Adults and adolescents as the main source of
\r\n\tIn this book the amperometry principles, instrumentation, cells (including flow cells), and functional materials used in amperometric sensors are presented together with the numerous applications of the amperometric (bio)sensors and the amperometric titrations in the environmental, food, and clinical analysis.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:null,priceUsd:null,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"502756538d952207e98c5b53b0f8c6ed",bookSignature:"Dr. Margarita Stoytcheva and Dr. Roumen Zlatev",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8638.jpg",keywords:"Voltammetry, Direct Amperometry, Pulse Amperometry, Amperometric Sensors, Functional Materials, Amperometric Biosensors, Electrode Modification, Cells, Flow Cells, Amperometric titration, Amperometric Detection, Application",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 16th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 6th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 5th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 24th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 25th 2019",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"170080",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarita",middleName:null,surname:"Stoytcheva",slug:"margarita-stoytcheva",fullName:"Margarita Stoytcheva",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/170080/images/system/170080.jpg",biography:"Prof. Margarita Stoytcheva has graduated from the University of Chemical Technologies and Metallurgy of Sofia, Bulgaria with titles of Chemical Engineer and Master of Electrochemical technologies. She obtained PhD and DSc degrees in Chemistry and Technical Sciences. She has participated in research and teaching in several universities in Bulgaria, Algeria, and France. From 2006 to the present, she has participated in activities of scientific research, technological development, and teaching at the Autonomous University of Baja California (Mexicali, Mexico) as a full-time researcher. Since 2008, she has been a member of the National System of Researches of Mexico, and since 2011 she has been a regular member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences. Her interests and area of research are analytical electrochemistry and biotechnology.",institutionString:"Autonomous University of Baja California",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"128534",title:"Dr.",name:"Roumen",middleName:null,surname:"Zlatev",slug:"roumen-zlatev",fullName:"Roumen Zlatev",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/128534/images/system/128534.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Roumen Zlatev is a full-time researcher at the Engineering Institute of the Autonomous University of Baja California (UABC) (Mexicali, Mexico). He obtained his Bachelor’s and Master’s degrees from the University of Chemical Technology and Metallurgy of Sofia, Bulgaria, and his Ph.D. degree from the National Polytechnic University of Grenoble, France. He was a fulltime researcher in the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences and a part-time professor at Sofia University before accepting the position of full-time senior researcher in UABC in 2005. Dr. Zlatev is a member of the Mexican National System of Researchers and a regular member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences. He participates in research projects in France, Germany, and Mexico. He is the author of more than 170 publications, book chapters and reports in scientific congresses, and holds 14 patents in the field of the electrochemical and spectroscopic methods of analysis, corrosion, and materials, electrochemical and analytical instrumentation.",institutionString:"Autonomous University of Baja California",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"8",title:"Chemistry",slug:"chemistry"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"220811",firstName:"Anita",lastName:"Condic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/220811/images/6068_n.jpg",email:"anita.c@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5725",title:"Applications of the Voltammetry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"36586695f01005ffab50415baba4de15",slug:"applications-of-the-voltammetry",bookSignature:"Margarita Stoytcheva and Roumen Zlatev",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5725.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"170080",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarita",surname:"Stoytcheva",slug:"margarita-stoytcheva",fullName:"Margarita Stoytcheva"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5182",title:"Lab-on-a-Chip Fabrication and Application",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f4c8e226ea2612f5ecceb7e6311581d4",slug:"lab-on-a-chip-fabrication-and-application",bookSignature:"Margarita Stoytcheva and Roumen Zlatev",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5182.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"170080",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarita",surname:"Stoytcheva",slug:"margarita-stoytcheva",fullName:"Margarita Stoytcheva"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6690",title:"Arsenic",subtitle:"Analytical and Toxicological Studies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d829bc54fef4d7062ab1d4c403a0895",slug:"arsenic-analytical-and-toxicological-studies",bookSignature:"Margarita Stoytcheva and Roumen Zlatev",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6690.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"170080",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarita",surname:"Stoytcheva",slug:"margarita-stoytcheva",fullName:"Margarita Stoytcheva"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9012",title:"Applications of Nanobiotechnology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8412775aad56ba7350a6201282feb1ec",slug:"applications-of-nanobiotechnology",bookSignature:"Margarita Stoytcheva and Roumen Zlatev",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9012.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"170080",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarita",surname:"Stoytcheva",slug:"margarita-stoytcheva",fullName:"Margarita Stoytcheva"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"55384",title:"Cocoon Strategy of Vaccinations: Benefits and Limitations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68890",slug:"cocoon-strategy-of-vaccinations-benefits-and-limitations",body:'\nImmunization methods cover [1]:
\nroutine vaccinations in children and adolescents under national immunization programs,
vaccinations in adults from risk groups (due to clinical recommendations, e.g. chronic diseases, and epidemiological recommendations, e.g. occupation, scheduled travels),
ring vaccination strategy (vaccination of a ring of close contacts of an ill person; it is a strategy used to stop an epidemic, as in the case of smallpox eradication in India) and
cocoon vaccination strategy.
A cocoon vaccination strategy refers to vaccinations in persons from the immediate environment of those patients who might develop an illness (they are susceptible to illnesses) but cannot be vaccinated due to permanent or temporary medical contraindications to a vaccination (e.g. patients in immunosuppression) or are too young to have a vaccination [1].
\nMost frequently, a cocoon vaccination strategy is associated with vaccinations in adults aimed at preventing the spread of an illness in children (e.g. pertussis vaccination or influenza vaccination), but it is worth considering whether this strategy should not be understood also as vaccinations in children with the view of protecting adults and the elderly against illnesses (e.g. influenza or pneumococcal diseases) [1].
\nThe aim of the cocoon strategy is to minimize the risk of the transmission of pathogens in the environment of a patient who is susceptible to an infection. A vaccinated patient is not a source of infection any more for a non-vaccinated patient [1, 2].
The concept of a cocoon vaccination strategy is connected with herd immunity and herd immunity threshold [3].
