Yield of difference species of algae.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"4483",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Biodiversity in Ecosystems - Linking Structure and Function",title:"Biodiversity in Ecosystems",subtitle:"Linking Structure and Function",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The term biodiversity has become a mainstream concept that can be found in any newspaper at any given time. Concerns on biodiversity protection are usually linked to species protection and extinction risks for iconic species, such as whales, pandas and so on. However, conserving biodiversity has much deeper implications than preserving a few (although important) species. Biodiversity in ecosystems is tightly linked to ecosystem functions such as biomass production, organic matter decomposition, ecosystem resilience, and others. Many of these ecological processes are also directly implied in services that the humankind obtains from ecosystems. The first part of this book will introduce different concepts and theories important to understand the links between ecosystem function and ecosystem biodiversity. The second part of the book provides a wide range of different studies showcasing the evidence and practical implications of such relationships.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-2028-5",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4226-3",doi:"10.5772/58494",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"biodiversity-in-ecosystems-linking-structure-and-function",numberOfPages:642,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"d488928dfd93614e6a94950be7131fa0",bookSignature:"Yueh-Hsin Lo, Juan A. 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His work is focused on the development and evaluation of ecological models to simulate the influences of management, climate and other ecological factors on tree growth. He is currently collaborating with research teams from Canada, Taiwan, USA, Spain, Cuba, and China in using ecological models to explore the effects of climate change, atmospheric pollution and alternative forest practices in natural and planted forest in boreal, temperate and tropical forests. His research has been applied in mining to optimize reclamation plans, in forestry to assess the potential for carbon sequestration and by government agencies to define local guidelines for long-term sustainable forest management. Among other topics related to forest ecology, Dr. Blanco has studied the influence of climate variations on tree growth and estimated the possible ecological consequences of climate change in forest ecosystems. He has also co-authored the first book dedicated exclusively to the use of hybrid ecological models in forest management, entitled 'Forecasting Forest Futures” (Earthscan, London), edited three books on Climate Change effects, mitigation and adaptation (InTech, Rijeka), and three more on Forest Ecosystems, Biodiversity and Tropical Forests (InTech, Rijeka).",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"Universidad Publica De Navarra",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"171181",title:"Dr.",name:"Yueh-Hsin",middleName:null,surname:"Lo",slug:"yueh-hsin-lo",fullName:"Yueh-Hsin Lo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171181/images/4956_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Lo graduated in Forest and Natural Resource Management at the National Taiwan University, and obtained a PhD in Forest Ecology from the University of British Columbia (Canada). 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The depletion of the fossil fuel and global warming caused by the emission of greenhouse gases from the combustion of fossil is currently driving researchers in the direction of finding alternative and environmentally friendly fuel. Biofuels are one of the numerous options being considered. Bioethanol is considered as the most promising biofuel to replace gasoline, especially due to its properties. This biofuel is a liquid oxygenated fuel containing 35% oxygen produced from the microbial fermentation of monomeric sugar obtained from carbohydrate sources such as corn, soybeans and sugar cane. The bioethanol produced globally in 2018 was 110 billion liters and is expected to increase to 140 billion liters in 2022 with compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 7.6% due to anticipated economic feasibility of the process [1]. The US, Brazil, European Union, China and Canada respectively are the global powerhouses in bioethanol production. The US uses corn as the feedstock to produce bioethanol and obtained a production capacity of ~57.7 billion liters while Brazil produces bioethanol from sugar cane and had a total production capacity of ~27.6 billion liters in 2016 respectively [2].
Bioethanol is considered a potential substitute for the conventional gasoline and can be used directly in vehicles or blended with the gasoline, thereby reducing greenhouse gas emissions and consumption of gasoline [3]. For direct application (E100), the timing (and electronic control system if in use) of the gasoline engine is adjusted, and larger gasoline tank is used. However, the use of bioethanol (E100) is usually characterized with difficulty in starting the engine at a low temperature or during the cold weather due to higher heat of vaporization. Required. The blending of bioethanol with gasoline might not require modifying the engine, rather it will help to enhance ignition or engine performance. The most commonly used blends are E85 and E10. Advantages of bioethanol include high-octane rating resulting to increased engine efficiency and performance, low boiling point, broad flammability, higher compression ratio and heat of vaporization, comparable energy content, reduced burning time and lean burn engine [4]. The disadvantages include high production cost resulting from high cost of feedstock, enzymes, detoxification and ethanol recovery, respectively. Bioethanol possesses a low volumetric energy density, meaning that more volume of bioethanol/km (up 50%) will be consume compared to the conventional gasoline [3]. The use of bioethanol in engines might require frequent replacing the engine parts as the bioethanol has the capacity to degrade some elastomers and cause corrosion of metals [5]. However, in attempt to reduce the cost of production, lignocellulosic biomass is being considered as feedstocks because of availability and low cost of acquisition. Unfortunately, the processing cost is still high, thereby, making the process unattractive economically [6].
