Examples of mycotoxins studies in Africa.
\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7795",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Artificial Intelligence - Scope and Limitations",title:"Artificial Intelligence",subtitle:"Scope and Limitations",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Artificial intelligence (AI) is a potent buzzword and happening technology which has greatly impacted the lifestyle of every human being either directly or indirectly and is shaping the future of tomorrow. In fact, AI is fast becoming an intrinsic part of our daily life and is not confined to university research labs, even if remarkable progress has been made in this domain. The benefit of this phenomenon is widely recognized in diversified areas, ranging from medicine to security to consumer applications and business, and resulting in improvements in the quality of life of humankind. Every new disruptive technology has its own pros and cons and AI is no exception to this rule. Privacy, data protection, and the rights of individuals pose social and ethical challenges.",isbn:"978-1-78985-936-2",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-935-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-124-6",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77611",price:100,priceEur:109,priceUsd:129,slug:"artificial-intelligence-scope-and-limitations",numberOfPages:78,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"7e536b4fe8982ca9015228fe6f58c6ea",bookSignature:"Dinesh G. Harkut",publishedDate:"April 24th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7795.jpg",numberOfDownloads:5605,numberOfWosCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:9,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:17,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 13th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 4th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 2nd 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 21st 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 20th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"216122",title:"Dr.",name:"Dinesh G.",middleName:null,surname:"Harkut",slug:"dinesh-g.-harkut",fullName:"Dinesh G. Harkut",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/216122/images/system/216122.png",biography:"Dr. Dinesh G. Harkut is Associate Professor at Prof Ram Meghe College of Engineering & Management (PRMCEAM), Badnera, India, in the Computer Science and Engineering Department. He obtained a bachelor’s degree, a master’s of engineering (CSE), and a PhD (CSE) from SGBAU Amravati University, Maharashtra, India. He also holds a master’s degree and PhD in Business Administration.\nHis primary research interests are in artificial intelligence, big data, analytics, embedded systems, and e-commerce. He has supervised eighteen master’s degree and twenty-four bachelor’s degree students. He has published forty-seven papers in refereed journals and published six books with international publishers. He has also organized various workshops, sessions, conferences, and trainings. He has two patents filed and published in his name in India. \nHe is a member of the Board of Studies (Computer Science and Engineering) and a recognized PhD supervisor at SGBAU Amravati University, Maharashtra, India. He holds membership in various professional bodies including the Institution of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineers (IETE), New Delhi; International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE), New Delhi; Universal Association of Computer and Electronics Engineers (UACEE), USA; International Economics Development and Research Center (IEDRC), Hong Kong; International Association of Engineers (IAENG), Hong Kong; and the European Alliance for Innovation, Belgium.",institutionString:"Prof Ram Mehge College of Engineering and Management",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"Sant Gadge Baba Amravati University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"87",title:"Artificial Intelligence",slug:"computer-and-information-science-artificial-intelligence"}],chapters:[{id:"66147",title:"Introductory Chapter: Artificial Intelligence - Challenges and Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84624",slug:"introductory-chapter-artificial-intelligence-challenges-and-applications",totalDownloads:1586,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:null,signatures:"Dinesh G. Harkut and Kashmira Kasat",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66147",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66147",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"64306",title:"Intention to Use WhatsApp",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81999",slug:"intention-to-use-whatsapp",totalDownloads:1060,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"More than 1.8 billion people use WhatsApp nowadays, out of which 70% uses it daily. In this scenario, this study seeks modeling the variables that positively influence the intention to use WhatsApp. To this end, 579 surveys based on the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology are conducted. The descriptive results show that individuals use WhatsApp mainly motivated by leisure. In this sense, according to the structural equation model, the variable with the greatest influence on behavioral intention is hedonic motivation, followed by social influence, performance expectancy, and effort expectancy. These results indicate that most people use WhatsApp principally because they find it fun, enjoyable, and very entertaining, something more inherent to an entertainment application than to a messaging application. Nevertheless, a cluster analysis indicates the existence of two consumer segments: one showing a certain indifference and disagreement regarding the usefulness of WhatsApp for their activities and duties and the other manifesting that it uses WhatsApp not only for leisure but also for work, academic, and informative reasons. These differences in consumer drivers might have a great impact on WhatsApp and its competition marketing strategies.",signatures:"Cristobal Fernández-Robin, Diego Yáñez and Scott McCoy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64306",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64306",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"65222",title:"Information and Communication Systems Including Artificial Intelligence and Big Data as Objects of International Legal Protection",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83565",slug:"information-and-communication-systems-including-artificial-intelligence-and-big-data-as-objects-of-i",totalDownloads:975,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The objective of this study is identifying prospective for international legal protection of information and communication systems including artificial intelligence on the universal and regional levels, and analysis of legal instruments for protection of artificial intelligence and Big Data in the context of regulation of relations in the global information society. A complex of general scientific and philosophical methods, including the logical, comparative-legal, formal-legal, systemic-structural, and problematic-theoretical methods, as well as methods of analysis and synthesis, generalization and description were used in the research. It was found that the existing international agreements in the field of intellectual property protection take no account of the particular features of protection of complex objects. Complex objects comprise information and communication systems including artificial intelligence and Big Data. There is an objective necessity to establish a legal regime for complex objects on the universal level. The findings can be used in activities of international organizations in execution of their functions of unification and harmonization of the international information law.",signatures:"Valentina Petrovna Talimonchik",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65222",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65222",authors:[{id:"248931",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",surname:"Talimonchik",slug:"valentina-talimonchik",fullName:"Valentina Talimonchik"}],corrections:null},{id:"64350",title:"Prediction of Cancer Patient Outcomes Based on Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81872",slug:"prediction-of-cancer-patient-outcomes-based-on-artificial-intelligence",totalDownloads:1181,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Knowledge-based outcome predictions are common before radiotherapy. Because there are various treatment techniques, numerous factors must be considered in predicting cancer patient outcomes. As expectations surrounding personalized radiotherapy using complex data have increased, studies on outcome predictions using artificial intelligence have also increased. Representative artificial intelligence techniques used to predict the outcomes of cancer patients in the field of radiation oncology include collecting and processing big data, text mining of clinical literature, and machine learning for implementing prediction models. Here, methods of data preparation and model construction to predict rates of survival and toxicity using artificial intelligence are described.",signatures:"Suk Lee, Eunbin Ju, Suk Woo Choi, Hyungju Lee, Jang Bo Shim,\nKyung Hwan Chang, Kwang Hyeon Kim and Chul Yong Kim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64350",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64350",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"64304",title:"Team Exploration of Environments Using Stochastic Local