\nHerd immunity is a term that was coined as a result of observations which showed that the presence of persons immune to a particular infectious disease in a certain population decreases the probability of developing this disease by other persons in this population who are not immune to this disease. The earliest observation of this phenomenon was made in 1840 by an outstanding British hygienist, William Farr, who wrote in his report on births, deaths and marriages in England and in Wales that “smallpox transmission might be interrupted or sometimes stopped thanks to vaccinations which protect a part of the population” [3]. However, the very term “herd immunity” was used by Topley and Wilson for the first time. In their studies into epizootic in mice under laboratory conditions, they concluded that “immunity understood as a characteristic of a herd should be approached scientifically as a separate issue that is closely related to immunity of particular specimens, but at the same time constitutes a different issue in many aspects” [3]. The essence of herd immunity is that the higher the proportion of specimens immune to a disease in a population, the lower the probability of developing the illness by a specimen with no immunity to the disease. Thus, the term can be used with reference to infectious diseases in which some specimens infect the others [3].
\nHerd immunity threshold is the proportion of persons who need to be immune in order to stop an infectious disease from spreading in a population. For most diseases, it is over 80% [3]. Herd immunity threshold is influenced by the following factors: transplacental immunity, patient’s age at the time of vaccination, age-related differences in the frequency of contacts or in infection risks (as the result of the decrease in the frequency of contacts, the real herd immunity threshold is lower than the estimated one), seasonal changes in the frequency of contacts (the period of decreased seasonal infectivity decreases the real herd immunity threshold as compared to the estimated threshold), geographical heterogeneity and social structure (irregularities of risk distribution in various social groups) [3]. Herd immunity threshold for pertussis is high, and it amounts to 92–94%. However, considering the decrease in infectivity with age and the seasonality of the disease the estimates indicate 88% [3].
\nPopulation-based vaccine efficacy depends on a high proportion of the vaccinated individuals in a population. A good example may be measles, a highly contagious disease, which has become a re-emerging disease in countries where the proportion of those vaccinated has diminished (e.g. Germany, Great Britain) [4]. Population protection (herd immunity) resulting from breaking the infection transmission with the use of vaccinations has been observed in Australia for vaccinations against rotaviruses (e.g. after the introduction of common vaccinations against rotaviruses, the frequency of hospitalizations due to acute diarrhea decreased) and vaccinations against human papillomavirus (HPV), as well as in Great Britain for vaccinations against
Pertussis is a contagious bacterial disease of the respiratory system caused by gram-negative rod
Since mid-1980s, it has been observed that the epidemiological situation of pertussis in developed European countries, North America, Australia and Japan has been deteriorating. This results from the decrease in post-vaccinal immunity, which is not lifelong, but it lasts for 5–10 years. Currently, the highest incidence of pertussis is reported in adolescents and adults, and the representatives of these age groups are the main known source of infection for newborns and young infants who were not vaccinated against pertussis (in most countries, the first vaccination is given in the 6th week of life), were vaccinated with a delay or did not receive the required number of vaccination doses [7, 8]. It was found that the source of
Currently used strategies for pertussis prevention include [13–15] are listed below:
\nvaccinations in infants and small children, TDPw or TDPa vaccines,
booster vaccinations in children of pre-school age, TDPa or Tdpa vaccines, and in children of the school age (adolescents), Tdpa vaccine,
booster vaccinations in adults (recommended every 10 years), Tdpa vaccine,
vaccinations in pregnant women, Tdpa vaccine and
cocoon strategy for protective vaccination, Tdpa vaccine.
TDPw vaccines contain a whole cell pertussis component and may be used in infants older than 6 weeks till 36 months of age. However, due to a higher reactogenicity related to TDPw compared to TDPa vaccines [16, 17], the majority of high-income countries implemented TDPa vaccines into the national immunization schedules. On the other hand, it was reported that the duration of the immunity after TDPa vaccines may be shorter than TDPw vaccines [18]. Table 2 illustrates differences between TDPa and Tdpa vaccines. Tdpa vaccines contain a reduced antigen content, and they are recommended for individuals older than 4 years of age.
Contents of 0.5 ml of vaccine | TDPa | Tdpa |
---|---|---|
Diphtheria toxoid | >30 IU | >2 IU |
Tetanus toxoid | >40 IU | >20 IU |
Pertussis antigens: | 8.0 μg | 2.5 μg |
Pertactin | 25.0 μg | 8.0 μg |
Pertussis toxoid | 25.0 μg | 8.0 μg |
Filamentous hemagglutinin |
Differences between TDPa and Tdpa vaccines [6].
In response to the alarming increase in pertussis morbidity in 2001, Global Pertussis Initiative (GPI) consisting of experts from 17 countries was established. In 2005, the organization recommended the increase and extension of the scope of vaccination strategies and the implementation of booster vaccinations against pertussis in adolescents in developed countries. Special attention was drawn to pertussis prevention in newborns and infants who belong to the group, which is subject to the highest risk of severe pertussis. Three vaccination strategies were considered: vaccinations in mothers, vaccinations in newborns and cocoon strategy. On the basis of mathematical modeling, GPI estimated that routine vaccinations in adolescents connected with the cocoon strategy might diminish pertussis morbidity by 50%. These estimates resulted in national and international expert groups’ recommendations in 2006 to introduce cocoon strategy in all countries, which have appropriate measures to do this [19].
\nCocoon strategy involves administration of Tdpa to persons who have a close contact with newborns and infants (of up to 12 months of age), parents, grandparents, caregivers and older siblings. Optimal time of vaccination is at least 2 weeks before an expected contact with a child [14]. Strategies of vaccinations against pertussis in selected European countries are presented in Table 3.
Country | Basic vaccination | Booster vaccinations in children and adolescents | Booster vaccinations in adults |
---|---|---|---|
Austria | 2–4–6 months | 12–24 months, | Every 10 years |
13–16 years | |||
Belgium | 2–3–4 months | 15 months | Cocoon strategy |
5–7 years, 14–16 years | |||
Finland | 3–5–12 months | 4 years, | – |
14–15 years | |||
France | 2–3–4 months | 16–18 months, 11–13 years | 27–28 years, all healthcare employees (2008) |
Cocoon strategy | |||
Germany | 2–3–4 months | 5–6 years, 11–15 years | Cocoon strategy |
Healthcare employees (2003) | |||
Italy | 3–5–11 months | 5–6 years, | – |
11–15 years | |||
Netherlands | 2–3–4 months | 11 months | – |
14 years | |||
Poland | 2–4–6 months | 18–18 months, | Healthcare employees who have contact with infants (2015); |
6 years, 14 years | Adults > 19 years—every 10 years | ||
Cocoon strategy (2015) | |||
Switzerland | 2–4–6 months | 15–24 months | – |
4–7 years (11–15 years, catch up) | |||
Luxembourg | 12 months | 5–6 years, | Every 10 years |
15–16 years |
Strategies of vaccinations against pertussis in particular European countries [20].