When bioethanol is produced from edible feedstocks such as corn and sugar cane, it is called first generation (1G) bioethanol and 2G second-generation (2G) bioethanol if the feedstock is a lignocellulose. Examples of these lignocellulose biomass is switch grass, cornstalks, wood, herbaceous crops, waste paper and paper products, agricultural and forestry residues, pulp and paper mill waste, municipal solid waste and food industry waste. Lignocellulosic biomass is made up of cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, protein, ash, and minor extractives [7]. Lignocellulosic biomass is being considered as feedstocks for bioethanol production due to relatively low cost of acquisition, availability and sustainability of supply. This biomass has the capacity to increase the current production rate of bioethanol and is being speculated to produce approximately 442 billion liters per year of bioethanol globally. The 2G-bioethanol has a greater potential to reduce the greenhouse gases emission compared to 1G -bioethanol. The third generation (3G) bioethanol is obtained when algae are used as the feedstock. Algae bioethanol is gaining traction possibly due to high carbohydrate content and absence of lignin in most available algae. With this kind of feedstock, the cost of pretreatment is expected to reduce as the complex lignin removal process is eliminated [8]. Numerous researchers have investigated the use of algae as feedstock for bioethanol production. Based on the results obtained, the species of algae with high productivity are presented in Table 1.
Algae | Bioethanol yield (%) | Ref. |
---|---|---|
Nannochloropsis Oculata | 3.68 | [9] |
Tetraselmis suecica | 7.26 | [9] |
Scenedesmus dimorphus | 49.7 | [10] |
Porphyridium cruemtum (seawater) | 65.4 | [11] |
Porphyridium cruemtum (fresh water) | 70.3 | [12] |
Padina Tetrastromatica | 16.1 | [12] |
Yield of difference species of algae.
The fourth-generation (4G) bioethanol is obtained from the modification of
The processes involved in the production of bioethanol from different feedstocks include pretreatment, hydrolysis, fermentation and ethanol recovery. These processes are explained below:
Pretreatment is one of the costliest steps in the production of bioethanol from lignocellulose biomass accounting to approximately $0.30/gallon of ethanol produced. There exist different pretreatment methods aimed at increasing the reactivity of cellulose and the potential yield of the fermentable sugars. These may be either traditional or advanced pretreatments. Traditional pretreatments are classified into four categories which include chemical, physical, physicochemical, and biological methods while advanced pretreatment method may be either acid-based fractionation or ionic liquid-based fractionation (ILF) [14]. Amongst the traditional pretreatment methods, chemical categories are the most efficient and hence predominantly used [15].
The pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass through various methods helps to release cellulose usually embedded in a matrix of polymers consisting of lignin and hemicellulose by disrupting the original structure (Figure 1). With this, cellulose is separated from the polymer matrix and is more accessible for enzymatic hydrolysis, thereby resulting to increased sugar yields greater than 90% (theoretical yield) using feedstocks such as grasses, corn and wood [16]. This means that cellulose is more susceptible to enzymatic hydrolysis when its crystalline structure is disrupted. Without the disruption, enzymes bind on the surface of the lignin and not the cellulose chains impeding enzymatic hydrolysis.
Effect of pretreatment on the lignocellulosic biomass [
Other advantages of pretreatment include helping to prevent the degradation of sugars (pentoses); ensuring viability of the bioethanol production processes by using moderate size reactors and minimizing heat and power requirements, and minimizing the formation of inhibitors which reduces the yield of the hydrolysis and hence the fermentation of sugar to ethanol [16].
