of-liquid-crystals-and-ethanol-hexane-mixed-solution-and-its-features-review-",totalDownloads:284,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Microwave heating is widely used to accelerate organic reactions in the chemistry field. However, the effect of microwaves on chemical reaction has not yet been well characterized at the molecular level. In this review chapter, microwave heating processes of liquid crystals and an ethanol-hexane mixed solution under microwave irradiation were experimentally and theoretically investigated using in situ microwave irradiation nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and molecular dynamics (MD) simulation, respectively. The temperature of the solution under microwave irradiation was estimated from a chemical shift calibrated temperature (CSC-temperature) which was determined from the temperature dependence of the 1H chemical shift. The CSC-temperatures of CH2 and CH3 non-polar protons of ethanol reflect the bulk temperature of a solution by the thermal microwave effect. The lower CSC-temperature of the OH polar protons in ethanol and much higher CSC-temperature of H-C=N (7′) and CH3-O (α’) protons of N-(4-methoxybenzyliden)-4-butylaniline with respect to the bulk temperature are attributed to the non-thermal microwave effects. According to the MD simulation under microwave irradiation, the number of hydrogen bonds increased in the ethanol-hexane mixed solution as a result of a non-thermal microwave effect. It is concluded that a coherently ordered low entropy state of polar molecules is induced by a non-thermal microwave effect. The ordered state induces molecular interaction, which may accelerate the chemical reaction rate between molecules with polar groups.",signatures:"Akira Naito, Yugo Tasei, Batsaikhan Mijiddorj, Izuru Kawamura and Kazuyoshi Ueda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76388",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76388",authors:[{id:"315504",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Akira",surname:"Naito",slug:"akira-naito",fullName:"Akira Naito"},{id:"337617",title:"Dr.",name:"Yugo",surname:"Tasei",slug:"yugo-tasei",fullName:"Yugo Tasei"},{id:"337618",title:"Dr.",name:"Batsaikhan",surname:"Mijiddorj",slug:"batsaikhan-mijiddorj",fullName:"Batsaikhan Mijiddorj"},{id:"337619",title:"Dr.",name:"Izuru",surname:"Kawamura",slug:"izuru-kawamura",fullName:"Izuru Kawamura"},{id:"337620",title:"Dr.",name:"Kazuyoshi",surname:"Ueda",slug:"kazuyoshi-ueda",fullName:"Kazuyoshi Ueda"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7486",title:"Advanced Sorption Process Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc77a8d4e58d7c7eb4d2137adb0f0f34",slug:"advanced-sorption-process-applications",bookSignature:"Serpil Edebali",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7486.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"223744",title:"Dr.",name:"Serpil",surname:"Edebali",slug:"serpil-edebali",fullName:"Serpil Edebali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8012",title:"Sorption in 2020s",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a89bf0c99155aa01dc2f2ba46cbdbb8b",slug:"sorption-in-2020s",bookSignature:"George Kyzas and Nikolaos Lazaridis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8012.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"152296",title:"Prof.",name:"George",surname:"Kyzas",slug:"george-kyzas",fullName:"George Kyzas"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9199",title:"Sonochemical Reactions",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"72f3010437d022fd2a932421ff4a9200",slug:"sonochemical-reactions",bookSignature:"Selcan Karakuş",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9199.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206110",title:"Dr.",name:"Selcan",surname:"Karakuş",slug:"selcan-karakus",fullName:"Selcan Karakuş"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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Although modern medicine, based on Western medicine, is practiced in developed countries, traditional medicine is also an important part of treatment in Asian countries.
Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) influences traditional medicine in Asian countries as a function of the cultural and historical relationships between each country and China. That is, traditional medicine has developed in each country under the influence of TCM in the context of its own cultural background.
This chapter examines traditional Japanese medicine (TJM), an alternative form of medicine used in Japan. Although acupuncture, moxibustion, and several related medical practices also play important roles in TJM, herbal medicine, as the most characteristic treatment within TJM, is the focus of this chapter.
Western medicine often regards patients as sets of individual organs, and illnesses are often attributed to pathogens or morbid organs that should be removed. However, Asian traditional medicine, including TJM and TCM, understand patients from a holistic perspective that emphasizes the importance of balancing and harmonizing the entire patient, including her or his mind and body. Asian forms of medicine explain changes in symptoms in terms of causes, and treatments are prescribed based on a view of diseases as dynamic processes [1,2].
Basic medical concepts are common to both TJM and TCM, and practitioners of these disciplines arrive at diagnoses via four basic approaches.
Visual examination: Observation of the status of the face, tongue, skin, and behavior of the patient.
Auditory examination: Auscultation of the patient speaking, sighing and wheezing and examination of the patient’s olfaction.
Interview: Questions posed to the patient about the history of the illness.
Tactile examination: Evaluation of the pulse and determination of abdominal status.
However, differences between TCM and TJM exist with regard to how each makes diagnoses and prescribes treatment.
Diagnosis in the TCM treatment involves the following steps:
Gathering data about symptoms to determine a diagnosis. Ba-bang-bian-zheng (in Chinese, assignment of body conditions to one of the eight principal states) is an important step in the diagnostic process of TCM and is based on discriminating between members of pairs: ying (negativity/hypo-functioning) and yang (positivity/hyper-functioning), xu (deficiency) and shi (excessiveness), han (cold/chills) and re (heat/fever), and biao (exterior) and li (interior).
Identifying the cause of the illness based on the theory underpinning TCM, including the five-element theory described later.
Determining the appropriate prescription based on the theory underpinning TCM. According to TCM, herbal prescriptions are based on imbalances in the viscera and bowels.
In contrast, TJM diagnoses, particularly those based on the Koho school, involve selecting an appropriate prescription; each prescription corresponds to specific symptoms associated with the constituents of herbal drugs. The most characteristic feature of TJM is that diagnosis is directly linked to selection of a prescription. The differences between TJM and TCM became especially pronounced during the Edo era in the 17th–19th centuries. Indeed, important diagnostic concepts often have different meanings in TJM and TCM. Thus, different uses of the concepts result in confusion, even among apprentices in TJM.
