\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"4720",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Flow Cytometry - Select Topics",title:"Flow Cytometry",subtitle:"Select Topics",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Flow cytometry - Select Topics is a collection of chapters that illustrate the constantly evolving application of flow cytometry to diverse areas of research or clinical investigations. It includes chapters on the utilization of flow cytometry in the fields of human reproduction and fertility, platelet function, apoptosis, inflammation research, leukemia immunophenotyping, and transplantation.",isbn:"978-953-51-2551-8",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2550-1",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5445-7",doi:"10.5772/59733",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"flow-cytometry-select-topics",numberOfPages:164,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"5a842a00d86bc7f956a5fd1fe6d62b8a",bookSignature:"Ingrid Schmid",publishedDate:"August 24th 2016",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4720.jpg",numberOfDownloads:15014,numberOfWosCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitations:7,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:11,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:23,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 21st 2015",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 12th 2015",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 8th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 7th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 8th 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"109787",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Ingrid",middleName:null,surname:"Schmid",slug:"ingrid-schmid",fullName:"Ingrid Schmid",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109787/images/system/109787.jpg",biography:"Ingrid Schmid, Mag. Pharm. is an Academic Research Specialist in the Department of Medicine at the University of California at Los Angeles and the technical director of the UCLA Flow Cytometry Resource which she established in 1989 in conjunction with Dr. Janis Giorgi. She received her Pharmaceutical Sciences degree from the University of Vienna, Austria. Ms. Schmid has a broad perspective on applications of various flow cytometry techniques and has developed numerous flow cytometry methods. She has published twenty-seven first-author papers, reviews, and book chapters, has co-authored an additional thirty-one publications, and has edited two books. Ms. Schmid is a member of the International Society for the Advancement of Cytometry Biosafety Committee and has served as its Chair between 1997 and 2007.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"403",title:"Microbial Genetics",slug:"karyology-microbial-genetics"}],chapters:[{id:"51694",title:"Sperm Flow Cytometry: Beyond Human Fertilization and Embryo Development",doi:"10.5772/64344",slug:"sperm-flow-cytometry-beyond-human-fertilization-and-embryo-development",totalDownloads:1687,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Male infertily is a contributing factor in up to 50% of all infertility cases, a solo cause in about 30% of them. Therefore, new and improved diagnostic methods that reduce operator variability regarding sperm defects that are not accesible by the conventional microscope scoring should be evaluated. Assisted reproductive technology (ART) has been involved in the description of alternative pathways in basic cellular functions. it is important to know that it is also related to the peri-implantatory processes that involve the sperm-oocyte interaction, cellular changes observed during fertilization, and the early and late embryo development. Several pathways have been involved at the early stages of human gametogenesis. The spermatozoon has demonstrated an intricate correlation during the fertilization process, as a transfected vector on genetic material, and as interacting with other inner components (RNAm, mitochondrial organelles, etc.). Spermatogenesis is affected by programmed death cell pathways from its packaging process through the elongated cytoplasmic structures during spermiogenesis. Flow cytometry (FC) has been an outstanding tool with the capability to select human gametes to achieve a better reproductive condition. It has been applied as a diagnostic and therapeutic tool allowing a measurable and objective selection and discrimination of spermatozoa from subfertile subjects. Using FC, we are able to know that early distribution of organelles such as mitochondria has an impact in embryo quality before genetic activation on the eight-cell stages occurs. This chapter will let the readers know the current knowledge on sperm fertilization and the relation between the embryo development and the offspring and all the tools now available for an early diagnosis and to identify therapeutic options with FC.",signatures:"Gerardo Barroso, Alexia Alvarez and Carlos Valdespin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51694",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51694",authors:[{id:"111878",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerardo",surname:"Barroso",slug:"gerardo-barroso",fullName:"Gerardo Barroso"}],corrections:null},{id:"50807",title:"The Role of Cytometry for Male Fertility Assessment in Toxicology",doi:"10.5772/62965",slug:"the-role-of-cytometry-for-male-fertility-assessment-in-toxicology",totalDownloads:1879,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Infertility is nowadays a major concern, affecting approximately 8–12% of the couples and the male factor accounts for about 50% of the cases. Occupational and/or environmental exposure to heavy metals and other pollutants is the main cause of male infertility. Lead, cadmium and chromium are heavy metals widely used in industry and quite persistent in the environment, raising major concerns over the possible effects on the reproductive health of workers and the general population. Sperm DNA integrity is essential for the accurate transmission of paternal genetic information, and normal sperm chromatin structure is important for sperm fertilizing ability. Flow cytometry can be to characterize multiple physical characteristics of the population of spermatozoa in the sperm, including sperm concentration, viability, mitochondrial mass and function, acrosome integrity, capacitation, membrane fluidity, DNA content and status, etc. This chapter elucidates the role of cytometry in the study of male fertility under toxicological insult by pollutants such as chromium, cadmium and lead. Some representative examples are presented using in vivo studies with rodents. In addition, complementary techniques to cytometry and future perspectives will be mentioned in an interdisciplinary point of view to gain knowledge on this subject.",signatures:"Maria de Lourdes Pereira, Helena Oliveira, Henrique M.A.C.\nFonseca, Fernando Garcia e Costa and Conceição Santos",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50807",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50807",authors:[{id:"79715",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria De Lourdes",surname:"Pereira",slug:"maria-de-lourdes-pereira",fullName:"Maria De Lourdes Pereira"},{id:"174419",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernando",surname:"Garcia E Costa",slug:"fernando-garcia-e-costa",fullName:"Fernando Garcia E Costa"},{id:"185982",title:"Prof.",name:"Helena",surname:"Oliveira",slug:"helena-oliveira",fullName:"Helena Oliveira"},{id:"185983",title:"Prof.",name:"Henrique M.A.C.",surname:"Fonseca",slug:"henrique-m.a.c.-fonseca",fullName:"Henrique M.A.C. Fonseca"},{id:"185984",title:"Prof.",name:"Conceição",surname:"Santos",slug:"conceicao-santos",fullName:"Conceição Santos"}],corrections:null},{id:"51423",title:"Only the Truth Would Enlighten Us — The Advantages and Disadvantages of Flow Cytometry as a Method of Choice in the Study of Mouse and Rat Platelets",doi:"10.5772/63473",slug:"only-the-truth-would-enlighten-us-the-advantages-and-disadvantages-of-flow-cytometry-as-a-method-of-",totalDownloads:1857,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Increasing number of transgenic and knockout strains of laboratory rodents has been developed to provide reliable models of human cardiovascular diseases. Due to apparent differences in platelet physiology, morphology, biochemistry, etc. between rodents and men, methods employed to study blood platelets in rodents should always consider these differences in a reasonably critical way. Flow cytometry is a convenient tool that enables to easily cope with the minute amounts of the available biological material and providing an extremely versatile information. This review focuses on the practical and methodological aspects of flow cytometry, pointing to the key elements of the commonly used protocols for determining of multiple parameters of blood platelet (patho)physiology in mice and rats. We summarized and critically reviewed the available procedures, as well as figured out how to overcome possible obstacles, shortcomings, drawbacks or artefacts that a researcher may encounter when monitoring various phenomena intimately associated with blood platelet biology. Flow cytometry assays have been also collated with some alternative techniques (intravital fluorescence microscopy, in vitro platelet adhesion under flow conditions). We hope that our paper may further facilitate other researchers to study mouse and rat platelets with the use of the most optimal and the least artefact-prone procedures.",signatures:"Hassan Kassassir, Karolina Siewiera, Tomasz Przygodzki, Magdalena Labieniec‐Watala and Cezary Watala",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51423",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51423",authors:[{id:"31394",title:"Dr.",name:"Magdalena",surname:"Labieniec-Watala",slug:"magdalena-labieniec-watala",fullName:"Magdalena Labieniec-Watala"},{id:"51050",title:"Ms.",name:"Karolina",surname:"Siewiera",slug:"karolina-siewiera",fullName:"Karolina Siewiera"},{id:"95368",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Przygodzki",slug:"tomasz-przygodzki",fullName:"Tomasz Przygodzki"},{id:"178693",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hassan",surname:"Kassassir",slug:"hassan-kassassir",fullName:"Hassan Kassassir"},{id:"184177",title:"Prof.",name:"Cezary",surname:"Watala",slug:"cezary-watala",fullName:"Cezary