In 2006, the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) recommended routine Tdpa vaccination in adults who have or are likely to have a close contact with children of up to 12 months of age. In 2011, ACIP decided that this recommendation should be extended and include vaccinations in adults above the age of 65 years, for example, grandparents, nursery and kindergarten employees as well as healthcare facility staff [14]. Currently, cocooning is recommended not only by ACIP but also by American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) and American Academy of Family Physicians (AAFP) [21].
\nIt is estimated that 605 persons from immediate and distant environments of an infant have to be vaccinated in pertussis epidemiological situation in the USA in order to prevent one disease case, whereas in the case of vaccinations in adolescents, in order to observe the same effect, a four-times bigger group needs to be vaccinated, that is, 2325 persons [14]. This can be explained by the fact that although small children are the source of infection for other population groups in most infection cases (e.g. influenza, pneumococcal infections), in the case of pertussis, an opposite situation can be observed. Common vaccinations in infants and small children have resulted in the transmission of the disease to older age groups and thus household members, parents and adolescents have become the source of infection [6, 14].
\nAlthough cocoon strategy against pertussis is accepted by caregivers of young children, its implementation is at a low level. According to the data of 2008, only 5% of adults who had a close contact with infants were given Tdpa vaccinations [14]. Leboucher et al. [22] showed that the idea of cocooning was accepted by 97% of parents of newborns, which resulted in vaccinations in 69% of mothers and 63% of fathers. In 96% of cases, vaccinations were done under the conditions of ambulatory healthcare (at a family doctor) [22]. Decréquy et al. [23] observed that before the cocooning program was implemented on a chosen maternity ward, only 20% of mothers and 13% of fathers had been vaccinated against pertussis, whereas after the introduction of educational activities, the level of vaccinations increased to 77% in mothers and 57% in fathers. It was indicated that the continuation of vaccinations is necessary, not only at a local but also at a national level [23].
\nA few reasons that prevent cocoon strategy against pertussis from being commonly implemented and accepted were identified. It was indicated that to improve the cocooning strategy, it is required to combine parental education with free vaccinations in pediatric or maternal settings [14, 22]. However, implementation of the cocoon strategy on maternity and neonatal wards as well as in pediatric centers requires resources from a doctor to undertaking activities, which go beyond their scope of standard duties, not to mention financial issues related to costs and refunds. Furthermore, implementation of this strategy requires substantial financial resources and the increase in the number of healthcare personnel [6].
\nCurrently, data evaluating the effectiveness of a cocoon strategy are limited. Skowronski et al. [24] suggested that cocooning may not be cost-effective in areas where a disease incidence is low. The authors concluded that it would take 1 million parental immunizations to save one infant death, 100,000 parental immunizations to save one infant’s intensive care unit admission and 10,000 parental immunizations to prevent one infant’s hospitalization [24]. However, Westra et al. from the Netherlands found that maternal immunization or a cocooning program for both parents was cost-effective and even cost-saving [25] as compared to just an infant immunization program. Healy and Baker [26] found that up to 75% of infant pertussis cases are acquired from a household contact, and cocooning could lead to a 70% reduction in pertussis cases in infants of less than 3 months of age.
\nThe concept of “number needed to treat” to estimate the number of adults that would need to be vaccinated (NNV) to prevent one case of disease, hospitalization and death due to pertussis was used and described by researchers from Ontario (Canada) [2]. After implementation of the cocoon strategy against pertussis, the NNV to prevent one case, hospitalization or death from pertussis was between 500–6400, 12,000–63,000 and 1.1–12.8 million, respectively (after adjusting for under-reporting). Rarer outcomes were associated with higher NNV [2]. The authors also demonstrated that NNV estimates for pertussis vary greatly depending on the frequency of the outcome, including the target age group, the degree of under-reporting believed to be in existence, the assumed vaccine effectiveness (VE) and the estimated proportion of infants infected by the mother and the father. It was concluded that the objectives of implementing a cocoon immunization strategy must be carefully considered if the strategy should be evaluated properly. If the objective of the program is to prevent pertussis in the population in general, a universal strategy should be considered. However, if the objective is to prevent deaths due to pertussis, a large number of adults need to be vaccinated [2]. A similar conclusion was presented by Italian authors [27].
\nThe cocoon strategy against pertussis was implemented in the USA in 2006. Data from two small studies reported conflicting results. One study documented a 50% decline in the incidence of pertussis in hospitals with a post-partum Tdap vaccination policy in 2006 (n = 48), while a 20% increase was observed among hospitals that did not have such a policy (n = 145) [28]. In contrast, Castagnini et al. [29] found no difference in the rates of illness, length of hospitalization or mortality in infants under 6 months of age when post-partum women were vaccinated prior to discharge. The authors recommended that all household members and key contacts of newborns should be immunized instead. There is also evidence that immunization coverage of high-risk groups increases when vaccination programs are universal rather than targeted [30, 31].
Influenza is a severe infectious disease caused by
In the course of establishing worldwide influenza in children at the age of below 5 years in 2008, Nair et al. [34] estimated, on the basis of an analysis of 43 studies, that in that year there were 90-million influenza cases in the mentioned age group globally. A 13% of cases developed acute lower respiratory insufficiency (ALRI) and 28,000–111,500 cases resulted in death [34].
\nOccurrence of severe seasonal influenza cases in children and adolescents is described by the number of deaths and the number of hospitalizations in intensive care units. The actual occurrence of influenza in children is underestimated due to the fact that children who suffer from mild influenza are not even consulted on an outpatient basis [32, 33].
\nIn comparison with adults, children who suffer from influenza, especially infants below the age of 1 year, require a higher number of consultations on an outpatient basis [35]. According to the study, 24% of all outpatient influenza-related visits concerned children [36]. A big number of outpatient visits related to influenza and its complications generates not only direct costs but also indirect costs that are, for example, connected with the child caregivers’ absence from work and the loss of earnings [36]. Furthermore, these visits constitute an organizational challenge for medical facilities. The number of hospitalizations related to influenza and its complications in children in the USA is estimated to amount to 0.9/1000 children, and most of them concern children at the age of below 1 year [37]. The risk of influenza-related hospitalizations in children of pre-school age is comparable to the risk that is observed in the group of the elderly above the age of 65 years [37]. The number of hospitalizations for influenza in children at the age of up to 5 years amounts to 5/10,000 children and in adolescents, 1/10,000 persons [37]. A study by Rhim et al. [38] demonstrated that 7.3% of children who reported to admission rooms in pediatric hospitals due to influenza-like symptoms required hospitalization, whereas a study by Irving et al. [39] showed that 5% of outpatients diagnosed with influenza required hospitalizations.