Drug use has long been part of the ethnic traditions in Japan, and various folk medicines have been applied in these contexts. The Geranium herb (over-ground part of
Historical books, such as Koji-ki (Records of Ancient Matters) (712), include descriptions of the use of reed mace (
Cultural exchanges, including those involving envoys to the Tang Dynasty (7th–9th centuries), and trade with China brought various crude drugs to Japan. Some of these drugs are the “Shosoin drugs” of today.TJM was practiced by Buddhism priests during those eras.
Examples of plants used as Japanese folk medicines. (a)
Chinese medicine changed based on historical changes in the dynasties, and the Chinese medicine of each era, until the present one, has influenced Japanese medicine. Chinese medicine was introduced during the Yuan dynasty in Japan and was practiced by Sanki Tashiro (1465–1537) and his successors, including Dosan Manase (1507–1594), who developed the medicines. They were known as the Gosei-ho-ha (the Latter-day Medicine School). The medicine taught by this school was based on two principles [Yin (active/positive) and Yang (inactive/negative)] combined with five elements (wood, fire, earth, metal, and water). The pharmacological characteristics of the herbal/crude drugs were separated into five tastes (pungent, sweet, sour, bitter, and salty) based on the five-element theory. Other characteristics, such as emotions, which may affect illnesses, are also attributed to the five elements (Table 1) [2, 3].
A trend toward a return to the fundamentalism of Confucianism appeared in China during the Ming Dynasty (14th–17th centuries), and an analogous fundamentalism was also seen in Chinese medicine. Some leaders in this field advocated reliance on the ideas or spiritual content related to medicine in the Shokan-zatsubyo-ron (
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Viscera | \n\t\t\tHeart | \n\t\t\tLiver | \n\t\t\tSpleen | \n\t\t\tLung | \n\t\t\tKidney | \n\t\t
Bowel | \n\t\t\tGallbladder | \n\t\t\tSmall intestine | \n\t\t\tStomach | \n\t\t\tLarge intestine | \n\t\t\tUrinary bladder | \n\t\t
Taste | \n\t\t\tSour | \n\t\t\tBitter | \n\t\t\tSweet | \n\t\t\tPungent | \n\t\t\tSalty | \n\t\t
Emotion | \n\t\t\tJoy | \n\t\t\tAnger | \n\t\t\tAnxiety | \n\t\t\tSorrow | \n\t\t\tFear | \n\t\t
Five-element theory based on traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and Gosei-ho-ha medicine in traditional Japanese medicine (TJM)
These ideas affected the leading physicians in Japan, who stressed that medicine in Japan should be based on Shokan-zatsubyo-ron, which was established in the Han Dynasty. Gonzan Goto (1659–1733) was such a physician, and he insisted on considering diseases to be based on ki (
Todo Yoshimasu established a new approach to medicine based on the notions described above. He was regarded as a highly skilled physician and contributed to new developments in the area of medical diagnosis. He stressed the importance of the abdomen, in addition to that of the radial artery pulse, in diagnosis. He actually simplified the causes of various diseases based on his unique “one-poison theory” and thereby eliminated conceptual confusion [1, 3-5].
However, Yoshimasu’s most important contribution concerned the use of herbal prescriptions. During the Edo era, Honzo-komoku (
Thus, he first addressed cases in which major prescriptions are used for Shokan-zatsubyo-ron. Shokan-zatsubyo-ron is composed of two parts, which were identified separately. Shokan-ron (
He also added discussion based on his clinical experience concerning the uses of each prescription. These were gathered in Ruiju-ho (“a classified collection of prescriptions”). In Shokan-zatsubyo-ron, the author indicated the uses of each prescription during the course of an illness. However, the author did not explain the reasons for using each prescription, but instead stated that the physician should "just use it in exemplar cases." In this way, Todo Yoshimasu clarified the actions of the prescriptions by analyzing the kind of case in which it should be used.
Yoshimasu then began to collect the herbal drugs to be used in prescriptions. He gathered descriptions of the prescriptions containing each herbal drug from Shokan-zatsubyo-ron and discussed the effects of each herbal drug based on commonalities in the properties of prescriptions containing the drug. In other words, common symptoms referenced in the descriptions of the prescriptions were regarded as related to the herbal drug that was common to the prescriptions. He learned about the efficacy of each of the herbal drugs from Shokan-zatsubyo-ron by comparing it with his clinical experience. Such knowledge was collected in Yaku-cho (“Properties of Herbal Drugs”).
For example, the action of the herbal drug licorice is discussed as follows: Although licorice (root with stolon of
He next listed the effects of each prescription based on the actions of the constituent crude drugs he had examined. These findings are summarized in the book Ho-kyoku (“The Ultimate Properties of the Prescriptions”).
For example, the keishi-to (“cinnamon combination”) prescription, which is composed of cinnamon (bark of
Another example is seen in the addition of peony (i.e., an increase in the amount of peony in keishi-to) to form keishi-ka-shakuyaku-to (“cinnamon and peony combination”). If the patient exhibited intense convulsions of the rectus abdominis in addition to the symptoms of keishi-to, a prescription with an excess amount of peony was used, as per Ho-kyoku.
In summary, Yoshimasu reorganized descriptions of the efficacy of prescriptions using the following analytical procedures:
Collecting information on the uses of prescriptions from Shokan-zatsubyo-ron.
Clarifying the efficacy of the respective herbal drugs based on the uses of the prescriptions containing those herbal drugs.
Identifying the effectiveness of prescriptions based on the efficacy of the constituent herbal drugs.