Watala"}],corrections:null},{id:"48399",title:"The Multiplexing of Assays for the Measurement of Early Stages of Apoptosis by Polychromatic Flow Cytometry",doi:"10.5772/60549",slug:"the-multiplexing-of-assays-for-the-measurement-of-early-stages-of-apoptosis-by-polychromatic-flow-cy",totalDownloads:1769,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The detection of apoptosis has been a stalwart application for flow cytometric analysis for decades and this review of flow cytometric methods to detect early stages of apoptosis includes the use of the pivotal assay to detect early and late apoptosis, the Annexin V assay which when multiplexed with biologically functional fluorescent dyes to measure mitochondrial function and Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) generation allows further identification of functionally different subsets within apoptotic populations. Here we show how this polychromatic approach can be used to demonstrate which subset of cells show changes in mitochondrial function and when ROS is generated in a time dependent manner. This polychromatic approach to flow cytometry leads to the identification of over ten sub-populations of cells during classic apoptosis or programmed cell death (PCD).",signatures:"G. Warnes",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48399",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48399",authors:[{id:"108846",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",surname:"Warnes",slug:"gary-warnes",fullName:"Gary Warnes"}],corrections:null},{id:"49202",title:"Effects of WF10 on Glycosaminoglycan Sulphation in Proinflammatory Monocytes and Macrophages",doi:"10.5772/60862",slug:"effects-of-wf10-on-glycosaminoglycan-sulphation-in-proinflammatory-monocytes-and-macrophages",totalDownloads:1353,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The chlorite-based drug solution WF10 has been successfully applied to dampen strong inflammatory disease states and to improve wound healing processes. However, the molecular mechanisms of this drug are not well understood. This study is directed to investigate how WF10 and its components affect the expression of surface markers and sulphated proteoglycans and glycosaminoglycans in proinflammatory-stimulated monocytes and macrophages.",signatures:"Maria Schönberg, Denise Schlorke and Jürgen Arnhold",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49202",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49202",authors:[{id:"115238",title:"Prof.",name:"Juergen",surname:"Arnhold",slug:"juergen-arnhold",fullName:"Juergen Arnhold"},{id:"174787",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Maria",surname:"Schönberg",slug:"maria-schonberg",fullName:"Maria Schönberg"},{id:"174897",title:"MSc.",name:"Denise",surname:"Schlorke",slug:"denise-schlorke",fullName:"Denise Schlorke"}],corrections:null},{id:"49878",title:"Immunophenotyping of Acute Leukemias – From Biology to Clinical Application",doi:"10.5772/62332",slug:"immunophenotyping-of-acute-leukemias-from-biology-to-clinical-application",totalDownloads:3320,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Immunophenotyping is an essential part of the modern diagnostic workup of acute leukemias and thus for an appropriate treatment of these complex and heterogeneous diseases. It provides a lot of useful information in this setting that transfers directly from laboratory to clinical management of patients. Lineage definition is the first goal leading to proper initial therapy. Some phenotypic patterns define specific subsets correlating with poor (mixed phenotype, dendritic cell neoplasm) or favorable (cortical T-lymphoblastic leukemia) outcome, thus guiding the application of treatment modalities. An advanced analysis of phenotypic data can address specific issues, such as the still debated role of multilineage dysplasia. The quality of response to chemotherapy is monitored by the detection of minimal residual disease and peripheral blast clearance during chemotherapy delivering. That allows a sharp discrimination of prognosis and again can drive the intensity of therapies proportionally to the disease chemosensitivity.",signatures:"Francesco Mannelli",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49878",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49878",authors:[{id:"178848",title:"M.D.",name:"Francesco",surname:"Mannelli",slug:"francesco-mannelli",fullName:"Francesco Mannelli"}],corrections:null},{id:"50878",title:"Detection of Anti-HLA Antibodies by Flow Cytometer",doi:"10.5772/62553",slug:"detection-of-anti-hla-antibodies-by-flow-cytometer",totalDownloads:3152,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Lives of patients with solid organ failure depend physically, emotionally, and economically on others. Improvement in organ transplantation is one of the most important medical breakthroughs of the twenty-first century. Being healthy upon organ transplantation is the second chance to live the life. This is frequently observed in heart-, lung-, and liver-transplanted patients. For instance, upon kidney transplantation, dialysis dependence terminates and life quality of the patients increases. The major difficulty in organ transplantation is the low number of organ donation. Thus, the number of patients in the waiting list for the cadaveric transplantation increases day by day. Under these limited circumstances, required conditions should be further provided for the long survival rates of recipients with allogeneic graft without any problem. Human leukocyte antigen (HLA) tissue typing and anti-HLA antibodies produced before and after the transplantation adversely affect the graft survival and thus the survival of an individual. Investigation of pretransplantation immune status of recipients is significant. Particularly, donor-specific anti-HLA antibodies determine early and long-term graft survival. Flow cytometer is one of the most important devices used in anti-HLA antibody detection and also for other clinical and scientific purposes. Compared to conventional methods, it supports transplantation clinics due to its high sensitivity and specificity. The use of flow cytometer dependent methods in transplantation field increases progressively.",signatures:"Tülay Kılıçaslan Ayna and Aslı Özkızılcık Koçyiğit",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50878",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50878",authors:[{id:"178265",title:"Dr.",name:"Tulay",surname:"Kilicaslan Ayna",slug:"tulay-kilicaslan-ayna",fullName:"Tulay Kilicaslan Ayna"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1578",title:"Flow Cytometry",subtitle:"Recent Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fccad401cbcf998ea4de62d524abf82d",slug:"flow-cytometry-recent-perspectives",bookSignature:"Ingrid Schmid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1578.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109787",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Ingrid",surname:"Schmid",slug:"ingrid-schmid",fullName:"Ingrid Schmid"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2291",title:"Clinical Flow Cytometry",subtitle:"Emerging Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a5414617aafe62d7c6ec8205028f6967",slug:"clinical-flow-cytometry-emerging-applications",bookSignature:"Ingrid Schmid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2291.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109787",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Ingrid",surname:"Schmid",slug:"ingrid-schmid",fullName:"Ingrid Schmid"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3536",title:"Chromatin Remodelling",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"31abe97fe35989e4547bab854b38e03a",slug:"chromatin-remodelling",bookSignature:"Danuta Radzioch",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3536.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"165250",title:"Dr.",name:"Danuta",surname:"Radzioch",slug:"danuta-radzioch",fullName:"Danuta Radzioch"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5085",title:"Telomere",subtitle:"A Complex End of a Chromosome",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2a8f40859d7bc312dea327fd9b058a20",slug:"telomere-a-complex-end-of-a-chromosome",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. 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The target is, hopefully, to achieve “net-zero” greenhouse gas by 2050 and switch to clean power to fuel much of the transportation, buildings and industry. Therefore, intensive research and collaborative projects dealing with the installation of many wind turbines, both onshore and offshore, have taken place to decarbonize electricity grid systems through the exploitation of wind power. In this context, modern and larger horizontal-axis wind turbines with power capacity reaching 15 MW and rotors of more than 230-meter diameter are under continuous development for the merit of minimizing the unit cost of energy production. Such valuable advances in this competitive source of clean energy have made vast research contributions in developing wind industry technologies worldwide.
\r\n\r\n\tIn addition to the confrontation with the social acceptance, transport and erection, and sustainability of political and economic support for wind energy exploitation, the main challenges for a continued up-sizing of wind turbines in the future are the accurate wind measurements, materials and structures of the rotating blades which are expected to be fully made of carbon fibers, development of drive train technologies using permanent magnet generators, as well as multi-stage gearboxes, which could improve reliability. Towers will continue to be made of steel and/or concrete in the form a modular construction.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book aims to present advances and challenges of the design, manufacture and operation of wind turbines, and to provide a rich platform of research to the field of wind turbines. Suggested topics encompass wind measurement and forecasting, rotor blades, drive train technology, construction of tower and foundation, system integration and diagnostics, as well as offshore wind industry. The authors are encouraged to combine design, manufacturing processes and operation and maintenance procedures with a description of the implemented approaches and techniques, dealing with the individual subject as they find appropriate.
