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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9588",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Clinical Concepts and Practical Management Techniques in Dentistry",title:"Clinical Concepts and Practical Management Techniques in Dentistry",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Oral healthcare deals with complete oral health, including prevention, treatment, and cure. This book provides readers with the latest updates on dental clinical concepts and practical management techniques. It is divided into four sections that contain in-depth chapters with concepts and techniques from the fields of oral medicine, periodontology, radiology, endodontics, restorative dentistry, dental trauma, and probability and sampling. It is a compendium of work by internationally recognized oral clinicians and public healthcare leaders in dentistry. It presents updates on some of the most pertinent issues within the practice of dentistry, such as regenerative endodontic procedures, the unique role of radiographs, recognition of child abuse, and dental statistics.",isbn:"978-1-83962-846-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-842-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-847-4",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87384",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"clinical-concepts-and-practical-management-techniques-in-dentistry",numberOfPages:260,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"42deab8d3bcf3edf64d1d9028d42efd1",bookSignature:"Aneesa Moolla",publishedDate:"February 9th 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9588.jpg",numberOfDownloads:2151,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:3,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:5,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 23rd 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 14th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 12th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 1st 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 30th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"318170",title:"Dr.",name:"Aneesa",middleName:null,surname:"Moolla",slug:"aneesa-moolla",fullName:"Aneesa Moolla",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/318170/images/system/318170.png",biography:"Dr. Aneesa Moolla has extensive experience in the diverse fields of health care having previously worked in dental private practice, at the Red Cross Flying Doctors association, and in healthcare corporate settings. She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"174",title:"Dentistry",slug:"dentistry"}],chapters:[{id:"78411",title:"Review in the Treatment Decision of Modalities for Impacted Second Molar",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99664",slug:"review-in-the-treatment-decision-of-modalities-for-impacted-second-molar",totalDownloads:114,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Impacted permanent tooth can occur on any tooth in the dental arch. The incidence of retention and impaction of the second molar lies between 0 and 2.3%. It is infrequently found in normal dental patients because most of the second molar impactions are asymptomatic. However, it is a common occurrence in orthodontic practice. The impacted second molar may provoke many pathologic disorders to the adjacent and opposite teeth, eventually malocclusions. There are many treatment modalities in facilitating the eruption of the second molar impaction. Early diagnosis and early treatment are crucial for the successful treatment of mandibular second molar impaction. This article presents an overview of various treatment modalities for an impacted second molar.",signatures:"Ann Chianchitlert, Diane Selvido, Irin Sirisoontorn, Bishwa Prakash Bhattarai, Dinesh Rokaya and Natthamet Wongsirichat",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78411",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78411",authors:[{id:"419264",title:"Prof.",name:"Natthamet",surname:"Wongsirichat",slug:"natthamet-wongsirichat",fullName:"Natthamet Wongsirichat"},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert"},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido"},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn"},{id:"419610",title:"Dr.",name:"Bishwa",surname:"Prakash Bhattarai",slug:"bishwa-prakash-bhattarai",fullName:"Bishwa Prakash Bhattarai"},{id:"419611",title:"Dr.",name:"Dinesh",surname:"Rokaya",slug:"dinesh-rokaya",fullName:"Dinesh Rokaya"}],corrections:null},{id:"79561",title:"The Radiology of Developmental Dental Defects Demystified: An e-Based Learning System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101435",slug:"the-radiology-of-developmental-dental-defects-demystified-an-e-based-learning-system",totalDownloads:65,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The purpose of this perspective-type chapter is to provide the readership with in-depth knowledge in the area of developmental abnormalities with special emphasis on radiology together with its clinical implications. The intention of this chapter is not only to be descriptive of the radiology of the developmental dental defects, but to provide the readership with the various possible differential diagnoses and how to arrive at a definitive diagnosis and being mindful of the fact that some of these radiological presentations can be pathognomonic while others are variable in presentation. The ultimate goal of this chapter is to provide the pre-requisite knowledge to the clinicians to enable them to arrive at a definitive diagnosis based on radiology and radiographic presentation without the need of any other investigation if possible. It is as such important that in this chapter the readership will be elevated to a level of realistic, yet clinician with the reasoning and interpretation of a radiologists in the area of developmental dental defects (DDD) since by understanding the basis of utilizing radiography to arrive at the definitive diagnosis of these developmental defects amidst of the various differential diagnoses, they would have gained full knowledge and control of the pertinent use of terminologies in this specific and unique area of dentistry. Conventional radiography such as periapical radiographs, bitewings and dental panoramic tomography will be utilized largely in this chapter, without the need for computerized tomography or CBCT. Certain conditions such as concrescence (not fusion and germination) and enamel pearl may be very difficult to identify or distinguish using conventional radiography and the role of advanced imaging technique will be mentioned. It is as such the intention of this unique book chapter to display in an Atlas work note format, the radiology of the developmental dental defects, with the intention to bring in the knowledge required to the undergraduate students of dentistry and postgraduate dentists and inclusive of the practicing clinicians in the field of dentistry.",signatures:"Christopher Olubode Ogunsalu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79561",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79561",authors:[{id:"26785",title:"Dr.",name:"Christopher Olubode",surname:"Ogunsalu",slug:"christopher-olubode-ogunsalu",fullName:"Christopher Olubode Ogunsalu"}],corrections:null},{id:"73398",title:"Gender-Associated Oral and Periodontal Health Based on Retrospective Panoramic Radiographic Analysis of Alveolar Bone Loss",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93695",slug:"gender-associated-oral-and-periodontal-health-based-on-retrospective-panoramic-radiographic-analysis",totalDownloads:579,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Gender-based heterogeneity in periodontal disease has been witnessed in the recent past with huge mounting evidence. The composite effect of sex-based genetic structure and the sex steroid hormones runs in line with the corresponding gender-related differences in risk for chronic periodontitis. Since estrogens, the predominant sex hormones in women, show immune protective and anti-inflammatory effects in hormonally active premenopausal women, they show better periodontal status compared to age-matched men. Conversely, after menopause with a weakening estrogen signal, women may show an equal or even more serious periodontal status compared to men. Periodontal status of postmenopausal women may be improved by menopausal hormone therapy. Alveolar bone loss, an irreversible sign of past periodontal disease activity can be easily observed on radiographs in an objective manner. Orthopantomographs provide a fairly accurate assessment of the status of alveolar bone in the whole mouth. A cross-sectional retrospective panoramic radiographic analysis has been carried out in a north Indian dental institute to decipher the gender-based distribution of periodontal bone loss. The current chapter shall provide an update on gender-based differences in oral health, underlying mechanisms, differences in patterns and distribution of alveolar bone loss (case study), and potential gender-specific disease protection and management strategies.",signatures:"Ashish Jain, Neeta V. Bhavsar, Amrit Baweja, Aman Bhagat, Anchal Ohri and Vishakha Grover",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73398",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73398",authors:[{id:"236238",title:"Dr.",name:"Vishakha",surname:"Grover",slug:"vishakha-grover",fullName:"Vishakha Grover"},{id:"325070",title:"Ms.",name:"Amrit",surname:"Baweja",slug:"amrit-baweja",fullName:"Amrit Baweja"},{id:"325071",title:"Mr.",name:"Aman",surname:"Bhagat",slug:"aman-bhagat",fullName:"Aman Bhagat"},{id:"325072",title:"Dr.",name:"Ashish",surname:"Jain",slug:"ashish-jain",fullName:"Ashish Jain"},{id:"325073",title:"Dr.",name:"Anchal",surname:"Ohri",slug:"anchal-ohri",fullName:"Anchal Ohri"},{id:"325092",title:"Dr.",name:"Neeta",surname:"V.Bhavsar",slug:"neeta-v.bhavsar",fullName:"Neeta V.Bhavsar"}],corrections:null},{id:"76235",title:"Regenerative Endodontic Procedure in Immature Permanent Teeth",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96986",slug:"regenerative-endodontic-procedure-in-immature-permanent-teeth",totalDownloads:180,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This literature review will aim to recapitulate the different factors involved in the endodontic regenerative procedure, with a focus on different bacterial disinfecting techniques, intra-canal dressings and expected treatment outcomes. The electronic databases searched were EMBASE, MEDLINE and PUBMED. Articles included were limited to the English language from the year 1988 to May 2019. A hand search of the literature was also performed for articles dating back to 1958. No clear guidelines were available regarding follow-up and expected treatment outcomes in terms of success, survival (acceptable) or treatment failure. However, calcium hydroxide as an intra-canal medicament was found to be the best treatment modality in comparison to antibiotic paste for intra-canal dressing.",signatures:"Meshal G. Al-shammari",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76235",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76235",authors:[{id:"336440",title:"Dr.",name:"Meshal",surname:"G. Al-shammari",slug:"meshal-g.