These pretreatments method have been discussed extensively in the literature. As mentioned earlier, the method is categorized as: (1) physical pretreatment- this involves the breaking down of the size of the lignocellulosic biomass and crystallinity by methods such as milling, grinding, irradiation and extrusion. The resultant effect of which are increased surfaced area and pore size of the biomass enabling increase in the enzymatic hydrolysis efficiency. Physical pretreatment may need combining with chemical pretreatment to enhance the efficiency of deconstruction of the lignocellulose [17]. (2) Chemical pretreatment: these include acid, alkali, oxidative delignification, and organic acid (organosolvation) methods. They are highly selective for specific type of feedstocks, and are used to deconstruct and remove lignin and/or hemicellulose from the polymer matrix. Chemical pretreatments are undoubtedly effective but require harsh operating conditions which may have adverse effect on the downstream processing and the by-products may need special disposal procedures [17]. (3) Physicochemical: this combines the features of both physical and chemical pretreatments. Examples are steam explosion, liquid hot water, microwave irradiation and CO2 explosion [18]. (4) Biological pretreatment: This involves the use of microorganisms to breakdown lignocellulosic biomass for further enzymatic hydrolysis. These organisms include white-rot, brown-rot and soft-rot fungi, and bacteria [19].
These methods are also called lignocellulose fractionation pretreatment and are targeted at reducing the cost of cellulosic ethanol production by fractionating the lignocellulose in such a way to generate value-added co-products under a mild operating condition like 50oC and atmospheric pressure [20]. This gain is achieved by using cellulose solvents which enhances the cellulose accessibility and separation of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin to produce value-added co-products [21]. The method is also known as Cellulose solvent-based lignocellulose fractionation (CSLF). The operation helps to reduce the quantities of enzymes required for the subsequent enzymatic hydrolysis and could be used for varieties of feedstocks [21].
There are two general techniques used in CSLF which include (1) acid-mediated fractionation and (2). Ionic liquid-based fractionation (ILF). These are discussed below:
The cellulose solvents such as phospholic acid and organic solvents like acetone or ethanol are usually used at mild operating conditions of 1 atm and 50oC to separate lignocellulosic biomass. The effectiveness of the separation is dependent on the solubility properties of the cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin in the cellulose solvent, organic solvent and water, respectively [20]. Separating lignin and hemicellulose from the cellulose fraction helps to reduce substrate recalcitrant and competitive binding sites, unwanted sugar degradation, cost and production of the inhibitors [20]. This method has been used efficiently to pretreat varieties of lignocellulose such as bamboo, corn stover, sugarcane, switchgrass and elephant grass [22].
Ionic liquids (ILs) are salt solutions consisting of significant quantity of organic cations and small/inorganic anions that exists as liquid at relatively low temperatures like room temperature. They are used to fractionate lignocellulose to obtain specific, purified and polymeric raw materials which are intact and are easily separated and used as value-added co-products. In comparison of the conventional lignocellulosic biomass, ILs pretreatment methods show some advantages such as less energy intensive, simplicity of operation and capacity to separate specific components [20]. The properties such as low vapor pressure and high thermal stability suggest that ILs are environmentally friendly and as such are considered as green solvents. ILs are also considered to be tunable due to such properties as hydrophobicity, polarity, and solvent power which can be adjusted to achieve specific desirable results. These properties of ILs with those of antisolvent and lignocellulose (type, moisture content, partial size, and load) with temperature, pretreatment time can be used to determine the overall efficiency of the ionic liquid pretreatment method [23].
However, the most frequently used pretreatment method is steam explosion. This patronage could be due to its low capital investment, high energy efficiency, less environmental impact, less hazardous process chemicals and conditions, and complete sugar recovery [24].
Following the pretreatment of the lignocellulosic biomass is the hydrolysis of polymeric carbohydrate (cellulose and hemicellulose) to produce sugar monomers. This stage is required since enzymes needed in the succeeding stage (fermentation) can only digest sugar monomers. The process can be catalyzed either by acid or enzymes. Acid-catalyzed hydrolysis is the most commonly used method and it involves either the use of concentrated or dilute acid (see Eq. (1)). Example of such acids are H2SO4 and HCl. The concentrated acid-catalyzed hydrolysis is used at lower temperature and high acid concentration, resulting to 90% sugar recovery at a short period of time [25]. The disadvantage of this method is the high cost of production due to difficulty in acid recovery, disposal, concentration control and recycling [26]. Another problem with the concentrated acid-catalyzed hydrolysis treatment is its capability to degrade sugar monomers due to the prevailing acidic environment. The dilute acid-catalyzed hydrolysis requires high temperature and low acid concentration. The most predominantly used acid is dilute acid. The problem with this method of hydrolysis is that the process results to the formation of inhibitors compared to the acid-catalyzed hydrolysis.