",isbn:"978-1-80355-493-8",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-492-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-494-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"bb4190017e28a8332ce6b3e791ddeef1",bookSignature:"Prof. Karam Youssef Maalawi",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11176.jpg",keywords:"Wind, Wind Turbine, Wind Measurement, Rotor Blade, Drive Train, Tower, System Integration, Offshore Wind Industry, Weather Model, Erection Procedure, Floating Foundation, Storage Technology",numberOfDownloads:184,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 15th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 24th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 23rd 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 13th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 12th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"7 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Prof. Karam Youssef Maalawi is a holder of two distinguished awards in Engineering science and the Albert Nelson Marquis Lifetime Achievement Award. He is also a consultant engineer at the Egyptian Organization for Standards and Quality and the rapporteur of the Technical Committee for Energy Systems Management. He was endorsed by Marquis Who's Who as a leader in the aerospace engineering industry.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"18593",title:"Prof.",name:"Karam",middleName:"Youssef",surname:"Maalawi",slug:"karam-maalawi",fullName:"Karam Maalawi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/18593/images/system/18593.jpeg",biography:"Karam Y. Maalawi is a professor of Aeronautics and Mechanics at the Mechanical Engineering Department, National Research Centre in Cairo, Egypt. He holds a Bachelor of Science, Master of Science, and Doctor of Philosophy degrees in Aerospace Engineering (Cairo University). Dr. Maalawi has published extensively in the field of structural optimization and wind turbine design and performance. Likewise, he has utilized the vast range of knowledge at his disposal to contribute to several research projects regarding aerospace engineering technology, wind turbine structures and renewable energy applications. He is a consultant engineer at the Egyptian Organization for Standards and Quality and the rapporteur of the Technical Committee for Energy Systems Management. For his outstanding contributions to his profession, the National Research Centre has recognized him with two awards for engineering sciences. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"73460",title:"Plant Responses to Salt Stress",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93920",slug:"plant-responses-to-salt-stress",body:'The most important factor in the survival of humanity is food. A person, who cannot access to enough food for survive, cannot continue its development and eventually lose its life. For meeting the food needs of growing population, agricultural production has to be increased by 87% by 2050 [1]. For fulfilling the food needs of world besides increasing the cultivated lands, it is necessary to take maximum efficiency and benefit from the yield. Food, which can be called the main source of our lives, is produced by plants. When plants contain essential external and internal factors they go under phase of production the food that enables the living population of the world to survive. However, the needed food sometimes cannot be obtained from the plant due to external factors. In plants, the external factor reducing growth of plant, decreasing yield of plant, inhibition plant development, is called stress. Stress causes reactions in altered gene expression in plants, cell metabolism, growth rates, yield and many other areas. In addition to these factors, stress causes death of plant and the loss of quality and quantity in plants. Generally, stress can be biotic stress caused by living factors such as microorganisms, wild plants, pathogens or can be abiotic stress caused by non-living factors such as temperature, mineral toxicity, various gasses [2]. For surviving against these negative factors, plants develop some response mechanisms. Mostly they are in two tendencies. Plants can prevent the activities of stress factors with developing mechanisms or they may try to continue their lives by protecting themselves against external factors with tolerance mechanisms. Soil salinity is one of the biggest problems that are considered among abiotic stress factors and decrease the usability of our agricultural lands today.
Soil salinity is considered as one of the most important problems of agriculture throughout history [3]. It limits agricultural production by especially harming the crop yields [4]. 1125 million ha of cultivated lands in world are coping with salinity, 76 million ha of agriculture lands are in the effect of human-induced salinity and sodicity [5]. One out of five irrigated lands are affected by salinity and every year 1.5 million ha agriculture lands lose their suitability for agricultural production. And if the conditions continue this way, 50% of the cultivated lands will be at the edge of loss by 2050 [6, 7]. Salinity is a condition of the reason of high concentration soluble salts and when the ECe value is 4 dS/m−1 and more, the soil is considered as salty. Soil salinity creates stress in two ways [4]. The salts with high concentrations in the soil complicate to get water to cells for roots and salts with high concentrations in the plant causes toxicity. The salt outside of plant root affects cell expansion and cell growth directly. Toxic concentrations of salt spend time for accumulation before affecting the plant [4].
The effect of salt on cell growth and expansion, plant membrane irregularity, ion toxicity, changing metabolic process, the mechanism of germination, photosynthetic activity, shoot and root lengths, leaf development is incontroversible [8, 9]. And plants develop some mechanisms to get rid of from these negative effects. Since NaCl is the most soluble and common salt, all plants develop mechanisms for regulating the accumulation of NaCl [10]. Halophytes, plant species of high salinity soils, maintain better this extracting from plant than glycophytes, which do not have any tolerance to high salinity soils [11]. Because the salinity is common in arid and semi-arid regions, adaptation mechanisms of plants occur according to these low water potentially areas [4]. For coping with harmful effects of salinity, plants create a lot of different morphological, physiological and biochemical adaptations [12].
Abiotic stress is a type of stress caused by environmental factors that affects plant growth, development, yield and seed quality in a negative way. Abiotic stress usually affects plant with factors like drought or floods, excessive light, excessive high or low temperature, lack of minerals, excessive pH in soil. Abiotic stress cannot directly occur, they are caused by multiple factor interactions. For example, “acid stress usually occurs because of the interaction aluminium toxicity” [13]. Plants create responses in 4 stages against abiotic stress effect. 1-Beginning alarm phase, 2-acclimation phase, 3-repair phase, 4-exhaustion phase [14]. The effect of stress is linked to plant sensitivity. When some species are so sensitive to external factors, some can tolerate it. From abiotic stresses, after drought stress the most effective factor on our world is mineral stress. In the occurrence of mineral stress, salinity is the most effective factor [2]. Big part of our agricultural lands suffer from salinity and each day this situation is getting impassable.
Salinity occurs due to problems like wrong usage of agricultural lands, lack of rain, excess evaporation, lack of drainage. Soils that have salt concentrations that prevent plant growth (Ece > 4 dS/m−1) and soils that do not have salt concentrations that disturb the structure of soil (ESP < 15) is called saline soil. Due to the excessive accumulations of these salts, affecting features like plant growth, development, yield, seed quality is called salt stress. Today, irrigation is being made in 17% of arid and semi-arid lands in the world and due to wrong treatments approximately 20% of these irrigated lands are being unproductive, plant presence is under negative cycle with it [2]. There is a little bit different situation in our country. Irrigation needed lands covers 2% of surface areas and 74% of these lands (approximately 12 thousand hectares) are exposed to negative effects of salt [15]. Soil salinity puts plant into stress with complicating ground-water flow from roots due to high concentrations of salts and with causing toxicity due to accumulation of high concentrations of salt in the plant [4]. The plants that struggles with salinity try to continue their life cycles by giving morphological, biochemical, physiological responses. More than 800 million ha agricultural lands are under negative effects of salinity in the world. This ratio composes more than 6% of world total agricultural lands [16]. Salinity separates as primary and secondary salinity. While primary salinity occurs by natural factors like oceans, corrosion of rocks, human induced secondary salinity occurs by excessive irrigation in agricultural lands, deterioration of agricultural land structure [4]. This situation shows its effect more day by day. Being estimated that 50% of cultivated agricultural lands will be under salt stress by 2050 [17]. NaCl and Na2SO4 salts are the main reasons affecting the salinity of agricultural lands [18]. It is easier to understand whether the plant is salt tolerant at non-lethal salt concentrations during germination and early seedling stages, the most damages occurs in these stages [19]. Some factors should be considered in controlling salinity [20]. “In addition to well known principles such as drainage and management of irrigation resource, cultural practices and agricultural land development works are also important too. When it comes to cultural practices, fertilization, planting method, irrigation treatment, land leveling factors come to mind. Agricultural land developments are development of drainage, land leveling, breeding irrigations.” [20]. The most important factor affecting salinity is lack of drainage. It causes million of fertile agricultural lands to be destroyed.