Search",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81902",slug:"team-exploration-of-environments-using-stochastic-local-search",totalDownloads:807,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"We investigate the use of Stochastic Local Search (SLS) technique to explore environments where agents? knowledge and the time to explore such environments are limited. We extend a work that uses evolutionary algorithms to evolve teams in simulated environments. Our work proposes a formalization of the concept of state and neighborhood for SLS and provides evaluation of agents? teams using number of interesting cells. Further, we modify the environments to include goals that are randomly distributed among interesting cells. Agents in this case are then required to search for goals. Experiments using teams of different sizes show the effectiveness of our technique. Teams were able to complete exploration of more than 70% of the environments, while in the best cases, they were able to complete explorations of more than 80% of the environments within limited time steps. These results compare with those of the previous work. It is interesting to note that all teams of agents were able to find on average all the goals in the three environments when the size of the grid is 12. This is a 100% achievement by the agents? teams. However, performance can be seen to degrade as the environments? sizes become larger.",signatures:"Ramoni O. Lasisi and Robert DuPont",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64304",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64304",authors:[null],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9966",title:"Dynamic Data Assimilation",subtitle:"Beating the Uncertainties",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e7fde2a36354a2f5a4282fdf9c743380",slug:"dynamic-data-assimilation-beating-the-uncertainties",bookSignature:"Dinesh G. Harkut",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9966.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"216122",title:"Dr.",name:"Dinesh G.",surname:"Harkut",slug:"dinesh-g.-harkut",fullName:"Dinesh G. 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Harkut",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9225.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"216122",title:"Dr.",name:"Dinesh G.",surname:"Harkut",slug:"dinesh-g.-harkut",fullName:"Dinesh G. Harkut"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6646",title:"Artificial Intelligence",subtitle:"Emerging Trends and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"133520f4918b2d1f1c304ffeadba89a9",slug:"artificial-intelligence-emerging-trends-and-applications",bookSignature:"Marco Antonio Aceves-Fernandez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6646.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8841",title:"Deterministic Artificial Intelligence",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bd65f564ea0b77f91dea36cfcbaa1da7",slug:"deterministic-artificial-intelligence",bookSignature:"Timothy Sands",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8841.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"258189",title:"Prof.",name:"Timothy",surname:"Sands",slug:"timothy-sands",fullName:"Timothy Sands"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7726",title:"Swarm Intelligence",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e7ea7e74ce7a7a8e5359629e07c68d31",slug:"swarm-intelligence-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",bookSignature:"Javier Del Ser, Esther Villar and Eneko Osaba",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7726.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9958",title:"Artificial Intelligence",subtitle:"Latest Advances, New Paradigms and Novel Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"39648fbfdaa11385097d62b1f13aad54",slug:"artificial-intelligence-latest-advances-new-paradigms-and-novel-applications",bookSignature:"Eneko Osaba, Esther Villar, Jesús L. Lobo and Ibai Laña",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9958.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8523",title:"Advanced Analytics and Artificial Intelligence Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"277ac6770bdb7c0841ffdba2b1de348d",slug:"advanced-analytics-and-artificial-intelligence-applications",bookSignature:"Ali Soofastaei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8523.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"257455",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",surname:"Soofastaei",slug:"ali-soofastaei",fullName:"Ali Soofastaei"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8598",title:"Enhanced Expert Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3cd73aedbaf8bde7433fb0f3d56203cd",slug:"enhanced-expert-systems",bookSignature:"Petrică Vizureanu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8598.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"12354",title:"Prof.",name:"Petrică",surname:"Vizureanu",slug:"petrica-vizureanu",fullName:"Petrică Vizureanu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"57158",slug:"correction-to-chemical-composition-and-biological-activities-of-mentha-species",title:"Correction to: Chemical Composition and Biological Activities of Mentha Species",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/57158.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57158",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57158",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/57158",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/57158",chapter:{id:"54028",slug:"chemical-composition-and-biological-activities-of-mentha-species",signatures:"Fatiha Brahmi, Madani Khodir, Chibane Mohamed and Duez Pierre",dateSubmitted:"June 7th 2016",dateReviewed:"December 19th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"March 15th 2017",book:{id:"5612",title:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants",subtitle:"Back to Nature",fullTitle:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants - Back to Nature",slug:"aromatic-and-medicinal-plants-back-to-nature",publishedDate:"March 15th 2017",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5612.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"193281",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatiha",middleName:null,surname:"Brahmi",fullName:"Fatiha Brahmi",slug:"fatiha-brahmi",email:"fatiha.brahmi@univ-bejaia.dz",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Béjaïa",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"199693",title:"Prof.",name:"Khodir",middleName:null,surname:"Madani",fullName:"Khodir Madani",slug:"khodir-madani",email:"madani28dz@yahoo.fr",position:null,institution:null},{id:"199694",title:"Prof.",name:"Pierre",middleName:null,surname:"Duez",fullName:"Pierre Duez",slug:"pierre-duez",email:"pduez@umons.be",position:null,institution:null},{id:"203738",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Chibane",fullName:"Mohamed Chibane",slug:"mohamed-chibane",email:"chibanem@yahoo.fr",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"54028",slug:"chemical-composition-and-biological-activities-of-mentha-species",signatures:"Fatiha Brahmi, Madani Khodir, Chibane Mohamed and Duez Pierre",dateSubmitted:"June 7th 2016",dateReviewed:"December 19th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"March 15th 2017",book:{id:"5612",title:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants",subtitle:"Back to Nature",fullTitle:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants - Back to Nature",slug:"aromatic-and-medicinal-plants-back-to-nature",publishedDate:"March 15th 2017",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5612.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"193281",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatiha",middleName:null,surname:"Brahmi",fullName:"Fatiha Brahmi",slug:"fatiha-brahmi",email:"fatiha.brahmi@univ-bejaia.dz",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Béjaïa",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"199693",title:"Prof.",name:"Khodir",middleName:null,surname:"Madani",fullName:"Khodir Madani",slug:"khodir-madani",email:"madani28dz@yahoo.fr",position:null,institution:null},{id:"199694",title:"Prof.",name:"Pierre",middleName:null,surname:"Duez",fullName:"Pierre Duez",slug:"pierre-duez",email:"pduez@umons.be",position:null,institution:null},{id:"203738",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Chibane",fullName:"Mohamed Chibane",slug:"mohamed-chibane",email:"chibanem@yahoo.fr",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"5612",title:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants",subtitle:"Back to Nature",fullTitle:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants - Back to Nature",slug:"aromatic-and-medicinal-plants-back-to-nature",publishedDate:"March 15th 2017",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5612.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11636",leadTitle:null,title:"Neuroplasticity - Visual Cortex Reorganization From Neurons to Maps",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tThe ultimate goal of many fields of neuroscience research is to harness the ability of the mammalian brain to reorganize. The ability to control cortical reorganization in the adult cortex, either by controlling existing adult mechanisms for plasticity or by reactivating mechanisms of developmental plasticity, would be a tremendous advancement in the treatment of cortical damage and neurodegenerative diseases. Consequently, the specifics of the timing and types of reorganization possible in the mammalian visual cortex, in particular, have consistently generated tremendous interest in both the scientific community and the general public. Few sources, however, provide a combined look into the plasticity of the visual cortex in both juvenile and adult mammalian brains.