\nInfluenza mortality in children is estimated at <1/100,000 patient-treatment years and unfortunately most deaths (even up to 50%) occur in children with no additional disease burden [40]. Deaths due to influenza in children are rare. In the USA in 2003/2004, mortality in this group of patients amounted to 2.1/1,000,000 [40]. In the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, influenza can be effectively prevented with vaccinations. It is worth noticing that influenza deaths in children occur also in those children who suffer from no additional burdening diseases that could classify them as patients who are subject to the risk of the severe course of the disease. For example, in 2003/2004 in Great Britain, 17 deaths due to influenza in children and adolescents aged below 18 years were observed and they all occurred in patients who were initially healthy [41]. Furthermore, sudden deaths in children caused by influenza B virus infections were reported. The causes of deaths were determined only in an autopsy (concerning intravital diagnosis, there were no symptoms from the respiratory system but from the digestive system) [42].
\nCocoon strategy in influenza prophylaxis was created on the basis of data concerning cocoon strategy in pertussis prevention. Justification of cocoon strategy for influenza is different than for pertussis because no influenza vaccination can be used in infants aged below 6 months due to low immunogenicity in this age group. As mentioned above, the risk of hospitalization in infants due to influenza is particularly high, and the greatest risk concerns children aged below 6 months. The frequency of influenza hospitalizations in healthy infants is similar to the frequency of hospitalizations in adults who are in a high-risk group. Therefore, effective solutions are necessary to provide appropriate protection for this particularly susceptible population group. Influenza prophylaxis includes hand hygiene, avoiding contact with the ill and vaccinations in persons who have a close contact with the ill.
\nIn the first year of their lives, newborns whose mothers were not vaccinated against influenza either have no immunity to influenza viruses or they have low adaptive immunity. Therefore, it is recommended to vaccinate household members and caregivers of infants at the age below 6 months. Such vaccinations should result in the increase in children protection through creating a protective cocoon. Not all adults are aware of the importance of influenza vaccinations in adults and in children. In order to increase the number of vaccinated persons, it is necessary to provide educational activities and develop initiatives addressed not only at the employees of healthcare facilities but also at patients.
\nTime is another factor that limits the implementation of cocoon strategy in influenza prophylaxis. The strategy can be effective only when all persons from the immediate environment of a newborn, as well as newborn’s relatives and caregivers, are vaccinated at least 4 weeks before the child is born because an immunologic response to a vaccination requires time. Gynecologists and obstetricians should propose vaccinations to women on their visits to health centers before they become pregnant or during the pregnancy. After persons from the immediate environment have been vaccinated, another method of infants’ protection against influenza is vaccinations in pregnant women. A recent study conducted in Bangladesh, which evaluated vaccinations against influenza in pregnant women, showed that the number of laboratory-confirmed influenza cases in infants of vaccinated mothers decreased by 63% [43].
\nCocoon strategy encourages education of patients and employees of healthcare facilities. Educational activities might increase the percentage of the vaccinated population. In families, the main sources of infections for newborns and infants are parents and siblings.
\nStudies show that providing parents of newborns with information on the benefits of influenza vaccinations, as well as providing free-of-charge vaccines, positively influences implementation of the cocoon strategy. Walter et al. [44] indicated that after such activities had been implemented in one maternity hospital, 54.9% of parents underwent vaccinations (vaccinations were given in maternity units and were free of charge for mothers only). Shah et al. [45] observed even higher indicators (86.9–95% in two consecutive years in parents of newborns in an intensive care unit).
Patients in immunosuppression resulting from anticancer or anti-inflammatory treatment (inflammatory bowel diseases [IBD], rheumatic diseases) might not achieve appropriate level of protection after the vaccination (vaccines that are considered to be safe for this group of patients are inactivated vaccines). This is why minimizing the risk of disease transmission in those patients’ environment is of significant importance. In particular, influenza, pertussis and chickenpox vaccinations are recommended [46]. Unfortunately, vaccinations in the contacts of patients in immunosuppression are at a low level, which proves that education in this group is highly necessary. Waszczuk et al. [47] conducted a self-completed survey among patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and reported that the use of recommended vaccines in family members of patients was insufficient (22–26%). There was a statistically significant association between the non-reimbursed vaccines coverage level and the educational status of patients [47].
Due to frequent contact with the ill, high infectivity of the diseases and lack of life-long immunity to diseases, healthcare personnel belong to a group which is highly at the risk of becoming infected with Bordetella pertussis or influenza virus.
\nIn the case of pertussis, it is estimated that the risk of developing an illness by healthcare professionals is almost two times higher as compared with the general population. Serological results of one study showed that Bordetella pertussis infection in healthcare professionals subject to five-year observations was 2 times higher in 55%, 3 times higher is 17% and 4 times higher in 4% of the personnel [48]. Pertussis might become a hospital infection and its source might be either a patient or a healthcare personnel. Outbreak of the disease in healthcare professionals threatens patients’ health, especially infants’ health. Activities to stop the outbreak might be costly and disturb the functioning of a healthcare facility. Ward et al. [49] described a pertussis outbreak in a 600-bed general hospital in Paris with 2100 employees. In November 2000, three pertussis cases in the personnel were observed there. An epidemiological investigation showed that the first case was a 51-year-old woman who infected three coworkers. A local committee for hospital infections decided to conduct screenings in all healthcare employees and patients. Personnel with respiratory symptoms were excluded from work for the first 5 days of antibiotic treatment. Eventually, pertussis was diagnosed in 17 persons, including 15 members of the personnel and 2 patients. The cost of controlling the outbreak, mostly diagnostic tests, treatment and the loss of productivity, amounted to over 46,000 Euro.