Salinity composes stress by damaging ionic and osmotic balances in plants. Osmotic stress caused by increasing the amount of salt in soil, decreases the amount of water that plant use and as a result physiological drought occurs. After these conditions, ionic stress occurs in the plant with deterioration of plant ion balance. Na and Cl ions which increases in medium with ionic stress, get in competition with essential nutrients such as K+, Ca2+, Mg2+ lead to nutrient deficiency in plant. While the direct effect of salinity is osmotic and ionic stresses, deteriorations in structure and synthesis of toxic components composes secondary effect [21].
The main secondary factors caused by NaCl are, complication in taking of K+ into cells (it is efficient in closure of stomatas), decreasing photosynthetic activity, generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and programmed cell deaths [22]. K element is one of the most vital elements for plants for this reason Na+ ions compete with K+ ions for getting into the cell. Na+ composes stress with blocking K+ influx into the cell. Ion and hyperosmotic stress causes secondary metabolic effects in plant and the plant has to decrease these stresses for maintain its development [8].
Salt stress occurs as a result of excessive salt accumulation in the soil and the plant cannot take water it needs with roots. Salt stress affects plants by toxicity caused by osmotic stresses and ions [23]. As a result of these effects, some negative changes occur in plants.
Plants are the most sensitive at germination and seedling growth stages. In these stages, many activities expected to occur in natural course of the plant slow down or stop. Along with these limitations, many limitations such as physiological drought, sterility, stunted growth, reduction in leaf area, slow or lack blooming, irregularity of membrane, generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), reduction in photosynthetic activity can happen. Also, high concentration of salinity causes reduction in leaf fresh and dry weights, with low humidity it causes reduction in shoot and root growth on plants. With affecting stomata, salt stress stops permanence of stomatal reactions. Formation of root nodules, plant sprouts and leaves are affected from salt stress. According to the studies, these negative results can be counted as the effects of salt stress on plants but the main responses of plants are still not fully known [24].
Root length, root length density and thick roots which are the features of the root, are very vital in development of subsoil parts of plant by taking the existing water. A fertile root system during early seedling stage which is the most sensitive stage, provides advantage in accelerating growth. Since the water which is taken by plant in danger of being lost easily as a result it has to be taken from non-deep layers of soil [24].
Roots are one of the vulnerable parts of the plant. While under salt stress reduction in root length is being seen, in addition to salt stress not being able to use the existing water negatively affects root and shoot growth of plant. Besides all of these negative effects, roots are also known as surprisingly strong when they directly exposed to salt stress [24].
Without doubt, the most affected organelle in plant from salt stress is chloroplast. Stress mostly affects thylakoids and stroma in chloroplast [2]. Chloroplasts tend to generate reactive oxygen species such as H2O2, O2−, OH−. Reactive oxygen species seriously affects plant metabolic activities by causing oxidative damage to lipids that result in protein breakdown and membrane lipid peroxidation, causing the thylakoids to swell and turn into a wavy shape [2, 25]. The stress caused by salt, causes another negative situation starch accumulation which is not known how it occurred fully in chloroplast. Another negative situation caused by salt stress is deterioration of grana lamellae. Salt stress disrupts electrical charges that composes grana lamellae by changing ionic composition.
As a result of stress mitochondria, the another organelle affected from salt stress, is exposed to negative effects such as structural fragmentations, accelerations in vacuole forming, swelling and decrease in crystal [26].
Accumulation of Na+ and Cl− ions in plant makes negative effect by developing competitive system with limiting intake of the other ions into the plant. Soluble salts with high concentrations in soil can cause physiological drought [23]. With accumulation of soluble salts in plant root area, decrease in plant water intake occurs. Accumulated salts in root area creates ion imbalance in cells by getting into plant cells and this imbalance causes growth problems in plant tissues such as leaves, seeds etc. Excessive Na+ accumulation in plants causes necrosis in old leaves and high concentrations of Na+ ions in shoots cause metabolic and osmotic problems [27]. Accumulation of soluble salts in high concentrations in soil causes negative effects.
It is known that the effect occurring in photosynthesis which is negatively affected by high and low salt concentrations, may be from stomata, non-stomata, or both limitations [2]. Several factors can be counted as a reason of decrease in photosynthetic activity. First reason is reduction in cell permeabilization of CO2 as a result of dehydration of membranes. High concentration of salt in soil creates high osmotic potential in plant by limiting water reaching of plant but with decrease in water potential osmotic stress in plant occurs. Photosynthetic electron transport is affected negatively. With ion toxicity caused by Na+ and Cl− ions, essential nutrients cannot be taken and this situation leads to limitation of photosynthesis and generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). The changes in enzyme activities also cause decrease in photosynthesis ratio [24].
High concentration salinity in soil causes osmotic stress formation by limiting water availability of plant with roots whereas closure of stomatas is a first response of plants. This response of plant limits transpiration and as a result stomata conductivity decreases [4]. Closure of stomata happens two ways as hydroactive closure and hydropassive closure [28]. Plants synthesis chemical signal molecules in occurring of hydroactive closure. ABA is one of the important synthesized chemical signal molecules and it is effective in plant growth and creating water balance. Under low water potential ABA molecules are transported into stomata by roots and old leaves via xylem. Low water potential is sensed by root tip and ABA molecules are synthesized at the root and transported to shoots with the help of xylem. The reason of synthesis of ABA molecules is ensuring regulation of stomata conductivity in low water potential conditions and as a result of this situation, it causes decrease in leaf water content [2].
With decrease in photosynthesis formation, reactive oxygen species increases and increasing of reactive oxygen species increases production of enzymes that enable detoxify of these reactive oxygen species. While plants adapt to changing environment, they undergo the activation of biochemical processes that prevent oxidative damages against photosystem, leaf morphology, chloroplast pigment composition and many other changes. Reactive oxygen species can divide the activities of plant. For example, DNA, proteins and lipids make negative effects by mixing into plant metabolism [29].
Until 2050, for fulfilling the food needs of increasing population and developing world, the yield of the crops obtained from crops, which have undeniable effects in human life, has to increase by 50% [30]. The most effective factor in limiting product yield is undoubtedly salt stress. Plants try to tackle with stress for removing the pressure on them. But the method of tackle and the effect of each species differ. The process of field crops under salinity and their responses vary from species to species.
Rice is a monocotyl warm-season cereal crop. It is grown in many parts of the world, especially Asia, it is an indispensable food of approximately 50% of the world population [23]. Rice shows more different responses to salt stress compared to other field crops. Rice crop is severely affected by salinity stress. Especially in the early growth stage, reduction is observed in the plant growth. In high concentration of salt, reduction is observed in plant seed growth and plant wet weight [31]. The first organ of the plant affected by salinity is root. As a result of excessive accumulation of Na+ in the root, reduction is observed in plant root and shoot growth [32]. Salinity has negative effects on cell division and cell wall. As a result of high concentration of salt, the salt effect is severely observed in leaf length, root and yield [9]. Rice gives very rapid response under salinity stress. For example, in early response to stress, production of ethylene phytohormone contributes to plant survival [23, 33]. Salt stress causes poor development of inner and outer spikelets and sterility of cluster, this situation results in decreased grain yield [23].
Wheat is a cereal genus belonging to the
Maize plant which is not very sensitive to salinity, is a C4 plant belonging to
Sorghum which is mostly grown in Australia in the world, is a monocotyl C4 plant that belongs to the
Production of cotton in the world, one of the most important fiber and oil plants, has increased by 2.5% compared to previous season with 121.6 million bales [47]. 35% of world fiber usage provided by cotton. Cotton cultivation and production is mostly done in arid and semi-arid regions [48]. Salinity causes negative effects on leaf area affected by osmotic stress, plant growth, root and shoot growth, in addition to these effects salinity causes decreases in photosynthetic activity, fiber quality, metabolic activities [49]. Salinity after flowering stage causes decrease in fiber quality of plant [23]. Undoubtedly, these occurring negative effects tend to change depending on the type of cotton, magnitude and time of stress exposed to.
In order to determine the responses of plants to salt stress, firstly we have to know the factors cause this stress. It is a priority to know whether the toxic effect caused by excessive salt accumulation in the plant or the osmotic stress caused by soluble salts in the soil in which the plant is restricting growth. While plants give rapid responses to external induced osmotic stress, they give slower responses to accumulation of Na+ ions in the leaves [4, 50].