-al-shammari",fullName:"Meshal G. Al-shammari"}],corrections:null},{id:"74870",title:"Regeneration of Dentin Using Stem Cells Present in the Pulp",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95589",slug:"regeneration-of-dentin-using-stem-cells-present-in-the-pulp",totalDownloads:355,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Dentin is one of the major hard tissues of the teeth. Dentin is similar to bone in texture, but it is different from bone tissue histologically. It is formed by odontoblasts; however, these cells are present in a limited area in the human body and are not found anywhere other than the dental pulp. It is difficult to collect and proliferate mature odontoblasts for regenerative medicine. However, odontoblast are necessary for regenerating dentin. It is known that odontoblasts differentiate from mesenchymal stem cells in the dental pulp during tooth development. Dentin can be generated using the stem cells present in the pulp. Many stem cells are recruited from the bone marrow to the teeth, and it is possible that the stem cells present in the pulp are also supplied from the bone marrow. Herein, we explain the mechanism of stem cell supply to the teeth and the possibility of dentin regeneration by specific cell differentiation induction methods.",signatures:"Toshiyuki Kawakami, Kiyofumi Takabatake, Hotaka Kawai, Keisuke Nakano, Hidetsugu Tsujigiwa and Hitoshi Nagatsuka",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74870",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74870",authors:[{id:"246301",title:"Dr.",name:"Keisuke",surname:"Nakano",slug:"keisuke-nakano",fullName:"Keisuke Nakano"},{id:"246302",title:"Prof.",name:"Hidetsugu",surname:"Tsujigiwa",slug:"hidetsugu-tsujigiwa",fullName:"Hidetsugu Tsujigiwa"},{id:"345982",title:"Dr.",name:"Toshiyuki",surname:"Kawakami",slug:"toshiyuki-kawakami",fullName:"Toshiyuki Kawakami"},{id:"345983",title:"Dr.",name:"Kiyofumi",surname:"Takabatake",slug:"kiyofumi-takabatake",fullName:"Kiyofumi Takabatake"},{id:"345984",title:"Dr.",name:"Hotaka",surname:"Kawai",slug:"hotaka-kawai",fullName:"Hotaka Kawai"},{id:"345985",title:"Dr.",name:"Hitoshi",surname:"Nagatuka",slug:"hitoshi-nagatuka",fullName:"Hitoshi Nagatuka"}],corrections:null},{id:"76852",title:"Restoration of Endodontically Treated Teeth",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98190",slug:"restoration-of-endodontically-treated-teeth",totalDownloads:309,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A tooth that has been properly treated endodontically should have a good prognosis. It can resume full function and if necessary serve satisfactory as an abutment for a fixed and removable partial denture. However special techniques are needed to restore such a tooth. Traditionally, a pulpless tooth received a dowel or post to “reinforce” it and a crown to “protect” it. Until the introduction of ZnPO4 cement in the last century. The major problem with their use was that of post retention. Currently, the clinician can use a variety of port and core systems for the different endodontic and restorative requirements. However, no single system provides the perfect restorative solution for every clinical circumstance, and each situation requires individual evaluation.",signatures:"Deepak M. Vikhe",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76852",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76852",authors:[{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe"}],corrections:null},{id:"79529",title:"The Application of Zirconia in Tooth Defects",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101230",slug:"the-application-of-zirconia-in-tooth-defects",totalDownloads:83,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Dental caries is among the most prevalent chronic diseases of childhood, affecting larger part of children and adults. Non-treated enamel caries can lead to destruction and then spreads into the underlying softer and sensitive dentine layer. Dental restorative materials are applied to treat and reconstruct damaged teeth clinically and recover their functions. Currently, there are various dental restorative materials available, and many appropriate materials are used to restore dental carious teeth. The applicability of biomimetic principles can elicit innovations in restorative dentistry for tooth conservation and preservation. There are three types of materials commonly used in dental restorations: resin, alloys, and ceramic. During the past decade, zirconia-based ceramics have been successfully introduced into the clinic due to acceptable biocompatibility, lower price compared with gold restorations, and better appearance than traditional metal-ceramic restorations. Recently, zirconia restoration is an acceptable treatment option in restorative dentistry and a developing trend in esthetic dentistry.",signatures:"Feng Luo, Hongyan Luo, Ruyi Li, Changxing Qu, Guang Hong and Qianbing Wan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79529",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79529",authors:[{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo"},{id:"315776",title:"Prof.",name:"Qianbing",surname:"Wan",slug:"qianbing-wan",fullName:"Qianbing Wan"},{id:"352120",title:"BSc.",name:"Hongyan",surname:"Luo",slug:"hongyan-luo",fullName:"Hongyan Luo"},{id:"352122",title:"MSc.",name:"Ruyi",surname:"Li",slug:"ruyi-li",fullName:"Ruyi Li"},{id:"352125",title:"BSc.",name:"Changxing",surname:"Qu",slug:"changxing-qu",fullName:"Changxing Qu"},{id:"352126",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang",surname:"Hong",slug:"guang-hong",fullName:"Guang Hong"}],corrections:null},{id:"75139",title:"Short and Long Term Oral Hygiene Maintenance Protocols for Traumatic Dental Injuries",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96043",slug:"short-and-long-term-oral-hygiene-maintenance-protocols-for-traumatic-dental-injuries",totalDownloads:182,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Traumatic dental injuries (TDIs) occur when a person undergoes trauma due to variety of reasons. Traumatic injuries are part of the growing up years and can have ever lasting wounds with scarring on the affected individuals. Treatment and rehabilitation of the teeth with traumatic injuries are essential for long term survival of the teeth. Immediate care, appropriate diagnosis and treatment with comprehensive follow-up are essential for a favorable prognosis of the affected teeth. A coordinated effort from different specialties including general dentist, oral radiologist, pediatric dentist, periodontist, oral surgeon, orthodontist and endodontist is essential for success of the treatment. Team efforts involving these different specialists will help the patient to receive successful long term outcome. Proper oral hygiene maintenance during and after traumatic dental injury, is required to stop the deterioration of the tooth and periodontal structures. The caregiver in children and the adult with traumatic dental injuries should be educated and guided about the proper oral hygiene techniques especially in the areas with dental injury. Dentist must be aware of the treatments rendered to the teeth with trauma and should have up-to-date knowledge of the oral hygiene measures to be inculcated in the subjects with dental trauma. This chapter highlights the oral hygiene measures to be followed by the subjects with TDIs and also includes measures to be followed by the dentist in such a scenario.",signatures:"Girish Suragimath and Ashwinirani SR",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75139",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75139",authors:[{id:"262888",title:"Dr.",name:"Girish",surname:"Suragimath",slug:"girish-suragimath",fullName:"Girish Suragimath"},{id:"326813",title:"Dr.",name:"Ashwinirani",surname:"SR",slug:"ashwinirani-sr",fullName:"Ashwinirani SR"}],corrections:null},{id:"78466",title:"The Role of the Dental Therapists and Oral Hygienists in the Immediate Response to Traumatic Dental Injuries",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99631",slug:"the-role-of-the-dental-therapists-and-oral-hygienists-in-the-immediate-response-to-traumatic-dental-",totalDownloads:110,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Dental Therapists and Oral Hygienists receive training in dental trauma in their curriculum. When they are in their workspace however, many are not confident enough to provide treatment for patients presenting with dental trauma in the oral health setting. As members of the dental team they play an important role in the management of patients who present with traumatic dental injuries. It is therefore important that guidelines are developed for them to understand the role they need to play when providing oral health treatment. The chapter will focus on the etiology of dental trauma to assist the oral health clinicians to prepare for a diagnosis. The classification of traumatic dental injuries will be explained. This will lead to the description of the classified injuries and their management. Clear guidelines and management for the patients will thereafter be provided. The prevention of traumatic dental injuries will also be discussed so that the treatment provided to the patients is improved.",signatures:"Tshakane R.M.D. Ralephenya, Sizakele Ngwenya and Kelebogile A. Mothupi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78466",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78466",authors:[{id:"315727",title:"Ms.",name:"Kelebogile A.",surname:"Mothupi",slug:"kelebogile-a.-mothupi",fullName:"Kelebogile A. Mothupi"},{id:"337613",title:"Mrs.",name:"Tshakane",surname:"R.M.D. Ralephenya",slug:"tshakane-r.m.d.-ralephenya",fullName:"Tshakane R.M.D. Ralephenya"},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya"}],corrections:null},{id:"79455",title:"Signs of Child Abuse and Neglect: A Practical Guide for Dental Professionals",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101564",slug:"signs-of-child-abuse-and-neglect-a-practical-guide-for-dental-professionals",totalDownloads:86,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Children are the future of society. Society should, in turn protect their dignity and wellbeing by ensuring that they are treated with respect and care. Dental practitioners are often the first health professionals to come into contact with victims of child abuse and neglect, not only to render treatment to abuse victims but also to serve as their first line of defense. As part of a larger human community, dental practitioners are responsible for identifying evidence of intentional harm befalling children and reporting it to law enforcers. Physically abused children predominantly present with injuries to the maxillofacial and oral regions. It is therefore important for dental practitioners to be aware of the intra-oral and extra-oral signs that may be indicative of child abuse and neglect in order to champion the fight against child abuse.",signatures:"Aneesa Moolla, Tshakane Ralephenya, Sizakele Ngwenya and Sankeshan Padayachee",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79455",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79455",authors:[{id:"318170",title:"Dr.",name:"Aneesa",surname:"Moolla",slug:"aneesa-moolla",fullName:"Aneesa Moolla"},{id:"337613",title:"Mrs.",name:"Tshakane",surname:"R.M.D. Ralephenya",slug:"tshakane-r.m.d.