This simplification by Yoshimasu was quite useful for understanding the uses of herbal prescriptions in TJM today and also for clarifying the pharmacological properties of the herbal drugs constituting the prescriptions. Based on this simplification, herbal drugs can be linked to modern analyses of Oriental medicine to understand drug actions in ways that are analogous to those that enable understanding of Western medicine.
However, such a simplification ignores the notion that an illness should be understood in terms of sequential stages or states of the patient. Considering that, physicians of the Secchu (compromising) School, including Sohaku Asada (1815–1894), avoided extreme simplification and proposed that the good points of the theories underpinning both the Koho and the Gosei-ho should be used. The current major trend in TJM is based on his efforts.
The two forms of herbal medicine differ with respect to prescriptions and crude drugs. Many herbal drugs used in TCM are also used in TJM. However, it had been difficult to import herbal products from China to Japan during the Edo era because of the Japanese national policy of isolation. During this era, Japanese herbalists searched for plant materials that could act as alternatives to Chinese materials. Thus, the following are examples of differences between the plant materials used in TCM and TJM [6].
(Fig. 3a and b) Nin-jin: Japanese ginseng (chiku-setsu-nin-jin in Japanese, rhizome of
(Fig. 3c) To-ki: Root of
(Fig. 3d) Sen-kyu (Kyu-kyu): Rhizome of
Examples of herbal drugs used in traditional Japanese medicine (TJM). (a) chiku-setu-nin-jin (rhizome of
Sai-ko: Root of
Ko-boku: Magnolia bark is used in both TJM and TCM for distension from the chest to the stomach that is due to a digestive organ disorder, which is often accompanied by pain, and also for relief of bronchitis. The bark of
Byaku-jutsu: Rhizomes from the following
O-ren: Rhizome derived from the following
San-sho: Fruit of
Bo-fu: Root (including rhizome) of
In-chin-ko: Spike composed of many minor flowers of
These differences should be understood when these herbal drugs are used clinically and studied in research settings.
This section discusses studies on the constituents of the herbal drugs that are used in TJM and in our laboratory. Yoshimasu’s work on the practical aspects of herbal drugs is quite useful for researchers attempting to understand the uses of herbal drugs in TJM, and the researchers in our laboratory are searching for new constituents based on such materials rather than considering the implications of the complex theories underlying TCM.
Hydrolyzable tannins are esters of galloyl and related polyphenolic acyl groups with glucose or some other sugars/polyalcohols. Although various types of hydrolyzable tannins have been found in plants, geraniin (
Structure of geraniin (
Further examination of this source plant revealed the presence of the co-existing hydrolyzable tannins furosin; didehydrogeraniin; furosinin [11]; geraniinic acids B and C; phyllunthusiins B, C, E, and F [12]; and acalyphidin M1 [13]. However, several compounds are formed after linking with ascorbic acid in the plant; these include ascorgeraniin (= elaeocarpusin) (
Because some hydrolyzable tannins show noticeable effects on β-lactam resistance of methicillin-resistant
The presence of tannins with analogous structures including mallotusinic acid (
Tannins structurally related to geraniin. Compound 6 was isolated from
Structures of proanthocyanidins obtained from
The leaves of
Structures of caffeic acid derivatives found in Artemisia leaf and Perilla herb
The aboveground part of
Caffeoylquinic acids show inhibitory effects on histamine release from rat peritoneal mast cells [25,26] and also on the formation of leukotriene B4 (LTB4) in human polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMN-L). Rosmarinic acid shows a strong inhibitory effect on the formation of 5-hydroxy-6,8,11,14-eicosatetraenoic acid and LTB4 in PMN-L [25]. Because arachidonate metabolism is related to allergic inflammation and asthma, these results suggest that the effects of these constituents may participate in the actions of the herbal drugs containing them.
Licorice, the root (with stolon) of
Our investigation of licorice constituents revealed the inhibitory effects of flavonoids, including new ones, on xanthine oxidase [28] and monoamine oxidase [29]. Several also effective against the cytopathic effects of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). The inhibitory effects of those constituents on giant cell formation induced by HIV were constituents are examined using a cell line sensitive to the cytopathic activity of HIV. Licochalcone A (
Structures of licorice phenolics that suppress human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) cytopathic effects.
Licorice phenolics that show the most potent antibacterial effects on methicillin-resistant
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t|||||
Licoricidin | \n\t\t\tMRSA strains | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | MSSA | \n\t\t
concentration | \n\t\t\tOM481 | \n\t\t\tOM505 | \n\t\t\tOM584 | \n\t\t\tOM623 | \n\t\t\t209P | \n\t\t
None | \n\t\t\t512 | \n\t\t\t64 | \n\t\t\t256 | \n\t\t\t512 | \n\t\t\t<0.5 | \n\t\t
8 μg/ml | \n\t\t\t<0.5 | \n\t\t\t<0.5 | \n\t\t\t<0.5 | \n\t\t\t<0.5 | \n\t\t\t<0.5 | \n\t\t
4 μg/ml | \n\t\t\t16 | \n\t\t\t8 | \n\t\t\t16 | \n\t\t\t16 | \n\t\t\t<0.5 | \n\t\t
Effect of licoricidin on the antibacterial activity of oxacillin.
The effects of licorice phenolics on MRSA were also investigated. Two flavonoids, 8-(γ,γ-dimethyally)-wighteone (
These findings suggest that licorice is a useful herbal source for the development of the primary constituents of the compounds used in modern medicine.
It is very important to develop new drugs for the treatment of patients with dementia as the number of individuals with this condition is now rapidly increasing due to the increase in the elderly population. The root of
Structure of 3’,6-di-O-sinapoyl-sucrose contained in
Explanations of the pharmacological properties of herbal drugs based on TJM concepts have been useful for identifying new compounds with various structures. These explanations are also useful for understanding the roles of herbal prescriptions and applications in modern medicine. Modern medicine should consider some of the basic concepts of traditional medicine as they may contain wisdom.