There are 2 types of struggle with salinity, human-help responses and the plant’s natural adaptation responses. Natural struggle strategies among plants leans on 3 strategies. 1) extracting Na+ ions from cytoplasm due to low intake, 2) the desire of Na+ ion to enter the vacuole, 3) accumulation in leaves due to preference. Genotypes with high concentrations of Na+ ions in leaves have proven to be highly susceptible to salinity, generally those who tolerate high concentrations are those that transmit Na+ ions to the vacuoles of leaf cells. Salt tolerant plants get rid of harmful effects of NaCl [23].
The factors such as the type of plant (halophyte) that can adapt to the environment in which the plant is located or the type of plant (glycophyte) that is poorly affected by environment, the time it is exposed to salinity, salt concentrations in irrigation water have effects on growth and these factors cause plants to develop different mechanisms against negative effects [4].
Seed germination is one of the vital stages for the plant but it is prevented by salinity. Salt stress causes negative effects on plant imbibition and root growth [51]. Salinity induced decrease in germination and reduction in plant root growth are connected to ion toxicity and osmotic stress [52]. Decrease in germination is observed in plants growing under salinity. Especially wheat among field crops, is severely affected by salinity and decrease in germination is observed. Salinity also delays germination time [53].
In order for the plant to continue its vital events, seedling development under salinity stress play an important role. Plant biomass accumulation and stunted growth of plant are among the results of salinity, the most impact is its role in leaf area expansion [51]. Although some salt tolerant plants appear to increase biomass combination under high salinity, there is an inverse relationship between seedling development and salinity. Salinity also negatively affects seedling fresh and dry weights, plant length, and root surface area in plant [51].
Plant produce their foods with photosynthesis [51]. Photosynthesis is affected by salinity in long-term or short-term. While it can get rid of the effects in short-term with stomata restrictions that cause a decrease in carbon accumulation, it can get rid of the effects caused by salt accumulation in the leaves in long term [4, 54]. Closure of stomata prevents plant from losing water through transpiration. Deteriorations in thylakoid membranes and decrease in activities of Calvin cycle enzymes are the most important factors caused by salinity [51]. As a result of salinity, deterioration in PSII receptors cause yield loss in PSII [51]. Reduced chlorophyll content due to salinity may be depend on increased pigment degradation or impaired biosynthesis. Generally, the plant shows its response to salinity by decreasing photosynthetic activity and restricting the production of the factors that make up this activity [51].
Excessive amounts of Na+ and Cl− ions prevents water intake of plant by increasing osmotic potential of soil, this situation causes negativities in plant growth by decreasing water consent in plant cells [9]. Under the salinity increase, inverse correlation against stress between osmotic potential and water potential occurs, which means that while salinity increases, decrease in both of these factors is observed [51]. Water based osmotic stress causes closure of stomata and by going further causes disruption in photosynthesis by preventing CO2 flow. Regulation of water flow is the key solution in eliminating these negative factors [55]. In addition, in tackling salinity especially in field crops using canal waters instead of salty groundwater can be preferred. Gypsum usage is also among the options where canal water is not accessible [56].
Salt stress occurs due to accumulation of high amounts of Cl− or Na+ ions in soil and causes ion toxicity in plant. Although plant responses against salinity varies from species to species, generally excessive intake of Na+ causes nutrient imbalance [51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57]. Na+ ion has toxic concentration earlier than Cl− ion [4]. While high concentrations of Na+ ions cause negative effects in photosynthetic activity, they may lead to worse results in salt sensitive plants [58]. While the effect of Na+ ions may be negative in some plants, Cl− ion may be more negative in plants such as soybean and citrus [59]. Cl− ions can also deteriorate photosynthetic activity and may cause ion toxicity in plants like Na+ ions. In response to ion toxicity ABA hormone, which is produced by plant itself, is important. The amount of synthesis increases during stress, it is used to prevent disruption in the growth and development mechanisms of cell [60, 61].
Root water conductivity is impaired as the plant’s high salinity restricts water intake from the soil, resulting in osmotic stress [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]. Salinity related osmotic stress causes closure of stomata [50]. Cell division and elongation are negatively affected in decreasing turgor pressure [62]. Cell permeability decreases, water intake to plant deteriorates and this decreases water intake and transpiration rate in leaf water potential [63]. Most of these effects are observed in maize plants, which are sensitive to salt stress, from field crops. But when the responses to salt stress are examined, responses of each plant are different.
Salt stress constitutes reactive oxygen species (ROS). Reactive oxygen species such as H2O2, O2−, OH− are produced in plant cells, in chloroplast and mitochondria [64]. Decrease in photosynthesis rate increases formation of reactive oxygen species [65]. Reactive oxygen species increase under stress and balance between antioxidant defense systems deteriorates and as a result oxidative stress occurs [66]. Under salt stress the negative effects such as disruption in membrane integrity, oxidation of carbohydrates and nucleic acids are observed as most harmful effects of reactive oxygen species [51]. Disruption of a gene related to oxidative stress tolerance may block the plant’s tolerance to any abiotic stress [4]. Malondialdehydes are considered as important symptoms of oxidative stress, accumulation of high concentrated malondialdehyde in cells also cause oxidation of complementary structural components of cells [9].
In plant growth, some ions must be inside of cell. Although ions such as nitrogen, potassium, calcium are present in soil, they cannot enter the plant cells as a result of competition with other ions with high concentrations. Presence of salt with high concentration in soil complicates the intake of these ions which are effective in plant development. Plants make some responses to ensure that this negative effect is eliminated and for the continuity of low ion concentration. Dividing the ions to be added to plants instead of intaking them inside of cells as one time is considered as important action for plant growth and development [51]. In maintaining the low concentration of ions, in transportation to plants the cell membrane is important [67]. Thanks to proteins, channel proteins and semptomers, ions can be moved to the plant [68]. Antiporters are also used in transportation. These transporters are located in vacuolar membranes. V-ATPase are known as channels needed for the continuity of plant under salt stress [69]. Due to the excessive accumulation in the soil, when Na+ ion enters the cytoplasm, it wants to move to vacuoles and this transport is carried out by Na+/H+ antiporters. In the cell metabolism of plant, the other role is cytoplasmic K+ homeostasis. Under salinity, K+ concentration undergoes a severe decrease [64]. K+ ions, which can be transmittable to cells by K+ transporters and membrane channels, have low concentration under salinity stress. There is an important factor in cell recruitment. When the extracellular K+ concentration is low, K+ transporters mediating high affinity of K+ uptake mechanisms allow affinity if extracellular K+ concentration is high. As a result of this, concentration of Na+ ion increases under salinity and with this increase Na+ competes with K+ and reduces K+ uptake into the cell [4, 51]. More K+ retention of roots in plants such as wheat, maize, beans have been observed as one of the mechanisms applied by plants to withstand salt stress [51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64]. Accumulation of K+ ions in cell increases under salinity stress [51, 70].
Osmoprotectants are high rated soluble compounds [71]. Certain organic compounds, which are sugars, amino acids, proline and osmoprotectants that are interchangeable compounds, are synthesized by plants under stress conditions according to their stress levels. Osmolytes are in charge of providing adaptation of plant to salt stress [71]. Quaternary ammonium compounds as betalain betanin which is synthesized only by a few members of
Free amino acids take part in reducing osmotic stress caused by high concentrations of salt [74]. Amino acids such as arginine, glycine, alanine, proline, leucine, valine, serine take part in regulation of cell [75]. Accumulation of these amino acids is done for solving the problems that the plant creates against salt stress. But amino acids such as methionine, arginine, which make up the majority of amino acids, decreases under stress condition unlike proline, which increases under salinity [51].
Proline, which has wide usage, is one of the most common osmolytes [76]. In high plants, which are found to be abundant, even under salt stress this content does not decrease, conversely it tends to increase [57]. Accumulation of proline is accepted as an important precaution to avoid salinity stress [76, 77]. The effect of proline accumulation under salinity conditions varies from species to species. Increasing the proline content in plant cells is a positive factor in preventing negative effects occurring at cell level [76]. Even in negative conditions, the accumulation of proline helps the plant to grow [76].