Acid hydrolysis of the lignocellulose is carried out in two stages. Stage one is where the hemicellulose is hydrolyzed with the help of dilute acid and in the second stage, cellulose is hydrolyzed using concentrated acid [25].
Enzyme-catalyzed hydrolysis uses enzymes to hydrolyze polymeric carbohydrate to sugar monomers under mild operating conditions of temperature 45–50oC and pH 4.8–5.0. This method is efficient and results to high sugar recovery without inhibitor formation and tendency to cause corrosion. The efficacy of the enzyme-catalyzed hydrolysis is affected by factors such as pH, enzyme loading, time, temperature and substrate concentration. The hydrolytic process can be catalyzed by three kinds of cellulase enzymes, name endo-1,4-β-glucanases, cellobiohydrolases and β-glucosidases. These enzymes are usually very expensive due to high demand from various industries such as paper, textile and food processing industries [1]. The high cost of these enzymes also impacts on the overall cost of production especially as large quantities of enzymes are required. Based on the cost, microorganisms with the potential of secreting cellulolytic enzymes are broadly used in the contemporary times. These include
The mechanism of the hydrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass to glucose occurs in three steps and are presented in Figures 2–6. The first step is the linking of the β-1,4 bond of the cellulose with water molecule catalyzed by endoglucanase (1,4-β-D-glucanohydrolase) resulting to the formation of cellodextrin with a shorter chain, and free-chains ends (reducing and non-reducing ends) (Figure 2) [28]. The second step is the degrading of cellodextrin to a two-unit glucoses (cellobioses) with the help of exoglucanase (1,4- β-D-glucan cellobiohydrolase) by adjusting the reducing and non-reducing chains (Figure 3) [29]. The third step is the formation of glucose obtained when the β-glucosidases strikes the cellobioses (Figure 3) [30]. The production of glucose is necessary because, the subsequent process which is fermentation requires the use of the simplest monomer as feedstock.
Hydrolysis of long chain cellulose to a shorter chain cellulose (cellodextrin) [
Hydrolysis of cellodextrin to cellobiose catalyzed by exoglucanase (1,4- β-D-glucan cellobiohydrolase) [
Hydrolysis of cellobiose to 2 D-glucose catalyzed by β-glucosidase [
Hydrolysis of long chain xylan to a shorter chain xylan oligosaccharides by endo-β-1,4-xylanase [
Hydrolysis of xylan oligosaccharide to xylopyranose by β-xylosidase [
The hydrolysis of hemicellulose is easier compared to cellulose due to its possession of more amorphous property. The hemicellulose contains 10–15% and 10–35% of xylan in soft and hard woods, respectively. Xylan has both main and outer chains. The former can be degraded using endo-β-1,4-xylanase (EC 3.2.1.8) and β-xylosidase (EC 3.2.1.37). The main chain of xylan is hydrolyzed to a short chain xylan oligosaccharide through the help of endo-β-1,4-xylanase (Figure 5). The oligosaccharide is further degraded to a pyranose form of xylan known as xyropyranose by β -xylosidase (Figure 6) [32]. On the contrary, the outer chains of the xylan can be degraded by enzymes known as accessory xylanolytic enzymes such as feruloyl esterase (EC 3.1.1.73), α-L-arabinofuranosidase (EC 3.2.1.55), α-glucuronidase (EC 3.2.1.139), and acetylxylan esterase (EC 3.1.1.72).
This is a biological process that involves the conversion of the monomeric units of sugars obtained from the hydrolysis step into ethanol, acids and gases using microorganisms such as yeast, fungi or bacteria (see Eq. (2)) [1, 33]. The most commonly used microorganism is yeast especially
Microorganism | Temperature (oC) | pH | Fermentation time (h) | Sugar concentration (g/L) | Ethanol yield (g/L) | Ref. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Yeasts | 30 | 5.5 | 65 | 280 | 130.12 | [35] | |
35 | 5.0 | 96 | 80 | 39 | [36] | ||
Bacteria | 30 | 6.5 | 18 | 117 | 30.4 | [37] | |
30 | 4.0 | 44 | 200 | 99.78 | [38] | ||
Fungi | First aerobic step (30) | 5.0 | 24 | 50 | 24.4 | [39] | |
Second anaerobic step (30) | 5.0 | 144 | |||||
First aerobic step (30) | 5.0 | 24 | 100 | 33 | [39] | ||
Second anaerobic step (30) | 5.0 | 72 |
Effects of microorganisms on the yield of ethanol under varying operating conditions [33].