\nBaggett et al. [50] described two pertussis outbreaks in hospitals in King county in the United States of Washington which occurred in 2004:
\n1. In the first hospital, the source of infection was a 38-year-old doctor who worked on an emergency ward (at that moment when she developed the illness, she was in the 37th week of pregnancy, coughing fits and vomiting after the fits lasted for 37 days, and the doctor associated them with the exacerbation of concurrent bronchial asthma). Epidemiological investigation identified five probable cases, which met the pertussis clinic definition of Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) at that time, and two cases were confirmed. Disease cases concerned two nurses, a receptionist, a close friend of the infected doctor and the doctor’s husband. The woman put 738 persons at risk of infection, including 388 hospital workers, 265 patients and 85 visitors. Among them, 600 persons were examined (80%) and 516 persons were administered antibiotics. Furthermore, one patient who was admitted to the hospital for an emergency appendicitis operation and had contact with the infected doctor in the admission room had a positive polymerase chain reaction (PCR) result without typical clinical symptoms. This resulted in testing 95 persons who had contact with the infected woman (92 persons were given antibiotics) and 29 PCR tests (all results were negative). Hospital pertussis outbreak had significant economic and organizational consequences. The costs included diagnostic tests, antibiotics for all hospital employees with respiratory symptoms who had contact with the persons diagnosed with pertussis and excluding them from work for the first 5 days of treatment and
2. In the other hospital, a 38-year-old physiotherapist working in an intensive care pediatric unit visited a company doctor due to persistent coughing fits which lasted for 22 days. Although the cultivation and testing of the PCR material from nasopharynx were negative and so was the direct immunofluorescence test, an epidemiological investigation was initiated since clinical criteria were fulfilled by the physiotherapist. Pertussis was diagnosed and confirmed in three nurses from the intensive care unit and in one resident doctor who had contact with the ill person. It was estimated that 417 hospital workers, 200 hospital visitors and 120 patients were potentially exposed to the disease.
Calugar et al. [51] focused on cost-effectiveness of pertussis vaccinations in healthcare personnel. They analyzed a pertussis outbreak which occurred in 2003 in a specialist clinic in the USA after a 1-day exposure of healthcare personnel to an infant with a confirmed pertussis diagnosis [51]. Three hundred and seven members of healthcare personnel were at risk and seven of them had symptomatic pertussis. The authors estimated that vaccinations in healthcare professionals would prevent over 46% of pertussis cases, and from the perspective of the hospital, they would decrease the costs of controlling the outbreak. The authors concluded that pertussis might disturb the functioning of the hospital and that personnel vaccinations could decrease the number of infected workers and could enable the hospital to achieve savings. Members of healthcare personnel who are at the highest risk of developing pertussis are persons who work on pediatric wards and in pediatric centers.
\nAccording to ACIP recommendations, it is advisable to promote pertussis vaccinations in healthcare personnel and to facilitate access to these vaccinations (e.g. through facilitating vaccinations at the place of work, providing free-of-charge vaccines, etc.). Activities aiming at performing vaccinations in a vast number of workers should also include educational activities concerning the illness and its consequences (for the personnel and patients), and informative activities regarding the vaccines, their safety and effectiveness. It is not recommended to do serological tests for pertussis before the vaccination and after it. Recovering from pertussis is no contraindication for the vaccination [52].
\nIt was estimated that the costs of including healthcare personnel, who have a direct and close contact with patients, in a pertussis vaccination program in the USA could be two times lower in a 10-year perspective than controlling pertussis epidemics in healthcare facilities [52].
\nOn the basis of serological tests, it can be estimated that even 25% of healthcare professionals have contact with influenza viruses on an annual basis [53]. Interestingly, 25% of persons who had direct contact with patients whose serological tests proved past influenza infections did not provide disease symptoms in the interview [54]. This might indicate a possible mild course of the infection or an infection accompanied with very few symptoms. Nonetheless, these persons can still be a source of infection both for patients and for other members of healthcare personnel [54]. Infectious disease epidemics, including influenza outbreaks, in healthcare facilities might bring measurable and significant consequences for the finance, for example costs of controlling and epidemic outbreaks (patient isolation, implementation of antivirus treatment), costs of temporary termination of medical services due to cancellation of admissions, costs of employing special personnel to care about particular patients suffering from influenza, consequences for the hospital image—loss of trust among patients, impediments in patient visits and legal consequences—and compensation claims [48]. Healthcare professionals are exposed to infections through droplets or contact with influenza viruses at the place of work and they might become the source of infection for patients. Most of them belong to a group which is at a high risk of the severe course of disease and influenza complications due to their age and chronic illnesses, for example, respiratory system diseases (bronchial asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease), cardiovascular diseases or metabolic diseases (e.g. diabetes). According to the studies, 75% of doctors admit that they perform their professional duties despite having disease symptoms, which indicate a current respiratory system infection [52, 53]. Influenza complications, hospitalizations and deaths related to influenza or its consequences occur mostly in chronic patients, infants and young children (aged 2–5 years), senior citizens and pregnant women [54]. Vaccinations in healthcare personnel are particularly beneficial for those patients who cannot be given a vaccination, for example patients who are too young (infants at the age 6 months for whom there are no registered vaccines—it needs to be stressed that influenza infections have been observed even in newborns), patients with medical contraindications to vaccinations (e.g. occurrence of a strong anaphylactic reaction after influenza vaccination confirmed allergy to any component of the vaccine), patients who do not respond to vaccination appropriately (e.g. persons aged 85 and more, patients in immunosuppression) and persons who cannot be treated with antiviral medications due to medical contraindications (mostly neuraminidase inhibitors). Thus, influenza vaccinations in healthcare personnel constitute an element of cocoon strategy for protective vaccinations [55]. The results of published studies indicate that influenza vaccinations in healthcare professionals in medical facilities ensure a significant decrease in general mortality and flu-like disease morbidity in patients requiring long-term care [56–58]. Carman et al. [56] showed that achieving 50% level of vaccinations in the personnel of a nursing home for the elderly results in the reduction of mortality among the elderly residents by 40%. Individual benefits for the personnel arising from influenza vaccinations are less documented [56–58]; however, it was observed, for example that the number of days absent from work due to respiratory system infections decreased and so did the risk of influenza virus infections (88–89% on average) [59, 60]. A slight decrease in the number of days absent from work (by approx. 0.5 days) was also obtained in the population of vaccinated healthy persons of working age [59, 60]. Salgado et al. [61] showed that the number of laboratory-confirmed influenza cases and the percentage of hospital respiratory system infections diminished from 42 to 9 and from 32 to 3%, respectively, in a group of influenza-vaccinated medical professionals.