\r\n\r\n\tWhile it is clear that visual representations in the mammalian cortex can undergo significant reorganization during an early critical period of development, the extent of reorganization possible in the developing visual cortex is still an area of active investigation. This dynamic nature of cortical circuitry is important for learning, as well as for repair following nervous system injury. Similarly, several aspects of the visual cortex are thought to remain plastic into adulthood, allowing cortical sensorimotor maps to be modified continuously by experience. Because studies of the extent of cortical reorganization in the adult mammalian visual cortex have at times produced quite disparate results, many pioneering studies are now attempting to address these controversial measurements.
\r\n\r\n\tThis proposed book topic will examine our current understanding of the interplay of plasticity and stability in the developing and adult mammalian visual systems as well as our progress towards translating these fundamental research findings into updates for clinical practice.
\r\n\t
Food safety indirectly affects a wide range of social, economic, and environmental processes including food production and hence environmental impacts of agriculture, food trade, and energy use [1]. Foodborne illness, in particular, places an undue burden on health and socioeconomics of society, and this burden is the highest in developing countries especially in marginalized communities. Thus, the integration of food safety considerations is critical in achieving a wide range of sustainable development goals (SDGs) including SDG2 (
In order for African Governments to make food safety a public health priority, there is need for rigorous analysis of food contaminants that would give evidence on the burdens of food safety and thus lead to establishing and implementing effective and resilient food safety systems [3]. Of concern is the presence of chemical contamination that poses an enormous threat to food safety and security, and these influence the development of African agri-food system. Chemical contamination imposes a huge economic burden across the health and other sectors [4]. Chemical contamination also leads to food loss, which could otherwise have served millions of people and assisted in achieving food security [5]. Food loss not only threatens food security but also represents the lost labor, capital, water, energy, land, and other resources that went into producing the food and thereby threatening sustainability [2]. Chemical contamination includes many substances such as agrochemicals, pesticides, heavy metals [6], persistent organic pollutants, and natural toxins [7]. Among chemical contaminants that are troublesome are naturally occurring toxins and these include mycotoxins, marine biotoxins, cyanogenic glycosides, and toxins occurring in poisonous mushrooms [8]. It is of particular interest to focus on mycotoxins due to their severity in Africa and their impact on agro-economies [9, 10, 11, 12, 13].
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of a range of filamentous fungi and saphrophytic molds [14]. Among all the toxic filamentous fungi species,
The consumption of mycotoxins-contaminated food/feed products has had an adverse impact on public health for many centuries [19]. Mycotoxins can be found in many food products including cereals, nuts, spices, dried fruits, apples, and coffee beans [20]. Exposure to mycotoxins can produce both acute and chronic toxicities ranging from death to deleterious effects on the central nervous, cardiovascular, pulmonary, and digestive systems of most farm animals and humans. Mycotoxins may also be carcinogenic, mutagenic, teratogenic, and immunosuppressive [12, 19].
Aflatoxins are among the most potent carcinogens of all mycotoxins. Studies have revealed that aflatoxins occur at extremely high levels in many African countries such as Ghana, Benin, Togo, Egypt, Guinea, and Gambia [20]. Repetitive incidents of aflatoxicosis, which, in severe cases, lead to death, have been reported. The greatest recorded fatal mycotoxin-poisoning outbreak occurred in Africa in 2004 where a 125 people in Kenya died due to consumption of contaminated maize [9]. A similar outbreak occurred in Eastern Kenya in 2005 where 75 cases were admitted in Hospital resulting in 25 deaths. Maize samples collected from these areas had high aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) levels with 55% contaminated above the Kenyan legal limit of 20 μg/kg [10].
AFB1 levels have been extensively linked to human liver cancer in which they act synergistically with HBV hepatitis B virus infection [10, 21]. There is up to 30 times greater risk of acquiring liver cancer from chronic infection with hepatitis B virus and dietary exposure to aflatoxin as compared with exposure to either of the two factors alone [21]. Both aflatoxin exposure and chronic hepatitis B infection predominate in rural Africa, which explains why the highest incidence of liver cancer occurs in Africa. In Tanzania, there was about 1480 per 100,000 persons cases of aflatoxin-induced liver cancer in 2016 [12]. Further AFB1 could also lead to increased susceptibility to infectious diseases such as malaria and HIV-AIDS [10].
Consumption of fumonisins has been associated with elevated human esophageal cancer incidence in various parts of Africa [10, 22]. Fumonisins have also been implicated in the high incidence of neural tube defects in rural populations of Eastern Cape province, the former Transkei region of South Africa [11, 22]. Fumonisins may also cause stunted growth in children. A study carried out to investigate the relationship between infant and young child growth and fumonisin exposure revealed that children with fumonisins intake of greater than the maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) were significantly shorter (1.3 cm) and lighter (328 g) compared with children whose fumonisin intake is less than the PMTDI [20]. Recently, children in Tanzania showed impaired growth, which is associated with exposure to fumonisns from maize [23]. Another study done in sorghum grown in different parts of Northern Uganda showed that 80% of all samples contained aflatoxins, 93% fumonisins, and 67% OTA. The presence of mycotoxins in staple such as sorghum has been linked to the development of edema and kwashiorkor in undernourished children in this region [24].