The technologies used for the fermentation of monomeric units of sugar to ethanol include separate hydrolysis and fermentation, simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF), simultaneous saccharification and co-fermentation (SSCF), non-isothermal simultaneous saccharification and fermentation, simultaneous saccharification, filtration and fermentation, consolidated bioprocessing (CBP). The first three are commonly used [26]. Other types of fermentation include batch, fed-batch, continuous and solid-state fermentation. Some of these fermentation methods are discussed below.
This is the simplest of the fermentation processes as it is flexible for a range of products, easy to control and has multi-vessel. The process involves adding the substrates, microorganism, culture medium and nutrients at the beginning of the operation in a closed system under favourable conditions at a predetermined time. The products are only withdrawn at the end of the fermentation time. The problems with this type of fermentation process are low yield, long fermentation time, and high labour cost making batch process unattractive for commercial production of bioethanol [26, 40]. Also, due to high sugar concentration in the fermentation medium, there could be substrate inhibition leading to inhibition of cell growth and ethanol production [41].
This process involves adding substrates, culture medium and nutrients into a fermentor containing active microorganisms and withdrawing the products continuously. The products obtained are usually ethanol, cells and residual sugar. The advantages of continuous fermentation process are high productivity, small fermenter volumes, and low investment and operational cost [42]. The disadvantages include possibility of product contamination, and potential decline in yeast capability to support ethanol production because of long cultivation time [43].
This is the combination of batch and continuous fermentation processes involving charging the substrate into the fermentor without removing the medium. Comparing with other fermentation processes, fed-batch process has higher productivity, more dissolved oxygen in medium, shorter fermentation time and lower toxic effect of the medium [43]. The disadvantage is that ethanol productivity is limited by cell mass concentration and feed rate [40].
The Enzymatic hydrolysis is separated from fermentation allowing enzymes to operate at high temperature and the fermentation microorganisms to function at moderate temperature for optimum performance [26]. Since the hydrolytic enzymes and the fermentation organisms operate at their optimum conditions, it is expected that the productivity of ethanol will be high. The disadvantages of SHF are high capital cost especially as two reactors are required, requirement of high reaction time, and possibility of limiting the cellulase activities by sugars released during the hydrolysis step [44].
Here the saccharification of cellulose and the fermentation of monomeric sugars are carried out in the same reactor simultaneously [45]. Since the hydrolysate is simultaneously used for fermentation, the usual inhibition of the cellulase activities can be avoided [46]. The disadvantage of SSF is the variation in the optimum temperature required for efficient performance of the cellulase and microorganisms during hydrolysis and fermentation, respectively. The high temperature required by the cellulase for hydrolysis might reduce the microorganisms such as yeast used for fermentation.
This involves carrying out the hydrolysis and saccharification in the same unit with co-fermentation of pentose sugars. Usually, genetically modified
This requires the enzyme production, hydrolysis and fermentation to be carried out in a single unit. The microorganism mostly used in this process is
The factors which impact the bioethanol production include temperature, sugar concentration, pH, fermentation time, agitation rate and inoculum size [49]. High temperature could denature the enzymes and reduce their activity. The ideal temperature for the fermentation of biomass is 20–35oC [50]. The optimum yield of bioethanol production could be achieved using a concentration of 150 g/L [49]. The pH of the broth also affects the production of bioethanol because, it impacts on the bacterial contamination, yeast growth, fermentation rate and by-product formation. The optimum range of pH for the fermentation of the biomass using
This involves combining one or more processes in the bioethanol production processes from the lignocellulosic biomass for the purpose of optimization, resulting to the increase in yield and minimum production cost [33]. An example of IP is membrane reactor where both reaction and separation of products occur simultaneously [33]. The hydrolysis and fermentation processes can be integrated into separate hydrolysis and fermentation (SHF) and simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF). As discussed earlier, SHF provides an opportunity for the temperatures of the cellulases and
Separate hydrolysis and co-fermentation (SHCF) [
Saccharification coupled with co-fermentation (SCCF) [
The SSF has been developed further to a technology known as consolidated bioprocessing (CBP) by integrating enzyme production into the operation (Figure 9). As mentioned earlier on, enzyme production, hydrolysis and fermentation are conducted in a single unit [48].