Magnesium is the third most abundant element by mass in Earth’s surface composition. Magnesium-based materials are preferable, especially for their lightweight. Magnesium is found in nature as the combination of oxygen to form different minerals such as sulfates, carbonates, nitrates, and borates [1, 2]. Some kinds of magnesium compounds can be soluble, such as magnesium sulfate, magnesium nitrate, and magnesium bromide. These compounds are generally hygroscopic. Other types of magnesium compounds are known as insoluble, such as magnesium borate, magnesium oxide, and magnesium phosphate. The salt group of magnesium is effective in the corrosive behavior of magnesium compounds [3]. Being insoluble in water makes magnesium borates production easier with developed technology, such as hybrid synthesis methods, the use of microwave and ultrasound technologies.
As a magnesium-based compound, magnesium borate can be utilized in the applications of X-ray screening, radiation permeation, catalysis of organic reactions, strengthening of plastics, and ion-battery systems. The studies on magnesium borates are generally focused on synthesis techniques. The common aim of the developed synthesis methods is to decrease energy consumption. However, the characteristics of the prepared sample are related to the designed experimental setup. A thorough understanding of the relationship between synthesis procedures and characteristics of the novel borates obtained will help increased the use of the correct form of magnesium borate in industry.
As being notable magnesium compounds, magnesium borates mainly include the atoms of Mg, B, O; however, other types of elements may be included according to the reserves they are mined. According to the conditions they formed in nature or fabricated in the laboratory, the magnesium borates can include crystal waters and/or hydroxyl groups. Therefore, this type of magnesium minerals can be classified as hydrated or dehydrated forms. The common examples of identified magnesium borates and their crystal systems are presented in Table 1.
The arrangement of functional groups in the molecule determines the properties of magnesium borate [5]. As a chemical compound, magnesium borates mainly include the functional groups of three and four coordinated borate anions (B(3)-O and B(4)-O) connected to the magnesium atoms (Figure 1). The typical symmetric and asymmetric stretching in a molecule can be determined by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and/or Raman Spectroscopy.
The examples of boron-oxygen linkages B(3)-O and B(4)-O.
Spectral analyses result of Admontite (MgB6O10·7H2O) samples prepared at different reaction times in hydrothermal conditions were presented in Figure 2. In FT-IR analyses of magnesium borates, the spectrum begins with the peak around 3500 cm−1 which indicates the crystal water for the hydrated compounds. The region above the 1600 cm−1 is generally called as “free H2O zone”. The effects of hydroxyl anions are seen as “bending of hydroxyl groups in plane” and “bending of hydroxyl groups out of plane”. The peaks between 1400 and 1200 cm−1 indicate “bending of hydroxyl groups in plane” whereas the peaks between 950 and 750 cm−1 are related with the “bending of hydroxyl groups out of plane”. The stretching between boron and oxygen atom is commonly seen between 1600 and 650 cm−1. The peaks in the region of 1600–1400 cm−1 are related with the “asymmetric stretching of B(3)-O”. “Asymmetric stretching of B(4)-O” can be explained with the peaks in the range of 1200–950 cm−1. The peaks at the lower wavelength values of 750 cm−1 can be interpreted with the “bending of B(3)-O” [6, 7, 8].
Spectral analyses result of Admontite prepared at different reaction times (a) FT-IR spectra, and (b) Raman spectra [
In Raman analyses of magnesium borates, the characteristic peaks are seen in the wavelength region of 1200–250 cm−1. The peaks between 1200 and 1050 cm−1 are interpreted with the “asymmetric stretching of B(4)-O”. “Symmetric stretching of B(3)-O” and “symmetric stretching of B(4)-O” are seen in the range of 1050–900 cm−1 and 900–750 cm−1, respectively. For the hydrated forms of magnesium borates, the stretching for polyanion of [B6O7(OH)6]−2 and [B3O3(OH)4]−2 is seen between 750 and 620 cm−1. The “bending of B(3)-O” and “bending of B(4)-O” can be seen in the Raman shift wavelength ranges of 620–500 cm−1 and 500–250 cm−1, respectively [6, 7, 9].
The characterization studies on magnesium borates make them preferable in industrial applications. These compounds are known for their superior thermal and mechanical strength, stability, and high coefficient elasticity. According to their specific characteristics, magnesium borates can be used as anticorrosive agent, catalyst, lubricant, and adsorbent. Due to their thermoluminescence properties, they also have applications in radiation dosimetry, X-ray screens, space research, and nonlinear optic laser systems [10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16].
Magnesium borates can be utilized in hydrogen storage systems, acoustic insulation, and ion-battery systems thanks to their high corrosion resistance. The viscosity of melted magnesium borates is relatively low and exhibits excellent electro-conductivity. Therefore, magnesium borates can be used as either a coating agent on lithium-ion batteries or as an additive for electrolyte solutions [17, 18, 19, 20].
For being of biocompatible properties of magnesium, magnesium borate compounds have also begun to be evaluated as a biomaterial for being unhazardous to the environment and human health. The eco-friendly behavior of these compounds increased their applications in health and wastewater treatments. Fan et al., studied the role of magnesium borate on stomach cancer chemotherapy as a hydrogen release agent [21]. Ma and Liu [22] experimented with the Congo Red adsorption from wastewater by using the sample of 2MgO·B2O3·H2O [22].