Aflatoxin exposure in young children in West Africa has also been associated with Reye’s syndrome, child neurological impairment, Kwashiorkor, and stunted growth [25]. The chronic incidence of aflatoxin in diets is evident from the presence of aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) in human breast milk in Ghana, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, and Sudan as well as in umbilical cord blood samples in Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, and Sierra Leone [9]. Another study on aflatoxin exposure in the Gambia revealed that aflatoxins can be transported from the mother to the infant. This shows a significant association between maternal exposure to aflatoxin and impaired infant growth [26].
The economic impacts of mycotoxins to human society can be thought of in terms of the direct market costs associated with lost trade or reduced revenues due to contaminated food or feed, and the human health losses from the adverse effects associated with mycotoxin consumption covered in Section 1.1. Mycotoxins are known to affect almost one quarter (25%) of global feed and food output [27]. This leads to huge agricultural and industrial losses in billions of dollars [20]. About 10% of the 2010 Kenyan maize harvest was withdrawn from the food supply in a responsible move taken by the Kenyan government to protect public health, which translates to economic losses [16]. These toxins account for economic losses in the magnitude of millions of dollars due to reduced agricultural production. In Africa, factors such as poverty and climate change further complicate the mycotoxin situation; thus, the economic impact due to mycotoxins is alarming [19]. This impact includes high cost of research and regulatory activities aimed at reducing health risks because of the existence of causal relationships between mycotoxins and their impact on health.
In domestic markets, economic losses occur at various levels, from the commodity producers to the brokers, the processors, and the animal producers. Several countries, particularly some industrialized ones, have set specific regulations defining maximum admissible levels for major mycotoxins in numerous commodities. Limits for AFB1 in foodstuffs range from 0 to 30 μg/kg, while those for total aflatoxins range from 0 to 50 μg/kg [28]. As of 2003, only 15 African countries, accounting for approximately 59 percent of the continent’s population, are known to have specific mycotoxin regulations [29], and this is still the current status to date. In countries like Ethopia, only a few food commodities have mycotoxin legislation largely because they are exported to European and American markets [28]. While these regulations limit their presence in food and feed, these also adversely affects access to attractive export market for many developing countries due to the difficulty in meeting required standards [1]. For example, Africa could earn up to US$1 billion per year from groundnut exports by regaining the 77% share of the global groundnut export market it enjoyed in the 1960s instead of the current share of 4%, which is valued at just US$64 million [1].
Mycotoxin research has attracted huge interest among scientists, farmers, and policy makers and regulatory bodies alike. Despite mycotoxins being a much more pronounced problem in the developing world than in the developed world, much of the work in this area is concentrated in the developed world, while Africa, especially Sub-Saharan Africa, is lagging behind. Only few and fragmented studies have been conducted on mycotoxins in Africa (examples are shown in Table 1). This is of concern given that most of African countries rely on staple food such as sorghum and maize and other oil seeds such as groundnuts that are subject to contamination by a range of fungi, both in the field and after harvest. This predisposes a high number of populations in Africa to consumption of mycotoxin contaminated food products and thus increases the chance of chronic and detrimental exposure to mycotoxins [34]. Further, Africans rely on preservation of grains through traditional storage, where the grains stored for more than a few days are susceptible to fungal attack.
Country | Year | Mycotoxin(s)/fungal contamination | Matrix | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Angola | 2017 | Arabica coffee and Robusta coffee | [5] | |
Botswana | 2013 | Aflatoxins and fumonisins | Peanuts, peanut butter, and sorghum | [30] |
2011 | ZEA and fumonisins | Maize and sorghum grains and meals | [31] | |
Ghana | 2021 | Aflatoxins | Maize | [32] |
2019 | Aflatoxins | cereals and cereal based foods | [33] | |
2018 | aflatoxins, fumonisins, DON, T-2 toxin, ZEA and ochratoxin | maize, maize silage, other cereals | [34] | |
Kenya | 2021 | Aflatoxin, citrinin, fumonisin, OTA, diacetoxyscirpenol, T2 HT2 | Rice | [35] |
2020 | Aflatoxins and fumonisins | Maize | [36] | |
Namibia | 2019 | Patulin, aflatoxins, and fumonisins | Sorghum malts | [37] |
Namibia, Kenya, and Nigeria | 2018 | Aflatoxins, fumonisins, DONl, T-2 toxin, ZON, and ochratoxin | Maize, maize silage, other cereals | [34] |
Nigeria | 2020 | DON, fumonisins, moniliformin, aflatoxins, and citrinin | Cheese balls, garri (cassava-based), granola, and popcorn | [38] |
Rwanda | 2019 | Aflatoxins and fumonisins | Maize | [39] |
2018 | Aflatoxins | Soybean ( | [40] | |
South Africa | 2018 | Aflatoxins, fumonisins, ochratoxins, HT-2 toxin, T-2 toxin, ZON, DON, and 15-acetyl-DON | Maize | [41] |
2018 | Aflatoxins, fumonisins, OTA, sterigmatocystin, 3-acetyl DON, roquefortine C | Food spices | [42] | |
Togo | 2019 | Aflatoxins, fumonisins, and trichothecenes | Maize and sorghum | [43] |
2020 | Aflatoxins | Maize | [44] | |
Zambia | 2017 | Aflatoxins | Groundnut and maize | [45] |
Zimbabwe | 2013 | Aflatoxins and fumonisins | Peanuts, peanut butter, and sorghum | [30] |
Examples of mycotoxins studies in Africa.
Increased climate variability and harsh climate conditions in Africa such as high relative humidity and high temperatures conducive for mycotoxigenic fungal colonization and mycotoxin production pre- and/or post-harvest [46] may aggravate the situation. The stress of hot dry conditions, especially in places such as Botswana and Namibia, may result in significant mycotoxigenic fungal infections during the pre-harvest phase and hence mycotoxin production. Climate change can also increase host susceptibility to hull cracking [46]. As a result, this can lead to decreased phytoalexin production, which increases susceptibility of peanuts to mycotoxin and may compromise maize kernel integrity leading to increased mycotoxin contamination.