-ralephenya",fullName:"Tshakane R.M.D. Ralephenya"},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya"},{id:"344229",title:"Dr.",name:"Sankeshan",surname:"Padayachee",slug:"sankeshan-padayachee",fullName:"Sankeshan Padayachee"}],corrections:null},{id:"76575",title:"Probability and Sampling in Dentistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97705",slug:"probability-and-sampling-in-dentistry",totalDownloads:88,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Probability and sampling in dentistry are two fundamentals which have great importance in clinical research. Many research works in dentistry shows lack of proper understanding and use of these two factors. The definition of probability is incredibly significant in daily life. Statistical analysis is based on this particularly useful definition. In fact, the function of probability in modern science is that of substituting for certainty. Probabilities are numbers that represent the probability that a specific occurrence will occur. We learn about the odds of many daily cases, ranging from weather predictions (probability of rain or snow) to lotteries (probability of winning a major jackpot). In biostatistical applications, probability theory underlies the statistical inference. Statistical inference means drawing generalizations or inferences on unknown population parameters. After selecting a sample from the population of interest, we calculate the characteristics under analysis, summarize the characteristics in our sample, and then draw inferences about the population based on what we find in the sample. Population and sampling are two critical aspects of study design. The population is a group of individuals who share common relations. A sample is a population subset. The size of the sample is the number of individuals in the sample. The more representative the sample of the population, the surer the researcher can be about the validity of the data. In this module, we will explore sampling methods, basic principles of probability, and applications of probability theory. The definition of probability is introduced, and the function of probability distributions is discussed in the statistical theory, with reference to the normal distribution and its characteristics. Sampling and sampling variations are defined, along with the sampling error, the standard error of the mean and the confidence intervals for determining the likely magnitude of the population mean. Medical study typically includes patients with an illness or disorder. The generalization of clinical research results is focused on several factors linked to the internal and external validity of the research methods. The sampling process is the key methodological problem that affects the generalizability of clinical research results. In this educational article, we also clarify the various methods of sampling in clinical research.",signatures:"Yasser Riaz Malik, Muhammad Saad Sheikh and Shakeela Yousaf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76575",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76575",authors:[{id:"332799",title:"B.A.",name:"Ali",surname:"Khan",slug:"ali-khan",fullName:"Ali Khan"},{id:"332912",title:"Dr.",name:"Shakeela",surname:"Yousaf",slug:"shakeela-yousaf",fullName:"Shakeela Yousaf"},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:{id:"1",series:{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",issn:"2631-6218",editor:{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. 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Matrix Riccati Equations arise frequently in applied mathematics, science, and engineering problems. These nonlinear matrix equations are particularly significant in optimal control, filtering, and estimation problems. Essentially, solving a Riccati equation is a central issue in optimal control theory. The needs for such equations are common in the analysis and synthesis of Linear Quadratic Gaussian (LQC) control problems. In one form or the other, Riccati Equations play significant roles in optimal control of multivariable and large-scale systems, scattering theory, estimation, and detection processes. In addition, closed forms solution of Riccti Equations are intractable for two reasons namely; one, they are nonlinear and two, are in matrix forms. In the past, a number of unconventional numerical methods were employed for the solutions of time-invariant Riccati Differential Equations (RDEs). Despite their peculiar structure, no unconventional methods suitable for time-varying RDEs have been constructed, except for carefully re-designed conventional linear multistep and Runge-Kutta(RK) methods.
Implicit conventional methods that are preferred to explicit ones for stiff systems are premised on the solutions of nonlinear systems of equations with higher dimensions than the original problems via Runge-Kutta methods. Such procedural techniques do not only pose implementation difficulties but are also very expensive because they require solving robust non-linear matrix equations.
In this Chapter, we shall focus our attention on the numerical solution of Riccati Differential Equations (RDEs) for computer-aided control systems design using the numerical algorithm with an adaptive step of
Theoretically the Kalman Filter is an estimator for the linear-quadratic problem, it is an interesting technique for estimating the instantaneous ‘state’ of a linear dynamic system perturbed by white -noise measurements that is linearly related to the corrupted white noise state. The resulting estimator is statistically optimal with respect to any quadratic function of the estimation error.
In estimation theory, Kalman introduced stochastic notions that applied to non-stationary time-varying systems, via a recursive solution. C.F. Gauss (1777-1855) first used the Kalman filter, for the least-squares approach in planetary orbit problems. The Kalman filter is the natural extension of the Wiener filter to non-stationary stochastic systems. In contrast, the theory of Kalman has provided optimal solutions for control systems with guaranteed performance. These control analyses were computed by solving formal matrix design equations that generally had unique solutions. By a way of reference, the U.S. space program blossomed with a Kalman filter providing navigational data for the first lunar landing.
Practically, it is one of the celebrated discoveries in the history of statistical estimation theory in the twentieth century. It has enable humankind to do many things, one obvious advantage, is its indispensability as silicon integration in the makeup of electronic systems. It\'s most dependable application is in the control of complex dynamic systems such as continuous manufacturing processes, aircraft, ships, or spacecraft. To control a dynamic system, you must first know what it is doing. For these applications, it is not always possible or desirable to measure every variable that you want to control, and Kalman filter provides a means of inferring the missing information from indirect (and noisy) measurements. Kalman Filter is also very useful for predicting the likely future course of dynamic systems that people are not likely to control, such as the flow of rivers during flood, the trajectory of celestial bodies, or the prices of traded commodities. Kalman Filter is ‘ideally noted for digital computer implementation’, arising from a finite representation of the estimated problem-by a finite number of variables. Usually, these variables are assumed to be real numbers-with infinite precision. Some of the problems encountered in its uses, arose from its distinction between ‘finite’ and ‘manageable’ problem sizes. These are significant issues on the practical side of Kalman filtering that must be considered in conjunction with the theory. It is also a complete statistical characterization of an estimated problem than an estimator, because it propagates the entire probability distribution of the variables in its task to be estimated. This is a complete characterization of the current state of knowledge of the dynamic system, including influence of all past measurements. These probability distributions are also useful for statistical analysis and predictive design of sensor systems. The applications of Kalman filtering encompass many fields, but its use as a tool, is almost exclusively for two purposes: estimation and performance analysis of estimators. Figure 1 depicts the essential subject for the foundation for Kalman filtering theory.
Despite the indication of Kalman filtering process in the apex of the pyramid, it is an integral part in the foundation of another discipline
Foundation concept in Kalman filtering.
Kalman filter analyses a dynamic systems’ behavior with external and measurement noise. In general, the output
By defining, a continuous –time process and measurement model is as follows;
Where,
From the foregoing,a Kalman filter equation admits the form;
where
The covariance matrix
In mathematics, a Riccati equation is any ordinary differential equation that is quadratic in the unknown function. In other words, it is an equation of the form
where,
More generally, "Riccati equations" refer to matrix equations with analogous quadratic terms both in continuous-time and in discrete-time Linear-Quadratic-Gaussian Control. The steady-state (non-dynamic) versions of these equations are classified as algebraic Riccati equations.
The Riccati differential equation was first studied in the eighteen century as a nonlinear scalar differential equation, and a method was derived for transforming it to a linear matrix form. This same method works when the dependent variable of the original Riccati differential equation is a matrix.
The statistical performance of the Kalman filter estimator can be predicted a priori by solving the Riccati equations for computing the optimal feedback gain of the estimator. Also, the behaviors of their solutions can be shown analytically for the most trivial cases. These equations also provide a means for verifying the proper performance of the actual estimator when it is running.
For the LQG problem, the associated Riccati Differential Equation which provides the covariance
where
The Riccati Differential Equation in (6) can be solved by using a technique, called the Matrix Fraction Decomposition. A matrix product of the sort
A fractional decomposition of the covariance matrix results in a linear differential equation for the numerator and the denominator matrices. The numerator and denominator matrices as functions of time, such that the product
Now let us represent the covariance matrix
and on applying equations ( 9-10) yields
From the Riccati equation in (6) substitution for
Equating (11) and (12) and multiplying through with
Therefore, if we find
then
Such a representation is a Hamiltonian Matrix known as matrix Riccati differential equation.