In nuclear research, dehydrated forms of magnesium borates such as MgB4O7, Mg2B2O5, and MgB2O4 are generally preferred. This can be explained by the decreasing hygroscopicity at reaction temperatures higher than 950°C and the ease of solid-state synthesis methods [11, 23, 24, 25]. Souza et al. [26] compared the thermoluminescence features of the synthesized magnesium borates in liquid-state and solid-state conditions and indicated better results of dehydrated samples [26]. MgB4O7 is the most studied composition among the magnesium borates, due to its thermoluminescence behavior. The studies on the thermoluminescence behavior of magnesium borates indicated their suitability of them in beta, neutron, and radiation dosimetry. Several rare earth elements of Cerium, Dysprosium, Samarium, Silver, Terbium, Thulium, have been doped to increase their efficiency in applications [23, 26, 27, 28, 29]. Also, Prokic and Christeen [30] and Pellicioni et al. [31] experimented with the beneficial effects of graphite addition to magnesium borates; and the 3% graphite content was determined suitable for the optimum thermoluminescence [30, 31].
Modification of thermoplastic materials with dehydrated magnesium borates can strengthen the tensile strength and strain failure. This situation can be explained with the increased physical crosslinking density and decrease in the size of bubble growth. For the mechanical strength increase, Mg2B2O5 is commonly preferred in literature [32]. Zhang et al. [33], analyzed the strengthening effects of magnesium borate addition on aluminum-based composites [33]. Baghebanadi et al., indicated the beneficial effects of dehydrated magnesium borates (Mg2B2O5 and Mg3B2O5) in addition to the cold crushing strength of magnesium-graphite composite [34].
Catalyst effect of magnesium borates can be utilized to both increase reaction conversion in the reactions of hydrocarbon and/or they can also be evaluated to catalyze the other types of inorganic borates such as boron nitride [35, 36]. In the catalytic utilization of magnesium borate, the purity and the morphology of prepared magnesium borate are notable. In this case, the synthesis of magnesium borate at different morphologies will promote the comprehensive use of this type of compound.
Ahmad et al. [10], studied the catalyst effect of rod-like magnesium borates on the electrochemical activity of the dopamine enzyme [10]. Intemann et al. [13], used magnesium borates to catalyze the selective reduction of pyridine [13]. Loiland et al. [35], investigated the catalysis effect of magnesium borate complexes on the oxidative dehydrogenation of ethane and propane mixtures [35].
The determination of the adsorption behavior of magnesium borates is an up-and-coming practice among its applications. The few researches on the adsorption behavior of these compounds include the azo anionic dye of Congo red adsorption on the hierarchic porous particles of magnesium borates. According to the isothermal and kinetic estimations of the adsorption study, the adsorption mechanism can be explained with the Langmuir isotherm and Pseudo second-order kinetic model. The results also showed that adsorbents can be recycled with calcination at 400°C [22, 37, 38]. The comparison of maximum adsorbent capacity values (qM) for magnesium borates is presented in Table 2.
Type | Mineral name | Chemical formula | Crystal system |
---|---|---|---|
Hydrated | Admontite | MgB6O10·7H2O | Monoclinic |
Aksaite | Mg[B6O10(OH)6]·2H2O | Orthorhombic | |
Halurgite | Mg4[B8O13(OH)2]2·7H2O | Monoclinic | |
Hungchaoite | MgB4O7·9H2O | Triclinic | |
Hydroxylborite | Mg3(BO3)(OH)3 | Hexagonal | |
Inderite | MgB3O3(OH)5·5H2O | Monoclinic | |
Kurnakovite | MgB3O3(OH)5·5H2O | Triclinic | |
Mcallisterite | Mg2[B6O7(OH)6]2·9H2O | Trigonal | |
Pertsevite-(OH) | Mg2(BO3)(OH) | Orthorhombic | |
Pinnoite | Mg[B2O(OH)6] | Tetragonal | |
Preobrazhenskite | Mg3B11O15(OH)9 | Orthorhombic | |
Szaibélyite | MgBO2(OH) | Monoclinic | |
Wightmanite | Mg5(BO3)O(OH)5·2H2O | Monoclinic | |
Dehydrated | Kotoite | Mg3[BO3]2 | Orthorhombic |
Suanite | Mg2[B2O5] | Monoclinic |
Identified magnesium borates and their crystal systems [4].
Adsorbent | Morphology | SBET (m2/g) | qM (mg/g) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
2MgO·B2O3·H2O | Hierarchic porous | 93.46 | 183.15 | [22] |
Mg2B2O5 | Hierarchic porous | 24.20 | 139.30 | [37] |
MgBO2(OH) | Hierarchic porous | 57.22 | 228.30 | [37] |
7MgO·2B2O3·7H2O | Hierarchic porous | 103.62 | 202.84 | [38] |
β-3MgO·B2O3 | Hierarchic porous | 46.10 | 170.07 | [38] |
Comparison of maximum adsorbent capacity values for magnesium borates.
In the studies of Zhang et al. [22] and Ma and Liu [37] magnesium borates were fabricated in hydrothermal conditions whereas Guo et al. [38] preferred thermal conditions [22, 37, 38]. As it is seen in Table 2, it has been observed that hydrated compounds have a larger BET surface area and maximum adsorbent capacity. The results indicated that both hydrated and dehydrated forms of magnesium borates can be a promising candidate for toxic dye adsorption.
Determination of thermal behavior for the magnesium borates could increase the evaluation probability as fire-retardant agents. Zhang et al. [39] studied the fire retardant effects of magnesium borate addition to the polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and lignin composite [39].
Thermal behavior of magnesium borates is related to hydrate groups in the structure. For the hydrated magnesium borates, thermal decomposition process begins with the dehydration reaction which means to split off the crystal water (·
As a typical example, thermal curves of TG and DTG for Admontite mineral between 25 and 750°C are presented in Figure 3. Admontite (MgB6O10·7H2O) mineral has lost its 7 moles of crystal water with a two-step reaction. In the first step, the reaction occurs in the range of 40–125°C, and the peak of DTG curve is seen at 116°C. The second step of decomposition emerges in the range of 125–570°C and the DTG peak is seen at 230°C. The mass losses of the first and second steps of decomposition are determined as 11% and 25%, respectively.
TG and DTG curves of Admontite mineral (MgB6O10·7H2O).