All these factors require a rigorous mycotoxin management system, especially the continued monitoring of mycotoxins in Africa. Thus, Africa is challenged with driving mycotoxin research to (a) provide scientific evidence for consumers from health and economic perspective; (b) to provide regulatory bodies with data for relevant risk of exposure and risk assessment to enable them to set regulatory legislations for mycotoxins in food commodities, as well as (c) to ensure that international regulatory levels are met. It is within this context that it is necessary to come up with cost-effective strategies in determining the identity and level of mycotoxins in food commodities as well as to come up with sustainable preventive strategies. Without an aggressive research program to prevent, treat, and contain outbreaks of mycotoxins in grain, grain producers will suffer the consequences of reduced marketability of their products. In this regard, nanotechnology-based solutions present themselves as attractive solutions and the use of affordable detections such as point-of-care (POC) diagnosis and electrochemistry are areas that present a lot of potential.
The accurate and rapid qualitative and quantitative analysis for mycotoxins has been topic of interest by many researchers [47, 48]. A mycotoxin analysis method should be simple, rapid, reproducible, robust, accurate, sensitive, and selective to enable simultaneous determination. Analytical methods for the determination of mycotoxins commonly have the following steps: sampling, homogenization, extraction, and cleanup, which might include sample concentration and then detection [49].
Several strategies on pre-harvest and post-harvest prevention of mycotoxin contamination have been reported including the use of resistant varieties, the use of biological and chemical agents, crop rotation, improved drying methods, good storage conditions, and irradiation. However, these methods do not solve the problem as mycotoxins still get detected in food ready for consumption [50]. Therefore, greater attention should be paid to mycotoxin adsorption or removal strategies as they have greater potential in complete elimination of mycotoxins from food commodities. These adsorption strategies are also very useful for extraction of mycotoxin in contaminated samples prior to instrumental analysis, needed especially for trace analysis. An efficient method for adsorption of mycotoxin should be inexpensive, able to adsorb or remove/inactivate the mycotoxins without producing toxic residues and affecting the technological properties, nutritive value, and palatability of products [51]. Several adsorption materials are discussed herein.
Zeolites are micro-porous crystalline-hydrated aluminosilicates structurally based on three-dimensional anionic network of SiO4 and AlO4 tetrahedra linked to each other by sharing all of the oxygen atoms [52]. The potential for using zeolites as mycotoxin adsorbents is based on their adsorption capacity, cation-exchange, dehydration-rehydration, and catalysis features. Zeolites can also be modified specifically to enhance selectivity of specific mycotoxins. Mycotoxins are structurally diverse; thus, they have varying chemical and physical properties. Some are polar, others are non-polar, and there are several that fall in between. This diversity can be resolved by such a material that can change its properties under various physicochemical conditions [52].
Surfactant-modified zeolites have proven to be effective adsorbents of mycotoxin and potential food additives due to their “non-toxic” traits. The clinoptilolite type that has been approved by European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) Panel on Food Contact Materials, Enzymes, Flavorings and Processing Aids (CEF) is one of the safe substances for feed and food additives [53]. The
ZON adsorption by organozeolites prepared
Due to their adsorption efficiency, zeolites have also developed for the analytical determination of mycotoxins, especially aflatoxins and ZON. Aflatoxins in milk have successfully been determined with an ionic liquid-modified magnetic zeolitic imidazolate framework-8 (M/ZIF-8) [56] and the application potential of M/ZIF-8 was extended successfully for the trace liposoluble pollutants analysis in foodstuffs. Natural zeolite treated with benzalkonium chloride has also showed great potential as an OTA and ZON adsorbent [55].
MIPs are synthetic polymers with a predetermined selectivity for a certain analyte or several analytes that are structurally similar, making them ideal for separation and adsorption purposes. MIPs have been widely investigated as suitable adsorbents for mycotoxin analysis and determination [57, 58, 59] and only have been applied to food commodities to solve the challenge associated with detecting trace quantity of mycotoxins in food. AFB1-specific molecularly imprinted solid phase extraction sorbent has been developed for the selective pre-concentration of toxic AFB1 in child-weaning food, tsabana. The MIPs successfully achieved a pre-concentration factor of 5 and therefore significantly increased AFB1 signal intensity for easier detection [59].
MIPs have also been applied to extract AFM1 from milk spiked with 0.5–50 ng/mL AFM1. The MIPs removed 87.3–96.2% of the AFM1 without any notable effects on the milk composition [60]. MIPs that constituted of (i) Fe3O4, to make the MIP magnetic, (ii) chitosan (CS), and SiO2 to improve the biocompatibility, stability and dispersibility of the MIP, were developed for removal of patulin from apple juice. This Fe3O4@SiO2@CS-GO@MIP demonstrated to be a promising adsorbent with the adsorption capacity of 7.11 mg/g maximally and ability to remove over 90% of the total patulin in apple juice [61].
The application of nanotechnology in adsorbents is especially attractive due to increased adsorption capacities of nanomaterials. Nanotechnology is a field of science, which deals with production, manipulation, and use of materials ranging in nanometers [62] with unique and improved properties of commercial and scientific relevance such as large surface-to-volume ratio and improved physiochemical properties such as color, solubility, strength, diffusivity, toxicity, magnetic, optical, thermodynamic properties [63]. In particular, the large surface area-to-volume ratios of nanomaterials can greatly enhance the adsorption capacities of sorbent materials.
Carbon nanoforms have large surface area per weight, colloidal stability upon various pH [64], strength, elasticity, and great conductivity and thus have great potential as mycotoxin adsorbents [65]. Fullerene, an allotrope of carbon has been found to adsorb aflatoxins. Another form, nanodiamonds, has the same advantages as carbon nanomaterials and is considered inexpensive [65]. Furthermore, their chemical structure allows surface modifications including carboxylation, hydrogenation, and hydroxylation which could enable effective adsorption of mycotoxins. The binding and mechanism of mycotoxins and nanodiamonds have been studied. Nanodiamond aggregates (~40 nm) have been shown to adsorb AFB1 and OTA
Single/multiwalled carbon nanotubes (CNT) have been utilized in solid phase extraction of various mycotoxins due to their good adsorption capacity. A multi-walled CNT-based magnetic solid-phase extraction sorbent for the determination of ZON and its derivatives were developed and applied in maize samples [67]. The main parameters affecting the cleanup efficiency were investigated using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS), and high purification efficiencies for all analytes were obtained. The method proved to be a powerful tool for monitoring ZON and its derivatives in maize. The good adsorption capacity of CNT has also been utilized in extraction of tricothecenes [68, 69] and aflatoxins [70].