Glycine betain, the variety of which is known to be found in organisms as well as plants, is accepted as the most common quaternary ammonium compound [78]. Under salt stress, it takes part in protecting membrane structure of plant, regulation of plant cells [76, 77, 78, 79]. According to the studies, glycine betain accumulated in chloroplast is more effective than its accumulation in cytosol [79]. In conducted study, while in rice seedlings, which are under 150 mM salt stress, fragmentation of grana, swelling of thylakoids, deterioration in mitochondria may be observed, it is observed that these effects disappear with the pretreatment of glycine betaine [80]. As a result of accumulation of exogenously applied glycine betain, the plant has a stronger system against stress [76].
With increasing population, satisfying the food need of humanity is important. Responding to this need gets harder day by day. Most of the agricultural lands in the world are exposed to salt stress. Other than the natural factors causing salt stress, unfortunately the wrong practices made by people also invite salt stress. Plants develop some response mechanisms for surviving against the negative effects occurring on them. These mechanisms which we can group as physiological, morphological, biochemical, depend on the magnitude and effect of stress and vary from species to species. As a result of these responses, the tolerance of plants to the environment they live in increases, they may be affected less by external factors and they may continue their life cycle.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
The external examination of the corpse is a procedure that can provide information on the examination of the body when the identity is unknown, provides guidance on cause of death, unnatural, or unexplained manner of death, and determines conditions, for example, time of death [1].
The external examination of the body must be accurate and must be performed by trained people with many years of experience in the field, as sometimes medical work is combined with the forensic work.
During the external examination, definitive signs of death (temperature, lividity, rigor, or advanced postmortem changes) should be considered. In the procedure, all areas of the naked body should be analyzed and photographed, and all visual evidence and findings, such as scars, traumatic changes, tattoos, deformities, syringe marks, should be reported [2].
Unnatural deaths are those with external influence, due to physical aggression, accident, homicide, poisoning, suicide, and in those death, the external examination is very important, because it can provide information about the cause, with indicators on the body such as conjunctival hemorrhages, livor mortis color, signs of injury, among others [1].
For these reasons, the external examination of the corpse is of great importance, as it allows to:
To provide the elements of identification.
Plan the steps to be followed in an autopsy, for which it is necessary to determine the autopsy technique to obtain results according to the needs of the case.
Document any pathological findings from the outset.
Support a medico-legal case if a full autopsy is not possible (which has happened due to health regulations in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic).
Provide evidence in cases of allegations of lack of timely and adequate obstetric care.
Document cases of neglected of elderly, disabled adults, and young children in the care of third parties.
In addition to fingerprints, there are other elements accessible for external examination that can be valuable in determining or also confirming the identification of the deceased, such as dental features and tattoos [3]. In the case of dental features, age, sex, habits, cultural characteristics can be determined (Figure 1) in addition to the identification of the individual by comparison with dental records [4]. In the case of tattoos, it is important as a complement for identification (Figure 2), as it can provide information for relatives or a tour of tattoo shops which can narrow down the search field [5].
Denture with missing pieces and poor care conditions.
Oversized and eye-catching tattoo.
Before performing an autopsy, it is ideal is to obtain as much information as possible, such as the place where the body or remains were discovered, the circumstances of death, the postmortem interval, the history of previous illnesses, and whether it was a witnessed death.
But if this is not possible, elements of external examination may be useful to:
Take extreme precautions in the use of personal protective equipment if infection is suspected.
Establish where the incisions will be placed, so as not to compromise internal structures (Figure 3).
Establish before starting the autopsy procedure, which complementary tests may be necessary, to have the appropriate containers (e.g., Petri dishes with culture media, fixatives for electron microscopy studies) or to establish coordination with other laboratories, in cases that require quickly processing.
The existence of entry points for skin infection, such as pressure ulcers (bed sores), suggests that sepsis may be present (Figure 4). Staining for microorganisms such as Gram stain and Lactophenol Blue needs to be considered [6, 7].
Large umbilical hernia, with a median infra-umbilical laparotomy scar. The autopsy incision should be lateralised to visualize the underlying structures without interrupting them.
Decubitus ulcer (pressure or bed sores). It is a starting point for skin sepsis.
Many external signs in the ocular conjunctiva, mucosa of the lips, teeth, ears, or skin, among others, may suggest the underlying disease, or be a key in differential diagnoses.
Internal examination findings only have an impact on the clinicopathological picture, causing or contributed to death.
Alterations in skin color, focal such as petechiae or ecchymosis (Figures 5 and 6) or diffuse such as jaundice, the presence of edema (Figure 7), suggest from external examination of the body that it will be necessary to study certain organs and systems, both macroscopically and through complementary tests, like imaging, histopathology, forensic histopathology, or molecular biology.
Petechiae on the chest and left flank. Thrombocytopenic purpura.
Extensive ecchymoses on the abdomen, pubic and genital region. Coagulopathy by anticoagulants.
Jaundice and generalized edema. Stillborn with Rh incompatibility and isoimmunization.
An example of this is how histology and forensic histopathology can be of great use in the diagnosis of skin alterations, which can give us an understanding of lesions or postmortem changes in the structure of the skin [8].
In congestive heart failure and myocardial infarction, vasodilation and congestion are observed, especially in the mucous membranes and conjunctivae, due to their transparency (Figure 8).
Conjunctival congestion. Acute myocardial infarction.
When pallor is severe, massive hemorrhage must be presumed. Occasionally, the source of bleeding is an external injury, as well as the gastrointestinal or respiratory tract (Figure 9).
Conjunctival pallor. Cutting wound.
In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, many countries have adapted their regulations on the examination of the deceased, reducing and eventually banning clinical autopsies [9, 10].
Forensic services, for their part, have restricted forensic autopsies, subjecting them to autopsy in case of a negative PCR for COVID-19, or even leaving the decision to prosecutors who do not usually handle technical criteria.
Therefore, forensic autopsies of potential cases and especially of confirmed cases, especially those without signs of violence, should be kept to a minimum and performed only when necessary, and internal examination of the body should be carried out only when necessary [11].
As it is necessary to have a cause of death to initiate a legal process and bring the case to justice, we can use the alternatives at our disposal to support the decision whether to do an autopsy and take certain samples.
In cases of sudden death, there is usually no history, so an autopsy and other complementary tests will be necessary, such as histopathology.
Deaths caused by trauma, asphyxia, and poisoning are classified as violent. A thorough external examination may be sufficient to document a case of violent death, for example:
In cases of traumatic death, where the offending element is often external to the body, it is essential to document the type, size, location, and relationship between external injuries. And non-invasive imaging tests may be useful.
If the presence of cyanosis suggests asphyxia, manual asphyxia and all lessons accompanied by constriction of the neck should be documented by photographs of the respective groove, fingerprints, nail stigmata, lividity studies, and lividity arrangement in cases of incomplete suspension.
Only if there are doubts about submersion asphyxia, it is necessary to prove the presence of a foreign body in the airway, which may require an internal examination.
In the case of poisoning, it should be borne in mind that for analysis and demonstration, it is necessary to isolate the toxic substance from the tissues or fluids of the corpse, for which it is essential to take a good sample. Although toxic substances produce what is called “asphyxia,” visible changes on external examination may be of value: Lividity of colors, other purplish spots, miosis, increased facial congestion are characteristic of some poisonings.
In cases of gunshot wounds, it is very important to determine the distance of the shot, the angle of the shot, the position in which the victim was when the projectile hit, and the entry and exit orifices (Figures 10 and 11).
Close-range shot, with concentric equimotic-erosive halo and gunshot residue encrustation on its periphery.
Long distance shot, no residue, with eccentric equimotic-erosive halo.
In cases of asphyxia due to aspiration of gastric contents, in addition to cyanosis, the cause of death may be evident on external examination (Figures 12 and 13).
Patient found dead at home. Morbid obesity with complicated umbilical hernia, and intestinal volvulus.
The same patient with severe cyanosis. Foamy hemorrhagic coming out of the mouth and nose.
Autopsy of newborns can provide information to physicians and families about the cause of death and the accuracy of the antemortem clinical diagnosis [12].