\nScientific literature gives examples of influenza epidemics in hospital wards which spread in patients requiring special care. In 1998, an epidemic broke out in a neonatal intensive care unit which resulted in disease cases in 19 out of 54 patients and a death of 1 child. Only 15% of the personnel had been vaccinated and 29 persons admitted to taking care of patients while having symptoms of a respiratory system infection [62]. In the same year, 10 patients developed influenza in a bone marrow unit and 1 person died. In this case, 12% of the personnel had been vaccinated and five personnel members were at work with disease symptoms [63]. Influenza virus outbreaks were also observed in liver transplantation, hematological, neonatal and pediatric units (in the last two units, additional risk factors for influenza virus infections were identified: artificial ventilation system and multiple pregnancy) [64–67]. A group of patients who are particularly at risk of hospital epidemics are residents of facilities, which render care and treatment services for patients with chronic illnesses. During the occurrence of an influenza outbreak in a facility whose residents were at the age of above 65 years, the percentage of infected patients in an epidemic season was very high and it could reach even 60% [68]. The facts that influenza vaccinations in the elderly are not as effective as vaccinations in a younger population (30–40% vs 70–90%), and that influenza epidemics occurred in the populations of the residents of nursing homes, where influenza immunization was very high and reached even 90%, prove that it is necessary to perform vaccinations in healthcare professionals in order to protect the patients [69, 70].
\nUnfortunately, percentage of medical professionals who are vaccinated against pertussis in developed countries is relatively low. According to the studies, although educational activities result in the increased interest in the vaccinations, only a small group of healthcare personnel are vaccinated despite their initial intentions of undergoing a vaccination. Pertussis education for medical professionals could solve this problem. Tdpa vaccine is safe and effective. Pertussis booster vaccinations for healthcare personnel might be the most effective to diminish the risk of pertussis cases and the occurrence of hospital infections in healthcare facilities.
The main benefit of cocoon strategy is that it decreases the risk of the transmission of an infectious disease in the environment of a patient who might become infected but cannot be vaccinated. A universal adult pertussis program does not only serve to decrease the disease in the overall risk of disease among infants (beyond that which might be achieved with a more focused cocoon strategy) but it also protects adults against the disease.
\nThe main drawback of a cocoon strategy is that it is characterized by a low level of recommendation implementations and a small percentage of vaccinated persons, which impairs the performance of this strategy. It is critical to the success of a universal program to ensure that adequate vaccine coverage is achieved. A comparison of various immunization strategies suggests that the coverage of at least 40% within the adult population is required to achieve herd immunity [2]. In practice, achievement of such high indicators is impossible.
\nBarriers to receiving vaccines by close contacts include lack of knowledge about the disease and the benefits of vaccination, time and monetary constraints, forgetting about vaccine recommendations if previously received.
\nAlthough it is recommended to vaccinate all close contacts under a cocoon strategy, vaccinations are frequently limited to mothers, which also influence negatively the effectiveness of the strategy. Vaccinations should be universal and cover caregivers of all infants instead of being addressed solely to the families of children from risk groups.
\nTo conclude, cocoon strategy for protective vaccinations constitutes a valuable complement to universal vaccination programs. Nonetheless, it should not be the only recommended strategy but it should be an element of a comprehensive strategy for preventing infectious diseases.
India is one of the 18 extremely diverse and top 10 species-rich countries of the world, in which a total of 4381 taxa belonging to 1007 genera and 176 families, including 4303 angiosperms, 12 gymnosperms and 66 pteridophytes, out of 18,043 species have been confirmed as endemic to India [1]. Recently, in angiosperms a total of 58 genera have been identified as endemic to India, of which 49 are confined to Peninsular India [2]. Though the term ‘endemism’ coined during eighteenth century Chatterjee [3, 4] was the first who studied the endemism of the Indian flora. He was considered 6850 species that are unique to this region (61% of flowering plants), of which 3169 species are restricted to Himalayas and 2045 to Peninsular India (PI). Blasco [5] was estimated about 1268 endemic dicotyledons to south India; however Nayar [6] recorded 2100 flowering plants endemic to PI. Later, Nayar [7] reported 141 genera endemic to India; while Ahmedullah & Nayar [7] found 55 genera endemic to PI of which 45 are monotypic [7]. Recently, Irwin & Narasimhan [9] enumerated only 49 genera which are endemics to India, excluding several genera based on nomenclatural changes and extended distribution. Nayar [10] categorised the endemic genera of India into 3 patterns based on the distribution
In India, Western Ghats has much more endemic (2116 species) taxa than rest of India. State-wise analysis Tamil Nadu ranking first with 410 species, followed by Kerala (357), Maharashtra (278) and Andaman and Nicobar Islands together contributes with 278 taxa [2]. In Eastern Ghats (EG), a total of 166 endemic taxa, under 117 genera and 43 families are known to occur, of which 129 dicots and 46 are monocots. Sudhakar Reddy & Raju [11] recorded 400 endemic spermatophytes from the EGs of Andhra Pradesh and their adjacent coastal plains.
The Flora of Tamil Nadu published during 1983, 1987 and 1989 in 3 volumes, and the report after Betty & Ramachandran [12] was added 192 taxa belonging to 130 genera and 61 families between the period 1989 and 2013. These additions were compiled from research articles, unpublished thesis and research reports by several botanists [13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19]. Among them 87 taxa are new to the science as well as endemic to the state of Tamil Nadu. The high concentration of endemic plants once again proves that the southern India is one of the top ten mega biodiversity hotspot area. It directly reflects the habitat stability, environmental quality, and rich biodiversity and conservation values in a specific area. However the Coromandel Coast is another unique bioregion, as flood plain and a buffer zone between the hill range of Eastern Ghats and Bay of Bengal; and this was not studied or updated since Roxburgh [20]. The main aim of this work is to explore the wealth and threat status of endemic plants diversity from the Coromandel Coast and especially from the fragile ecosystem of Tropical Dry Evergreen Forests (TDEF), was classified by Champion and Seth [21].