The initial values of
In the time-invariant case, the Hamiltonian matrix Ψ is also time-invariant. As a consequence, the solution for the numerator
where
The scalar time-invariant Riccati differential matrix equation and its linearized equivalent is
Hence, equation (16) reduces to
with the following initial conditions namely;
Using
Consequently, the covariance follows as;
If the system is
The need to solve Riccati equation is perhaps the greatest single cause of anxiety and agony on the part of people faced with implementing Kalman filter. Because there is no general formula for solving higher order polynomials equations (i.e., beyond quartic), finding closed-form solutions to algebraic Riccati equations by purely algebraic means is very rigorous. Thus, it is necessary to employ numerical solution methods. Numbers do not always provide us as much insight into the characteristics of the solution as formulas do, but readily amenable for most problems of practical significance.
This problem is taken from Aliyu et al, and it is significant for modeling and simulating an ELV autopilot problem in Matlab/Simulink®. It solves the symmetrical RDE:
Where,
In the last decade, two distinct directions have emerged in the way Ordinary Differential Equation (ODE) solvers software is utilized. These include Large Scale Scientific Computation and PSE. Most practicing engineers and scientists, as well as engineering and science students use numerical software for problem solving, while only a few very specific research applications require large scale computing.
MATLAB® provides several powerful approaches to integrate sets of initial value, Ordinary Differential Equations. We have carried out an extensive study of the requirements. For the simulation of the autopilot problem, we have used the mathematical development environment Matlab/Simulink®. Matlab/Simulink® was chosen, as it is widely used in the field of numerical mathematics and supports solving initial value ordinary differential equations like the type we have in (27) with easy.
From the humble beginnings of Euler’s method, numerical solvers started relatively simple and have evolved into the more complex higher order Taylor methods and into the efficient Runge-Kutta methods. And the search for more efficient and accurate methods has led to the more complicated variable step solvers.
For solving an initial value problem
a numerical method is needed. One step solvers are defined by a function
where,
with the initial values
describes the differential quotient of the exact solution
In the following,
where they are continuous and limited.
One step solvers must fulfill
This is equivalent to
If this condition holds for all
holds for all x є [a,b], y є R, f є Fp (a,b). The global discretization error
is the difference between exact solution and the approximated solution. The one step method is denoted as
This means that the order of the global discretization error is equal to the order of the local discretization error. The crucial problem concerning one-step methods is the choice of the step size
The most elementary method of solving initial value problems is the explicit Euler. The value of
The explicit Euler calculates the new value
The Runge-Kutta methods are a special kind of one-step solvers, which evaluate the right side in each step several times. The intermediate results are combined linearly. The general discretization schema for one-step of a Runge-Kutta method is
with corrections
The coefficients are summarized in a tableau, the so-called Butcher-tableau, see figure 2.
Butcher-tableau.
The Runge-Kutta methods use an equidistant grid, but this is for most applications inefficient. A better solution is to use an adaptive step size control. The grid has to be chosen so that
a given accuracy of the numerical solution is reached
the needed computational effort is minimized.
As the characteristics of the solution are a priori unknown, a good grid structure cannot be chosen before the numerical integration. Instead, the grid points have to be adapted during the computation of the solution. Trying to apply this to Runge-Kutta methods lead to the following technique:
To create a method of order
This method for
where
Modified Butcher-tableau for embedded Runge-Kutta-methods.
The main concern with numerical solvers is the error made when they approximate a solution. The second concern is the number of computations that must be performed. Both of these can be addressed by creating solvers that use a variable step size in order to keep the error within a specified tolerance. By using the largest step size allowable while keeping the error within a tolerance, the error made is reduced.
The way to keep the error under control is to determine the error made at each step. A common way to do this is to use two solvers of orders
Since the downside of using two distinct methods is a dramatic increase in computations, another method is typically used. An example of this method is the Rung-Kutta-Fehlberg Algorithm. The Rung-Kutta-Fehlberg combines Rung-Kutta methods of order four and order five into one algorithm. Doing this reduces the number of computations made while returning the same result.
The
The coefficients from Dormand and Prince can be seen in figure 4.
Butcher-tableau for Dormand-Prince-method.
For solving an initial value problem like the one we have in (27) Matlab was chosen, as it is widely used in the field of numerical mathematics and supports solving ordinary differential equations. Moreover, it is possible to visualize the simulation results of the autopilot. In our program we used the
Simulink model for matrix Differential Riccati Equation.
After successfully simulating the above model, it was used to design an Linear Quadratic Gaussian (LQG) autopilot with the following Linear Quadratic Regulator (LQR) Characteristics;
For this autopilot, the Kalman-Bucy filter model was implemented as shown in Fig.6. It should be noted that if for any reason the initial condition
The dependent variable in the Riccati differential equation of the Kalman-Bucy filter is the covariance matrix of the
The state error covariance matrix is
Simulink model for Kalman-Bucy filter with a RDE.
The solution of the matrix Riccati equation was found to provide a quantitative measure of how well the state variables can be estimated in terms of mean-squared estimation errors. Therefore, the matrix Riccati equation from the Kalman filter was soon recognized as a practical model for predicting the performance of sensor systems, and it became the standard model for designing aerospace sensor systems to meet specified performance requirements. More importantly, covariance analysis is crucial in exploring what-if scenarios with new measurement sources.
Note that in (27) we increase estimation uncertainty by adding in process noise and we decrease estimation uncertainty by the amount of information (
For an initial guess for the value of covariance, a very large value could be selected if one is using a very poor sensor for measurement. This makes the filter very conservative. Converse is the case if very good sensors are used for measurement.
The LQG autopilot simulation for tracking a pitch angle of 3 degrees (0.05rads) with the observer as designed in Fig.6 gave the result presented in Fig.7. It is interesting to note that the time response characteristics of the simulated autopilot in Fig. 7 meets all the design specifications of;
Set-point command tracking of LQG autopilot for a RDE solution to Kalman gain.
The numerical result at
A further investigation was carried out-the single point value of Kalman filter gain given in (48) was used to implement the Kalman filter algorithm as popular represented in most textbooks-as a constant gain. For which, the Kalman-Bucy model in Fig. 8 was developed.
Simulink Model of Kalman filter model for a constant gain value of Kalman gain.
Hence, the same LQG autopilot was simulated with the Kalman filter based observer as shown in Fig.8. Simulation result for the system is as shown in Fig. 9. It is also interesting to note that all the time response characteristics as earlier mentioned were met. Though, the
The Matlab in-built command function
Set point command tracking of ELV autopilot for a Kalman gain obtained by evaluating covariance matrix to a Riccati Differential Equation at t=1sec.
Assume that the Riccati differential equation has an asymptotically stable solution for P(t):
Then the time derivative vanishes
Substituting this into the (6) yields
This is called the Algebraic Riccati Equation. This is a nonlinear matrix equation, and need a numerical solver to obtain a solution for P∞.
Consider a scalar case:
From (52) there exist two solutions; one positive and the other negative, corresponding to the two values for the signum (±). There is no cause for alarm. The solution that agrees with (52) is the non-negative one. The other solution is non-positive. We are only interested in the non-negative solution, because the variance
For the numerical example at hand, the Kalman gain for this problem is easily solved with the following Matlab command
and
Based, on the result in (54), the LQG autopilot was simulated with the Kalman-Bucy filter state observer as modeled in Fig. 8. The result obtained from this was used in designing an LQG controller for the case of an ELV during atmospheric ascent. This seeks to track and control a pitch angle of 3 degrees (0.05rads) and the result is as shown Figure 10. Though, in this case the controller could bring the ELV to a
Set-point command tracking of LQG autopilot for an Algebraic Riccati Equation\'s solution to Kalman gain.
It can be clearly seen from figure 7 that the result of applying Kalman gain in the LQG problem of an ELV is most suitable by solving the associated Riccati Equation in its differential form (RDE). All time response characteristics were met within a second and with a zero
Though one might be tempted to look at the difference in
It is of paramount interest to add here that the plant and observer dynamics for all cases explored in this research gave a dynamic system with stable poles (
Compared results of the three approaches to the solution of Kalman gain as applied to an autopilot.
It can be clearly seen in Figure 6, that the synthesized LQG autopilot, with Kalman gain obtained by solving an Algebraic Riccati Equation (ARE) has 6
It is required that after designing Kalman filter, the accuracy of estimation is also assessed from the covariance matrix. It could be seen that both cases gave a very good estimation (very small covariance). Though, that of ARE gave a much smaller value. This has less significance to our research since we are majorly interested in the time response characteristic of the controlled plant. MATLAB 2010a was used for all the simulations in this paper.