Some women have given birth to a newborn. These deaths are attributed to excessive delay in obstetric care and lack of control of the fetoplacental unit. It is essential to record the external features of the stillbirth body to establish the approximate date of death in utero and the gestational age [13, 14].
Routine external examination includes body measurements (at least: body weight, crown-rump length, crown-heel length, foot length, occipitofrontal circumference).
Detailed external examination, including nutritional status/soft tissue and muscle volume; the presence of edema (localized/generalized), pallor, meconium staining, jaundice or the presence of trauma, location of thoracic drains and vascular cannulae, and other iatrogenic lesions (Figures 14 and 15) [15].
Premature stillbirth. With skin. Sloughing.
Term newborn. Fully developed pinna.
The report should include a description of the external morphology specifically mentioning fontanelles, eyes, ears, nose, choanal patency, palatal fusion, spine, extremities, fingers, palmar creases, external genitalia, anal patency, umbilical cord [15]. It is used to diagnose, why some fetuses die in the prenatal period due incompatible life malformations (Figures 16–18) [16].
Premature and macerated fetus with large omphalocele.
Term newborn, with multiple head and body malformations.
Term newborn, with foot malformations.
Examination of the ovarian adnexa may also clarify the causes of death, such as large retroplacental clots (premature detachment of the placenta), opaque ovarian membranes (indicating ovarian infection), or true knots in the umbilical cord (Figure 19) [17, 18].
Malformation of the foot secondary to oligohydramnios. This condition is associated with polycystic kidney or renal agenesis.
Malnutrition, soiling, bed sores and colonization by insects on living persons [19, 20] are located on the conjunctivae, ulcers, genitalia, or other wounds (Figure 20). These are the elements that in a judicial process that allow proving the crime of abandonment or neglect of vulnerable people by their relatives or caregivers. An example of poor care is best illustrated by the diagnosis of marasmus and cachexia. These diseases were frequently diagnosed. They were only rarely cited as a cause of death [21].
Elderly adult male, living in a nursing home. Malnutrition, dirt, and dermatophytosis.
Despite the evolution of imaging techniques, the postmortem examination has maintained a key role in the clinical and forensic analysis. To obtain reliable information on the types of death and to allow a better understanding of the phenomenon, it is useful to study the results of clinical and forensic autopsies that start with the external examination of the corpse.
The search for and documentation of seemingly small details in the external examination of corpses help to resolve difficult situations surrounding medico-legal deaths, such as the identification of undocumented victims, the cause and manner of death, the postmortem interval, differential diagnoses of the cause of death, or the regulation of not performing complete autopsies during health crises.
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nOAI-PMH
\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\\n\\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\\n\\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
\\n\\n\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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As the science gets more advanced and the information about these two points becomes clearer, the view of this information might modify our understanding to these processes. Then, some topics might be dropped, and others might be raised or become more obvious. However, the feeding of halophyte forages as per se has several drawbacks and therefore, they have to be fed in mixed rations, fortifying these rations with energy supplements.",book:{id:"5978",slug:"new-perspectives-in-forage-crops",title:"New Perspectives in Forage Crops",fullTitle:"New Perspectives in Forage Crops"},signatures:"Salah A. 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CW has been successfully applied as an adsorbent for removing pollutants from wastewater and gas, a precursor for obtaining activated carbon, and a feedstock for producing energy and valuable products using mono-process extraction and biorefinery.",book:{id:"8952",slug:"coffee-production-and-research",title:"Coffee",fullTitle:"Coffee - Production and Research"},signatures:"Felipe J. Cerino-Córdova, Nancy E. Dávila-Guzmán, Azucena M. García León, Jacob J. Salazar-Rabago and Eduardo Soto-Regalado",authors:null},{id:"56029",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69614",title:"Production of Spineless Cactus in Brazilian Semiarid",slug:"production-of-spineless-cactus-in-brazilian-semiarid",totalDownloads:1888,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"The term “spineless cactus” is used in Brazil to designate cultivars of Opuntia ficus indica Mill and Nopalea cochenillifera Salm Dyck. The spineless cactus was consolidated in Brazilian semiarid as a strategic fundamental food resource in several production livestock systems, constituting a plant with enormous productive potential. Thus, the spineless cactus has been widely cultivated and used for several decades, by enabling the animal feeding in critical periods of year because of its characteristics, morpho‐anatomical and physiological (CAM), which makes it tolerant to long droughts, being a crop that presents high productivity in droughts conditions, when compared to other forages. Nevertheless, the spineless cactus is a crop relatively picky about soil and climate characteristics of region, presenting greater growth in fertile soils, as well as in regions where nighttime temperatures are cool and the air humidity is relatively high. Although the crop be adapted to long droughts periods, many times it’s necessary to perform irrigation in its production system, mainly in regions of low rainfall, for to supply its water needs, thus ensuring productivity and survival of crop. Therefore, the knowledge of characteristics of plant, as well as of appropriate management techniques to crop, is essential for the good performance of spineless cactus.",book:{id:"5978",slug:"new-perspectives-in-forage-crops",title:"New Perspectives in Forage Crops",fullTitle:"New Perspectives in Forage Crops"},signatures:"Wilma Cristina Cavalcante dos Santos Sá, Edson Mauro Santos,\nJuliana Silva de Oliveira and Alexandre Fernandes Perazzo",authors:[{id:"139631",title:"Dr.",name:"Edson Mauro",middleName:null,surname:"Santos",slug:"edson-mauro-santos",fullName:"Edson Mauro Santos"},{id:"180036",title:"Dr.",name:"Juliana",middleName:null,surname:"Oliveira",slug:"juliana-oliveira",fullName:"Juliana Oliveira"},{id:"203022",title:"MSc.",name:"Wilma",middleName:null,surname:"Sá",slug:"wilma-sa",fullName:"Wilma Sá"},{id:"207265",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandre",middleName:null,surname:"Perazzo",slug:"alexandre-perazzo",fullName:"Alexandre Perazzo"}]},{id:"70151",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89224",title:"The Harvest and Post-Harvest Management Practices’ Impact on Coffee Quality",slug:"the-harvest-and-post-harvest-management-practices-impact-on-coffee-quality",totalDownloads:1793,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Coffee is one of the most important agricultural commodities in the world. The coffee quality is associated with pre-harvest and post-harvest management activities. Each step starting from selecting the best coffee variety for plantation until the final coffee drink preparation determines the cupping quality. The overall coffee quality influenced by the factors which involve in changes the physicochemical properties and sensorial attributes, including the post-harvest operations. The post-harvest processing activities contribute about 60% of the quality of green coffee beans. The post-harvest operations include pulping, processing, drying, hulling, cleaning, sorting, grading, storage, roasting, grinding, and cupping. This chapter comprises the harvest and post-harvest operations of coffee and their impacts on coffee quality.",book:{id:"8952",slug:"coffee-production-and-research",title:"Coffee",fullTitle:"Coffee - Production and Research"},signatures:"Mesfin Haile and Won Hee Kang",authors:null},{id:"69900",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89508",title:"Coffee By-Products: Nowadays and Perspectives",slug:"coffee-by-products-nowadays-and-perspectives",totalDownloads:1144,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Coffee is one of the most consumed products around the world; 2.25 billions of coffee cup are consumed everyday in the world. For coffee crop production, different by-products are produced, such as coffee peel, coffee husk, parchment, and spent coffee grounds. These by-products have several problems associated at the final disposition. In this book chapter, we study the main coffee varieties produced in the world, the by-products produced, and its composition and finally assess the potential of supramolecular solvents (SUPRAS) and water as green solvents for high-added-value compound extractions. Bioactive compounds were extracted from fresh and dried coffee peel in an acceptable rate for industrial applications. SUPRAS offer advantages in terms of rapidity (5 min) and simplicity (stirring and centrifugation at room temperature), thus avoiding costly processes based on high pressure and temperature. Extractions carried out using water as solvent is another technique of extraction mixing temperature (above 60°C) and time (4.5 min) obtained a beverage or solution with presence a bioactive compounds how caffeine, chlorogenic acid and polyphenols.",book:{id:"8952",slug:"coffee-production-and-research",title:"Coffee",fullTitle:"Coffee - Production and Research"},signatures:"Laura Sofía Torres-Valenzuela, Johanna Andrea Serna-Jiménez and Katherine Martínez",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"71528",title:"A Detail Chemistry of Coffee and Its