For the dehydrated magnesium borate, only phase changes can be seen or the compound stays stable. This stability could be related with the reaction temperature of fabricated dehydrated magnesium borate.
The characteristic features of the samples associated with the composition, crystalline phases, and morphology are dependent on synthesis procedures. The magnesium borates can be fabricated in various morphologies of the rod, sphere, tube, whisker, belt, wire, porous, or multi-angular at both nanoscale and microscale [15, 40]. Examples of the different morphologies of magnesium borates were presented in Figure 4. Kumari et al. [15], synthesized the nano-scale whiskers of magnesium borates in hydrothermal conditions without a capping agent [15]. Liu et al. [40], prepared sub-micron rods of a dehydrated form of magnesium borates by calcination at higher temperatures than 600°C [40]. Guo et al. [38], designed a hybrid method to fabricate the 3D hierarchical flower-like particles of magnesium borates [38].
Examples of the different morphologies of magnesium borates (a) nano-scale whisker by Kumari et al. [
The experimental design should be both low-cost and eliminate the risk of byproduct formation. The design can be shaped according to the required features of particles. Therefore, synthesis procedures can be classified as liquid-state, solid-state, and hybrid synthesis with the effect of development in production technologies.
Liquid-state synthesis of magnesium borates principally includes the dissolution of raw materials in a suitable solvent medium and the reaction occurs with the impulsive effect of temperature increase. Commonly, the type of magnesium salts such as magnesium oxide (MgO), magnesium chloride (MgCl2), magnesium sulfate (MgSO4), and magnesium nitrate (Mg(NO3)2) is reacted with boric acid (H3BO3) or tincal (Na2B4O7·10H2O). At the end of the reaction, the solution is filtrated and dried. The growth mechanism could be explained by dissolution, nucleation, and recrystallization.
The growth mechanism according to the study of Ma and Liu is explained in Eqs. (1) and (2) [22]:
The particle shape and sizes can be controlled by optimizing the liquid-state reaction conditions. Derun et al. [6], fabricated the multi-angular particles of magnesium borate hydrates between the reaction temperatures of 80 and 100°C by using a traditional liquid-state method.
With the developing technology, liquid-state synthesis techniques can also be modified by the use of sonochemistry and capping agents.
As being new and fast-growing technology, ultrasonic treatment has become a significant step in several industrial applications. It is seen that acoustic waves usage shortens the reaction time and increases the reaction yield in comparison with the traditional methods. Due to these effects of cavitation, energy saving can be obtained according to the experimental setup. For this reason, the use of an ultrasonic beam is preferred to obtain proper particle formation.
In many synthesis procedures, the ultrasonic treatment is accepted as a vital step. The employment of ultrasound in the synthesis procedure accelerates the reaction rate and yield. The effects of ultrasound can be operated by factors of power level, cycle, ultrasonic treatment time, and type of ultrasonic reactor. The common types of power sources for ultrasonic treatment in laboratory scale are presented in Figure 5.
The examples of ultrasound sources in laboratory scale; (a) ultrasonic prob, and (b) ultrasonic bath.
The reaction mechanism of sonochemistry has not been defined in a detailed way. However, the beneficial contributions of ultrasound make it frequently employable in applications. The studies on the use of sonochemistry are generally based on the prevention of by-product formation, efficient use of raw materials, eco-friendly solvent usage, better waste management (selectivity), and energy savings [41].
Yildirim et al. [42] synthesized the mixtures of Admontite (MgB6O10·7H2O) and Mcallisterite (Mg2[B6O7(OH)6]2·9H2O) at higher reaction yields than 84% by using acoustic cavitation [42]. Kipcak et al. [43], produced the magnesium borate hydrates at higher crystallinity in a sub-micron scale with the effect of ultrasound energy [43]. The comparison of the Admontite morphologies synthesized by the ultrasonic liquid-state method and the traditional liquid-state method was presented in Figure 6. As is seen in Figure 5. In comparison with the traditional liquid-state methods, smaller particle sizes were observed in the use of ultrasonic-assisted synthesis techniques [6, 42].
The comparison of the Admontite morphologies synthesized (a) by ultrasonic liquid-state method [
The capping agents can be employed to overcome the drawbacks of the synthesis procedures and to produce particles with homogenous and novel morphologies. The selected surfactant can be cationic, anionic, or non-ionic. In the use of capping agent, the type of capping agent is not able to highlight the relationship between the agent and the core particle. Some type of capping agents use could decrease the particle size; however, the crystallinity of samples could be affected adversely [15]. This situation might require a more detailed examination of the relationship between the capping agent and the magnesium borate particle.
In the modified liquid-state synthesis of magnesium borates, the examples of the preferred capping agent are polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP), sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), nickel nitrate (Ni(NO3)2), cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) and triton (T) [15, 37, 44, 45]. The examples of the effects of different capping agents on the synthesized magnesium borates were presented in Figure 7. Kumari et al. [15] reported the characteristic effects of surfactant addition to the liquid-state synthesis of magnesium borate particles and indicated the notable changes in morphology to obtain nano-whiskers [15]. In the synthesis of inorganic ceramic compounds, PVP is utilized to decrease particle size and/or to sustain homogeneous morphology. However, hierarchic porous structures were obtained in the PVP-based synthesis of magnesium borates [44].
The effects of different capping agents on the synthesized magnesium borates (a) CTAB, (b) SDS, (c) T at low magnification, and (d) T at high magnification [
Solid-state synthesis of magnesium borates fundamentally involves the mixture of the powders of raw materials without any liquid component and the reaction of solid powders occurs with the impulsive effect of temperature increase in high-temperature furnaces. The common magnesium sources preferred in this synthesis method are MgO and magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2). Mostly, the raw materials are reacted in air atmosphere. The prepared sample is commonly in micron-scale at heterogeneous morphology. Mg2B2O7, MgB4O7, and Mg3B4O6 are notable combinations of dehydrated magnesium borates [45, 46].