The authors will like to specially appreciate the Honourable
Approximately 25% of students in Swedish school system have foreign background. Some of them are born in Sweden and others have arrived during their school years. In the Swedish school organization, pupils are counted as newly arrived if they have arrived to Sweden at the start of school, during school in preschool, compulsory school, secondary school or special school or special schools, if they do not have Swedish as their native language, and if they do not command the Swedish language at all or insufficiently [1, 2].
\nIn order to be admitted to a national program in the public secondary school, national requirements for eligibility must be fulfilled, meaning passing grades in many compulsory school subjects. An additional qualification requirement can be named age criterion, which involves commencing the public secondary school before the age of 20. Thereafter, students are referred to adult education or vocational training.
\nIn light of the eligibility requirements and age criterion, the content and the organization of the education for newly arrived immigrant pupils are crucial for their further studies. This study aims to problematize teachers’ approaches to newly arrived immigrant pupils underlying competences and continued knowledge development and learning in all school subjects in relation to translanguaging [3, 4, 5, 6, 7] strategies. Through an ecological [8] approach to learning, teaching, and interaction with the environment and by looking at school as a pedagogical practice, I examine teachers’ told experiences of teaching newly arrived young people.
\nSchool and education are fundamental to all children and young people; schooling is crucial for the future. Newly arrived pupils and their teachers are challenged in different ways. The limited time in passing grades is one of these challenges, and research [9] shows that immigrant pupils have difficulty in becoming eligible in time. Pupils’ use of different languages at home and in school, as well as pupils’ need for support in order to understand instructional content, are other challenges highlighted by Cummins [5].
\nFor the youths who do not have the qualifications required for admission to the national program in the Swedish public secondary school, there is a program called language introduction [10]. Within the program, pupils are placed in classes according to an assessment of school history and previous knowledge [2].
\nBoth Bunar [9] and Nilsson Folke [11, 12] who have studied immigrant pupils and their offered education, show a parallel school form where pupils’ previous knowledge is not taken into account; assessments are not used when the instruction for immigrants is organized and implemented. According to these researchers, placement in an introduction program means both advantages and disadvantages for the immigrant pupils. An advantage is that assessment can be done in a secure environment. Other advantages are the gradual, fundamental introduction to the school language by second-language teachers and the guidance in one’s native language. Disadvantages are segregation and exclusion from the other school and other pupils.
\nWhen reasoning about preparation, introduction and transitions Nilsson Folke [11, 12] uses the concepts of
Language, learning, and knowledge develop in a social context and if we look at language and knowledge as parts of the same linguistic fabric, of the same language mass, we may think that some knowledge forms patterns with a language and other knowledge forms patterns with another or other languages. Thus, knowledge and language form weaves of language, knowledge, and understanding that develop and grow in collaboration. The knowledge-and-language fabric grows and develops when the individual uses his or her underlying competencies and his or her knowledge-language in different settings. According to the principles of social practice and social justice, all languages and all knowledge are equally valuable and important for continued learning [4, 5, 6, 7].
\nThe English concept Translanguaging developed from the Welsh term Trawsieithu describes a teacher strategy of planned and systematic use of two languages for teaching and learning inside the same lesson in bilingual education. Translanguaging is a process where students and teachers engage in discursive practices that include all students’ language practices in order to develop new and maintain old language practices. This process communicates knowledge and gives voice to new socio-political realities by questioning linguistic inequality [13].
\nCummins [5], Cummins and Schecter [14] and Williams [15] states that knowledge and skills in both language and other school subjects develop and deepen when the pupils are given the opportunity to use their knowledge-related languages in different learning situations. Translanguaging in instruction deals with reciprocity, respect, and appreciation of multi-lingual pupils’ underlying knowledge and skills. By using their linguistic competence, pupils can utilize and develop further their knowledge and understanding in different areas, they can gain, in-depth understanding in the different school subjects [4, 5, 6, 7, 16].
\nIn order to promote pupils’ language development and learning in the instructional setting, Cummins [3, 5] emphasizes interaction, respect, and comprehensible subject content as well as broad and varied instruction and subject content to relate to the pupils’ underlying knowledge and ways of learning. Teacher strategies for successful instruction that involves instruction that supports understanding and language production, strengthens the knowledge-language in all subjects, and provides opportunities for pupils to use their multi-lingual repertoires are highlighted. Using the language or languages, one best master in different contexts is valuable for their learning in classrooms where several languages are spoken and in instructional contexts where teachers do not master the pupils’ different languages, writes Cummins [5] further. The importance of pupils recognizing the manner of teaching and learning, recognizing the instructional subjects is pointed out by Sarstrand Marekovic [17]. And in addition, teachers must recognize and respect the pupils’ knowledge, ways of learning, and how they are taught.
\nSchool and instruction can be understood as a social and pedagogical practice aimed at facilitating pupils’ learning. Several factors and strategies must come together in order for pupils to achieve success in their learning and succeed in their education. Kramsch [8, 18] speaks about ecological strategy with regard to school, pupils’ learning, and approaches to learning. This strategy is based on human interaction between innate traits and the environments that people live in. According to the ecological strategy, development and learning take place in harmony with the environment. For students, an ecological and sustainable learning strategy is when he or she can use underlying skills. Translanguaging [4, 5, 6, 7, 15] that is, using one’s whole linguistic competence to express and develop knowledge and learning within all areas of interplay and human interaction appears as an ecological and sustainable strategy for teachers, pupils, and learning in different school and education contexts.
\nThis study aims to problematize teachers’ approaches to newly arrived immigrant pupils underlying competences and continued knowledge development in relation to translanguaging [3, 4, 5, 6, 7] strategies. Through an ecological [8] approach to learning, teaching and interaction with the environment and by looking at school as a pedagogical practice teachers’ told experiences of teaching are interpreted. Looking at school and teaching as pedagogical practice, I examine teachers’ told experiences of teaching newly arrived young people.
\nData are generated in one group interview [19, 20] with teachers within the individual program of language introduction directed especially to newly arrived people at one public secondary school. All teachers in this teacher team participated in a 2 hour long interview that was documented electronic and transcribed. Ethical considerations are made and I followed good research practice [21] by informing about the purpose of the study, the voluntary participation in the interview and that results will be reported confidentially.
\nThe interviewed teachers are all qualified subject teachers and have several years of experience instructing their subjects in both the individual program and the national program in the public secondary school. In the interview I asked the teachers to tell me about their instruction in their subjects English, Swedish as a second language, Social Studies, and Mathematics. The interview questions dealt with their approaches to newly arrived immigrant pupils’ underlying knowledge, competences, and continued knowledge development and how the immigrant pupils’ underlying linguistic and cognitive competencies can be taken advantage of in the different subject instructions. The questions also dealt with knowledge or skills of importance for the pupils’ continued education and after their schooling. Other questions concerned native language instruction, study guidance, opportunities, and limitations.
\nThe recorded and transcribed interviews have been interpreted [22] based on what was told and the interpretation is aided by the previous sections in this text. I read the transcriptions’ several times in order to clarify themes and to see the connections. In this reading, I focused on what the teachers told, and in the following presentation, the interviewed teachers’ voices are illustrated by their own words with quotations [19]. Subsequently, the abbreviation IMS is used to refer to the program of language introduction at this public secondary school.
\nIn this study, teachers talk about IMS-classes organized using registration interviews and assessments based on when the pupil arrived at the current school, age, previous schooling, subject knowledge, and language skills. The pupils different school histories vary from no or little schooling to started secondary education, and they speak different languages and speak Swedish at a very basic level.
\nWithin IMS, the pupils are offered instruction in the various compulsory school subjects or secondary school subjects at the respective elementary, middle, lower or upper secondary level. Some are taught three to seven compulsory school subjects, while others study one subject. Still others study simultaneously compulsory school courses and national program subject courses, such as Religion, Social Studies, Technology, and Art. Swedish as a second language/Swedish is nevertheless the basis of all the subject instruction in parallel with the other subject matter.
\nIn the following section, I thematically present what the IMS-teachers’ told about their teaching and approach to the immigrant pupils’ and education. Based on concepts from previous sections, the presentation is divided into sections named Underlying knowledge and present education, Language skills and learning Swedish as a Second Language, Building knowledge and time for qualification, and Parallel system and limited choice possibilities.
\nThe pupils in IMS have different school histories, separate school experiences from various educational contexts, and they have been in Sweden for different lengths of time. The teachers say that the pupils’ views on school and learning vary, and that their ways of learning, their subject knowledge, and experiences of instructional methods are different. Because of this, the teachers plan and design their instruction of different subjects differently depending on the pupils’ previous school context. One teacher tells in the following quotation about how different education backgrounds, school experiences, and education cultures influence the IMS-education.