Analysis",slug:"a-detail-chemistry-of-coffee-and-its-analysis",totalDownloads:2331,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"This review article highlights the detailed chemistry of coffee including its components; chemical constituents like carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and caffeine; aromatic principles; oil and waxes; and minerals and acids. The high extent of caffeine can be found in the coffee plants; hence, in the second part of the study, various analytical methods are designed for the proper identification, separation, optimization, purification, and determination of caffeine present in coffee, tea, and marketed coffee. These analytical methods are appropriated for the separation and quantification of caffeine. The various analytical methods include spectroscopy methods like UV, IR, and NMR spectroscopy; chromatographic methods like paper, TLC, column, HPLC, and gas chromatography; and hyphenated techniques like LC–MS, GC–MS, and GC–MS/MS. This article compares and contrasts the amount of caffeine by various analytical methods.",book:{id:"8952",slug:"coffee-production-and-research",title:"Coffee",fullTitle:"Coffee - Production and Research"},signatures:"Hemraj Sharma",authors:null},{id:"70151",title:"The Harvest and Post-Harvest Management Practices’ Impact on Coffee Quality",slug:"the-harvest-and-post-harvest-management-practices-impact-on-coffee-quality",totalDownloads:1793,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Coffee is one of the most important agricultural commodities in the world. The coffee quality is associated with pre-harvest and post-harvest management activities. Each step starting from selecting the best coffee variety for plantation until the final coffee drink preparation determines the cupping quality. The overall coffee quality influenced by the factors which involve in changes the physicochemical properties and sensorial attributes, including the post-harvest operations. The post-harvest processing activities contribute about 60% of the quality of green coffee beans. The post-harvest operations include pulping, processing, drying, hulling, cleaning, sorting, grading, storage, roasting, grinding, and cupping. This chapter comprises the harvest and post-harvest operations of coffee and their impacts on coffee quality.",book:{id:"8952",slug:"coffee-production-and-research",title:"Coffee",fullTitle:"Coffee - Production and Research"},signatures:"Mesfin Haile and Won Hee Kang",authors:null},{id:"72400",title:"Factors Affecting Efficiency of Vegetable Production in Nigeria: A Review",slug:"factors-affecting-efficiency-of-vegetable-production-in-nigeria-a-review",totalDownloads:803,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Vegetables are important for maintenance of good health; their production and marketing are veritable sources of employment and livelihood. To promote vegetables’ contribution to the above, there is a need for sustainable and efficient production process. The paper reviewed production, socioeconomic factors, and constraint affecting efficiency of production of three important vegetables (tomato, pepper, and onion). The review showed that socioeconomic factors found to increase technical efficiency in vegetable production were educational level, extension contact, and household size. Influence of farmer age on technical efficiency was inconclusive due to varied opinions. Increase in farm size, quantity of seed, amount of fertilizer, and agrochemical were found to have positive influence on output. Majority of the literature reviewed opined that increase in quantity of labour raises productivity; however, it must be utilized efficiently. The mean technical efficiency of the vegetables varied from the southern to the northern part of the country. The cross cutting constraints in vegetables production are pest and diseases, inadequate storage facilities, and high cost of improved inputs. The study recommends increase awareness and sensitization on optimum levels of resource use for increased productivity and appropriate intervention to constraints in the value chain.",book:{id:"10142",slug:"agricultural-economics",title:"Agricultural Economics",fullTitle:"Agricultural Economics"},signatures:"Iyabo Bosede Adeoye",authors:[{id:"317695",title:"Dr.",name:"Iyabo Bosede",middleName:null,surname:"Adeoye",slug:"iyabo-bosede-adeoye",fullName:"Iyabo Bosede Adeoye"}]},{id:"65591",title:"Insect Pest Management in Organic Farming System",slug:"insect-pest-management-in-organic-farming-system",totalDownloads:2595,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Due to the regulations of organic farming, few options remain for organic farmers to manage pests and diseases in their crops compared to conventional farming. However, major pests could still be managed through manipulation of the agroecosystem processes in advantage of the crops and disadvantage of pests. The limited number of active plant protection substances authorized for use in organic farming can provide support to natural and biological control agents in suppression of pests and diseases. This chapter highlights the principles and strategies of crop protection in organic farming, the cultural practices adopted, the active substances allowed for use to suppress pests, and the impacts on faunal and floral biodiversity. A case study of organic date palm cultivation is discussed.",book:{id:"6988",slug:"multifunctionality-and-impacts-of-organic-and-conventional-agriculture",title:"Multifunctionality and Impacts of Organic and Conventional Agriculture",fullTitle:"Multifunctionality and Impacts of Organic and Conventional Agriculture"},signatures:"Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie",authors:[{id:"192142",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamadttu",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shafie",slug:"hamadttu-el-shafie",fullName:"Hamadttu El-Shafie"}]},{id:"69412",title:"Soil Management and Water-Use Efficiency in Brazilian Coffee Crops",slug:"soil-management-and-water-use-efficiency-in-brazilian-coffee-crops",totalDownloads:806,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Brazil is a world leader in coffee production. However, currently, it coexists with recurrent and severe droughts, accompanied by intense heat, strong insolation and low relative humidity. As the cultivation is carried out primarily in the rainy season, these world climate variations have affected crops yields and fruits quality, requiring innovative actions that promote efficient use of water stored in the soil. Among several soil management practices that promote a more rational use of water, deep tillage combined with liming, gypsum and fertilizer amendments lead to an increase in effective depth of coffee roots, therefore reducing water stress. Moreover, intercropping with Urochloa sp. is highly efficient in enhancing soil structure, water infiltration and plant available water capacity. Additionally, other innovative techniques and practices are also introduced in this chapter.",book:{id:"8952",slug:"coffee-production-and-research",title:"Coffee",fullTitle:"Coffee - Production and Research"},signatures:"Bruno Montoani Silva, Geraldo César de Oliveira, Milson Evaldo Serafim, Carla Eloize Carducci, Érika Andressa da Silva, Samara Martins Barbosa, Laura Beatriz Batista de Melo, Walbert Junior Reis dos Santos, Thiago Henrique Pereira Reis, César Henrique Caputo de Oliveira and Paulo Tácito Gontijo Guimarães",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"27",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 11th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. He has served as guest editor for a number of special issues of peer-reviewed international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:19,paginationItems:[{id:"82196",title:"Multi-Features Assisted Age Invariant Face Recognition and Retrieval Using CNN with Scale Invariant Heat Kernel Signature",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104944",signatures:"Kamarajugadda Kishore Kumar and Movva Pavani",slug:"multi-features-assisted-age-invariant-face-recognition-and-retrieval-using-cnn-with-scale-invariant-",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"82063",title:"Evaluating Similarities and Differences between Machine Learning and Traditional Statistical Modeling in Healthcare Analytics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105116",signatures:"Michele Bennett, Ewa J. Kleczyk, Karin Hayes and Rajesh Mehta",slug:"evaluating-similarities-and-differences-between-machine-learning-and-traditional-statistical-modelin",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11422.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"81791",title:"Self-Supervised Contrastive Representation Learning in Computer Vision",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104785",signatures:"Yalin Bastanlar and Semih Orhan",slug:"self-supervised-contrastive-representation-learning-in-computer-vision",totalDownloads:28,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"79345",title:"Application of Jump Diffusion Models in Insurance Claim Estimation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99853",signatures:"Leonard Mushunje, Chiedza Elvina Mashiri, Edina Chandiwana and Maxwell Mashasha",slug:"application-of-jump-diffusion-models-in-insurance-claim-estimation-1",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Data Clustering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10820.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:9,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7723",title:"Artificial Intelligence",subtitle:"Applications in Medicine and Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7723.jpg",slug:"artificial-intelligence-applications-in-medicine-and-biology",publishedDate:"July 31st 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Marco Antonio Aceves-Fernandez",hash:"a3852659e727f95c98c740ed98146011",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Artificial Intelligence - Applications in Medicine and Biology",editors:[{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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