The geographical area of Tamil Nadu is 130,058 km2 and has roughly rhomboidal shape in appearance. It lies between 8° 5′-13° 35’ N latitude and 76° 15′-80° 20′E longitude. The state occupies 4.08% of the total area of the country. It has the coast line of 990 km at east and land boundary of 1200 km towards west. The state is divided into 38 districts of which 13 districts lies on the east coast. The natural land mass of the state was divided into the Eastern Ghats, Coastal Plains, Central plateau and Western Ghats. Most part of the 13 coastal districts considered as the Coromandel Coast of Tamil Nadu (Figure 1). The entire coast of Tamil Nadu, is chiefly sandy with outcrops of rocky headlands at Kancheepuram, Kanyakumari, Tirunelveli and Villupuram districts. The coastal vegetation had further subdivided into Strand, Estuarine and Coastal Tropical Dry Evergreen Forest types (Nair and Henry [22]).
Study area - Coromandel Coast and detailed study at district level.
The present study has included 13 coastal districts of Tamil Nadu; Karaikal and Puducherry regions from Union Territory (UT) of Pondicherry along the Coromandel Coast of south India. However, regular intensive survey was done since 1996 to till date on four coastal districts (Cuddalore, Kancheepuram, Nagai and Villupuram) and two regions (Puducherry and Karaikal) from the UT of Pondicherry. Forest cover of Cuddalore is 444 km2 (11.98%) out of 3706 km2, Kancheepuram 372 km2 (8.31%) out of 4474 km2 and Villupuram 1011 km2 (14.06%) out of 7190 km2 geographical area [23]. The forest cover at Union Territory of Pondicherry is 50.06 km2 (10.43%) out of 480 km2 area [24].
Geologically, part of Cuddalore and Villupuram districts belonged to the formation of Cuddalore sandstone during Miocene period [25]. The soil along the coast is sandy loam or red ferralitic and in certain places covered with alluvial deposits and becoming clayey at interior [26, 27]. The coastal plains are extending up to 40–60 km [28] and are overlained by a thin soil layer supporting agriculture. The substratum erupted into hillocks and mounds at Kancheepuram and Villupuram districts and into undulating terrain in Cuddalore districts. The scattered hillocks rise up to 450 m with interrupted vegetation among the charkonite or gneiss rocks. The natural vegetation is mostly found on less fertile and red ferralitic soil, whereas black clay and alluvial soils were brought under cultivation [29].
A typical maritime tropical climate with dissymmetric rainfall regime occurs in the study area. The mean annual rainfall recorded during 2007–2016 period was 1256 mm with mean rainy days of 56 per year. The minimum temperature 17.7°C is in January, maximum temperature 40.5°C in May and the mean is 28.5°C. The average relative humidity is 76% and the weather is generally cool during December to January with the late nights dewy. Dry weather prevails during April to June. Wind speed ranges from 5 to 9 km/h during July to September but extremely higher during the cyclonic days, during October to December [30].
Four types of vegetation covers including micro and macro habitats
Botanical surveys were made extensively once in a week on 87 sites from five districts with a team of four members, visiting each and every site with an interval of 4–6 months and monitored pre-monsoon and post-monsoon changes from 1996 to 2019. These sites were geo-referenced with Garmin Global Positioning System (GPS), followed by intensive species enumerations including herbs, shrubs, trees and climbers; collection of voucher samples and photographed the key characters of the plants. A total of 15,316 herbarium sheets were prepared from the sample collections and deposited at AURO! Herbarium, Auroville, India. The nomenclature of all plant species recorded in this study was verified in www.plantsoftheworldonline.org. In addition, Endemic plants of Indian Region (Ahmedullah & Nayar [10]), The Flora of the Gulf of Mannar, Southern India [31], Endemic Vascular Plants of India [2], Plant Discoveries [32], research articles between 2013 and 2019 period and different herbarium such as Saint Joseph College (SJC) Tiruchirapalli, Madras Herbarium (MH!) Coimbatore, Foundation of Revitalization of Local HealthTraditions (FRLH) Bangalore, French Institute of Pondicherry (HIFP) Puducherry, and Sri ParamaKalyani Center for Ecological Studies (SPKCESH) Tirunelveli was referred and enriched the endemic species list to the study area.
Based on phytogeographical distribution six groups of endemic regions were categorised, such as 1. the state Tamil Nadu, 2. Eastern Ghats (EG), 3. EG & Western Ghats (WG), 4. Southern India (SI), 5. Peninsular India (PI) and 6. Entire India except Himalayas. In addition, disjunct nature of distribution of these endemic species between or among the regions was also studied. Site disturbances such as browsing, cutting, lopping, and clear felling, encroachment for cultivation purposes, construction of big modern temple, construction and widening the metal road, digging irrigation channels and cementing the thrashing floor were studied and categorised into low, medium and high by following Venkateswaran & Parthasarathy [33]. High ranks signify high levels of anthropogenic disturbance in the forests. The disturbance codes were co-related with four life forms and threat status of all species was verified with www.iucnredlist.org (version 2020–2). Threat assessment and possible conservation measures were undertaken on few endemic and endangered species through Auroville greening and Botanical Garden Projects.
Through our regular field study on 87 sites, 25 (SG) sites are from Cuddalore, 22 (8 HL, 6 RF, 4 SG, 4 UC) from Kancheepuram, one site (1RF) from Nagai, 28 (3 HL, 4 RF, 13 SG, 8 UC) from Villupuram districts of Tamil Nadu, 10 (8 SG, 2 UC) from Puducherry region and entire Karaikal region, Union Territory of Pondicherry. Altogether, 1197 species were listed from 127 families and 584 genera, of which 196 species are trees, 113 shrubs, 172 climbers and 716 herbs. Through literature screening and referring the herbarium 25 endemics were added. Finally a total of 107 endemic species were compiled for the Coromandel Coast of Peninsular India and analysed. Of which 19 species are trees, 18 shrubs, 9 climbers and 61 herbs (Figure 2). These endemic species were represented by 74 genera and 33 families, of which Leguminosae (17 species from 10 genera) is the dominant family followed by Acanthaceae (13 species from 5 genera), Euphorbiaceae (10 species from 5 genera) and Poaceae (9 from 9 genera). The other dominant families are Apocynaceae and Rubiaceae, had 4 species each (Figure 3).
Endemic plants of CC and their habits representation.
Detail of endemic plant families, genera and species.