In the phase diagram of Liu et al. [40] for the solid-state synthesis of magnesium borates, the reaction commonly occurs at higher reaction temperatures than 800°C [40]. In this synthesis procedure, the main drawback of solid-state is the requirement of grinding and sieving processes after the solid-state reaction. Chen et al. [47] used capping agent addition of Ni(NO3)2 to eliminate these extra processes of the solid-state synthesis procedure [47].
Microwave energy can be defined as non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation with frequencies between 300 MHz and 300 GHz [48]. Similar to the effects of sonochemistry in liquid-state conditions, microwaves can be beneficial to solid-state synthesis procedures to increase the interaction between the powders of raw materials. Unlike traditional calcination techniques, the heating direction is from the inside to the outside of the heated sample in microwave conditions. This situation could assist both to increase reaction yield in solid-state conditions and to decrease the by-product formation. The temperature increase is supplied with the microwave effects. The reaction costs can be reduced effectively with the optimization of reaction conditions. In the reaction procedure, microwave power level and microwave treatment time are notable operating parameters. However, the relationship between the microwave parameters and supplied temperature increase has not been comprehensively studied. In that case, more detailed experimental setups should be designed for the determination of the reaction mechanisms.
Very few studies indicated the possible use of microwave energy in magnesium borate synthesis. Kipcak et al. [49, 50], proved the beneficial effects of microwave to decrease the reaction time in magnesium borate synthesis in comparison with traditional calcination techniques [49, 50].
Hybrid synthesis procedure can be defined as the combination of liquid and solid-state conditions. The experimental procedure generally begins in hydrothermal conditions and continues with a solid-state step. Pechini, combustion, and sol-gel synthesis techniques can be assumed as examples of hybrid synthesis [51]. The steps of the hybrid procedure could be more complex than the traditional techniques; however, high purity and homogeneous morphology can be obtained. To strengthen the properties of magnesium borates, hybrid methods should be supported with novel technologies.
Gonzalez et al. [27], synthesized the Tm and Ag-doped MgB4O7 with the reaction of Mg(NO3)2 and H3BO3 in urea medium, at the calcination temperature range of 750–950°C by using the combustion method [27]. Zhang et al. [37]; preferred the capping agent of N, N, − dimethylformamide nitrate to fabricate the hierarchic porous particles of magnesium borates. The liquid-state reaction occurred at 150°C for 12 hours whereas the solid-state reaction continued at 600°C for 12 hours [37]. Chen et al. [44], fabricated the mesoporous structure of Mg2B2O7 in microsphere morphology by adding the SDS to the reaction medium of Mg(NO3)2 and borax. The two-step process began with the 80°C for 2 hours and continued with 500°C for 4 hours [44]. Wang et al. [52], prepared the fibers of magnesium borates with a two-step reaction. The mixture of MgCl2 and borax is reacted at 80°C for 12 hours and then sintered at 800°C for 6 hours [52]. In the hybrid synthesis of Zhu et al., the high purity of Mg2B2O5 was synthesized with the reaction of MgCl2, H3BO3, and NaOH [53].
The comparison of the obtained morphological features of hybrid and traditional procedures can be seen in Figure 8. The uniform particle formation was obtained in the hybrid synthesis of Chen et al. [44] whereas the heterogeneous morphology can be seen in the traditional hydrothermal synthesis of Derun et al. [6].
The comparison of the obtained particle morphologies (a) hybrid [
Magnesium borates are beneficial for many industrial-scale applications. The ease of their synthesis increases the interest in the studies in this field. The properties of synthesized samples are related with their characteristics. This situation requires the modification of the traditional synthesis method with novel technologies. In this chapter, the relationship between the characteristics, properties, and novel technologies was interpreted. The comparative table of traditional and advanced synthesis methods can be seen in Table 3. The common points of the advanced syntheses techniques are the increase in contact interfaces between the molecules of starting materials. Decreasing the reaction time and temperature can be obtained at higher reaction yields with the help of effective contact of molecules. The other important advantage is the modification of particle surfaces.
Method | Advantages | Disadvantages | |
---|---|---|---|
Liquid-state | Ultrasonic-Assisted |
|
|
Traditional |
|
| |
Solid-state | Microwave |
|
|
Traditional |
|
| |
Hybrid |
|
|
Comparison of traditional and advanced synthesis techniques.
The improved characteristics showed their effects in the applications. The common applications of magnesium borates are limited by mechanical and radiation permeation. However, the use of magnesium borates with the contribution of their redesigned morphologies was begun in adsorption, ion-battery agent, and hydrogen release agent in chemotherapy.
It is expected that the significance of magnesium borates in industrial applications would be expanded with the increase of advanced technologies in magnesium borate synthesis. In this case, the development of modified synthesis techniques with a novel experimental setup is suggested.
CTAB | Cetyltrimethylammonium bromide |
DTG | Differential thermogravimetric analysis |
PVC | Polyvinyl chloride |
qM | Maximum adsorbent capacity |
PVP | Polyvinyl pyrrolidone |
SBET | BET surface area |
SDS | Sodium dodecyl sulphate |
T | Triton |
TG | Thermogravimetric analysis |
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\n\nWe have adopted the Protocol to increase the number of readers of our publications. All our Works are more widely accessible, with resulting benefits for scholars, researchers, students, libraries, universities and other academic institutions. Through this method of exposing metadata, IntechOpen enables citation indexes, scientific search engines, scholarly databases, and scientific literature collections to gather metadata from our repository and make our publications available to a broader academic audience.