There are numerous analytical methods having different technical details for accuracy, which have been developed for analysis of mycotoxins [71]. Commonly used methods to analyze mycotoxins are thin-layer chromatography, high-performance liquid chromatography with UV or fluorescence detection (FD), LC–MS [71], gas chromatography–mass spectroscopy, and immunoanalytical techniques with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) being the most prevailing method [72]. Whereas these methods are offering good detection limits and exceptional specificities and sensitivities, they are still drawbacks associated with these methods. These methods are time-consuming, and they use expensive analytical instruments, and require a lot of technical knowledge and operational expertise. They are therefore unsuitable for point-of-care diagnosis and will certainly not be accessible to farmers and many developing country laboratories. Therefore, the development of rapid, simple, relatively easy to use, and possibly non-instrumental cost-effective and convenient sampling and accurate detection methods for mycotoxin analysis are extremely essential and desirable. Methods with such properties are especially attractive for routine laboratory and on-site screening by untrained personnel and could also be affordable to farmers and to African Laboratories.
The lateral flow immunoassay (LFIA) has gained increasing interest and exhibits promise as a tool to overcome the complexities associated with traditional methods of mycotoxin analysis [73]. With LFIA, expensive equipment is not required, less skill is involved in administering LFIAs, and there is easy interpretation of results. The user-friendly operation and easy storage of the LFIA platform allow them to be used at the POC or industry setting as well as for in-home diagnoses/farm diagnosis especially with remote settings, administered with little training and with little chance of error [73, 74]. The POC diagnosis would also enable the decentralization of laboratory testing to POC sites. LFIA also offers advantages of prolonged shelf-life, small volumes required, rapid screening, and sometimes sensitive detection. Rapid detection of mycotoxin levels in food is of key importance in both mycotoxin monitoring and exposure assessment [71].
Recently, LFIA has been studied to detect mycotoxins such as AFB1, ZON, OTA and T-2 toxin DON, and fumonisin B1[73, 74]. A one-step lateral flow test has been developed for the quantitative determination of total type B fumonisins in maize with a test range up to 4000 μg/kg and a limit of detection of 199 μg/kg [75]. A multiplex LFIA with luminescent quantum dots as label was developed with cutoff limits of 1000, 80, and 80 μg/kg for DON, ZON, and T2/HT2-toxin, respectively. The LFIA gave within 15 minutes with a low false-negative rate of less than 5% [73]. Further, LFIA has been used for the determination of AFB1, ZON, DON where analysis of naturally contaminated maize samples showed high sensitivity of LFIA proven by a good agreement between the multiplex LFIA and LC–MS/MS (100% for DONs and AFs, and 81% for ZONs) [74].
While traditionally built commercial LFIAs have many advantages, issues including poorer sensitivity and lower specificity than laboratory tests such as LC–MS and HPLC affect their efficacy and availability to the full market potential. Decreasing these disadvantages and complexity of these tests may increase the availability of diagnostic testing and quality of food commodities to farmers unable to make it to expensive testing facilities. To overcome this, several strategies are currently being developed such as reducing the components utilized in the manufacturing of these tests, which will consequently reduce cost and increase the manufacturability, improving adsorption capabilities and improving detection capabilities [76].
With LFIAs, bio-reagents are immobilized in defined areas of the strip, normally referred to as the membrane, where the formation of colored bands due to the accumulation of suitably labeled species yields a yes/no information [77]. In particular, the analytical response is observed in the test line (T-line), while a second control line (C-line) allows to verify that the test has been correctly performed and therefore that results are reliable. There is potential for use of electrospinning to develop adsorbent pad and the support membrane for use in lateral flow device to improve adsorption flow rate and hence decrease incubation time [78, 79]. In conventional LFIA, nitrocellulose is used as a solid phase support. These are affordable, simple to produce, and easy to use in remote settings. These same materials can be used in conjunction with electrospinning technology to develop novel platforms for the detection of mycotoxins.
Electrospinning is a technique that utilizes electrostatic force to process a variety of native and synthetic polymers into highly porous materials composed of nano-scale to micron-scale diameter fibers. By nature, electrospun materials exhibit an extensive surface area and highly interconnected pore spaces and thus offer the advantages of high surface area-to-volume ratio for active reaction sites, tunable porosity and morphology, and high mechanical strength. For the ability to directly regulate the physical properties of an electrospun material through the manipulation of the fundamental variables such as electrospinning solvent and the air gap distance, accelerating voltage affords considerable control over the process. Further electrospun nanofibers can be functionalized very easily and materials can easily be combined together to make fibers and thus manipulate nanofiber composition to get the desired properties and function. Electrospun fibers can also be deposited unto other surfaces such as microfibrious mats. Electrospinning has shown great potential including water and air filtration as well as a gateway to the development and fabrication of physiologically relevant tissue engineering scaffolds, hemostatic agents, wound care products, and solid phase drug and peptide delivery platforms. Despite the growing research in this area, electrospinning techniques have not been widely employed for the development of LFIAs. Although the potential application of combining electrospun nanofiber membranes and biosensing has been recognized, limited studies have been done in this area of LFIAs. To date, electrospinning has not penetrated to any great extent into product lines designed for diagnostic and research applications.
Electrospun materials, by nature, exhibit an extensive surface area-to-volume ratios and therefore increase chances of interaction with target analytes such as mycotoxins [63]. Increasing the surface area of the detector substrate offers the advantage of increasing the number of sensing sites available without increasing the amount of overall sample required. A small volume electrospun mat can provide a very large surface for sensing and easy access for mycotoxins to the sensing sites [63]. The sequential deposition of the discreet, individual fibers that are formed in this process also results in a unique and complex interconnected network of pores. Thus, exploiting these characteristic to fabricate LFIA platforms designed for mycotoxins detection is desirable. The electrospun membrane can then be manipulated with gold nanoparticles (NPs) and antibodies to achieve functionality required for the mycotoxin detection. Gold nanoparticles are the most preferred candidate materials and have been widely used for the fabrication of aflatoxin-sensing devices. Gold nanoparticles offer excellent compatibility with antibodies, and their functionality remains unaffected even after immobilization. A fiber-based immunoassay system could also be incorporated in multiple configurations, which may not necessitate individual housing and packaging of tests.