Qualitatively, classified disturbances were noted from four vegetation types (Table 1; Figure 4). These disturbance codes were correlated with life form, threat status and ethno-botanical values of endemic species. In general, from 50 to 65% of species were represented in disturbed category. Maximum numbers of species are encountered at medium level of disturbance, followed by undisturbed, low and high level of disturbance. Reasons for the threat are: root of
Details | Undisturbed | Disturbed | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Low | Medium | High | |||
Life form | Herbs (61) | 16 | 12 | 24 | 9 |
Shrubs (18) | 5 | 6 | 3 | 4 | |
Trees (19) | 7 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |
Climbers (9) | 4 | 1 | 3 | 1 | |
Threat status | IUCN categorised (7) | 3 | 1 | 2 | 1 |
From publications (10) | 3 | 3 | 3 | 1 | |
Not evaluated (90) | 27 | 19 | 29 | 15 |
Correlation of endemic plants life form and threat status with disturbance gradience.
Disturbance index with life-form and threat status.
For an understanding based on geographical distribution the 107 endemic species that recorded from the CC plains were divided into eight groups and their representations are: 1. India (excluding Himalayas & north east) (6 species), 2. Peninsular India (22 species), 3. Southern India (28 species), 4. Southern India with one or two states of north India (11species), 5. Eastern and Western Ghats (5 species), 6. Eastern Ghats (5 species), 7. Tamil Nadu (27 species) and 8. Dispersed in different states (3 species) (Figure 5). The distribution of six species across the country is
Geographical representation of endemics at regional and district level of Tamil Nadu.
Representation of endemic plants distributed at national and regional level.
The representations of species at different districts of Tamil Nadu are analysed, and the study shows that the species found in only one (17 species), two (17 species), three (13), four – many (51 species) and in all districts (9) were recorded (Figure 5).
Representation of endemic plants distributed at state level and RET endemics.
Thirteen species were showed very narrow distribution, found in only one district. They are
Recently described endemic species.
The analysis shows interesting disjunctions between: 1. The districts of Tamil Nadu, 2. SI and north-east and 3. SI and north-west, and 4. SI and trans-Himalaya (Figure 9).
Representation of state and district level distribution of endemics.
Disjunct distribution of endemics.
In Tamil Nadu at district level analysis (Figure 9) found that
There are six species
According to IUCN [36], a total of 90 (84.11%) out of 107 endemic species were listed as “not evaluated” and their population status in the wild habitats is also unknown. So far, only seven species
Rapid Assessment Workshop on Conservation of Tropical Dry Evergreen Forest was conducted by Auroville Green Group, Auroville in collaboration with Foundation for Revitalization of Local Health Traditions, Bengaluru held between 5 and 7 March, 2002. A team of 32 field botanist and experts involved and assessed 48 species but not published, in which 11 species such as
Since 1996, extensive effort was employed by Auroville Green Group to conserve on Tropical Dry Evergreen Forest, is an endangered forest type in India. More than one lakh seedlings from 250 native species produced every year planted and developed ‘Green Ring’ in 2000 hectares at Auroville. Basically they attempted to conserve all the TDEF species; in addition they were concentrated on endemic, endangered and rare Indo-Sri Lankan elements too. Few such endemic species are
The conservation status of
Conservation status of
The floral diversity in any state or country or world the dominant families are Leguminosae, Poaceae, Orchidaceae, Acanthaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Asteraceae, Apocynaceae, and Rubiaceae so on. This present endemic study was more intrinsically matching with, regional [52] and national [1, 2] studies/analysis. Also, the study reports from the coastal plains [26, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58] favoured the present study. Out of 107 endemics 27 species are restricted to the state Tamil Nadu, 5 to EG, 5 to EG & WG, 28 to SI, 11 species sharing between SI with different states of north India, 22 to PI, to entire India, and 3 to elsewhere. These data were enlightened the richness of plant diversity at the Coromandel coast, especially from the TDEF of Tamil Nadu and supporting the ‘coastal zone’ as one of the endemic centres of India.
The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources [46] assessed the global threat status of 33,418 species of Angiosperms, of which 1215 species are reported from India, of which 690 (55.8%) species were evaluated as Indeterminate (I). From this study 80% of endemic species were in ‘not evaluated’ category. According to Isik [59] three-quarters of narrow endemic species of plants and animals are known to have become extinct due to habitat loss or fragmentation. So as Nair [60] statement “it is very essential that rare, threatened and presumed extinct taxa should be repeatedly searched for in their type localities”, should be strictly followed and need to do their population assessment status from time to time. Narrow range and regional level assessments are making ambiguous with the IUCN category, so the WCMC should follow these publications and update them to the relevant species.
Majority of endemic species are isolated due to geographical, ecological, edaphic and climatic barriers and these fragmented patches of vegetation were more pronounced in EG for the point of conservation [61, 62]. This condition was more privileged to the narrow endemic species like
It was estimated that 2–25% of plant species will become extinct or committed to extinction in tropical forest approximately in next years [63]. It is also opined that 22–47% of species might have already become threatened [64]. In India TDEF occupies about 2482.52 km2 (1.61% of the country territory), in which Tamil Nadu has only 41.08 km2 (0.1%) [65]. According to Krishnamurthy et al. [34] the TDEF found along the Coromandel Coast is an ‘endangered forest’ type. The degree of threat and richness of endemism is one of the major aspects in prioritising the areas for conservation. In this paradigm, Jain & Rao [66] statement “if endemic species are eliminated from our country it will mean that they will be annihilated from the whole world, will be loss to science, will be struck off the roles of biological resources of this earth” should be profoundly considered. In all, highly fragmented form of TDEF ecosystem, indeterminate IUCN status of narrow endemics and their disjunct distribution with different bioregions of India should be considered as high priority for the assessment and conservation programs at national, regional and state level in regular intervals.
The authors are thankful to Walter Gastmans, curator of AURO herbarium and Dr. Raphael Mathevet, Head of Ecology, French Institute of Pondicherry for their constant support and encouragement; financial support for the survey from 1994 to 2000 by Danish Government through Foundation for Revitalization of Local Health Traditions, Bengaluru; 2001-2004 by European Commission; 2005-2010 by Auroville Coastal Development Centre; WCT-Small Grant 2018-2019 Phase I; Head of Head of Forest Force, Chennai and District Forest Officer, Villupuram, Tamil Nadu granted permission to do the botanical survey in RFs; Mr. Paul Blanch Flower and Mr. Jaap Hollander accompanied all the times during the survey and provided photos of some species.
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I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. 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