\n\n
Cummins [3, 4, 5]; García [6], Garcia and Kleyn [7], García and Leiva [16] and Williams [15] writes about underlying knowledge in terms of equally valuable. In the interview, we talk about this and the teachers emphasizes how teaching in IMS can bring out and take advantage of the pupils’ underlying knowledge in the different school subjects. In the following quotation, one teacher describes instruction that respects and draws upon pupils’ underlying subject knowledge in order to build new knowledge for both pupils and teachers.
\n\n
We continued to talk about the pupils’ different ways of completing school assignments and how the pupils can use and demonstrate their underlying knowledge as building blocks in the present educational context and common knowledge-building. From what the teachers say and in accordance with Sarstrand Marekovic [17] and Cummins [5], it becomes clear that the interviewed teachers show respect for the pupils’ underlying knowledge, skills, and ways of learning. The following quotation from the interview shows reciprocity and how the IMS-pupils’ different subject matter knowledge is utilized and becomes a resource in the instruction.
\n\n
From what the teachers say, it appears that also languages other than Swedish are used so that all pupils acquire and develop knowledge in and about all subjects. For example, in order to understand the instructional content in the different subject classes, the teachers ask the pupils to translate texts between their different languages. The teachers encourage the IMS-pupils in the subject classes to use their linguistic and subject competencies [4, 5, 6, 7, 15, 16] when letting them explain the instructional content for one another in their knowledge-language and in Swedish.
\n\n
Despite the IMS-teachers do not always understand what the pupils say or write to each other, they say this is a successful strategy for teaching and the pupils’ learning.
\nAn explicit purpose of the secondary school introduction program is for the pupils to achieve passing compulsory school grades in the school subject of Swedish and in other subjects in order to be eligible for secondary school. The following quotation is an example of an ecological approach [8, 18] to learning and it shows how one of the teachers discusses the pupils’ multi-lingual processing of subject matter in relation to learning both Swedish and the actual subject. Language and subject knowledge grow together.
\n\n
The teachers believe that with this multilingual and multi knowledge approach, the pupils re-work their knowledge in more than one way, and they develop their thinking, knowledge, and their languages. Above all, the pupils practice the school language of Swedish in different contexts and interaction with the environment [8, 18]. In their subject teaching teachers often organizes language groups and the quotation below shows that IMS-pupils group themselves by language in different instructional situations. By teaching this way, pupils who master both Swedish and the subject matter help other pupils who have not mastered the school language or the content as well.
\n\n
The teachers’ state that the pupils support each other’s thinking and learning through using their underlying skills in languages [5, 17] in the different school subjects and in interaction in different contexts [8, 18]. In such a way, all the pupils develop their language competence and their subject competence, the teacher says.
\nThe IMS-pupils have less time to become qualified for the Swedish public secondary school compared to their friends who have completed all or a large part of their education in Sweden. The teachers say that the pupils should experience the manner of instructing and of studying, plus the content in the education within IMS, as important and relevant. According to what the teachers say pupils choices of subjects become extra significant, and the content in the different subject classes cannot be isolated and extraneous when both pupils and teachers have to hurry. This hurry or lack of time is illustrated by the following quotation.
\n\n
It appears that both teachers and pupils experience a shortage of time. In this short time context, the teachers speak about challenges, stimulating assignments and about collisions when referring to the limited time to prepare the IMS-pupils for upcoming studies and for life after school. The following quotation shows an example of a challenge in terms of an experience of offered learning as important for both their continued studies and their life after school in order to avoid what Nilsson Folke [12] conceptualize postponed future.
\n\n
The teachers say that different parts of the IMS-education, content, the pupils’ previous knowledge, current know-how, and future study and career plans must fit together. The pupils must be able to experience that what they learn leads to valuable knowledge, say the teachers.
\nOne of the requirements for being admitted to the public secondary school national program is that the pupil is under 20 years of age. The teachers state that this age requirement is part of a parallel system [9, 12] that leaves the IMS-pupils with limited choice possibilities. Following quotation from the teacher interview illustrates that time controls IMS-pupils’ subject choices and study direction, as well as the teachers’ instructional content.
\n\n
The teachers feel that the system inhibits by making some choices possible while others are impossible based on the pupil’s age. One of the teachers says that this hurry then leads to pupils choosing to study certain subjects and disregarding other subjects.
\n\n
Thus, the age criterion is a factor rushing the IMS-pupils to become qualified for the public secondary school. The teachers say that the IMS-pupils wish the IMS studies would lead to further study at the public secondary school. The quotation above shows that through their choices which also mean what they do not choose, the pupils want to become qualified in the subjects required for admission to the national program in the public secondary school before the age barrier sets a stop to this opportunity and their studies ends up in postponed future [12].
\nThis section discuss the teachers’ approach to the immigrant pupils’ underlying competences and continued knowledge development, as well as their experience of teaching in the secondary school individual program of language introduction by linking to research and the questions about how teachers can take advantage of, acknowledge, and develop further the immigrant pupils’ underlying linguistic and cognitive skills in different subject classes.
\nThe group interviews clearly reveal that the teachers in their instruction systematically try to take advantage of the pupils’ previous knowledge and learning in the different school subjects. The goal is for the IMS-pupils to be integrated into regular education with other pupils. The importance of the pupils’ various experiences of teaching and learning in different contexts in different school subjects is visible, as well as the importance of learning for the future, after IMS. The interview reveals that in the pupils often work in language groups to complete assignments and that residential staff provides instrumental help with schoolwork.
\nThe offered instruction corresponds to the demands of a multi-cultural society for equivalent education: the pupils are offered the right to equivalent education based on their competence, and their knowledge is respected [9, 23, 24].
\nWhen the teachers talk about the IMS-pupils’ varying school histories, we can see how in their instruction, the teachers respect and take advantage of what the pupils already know. The teachers talk about all underlying knowledge as important for continued learning. The pupils support each other and doing so their knowledge and understanding develop when handling different subject matter in more than one way and in more than one language.
\nGarcía’s [6] work about educational principles such as social justice and social practice is about emphasizing the pupils’ different competencies as equivalent and important to build upon in instruction. When teachers appreciate and see pupils’ diverse and underlying knowledge as resources and when the instruction is systematically based on pupils’ different skills, then the schooling can be said to be grounded in García’s [6] principles of social justice and social practice. All languages and all knowledge are equally valuable and important for continued learning [4, 5, 6, 7]. Cummins [5] and Sarstrand Marekovic [17] highlight educational strategies that teachers can use. The strategies involve supporting comprehension, assisting language production in all subjects, taking advantage of pupils’ multi-lingualism, and strengthening the knowledge-language.
\nThe teachers discuss all these aspects in the interview. They say that they support and value the pupils’ understanding and continued knowledge development in different subjects. The IMS-pupils are given the opportunity to use their underlying knowledge, for example, in Social Studies, when the class discusses economic systems or in Mathematics when pupils show how different mathematics calculations can be carried out, set up, and explained. The pupils’ different ways of solving mathematics problems, previous knowledge about socio-economics or helping each other understand in different languages, form the basis for instruction and discussion in the classroom.
\nAccording to Cummins [5] the language or languages the immigrant pupils speak best, their knowledge-language(s), fulfill an important function and strengthen their ability to learn. This is valid also in the multi-lingual classroom where the teachers do not have a command of all the classroom languages [5]. The interviewed teachers tell about not being able to speak all the languages spoken by their pupils. This in turn means that they do not always understand what the pupils say, how they translate or explain something for each other, for example, in Mathematics. The teachers still believe what is most important is for pupils to twist and turn their learning and knowledge. In such a way, they process their knowledge in several ways.
\nSwedish/Swedish as a second language appears as a significant component and important content in all IMS instruction, perhaps the most important. Increased collaboration over the subject and level boundaries and integrating subjects, for example, Mathematics and English, is emphasized as important for the pupils’ education. Both IMS-pupils and their teachers seek increased opportunities for the pupils to study more subjects at the compulsory school level and in the secondary school national program.
\nPupils’ learning and cognitive development, the importance of teachers’ and pupils’ expectations, attitudes, engagement, and interaction, are discussed by Cummins and Schecter [14], Sarstrand Marekovic [17]. Fundamental for new learning is that pupils can use their underlying knowledge and learning, that their knowledge is respected and that high demands are set. Another important aspect in this context is the teacher’s ability in the instruction to refer to all the pupils’ knowledge and ways of teaching and learning [25]. Sarstrand Marekovic [17] points out positive and negative experiences from earlier schooling and recognition as fundamental with regard to pupils’ success in school.
\nCollaboration over subject boundaries is examples of how within IMS, teachers take advantage of pupils’ knowledge and interests, and they refer to pupils’ underlying competencies in different school subjects. This way the IMS-pupils’ background knowledge is respected and utilized in instruction. The teachers say that the IMS-pupils can be offered to participate in the subjects, English or Social Studies, for example, in the national program. Some pupils may attend individual lessons in subjects without being admitted, while other pupils may be admitted and attend the national course.