Developing a fiber-based immunoassay system, by incorporating immunoassay technology that is currently used for diagnostic tests into a fiber-based system, presents a great potential. This could increase the sensitivity, decrease the number of components in manufacturing, reduce cost, and facilitate simpler and more comfortable sample collection to simplify the procedure. Electrospun membranes have been tested as immunoassay substrates. Polycaprolactone on nitrocellulose has been successfully electrospun membrane to form a hydrophobic coating to reduce the flow rate and increase the interaction rate between the targets and gold NPs-detecting probes conjugates [79]. This resulted in the binding of more complexes to the capture probes. With this approach, the sensitivity of the PCL electrospin-coated test strip was increased by approximately 10-fold as compared with the unmodified test strip. The approach holds great potential for sensitive detection of targets at point-of-care testing.
As there is an increasing need for high-performing LIFA in the clinical, environmental, self-diagnosis, agriculture, and food safety areas, conventional LFIA having readout errors to the naked eye is up against some major problems such as poor quantitative discrimination and low analytical sensitivity. To make the most out of LFIA’s advantages such as rapid point-of-care diagnosis, LFIA readers measuring the optical densities of the LFIA detection area have been developed for point-of-care applications [80] provided for quantitative or semi-quantitative analysis.
Further to provide the basis for a global monitoring of mycotoxins, highly sensitive, low-cost diagnostic tests developed can also be linked to smart phones applications as shown in Figure 1. The resulting digital information can be transmitted to a database of mycotoxin occurrence developed country by country and thus improved communication channels within the food chain. This could lead to comprehensive information systems that can support farm management decisions and thus help producers of many crops to produce higher quality and/or avoid losses, and also increase consumer confidence in agro-food products. A simple, rapid, and accurate one-dot LFIA detection method for AFB1 has been developed for point-of-care diagnosis [80] using competition between colloidal gold-AFB1-BSA conjugates for antibody-binding sites in the test zone. This was coupled with smartphone application for quantitative or semi-quantitative analysis.
Low-cost rapid mycotoxin test system combined with ICT solutions.
Electrochemistry provides powerful analytical techniques that are sensitive, reliable, portable, and low-cost procedures that are associated with food safety [81, 82]. Electrochemistry deals with relationship between electrical energy and chemical energy and inter-conversion of one form to another. To transform the toxin interaction to analytical signal, a variety of electrochemical techniques have been used.
Amperometry is an important electrochemical analysis method in food analysis. In amperometry, the potential of the working electrode is constant and the resulting current from Faradaic processes occurring at the electrode is monitored with the function of time. It has a working response over a wide range of mycotoxin concentrations that gives an improved signal to ratio since the current is integrated over relatively longer time intervals [83].
Voltammetry is another method in the analysis of mycotoxins. The current in the cell is measured with respect to the variation of the potential in the cell. Constant or varied potential is applied at the electrode surface, and the resulting current is measured with a three-electrode system (work, auxiliary, and reference electrode). Chemically modified electrodes are employed for highly sensitive electrochemical determination of mycotoxins. Hernandez-Hernandez et al. 2021 studied ZON using cyclic voltammetry (CV), differential pulse voltammetry (DPV), and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). The method for the determination ZON was developed and applied for the quantitative analysis with low detection limits and multiplex analysis [84].
A biosensor is an analytical device that incorporate a bio-component or bio-receptor such as isolated enzymes, whole cell, tissues, aptamers with a suitable transducing system to detect chemical compound [85]. The numerous examples in the literature illustrate the high potential of the electrochemical biosensors in mycotoxin analysis, contributing to their sensitive determination in a variety of food and commodities. Measurement of the signal is generally electrochemical for biological, and this bio-electrochemical serves as transduction component in electrochemical biosensors. The biological reaction generates change in signal for conductance or impedance, measurable current, or change accumulation, which can be measured by conductometric, potentiometric, or amperometric techniques. The interaction between the target molecule and the electrical signal of bio-component produced can be measured [86].
Immunosensors are devices based on the detection of analyte-antibody interaction. Three main groups have been developed, which are luminescent or colorimetric sensors, surface plasmon resonance, and electrochemical sensors. An electrochemical immunosensor for the simultaneous detection of fumonisin B1 and DON has been designed and fabricated, which attained very low detection limits [87]. Furthermore, a third-generation enzymatic biosensor for quantification of sterigmatocystin (STEH), which was based on modified glassy carbon electrode, has been developed. The biosensor was also used to determine STEH in corn samples inoculated with
In many situations, it is necessary to detect multiple analytes or pathogens simultaneously, especially in mycotoxins detection where various mycotoxins can contaminate one single product. This would not be possible with conventional sensors. Sensors in nanoscale are especially attractive for such purposes. Nanosensors are characterized by one of the following attributes: Either the size of the sensor or its sensitivity is on the nanoscale or the spatial interaction distance between the sensors and the object is given in nanometers. These have advantages of improved sensitivity, specificity, and limits of detection, and reduced assay complexity and cost. Relatively small amount of analyte is required to register a response due to the small area of the sensing surface. Recently, a CeO2 NPs-based sensor to detect OTA was developed [89]. The biosensor was assembled by functionalizing CeO2 particles with OTA-specific ssDNA aptamers resulting in higher dispersibility and activity. Changes in the redox properties at the CeO2 surface upon binding of the ssDNA and its target, measured using TMB, enabled rapid visual detection of OTA. In the presence of OTA, the ssDNA aptamer changed its structure from loose random coils to a compact tertiary form following target binding. As a result, a decreased catalytic effect against TMB oxidation was observed. The system was able to detect as low as 0.15 nM OTA.
During fungal growth, carbon dioxide is secreted due to the metabolic activity of microorganisms. In particular, gas nanosensors can be applied to detect the presence of CO2 [89]. The detection of CO2 is critical for environmental monitoring, chemical safety control, and many industrial applications; hence, nanosensors have been developed to assess changes in CO2 concentration [90]. Electrochemical CO2 nanosensors have been developed based on the principle that when CO2 comes in contact with a semiconductor nanomaterial layer, a surface interaction may occur through oxidation/reduction, electron charge transfer, adsorption, or chemical reaction. The chemical interaction of the adsorbate (CO2) with adsorbent semiconducting nanomaterial causes a charge depletion layer with upward bending energy bands that lead to change in electrical properties [91]. Although literature is scarce on CO2 nanosensors associated with mycotoxin monitoring, there is a great potential in the area.