\n\nAs a Registered Data Provider, metadata for published Books and Chapters are available via our interface at the base URL: http://mts.intechopen.com/oai/index.php
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His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. 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He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/15648_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is currently working as Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow for the last 6 years. He has completed his Doctor in Philosophy (Pharmacology) in 2020 from Integral University, Lucknow. He completed his Bachelor in Pharmacy in 2013 and Master in Pharmacy (Pharmacology) in 2015 from Integral University, Lucknow. He is the gold medalist in Bachelor and Master degree. He qualified GPAT -2013, GPAT -2014, and GPAT 2015. His area of research is Pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/ natural products in liver and cardiac diseases. He has guided many M. Pharm. research projects. He has many national and international publications.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"333824",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad Farouk",middleName:null,surname:"Musa",slug:"ahmad-farouk-musa",fullName:"Ahmad Farouk Musa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333824/images/22684_n.jpg",biography:"Dato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa\nMD, MMED (Surgery) (Mal), Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery (Monash Health, Aust), Graduate Certificate in Higher Education (Aust), Academy of Medicine (Mal)\n\n\n\nDato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa obtained his Doctor of Medicine from USM in 1992. He then obtained his Master of Medicine in Surgery from the same university in the year 2000 before subspecialising in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Institut Jantung Negara (IJN), Kuala Lumpur from 2002 until 2005. He then completed his Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Monash Health, Melbourne, Australia in 2008. He has served in the Malaysian army as a Medical Officer with the rank of Captain upon completing his Internship before joining USM as a trainee lecturer. He is now serving as an academic and researcher at Monash University Malaysia. He is a life-member of the Malaysian Association of Thoracic & Cardiovascular Surgery (MATCVS) and a committee member of the MATCVS Database. He is also a life-member of the College of Surgeons, Academy of Medicine of Malaysia; a life-member of Malaysian Medical Association (MMA), and a life-member of Islamic Medical Association of Malaysia (IMAM). Recently he was appointed as an Interim Chairperson of Examination & Assessment Subcommittee of the UiTM-IJN Cardiothoracic Surgery Postgraduate Program. As an academic, he has published numerous research papers and book chapters. He has also been appointed to review many scientific manuscripts by established journals such as the British Medical Journal (BMJ). He has presented his research works at numerous local and international conferences such as the European Association for Cardiothoracic Surgery (EACTS) and the European Society of Cardiovascular Surgery (ESCVS), to name a few. He has also won many awards for his research presentations at meetings and conferences like the prestigious International Invention, Innovation & Technology Exhibition (ITEX); Design, Research and Innovation Exhibition, the National Conference on Medical Sciences and the Annual Scientific Meetings of the Malaysian Association for Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. He was awarded the Darjah Setia Pangkuan Negeri (DSPN) by the Governor of Penang in July, 2015.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Monash University Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"297507",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:"Elias",surname:"Assmann",slug:"charles-assmann",fullName:"Charles Assmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297507/images/system/297507.jpg",biography:"Charles Elias Assmann is a biologist from Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM, Brazil), who spent some time abroad at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU, Germany). He has Masters Degree in Biochemistry (UFSM), and is currently a PhD student at Biochemistry at the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of the UFSM. His areas of expertise include: Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Enzymology, Genetics and Toxicology. He is currently working on the following subjects: Aluminium toxicity, Neuroinflammation, Oxidative stress and Purinergic system. Since 2011 he has presented more than 80 abstracts in scientific proceedings of national and international meetings. Since 2014, he has published more than 20 peer reviewed papers (including 4 reviews, 3 in Portuguese) and 2 book chapters. He has also been a reviewer of international journals and ad hoc reviewer of scientific committees from Brazilian Universities.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"217850",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarete Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Bagatini",slug:"margarete-dulce-bagatini",fullName:"Margarete Dulce Bagatini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217850/images/system/217850.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Margarete Dulce Bagatini is an associate professor at the Federal University of Fronteira Sul/Brazil. She has a degree in Pharmacy and a PhD in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry. She is a member of the UFFS Research Advisory Committee\nand a member of the Biovitta Research Institute. She is currently:\nthe leader of the research group: Biological and Clinical Studies\nin Human Pathologies, professor of postgraduate program in\nBiochemistry at UFSC and postgraduate program in Science and Food Technology at\nUFFS. She has experience in the area of pharmacy and clinical analysis, acting mainly\non the following topics: oxidative stress, the purinergic system and human pathologies, being a reviewer of several international journals and books.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"23",type:"subseries",title:"Computational Neuroscience",keywords:"Single-Neuron Modeling, Sensory Processing, Motor Control, Memory and Synaptic Pasticity, Attention, Identification, Categorization, Discrimination, Learning, Development, Axonal Patterning and Guidance, Neural Architecture, Behaviours and Dynamics of Networks, Cognition and the Neuroscientific Basis of Consciousness",scope:"Computational neuroscience focuses on biologically realistic abstractions and models validated and solved through computational simulations to understand principles for the development, structure, physiology, and ability of the nervous system. This topic is dedicated to biologically plausible descriptions and computational models - at various abstraction levels - of neurons and neural systems. This includes, but is not limited to: single-neuron modeling, sensory processing, motor control, memory, and synaptic plasticity, attention, identification, categorization, discrimination, learning, development, axonal patterning, guidance, neural architecture, behaviors, and dynamics of networks, cognition and the neuroscientific basis of consciousness. Particularly interesting are models of various types of more compound functions and abilities, various and more general fundamental principles (e.g., regarding architecture, organization, learning, development, etc.) found at various spatial and temporal levels.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11419,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"13818",title:"Dr.",name:"Asim",middleName:null,surname:"Bhatti",slug:"asim-bhatti",fullName:"Asim Bhatti",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13818/images/system/13818.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Deakin University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"151889",title:"Dr.",name:"Joao Luis Garcia",middleName:null,surname:"Rosa",slug:"joao-luis-garcia-rosa",fullName:"Joao Luis Garcia Rosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/151889/images/4861_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"82367",title:"Spatial Variation and Factors Associated with Unsuppressed HIV Viral Load among Women in an HIV Hyperendemic Area of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105547",signatures:"Adenike O. 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