\nNonetheless, a shortage of places in the classroom may limit or set a stop to such collaboration.
\nPupils’ web or net of languages, thought, and knowledge develops in interaction with the environment [8, 18] and dependence on others when pupils take advantage of their underlying resources in different learning contexts. Cummins and Schecter [14], Cummins [3, 4, 5], García [6], [7], and Williams [15] discuss this in terms of continued and deepened learning.
\nThe aforementioned means that pupils develop their expertise in language as well as in other areas when they use their language, knowledge, and learning, their skills in different contexts. To be able to use underlying skills in school instruction without distinguishing them, to be supported by study guidance in a language that one understands so as to understand the instruction given in another language, can be discussed in terms of translanguaging ([4, 5, 6, 7]: [15]). Translanguaging appears in this context as an ecological teaching and learning strategy [8, 18], a strategy that makes learning possible. Ecological strategy may be the teachers describing pupils who do not keep their language aside, but rather let their language and knowledge interact.
\nChanged requirements and circumstances within IMS have brought increased collaboration between the teachers in IMS and in the national subject courses. Changed requirements and circumstances within IMS have also brought an increased number of subjects and levels of instruction being offered to the pupils.
\nThe challenge that both teachers and IMS-pupils face, to be qualified for the public secondary school, is discussed by researchers such as Bunar [9] and Cummins [5]. Immigrant pupils’ difficulties in obtaining eligibility depend on how the instruction is organized, whether the content is comprehensible for the pupils and on the amount of time [5, 9]. The pupils, who arrive late during their compulsory school years, have just a few years to achieve passing grades for the compulsory school subjects. Teachers’ need in-service training in order to meet these pupils in the best way and the pupils need support in both language and knowledge areas in order to understand the content in the given instruction.
\nThese topics come up in the interviews with IMS-teachers who teach in an organization under constant change. The number of pupils varies; the pupils’ school histories differ. The common goal of the instruction within IMS, however, is for the pupils to be qualified for the national program in the public secondary school before they turn 20 years old.
\n\n
The above quotation visualizes how the age criterion appears for both pupils and teachers as interrupting the past and postponing the future [12], as a system brake that makes it impossible for them in terms of hurrying and study pace, and in terms of orientation and goals and content in the studies.
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VR provides a 3D and dynamic view of structures and the ability of the user to interact with them. The recent technological advances in haptics, display systems, and motion detection allow the user to have a realistic and interactive experience, enabling VR to be ideal for training in hands-on procedures. Consequently, surgical and other interventional procedures are the main fields of application of VR. AR provides the ability of projecting virtual information and structures over physical objects, thus enhancing or altering the real environment. The integration of AR applications in the understanding of anatomical structures and physiological mechanisms seems to be beneficial. Studies have tried to demonstrate the validity and educational effect of many VR and AR applications, in many different areas, employed via various hardware platforms. Some of them even propose a curriculum that integrates these methods. This chapter provides a brief history of VR and AR in medicine, as well as the principles and standards of their function. Finally, the studies that show the effect of the implementation of these methods in different fields of medical training are summarized and presented.",book:{id:"6211",slug:"medical-and-surgical-education-past-present-and-future",title:"Medical and Surgical Education",fullTitle:"Medical and Surgical Education - Past, Present and Future"},signatures:"Panteleimon Pantelidis, Angeliki Chorti, Ioanna Papagiouvanni,\nGeorgios Paparoidamis, Christos Drosos, Thrasyvoulos\nPanagiotakopoulos, Georgios Lales and Michail Sideris",authors:[{id:"211650",title:"M.D.",name:"Panteleimon",middleName:null,surname:"Pantelidis",slug:"panteleimon-pantelidis",fullName:"Panteleimon Pantelidis"},{id:"211654",title:"Ms.",name:"Angeliki",middleName:null,surname:"Chorti",slug:"angeliki-chorti",fullName:"Angeliki Chorti"},{id:"220557",title:"Ms.",name:"Ioanna",middleName:null,surname:"Papagiouvanni",slug:"ioanna-papagiouvanni",fullName:"Ioanna Papagiouvanni"},{id:"220558",title:"Mr.",name:"Georgios",middleName:null,surname:"Paparoidamis",slug:"georgios-paparoidamis",fullName:"Georgios Paparoidamis"},{id:"220559",title:"Mr.",name:"Georgios",middleName:null,surname:"Lales",slug:"georgios-lales",fullName:"Georgios Lales"},{id:"220560",title:"Mr.",name:"Thrasyvoulos",middleName:null,surname:"Panagiotakopoulos",slug:"thrasyvoulos-panagiotakopoulos",fullName:"Thrasyvoulos Panagiotakopoulos"},{id:"220561",title:"Mr.",name:"Christos",middleName:null,surname:"Drosos",slug:"christos-drosos",fullName:"Christos Drosos"},{id:"220562",title:"Dr.",name:"Michail",middleName:null,surname:"Sideris",slug:"michail-sideris",fullName:"Michail Sideris"}]},{id:"50915",doi:"10.5772/63266",title:"Doped Bioactive Glass Materials in Bone Regeneration",slug:"doped-bioactive-glass-materials-in-bone-regeneration",totalDownloads:3485,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:34,abstract:"In the arena of orthopaedic surgery, autograft is considered to be the gold standard for correction of fracture repair or other bone pathologies. But, it has some limitations such as donor site morbidity and shortage of supply, which evolved the use of allograft that also has some disadvantages such as immunogenic response to the host, low osteogenicity as well as possibilities of disease transmission. Despite the benefits of autografts and allografts, the limitations of each have necessitated the pursuit of alternatives biomaterials that has the ability to initiate osteogenesis, and the graft should closely mimic the natural bone along with regeneration of fibroblasts. A variety of artificial materials such as demineralised bone matrix, coralline hydroxyapatite and calcium phosphate-based ceramics such as hydroxyapatite (HA), β-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP) and bioactive glass have been used over the decades to fill bone defects almost without associated soft tissue development. Most of them were having only the properties of osteointegration and osteoconduction. Only bioactive glass possesses osteogenic property that stimulates proliferation and differentiation of osteoprogenitor cells and in some cases influencing the fibroblastic properties. But, this material has also some disadvantages such as short-term and low mechanical strength along with decreased fracture resistance; but, this was further minimised by ion doping that positively enhanced new bone formation. There are many metal ions such as magnesium (Mg), strontium (Sr), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), silver (Ag) and some rare earths that have been doped successfully into bioactive glass to enhance their mechanical and biological properties. In some of the cases, mesoporous bioactive glass materials with or without such doping have also been employed (with homogeneous distribution of pores in the size ranging between 2 and 50 nm). These biomaterials can be served as scaffold for bone regeneration with adequate mechanical properties to restore bone defects and facilitate healing process by regeneration of soft tissues as well. This chapter encompasses the use of bioactive glass in bulk and mesoporous form with doped therapeutic ions, their role in bone tissue regeneration, use as delivery of growth factors as well as coating material for orthopaedic implants.",book:{id:"5164",slug:"advanced-techniques-in-bone-regeneration",title:"Advanced Techniques in Bone Regeneration",fullTitle:"Advanced Techniques in Bone Regeneration"},signatures:"Samit Kumar Nandi, Arnab Mahato, Biswanath Kundu and Prasenjit\nMukherjee",authors:[{id:"60514",title:"Dr.",name:"Samit",middleName:null,surname:"Nandi",slug:"samit-nandi",fullName:"Samit Nandi"}]},{id:"37120",doi:"10.5772/29607",title:"Trigeminocardiac Reflex in Neurosurgery - Current Knowledge and Prospects",slug:"the-trigeminocardiac-reflex-in-neurosurgery-current-knowledge-and-prospects",totalDownloads:3425,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:27,abstract:null,book:{id:"749",slug:"explicative-cases-of-controversial-issues-in-neurosurgery",title:"Explicative Cases of Controversial Issues in Neurosurgery",fullTitle:"Explicative Cases of Controversial Issues in Neurosurgery"},signatures:"Amr Abdulazim, Martin N. Stienen, Pooyan Sadr-Eshkevari, Nora Prochnow, Nora Sandu, Benham Bohluli and Bernhard Schaller",authors:[{id:"78171",title:"Prof.",name:"Bernhard",middleName:null,surname:"Schaller",slug:"bernhard-schaller",fullName:"Bernhard Schaller"},{id:"78525",title:"Mr.",name:"Amr",middleName:null,surname:"Abdulazim",slug:"amr-abdulazim",fullName:"Amr Abdulazim"},{id:"78530",title:"Dr",name:"Pooyan",middleName:null,surname:"Sadr-Eshkevari",slug:"pooyan-sadr-eshkevari",fullName:"Pooyan Sadr-Eshkevari"},{id:"126039",title:"Dr.",name:"Martin",middleName:"Nikolaus",surname:"Stienen",slug:"martin-stienen",fullName:"Martin Stienen"},{id:"126040",title:"Dr.",name:"Nora",middleName:null,surname:"Prochnow",slug:"nora-prochnow",fullName:"Nora Prochnow"},{id:"126041",title:"Dr.",name:"Benham",middleName:null,surname:"Bohluli",slug:"benham-bohluli",fullName:"Benham Bohluli"}]},{id:"26559",doi:"10.5772/28833",title:"Local Antibiotic Therapy in the Treatment of Bone and Soft Tissue Infections",slug:"local-antibiotic-therapy-in-the-treatment-of-bone-and-soft-tissue-infections",totalDownloads:6554,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:null,book:{id:"784",slug:"selected-topics-in-plastic-reconstructive-surgery",title:"Selected Topics in Plastic