It is important to maintain the integrity of the food during storage and transportation through the supply chain before reaching the end consumer. Food packaging is one of the most critical steps in the food industry to protecting and preserving food commodities from any unacceptable alteration in quality and safety [92]. Traditional packaging systems such as use of polyethylene, polypropylene, and polyethylene terephthalate have several limitations related to extending shelf-life and maintaining the safety of food products. Thus, food packaging continues to evolve along with the innovations in material science and technology critical for food commodity preservation and effective distribution. Moreover, the increased desire of both food producers and consumers for quality food is encouraging researchers to seek novel, innovative, and resourceful food packaging systems with committed food safety, quality, and traceability and also to find ways to improve food quality while least compromising nutrition product value [93]. Innovative packaging systems facilitate communication at the consumer levels. These interventions and developments in food packaging must be commercially feasible and effectively acceptable, which must meet regulatory guidelines along with a justified outcome that outweighs the associated expenses of added novel technology [93].
Nanotechnology, in particular, has brought advances in the domain of food packaging. It offers a variety of options in the improvement of food packaging based on functionality nanomaterials, which can significantly address the food quality, safety, and stability concerns and thus reduce food waste and economic losses associated with mycotoxin contamination.
Advanced technologies based on applications of nanomaterials for food packaging, including active and intelligent packaging systems, have been developed in response to increased concerns for food safety and stringent regulatory requirements, and market globalization [94].
An active packaging is a designed packaging system that incorporates components that would release or absorb material into or from the packaged food or the food environment [94] thereby stimulating actions, which extends the shelf-life, and improves or maintains food quality and safety and/or sensory properties of the food product. Nanotechnology can be used to incorporate the active constituent into a food package material. Active packaging incorporates robust ways to control oxidation, microbial growth, hydrolysis, and other degradation reactions. The most promising active packaging technologies applicable to mycotoxin control include antimicrobial packaging, which significantly improve the micro-biological safety, oxygen scavengers, and moisture regulators/absorbers [94].
An antimicrobial packaging in particular antifungal active packaging is attractive in dealing with mycotoxins. This packaging allows its interaction with the food product or the headspace inside to reduce, inhibit, or retard the growth of spoilage or pathogenic microorganisms that may be present on food surfaces [95] and thus extends food shelf-life. Antimicrobial packaging could be achieved either by incorporation of nanomaterial active agent onto or applying a coating layer onto or within the packaging material. The active agent can inhibit the essential metabolic pathways of microorganisms or destroy cell wall/membrane structure. Higher surface area-to-volume ratio of nanomaterials antimicrobial agents in comparison with classical material enables their efficient inhibitory activity against food microbes resulting in an enhanced reactivity as photocatalysts and improved interactions between NPs and microbial membranes.
Nanomaterials such as chitosan NPs, metal NPs (AgNPs, Copper NPs and gold NPs), and metal oxide NPs (TiO2, ZnO, MgO, and CuO) and CNTs are suitable agents that are well known for their antimicrobial activity and thus show great potential in providing antimicrobial and scavenging activity to food packaging. AgNPs are known to be inhibitory against multiple fungi [62, 96]. The AgNPs have been shown to inhibit fungal growth, when they are deposited over multilayered linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE), and this resulted in 70% reduction of
Excess water reduces food shelf-life as it can promotes fungal proliferation inducing undesired changes in food quality. Thus, the moisture absorbers that are active non-migratory packaging and anti-wetting agents can be used in food packaging to reduce food water activity and provide an environment less suitable for mycotoxin-causing fungi [94]. Anti-wetting/moisture repellents can be made up of hydrophobic coatings on the surfaces of packaging materials.
Another strategy could involve the preparation of nano-engineered silicate-based hybrids coated onto both the intercalated and exfoliated silicate-based nano-composites. These materials are known to play an important role as agents that prevent the permeability of gaseous agents (e.g., O2, CO2). An attractive feature of using nano-engineered silicate-based hybrids arises from the fact that they are among minerals that are widely found in nature abundantly. Silicate minerals can have the surface easily modified due to the high possibility of ion exchange whereby a hydrophobic silicate can be modified/converted to an organophilic by exchanging a cation on its surface with an organic cation.
In processing facilities, packaged foods are tested randomly during a production run. The downside to this is that there is no assurance that unsampled packages meet quality and safety standards. Recent efforts have thus been directed to the development of intelligent packaging systems that allow for real-time monitoring of food quality and boosting communicating with suppliers or the consumer at any point of the supply chain, or at the time of use [103]. These give ability to continually monitor the content of a package headspace and also provide a means to assess the safety and quality of the contained food long after it has left the production chain [62]. This can assist in ensuring adequate control after delivery to the supermarket, which is often not possible.
Intelligent systems use different innovative communication methods, which include sensors (already discussed under 2.3.1.1), indicators, and data carriers, that can measure changes in the environmental conditions inside packaging. These systems are attractive in mycotoxin research. The inclusion of nanosensors especially in food packaging systems could help in detecting the spoilage-associated changes and mycotoxin-causing fungi and thus can be alerted consumer and producer on food contamination [104]. These selective and sensitive nanosensors have been efficiently incorporated into food packaging, applied as labels or coatings to add an intelligent function to food packaging [105].
Analytical detection methods for mycotoxin that are affordable, easy to operate, and including LFIAs and electochemistry have been discussed. LFIA especially offers point-of-care diagnosis, which could be affordable to laboratories and farmers. The means of improving the LFIAs such as using electrospinning for production of membrane are recommended for increasing the acceptability LFIA. Food packaging is recognized as a means of preventing/controlling formation of mycotoxins. Aggressive research programs and yet affordable are needed to prevent, treat, and contain outbreaks of mycotoxins in grain, and grain producers and thus increase marketability of African products.
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Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:249,paginationItems:[{id:"274452",title:"Dr.",name:"Yousif",middleName:"Mohamed",surname:"Abdallah",slug:"yousif-abdallah",fullName:"Yousif Abdallah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274452/images/8324_n.jpg",biography:"I certainly enjoyed my experience in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, particularly it has been in different institutions and hospitals with different Medical Cultures and allocated resources. Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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