Reconstructive Surgery",fullTitle:"Selected Topics in Plastic Reconstructive Surgery"},signatures:"Stefanos Tsourvakas",authors:[{id:"75532",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefanos",middleName:null,surname:"Tsourvakas",slug:"stefanos-tsourvakas",fullName:"Stefanos Tsourvakas"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"65467",title:"Anesthesia Management for Large-Volume Liposuction",slug:"anesthesia-management-for-large-volume-liposuction",totalDownloads:5965,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The apparent easiness with which liposuction is performed favors that patients, young surgeons, and anesthesiologists without experience in this field ignore the many events that occur during this procedure. Liposuction is a procedure to improve the body contour and not a surgery to reduce weight, although recently people who have failed in their plans to lose weight look at liposuction as a means to contour their body figure. Tumescent liposuction of large volumes requires a meticulous selection of each patient; their preoperative evaluation and perioperative management are essential to obtain the expected results. The various techniques of general anesthesia are the most recommended and should be monitored in the usual way, as well as monitoring the total doses of infiltrated local anesthetics to avoid systemic toxicity. The management of intravenous fluids is controversial, but the current trend is the restricted use of hydrosaline solutions. The most feared complications are deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary thromboembolism, fat embolism, lung edema, hypothermia, infections and even death. The adherence to the management guidelines and prophylaxis of venous thrombosis/thromboembolism is mandatory.",book:{id:"6221",slug:"anesthesia-topics-for-plastic-and-reconstructive-surgery",title:"Anesthesia Topics for Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery",fullTitle:"Anesthesia Topics for Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery"},signatures:"Sergio Granados-Tinajero, Carlos Buenrostro-Vásquez, Cecilia\nCárdenas-Maytorena and Marcela Contreras-López",authors:[{id:"273532",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergio Octavio",middleName:null,surname:"Granados Tinajero",slug:"sergio-octavio-granados-tinajero",fullName:"Sergio Octavio Granados Tinajero"}]},{id:"42855",title:"Critical Care Issues After Major Hepatic Surgery",slug:"critical-care-issues-after-major-hepatic-surgery",totalDownloads:8909,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"3164",slug:"hepatic-surgery",title:"Hepatic Surgery",fullTitle:"Hepatic Surgery"},signatures:"Ashok Thorat and Wei-Chen Lee",authors:[{id:"52360",title:"Prof.",name:"Wei-Chen",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",slug:"wei-chen-lee",fullName:"Wei-Chen Lee"},{id:"157213",title:"Dr.",name:"Ashok",middleName:null,surname:"Thorat",slug:"ashok-thorat",fullName:"Ashok Thorat"}]},{id:"72175",title:"Fontan Operation: A Comprehensive Review",slug:"fontan-operation-a-comprehensive-review",totalDownloads:1252,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Since the first description of the Fontan operation in the early 1970s, a number of modifications have been introduced and currently staged, total cavopulmonary connection with fenestration has become the most commonly used multistage surgery in diverting the vena caval blood flow into the lungs. The existing ventricle, whether it is left or right, is utilized to supply systemic circuit. During Stage I, palliative surgery is performed, usually at presentation in the neonatal period/early infancy, on the basis of pathophysiology of the cardiac defect. During Stage II, a bidirectional Glenn procedure is undertaken in which the superior vena caval flow is diverted into the lungs at an approximate age of 6 months. During Stage IIIA, the blood flow from the inferior vena cava (IVC) is rerouted into the pulmonary arteries, typically by an extra-cardiac conduit along with a fenestration, generally around 2 years of age. During Stage IIIB, the fenestration is closed by transcatheter methodology 6–12 months after Stage IIIA. The evolution of Fontan concepts, the indications for Fontan surgery, and the results of old and current types of Fontan operation form the focus of this review.",book:{id:"9585",slug:"advances-in-complex-valvular-disease",title:"Advances in Complex Valvular Disease",fullTitle:"Advances in Complex Valvular Disease"},signatures:"P. Syamasundar Rao",authors:[{id:"68531",title:"Dr.",name:"P. Syamasundar",middleName:null,surname:"Rao",slug:"p.-syamasundar-rao",fullName:"P. 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Interventions meant to correct these conditions are commonly based on symmetrical models of appearance and do not take into account asymmetric organ weight distribution, asymmetries of respiratory mechanics, and dominant movement patterns that are reinforced in daily functional activities. A model of innate, human asymmetry derived from the theoretical framework of the Postural Restoration Institute® (PRI) explicitly describes the physiological, biomechanical, and respiratory components of human asymmetry. This model is important because it gives an accurate baseline for understanding predisposing factors for the development of postural disorders, which, without intervention, will likely progress to structural dysfunction. Clinical tests to evaluate tri-planar musculoskeletal relationships and function, developed by PRI, are based on this asymmetric model. These tests are valuable for assessing patient’s status in the context of human asymmetry and in guiding appropriate exercise prescription and progression. Balancing musculoskeletal asymmetry is the aim of PRI treatment. Restoration of relative balance decreases pain, restores improved alignment, and strengthens appropriate muscle function. It can also halt the progression of dysfunction and improve respiration, quality of life, and appearance. PRI’s extensive body of targeted exercise progressions are highly effective due to their basis in the tri-planar asymmetric human model.",book:{id:"5816",slug:"innovations-in-spinal-deformities-and-postural-disorders",title:"Innovations in Spinal Deformities and Postural Disorders",fullTitle:"Innovations in Spinal Deformities and Postural Disorders"},signatures:"Susan Henning, Lisa C. 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Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. 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He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. 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She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. 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He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. from Integral University, Lucknow, India, with his work titled ‘Development and evaluation of silymarin nanoformulation for hepatic carcinoma’. Currently, he is an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics, at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. He has been teaching PharmD, BPharm, and MPharm students and conducting research in the novel drug delivery domain. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than twenty-four original journal articles, two edited books, four book chapters, and several scientific articles to his credit. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, the International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333824",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad Farouk",middleName:null,surname:"Musa",slug:"ahmad-farouk-musa",fullName:"Ahmad Farouk Musa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333824/images/22684_n.jpg",biography:"Dato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa\nMD, MMED (Surgery) (Mal), Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery (Monash Health, Aust), Graduate Certificate in Higher Education (Aust), Academy of Medicine (Mal)\n\n\n\nDato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa obtained his Doctor of Medicine from USM in 1992. He then obtained his Master of Medicine in Surgery from the same university in the year 2000 before subspecialising in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Institut Jantung Negara (IJN), Kuala Lumpur from 2002 until 2005. He then completed his Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Monash Health, Melbourne, Australia in 2008. He has served in the Malaysian army as a Medical Officer with the rank of Captain upon completing his Internship before joining USM as a trainee lecturer. He is now serving as an academic and researcher at Monash University Malaysia. He is a life-member of the Malaysian Association of Thoracic & Cardiovascular Surgery (MATCVS) and a committee member of the MATCVS Database. He is also a life-member of the College of Surgeons, Academy of Medicine of Malaysia; a life-member of Malaysian Medical Association (MMA), and a life-member of Islamic Medical Association of Malaysia (IMAM). Recently he was appointed as an Interim Chairperson of Examination & Assessment Subcommittee of the UiTM-IJN Cardiothoracic Surgery Postgraduate Program. As an academic, he has published numerous research papers and book chapters. He has also been appointed to review many scientific manuscripts by established journals such as the British Medical Journal (BMJ). He has presented his research works at numerous local and international conferences such as the European Association for Cardiothoracic Surgery (EACTS) and the European Society of Cardiovascular Surgery (ESCVS), to name a few. He has also won many awards for his research presentations at meetings and conferences like the prestigious International Invention, Innovation & Technology Exhibition (ITEX); Design, Research and Innovation Exhibition, the National Conference on Medical Sciences and the Annual Scientific Meetings of the Malaysian Association for Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. He was awarded the Darjah Setia Pangkuan Negeri (DSPN) by the Governor of Penang in July, 2015.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Monash University Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. 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Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. 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