Consolidated bioprocessing [
The fermentation of monomeric sugars is usually followed by ethanol recovery from the fermentation broth. Usually, the water content of the broth is reduced to approximately 0.5% by volume enabling the formation of anhydrous ethanol with a minimum of 99.5% by volume. This operation is constrained by the azeotropic nature of ethanol-water solution and can be carried out based on the principle of distillation (i.e. leveraging the difference in boiling point of the components of the solution). The problem with the azeotropic solution is overcome by using a separating agent which alters the relative volatility of the key component. The techniques used in the recovery of pure ethanol from the fermentation broth include adsorption distillation, azeotropic distillation, diffusion distillation, extractive distillation, vacuum distillation, membrane distillation and chemical dehydration. The conventional techniques include azeotropic distillation, liquid-liquid extraction and extractive distillation [53]. Extractive distillation is the most predominantly used for large scale operations. There are some other techniques that are gaining traction for future use especially due to less energy requirement. These are pervaporation and salt distillation [54].
This assessment is usually carried out to measure the environmental impact of bioethanol production using different feedstocks. The LCA tool helps for the identification of potential impacts during a process design and for decision making in order to improve the process prior to scaling-up [55]. The LCA methodology consists of four main stages including definition of goal and scope, Life Cycle Inventory Analysis (LCIA), Impact assessment, and Interpretation of the results [1]. The LCIA can be conducted using methodologies such as CML 2002, Eco-indicator 99, ReCiPe, LIME, Lucas and TRACI depending on the impact categories and selection of indicators [56]. Numerous investigations have been conducted on the environmental impact of bioethanol and allied chemical products from different lignocellulosic feedstock (Table 3). The table indicates that bioethanol has the capacity to reduce the greenhouse gases emission and global warming potential substantially and hence facilitates the protection of the ozone layer.
Feedstock | Method of production | Environmental analysis | Ref. | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Method of Assessment | Main impacts | |||
Cattle manure (CM) | Drying, milling, pretreatment, solid phase separation, Separated Hydrolysis and Fermentation (SHF), and distillation | SimaPro software v.7.3.2 was used with ReCiPe method and EcoInvent libraries | 1. Results from midpoint indicators with normalized data showed that the main impacts were on human toxicity, freshwater eutrophication, terrestrial and marine ecotoxicity and fossil depletion 2. Endpoint indicators showed that the main impacts were climate change, human toxicity, particulate matter formation and fossil resource depletion | [55] |
Wheat straw | Steam pretreatment, hydrolysis, Fermentation, distillation, enzyme recycling, C5 sugars drying, and lignin pelletizing | Simplified LCA approach according to European Renewable Energy Directive (RED) | Up to 87% GHG potential mitigation | [57] |
Sweet potato | Cultivation, and conversion of sweet potato to bioethanol | EcoInvent 3.1database, literature and field data. SimaPro software was used for the impact assessment with CML IA baseline 3.02 method | Reduction of global warming potential (GWP) of 44% | [58] |
Loblolly pine, eucalyptus, unmanaged hardwoods, forest residues, and switchgrass | Thermochemical conversion | SimaPro 7.3 was used with the US Life Cycle Inventory dataset. The Tool for the Reduction and Assessment of Chemical and Other Environmental Impacts (TRACI) impact assessment method was used to calculate the life cycle environmental and human health midpoint impacts | Reduction in the GHG emissions by more than 60% compared to gasoline. | [59] |
LCA of bioethanol production from different feedstock.
TEA is an effective tool used in assessing the economic feasibility of different processes pertaining to bioethanol production. This analysis provides the opportunity to evaluate the technical and economic efficiencies of different process routes leading to bioethanol production with an overarching objective of choosing the best route(s) [60]. The technical aspect of the analysis involves the development of the process flow diagram, and rigorous material and energy balance calculations using simulation software such as Aspen Plus and SuperPro. The economic aspect involves the capital and project cost estimation, discounted cash flow and determination of the minimum ethanol selling price (MESP). This may be carried out using the Aspen Economic Evaluator package (Aspen Technology, Inc., USA). The MESP can be used for comparing the differences in technology between processes or for carrying out sensitivity analyses which helps to determine where economic or process performance improvement is required. Numerous investigators have studied the techno-economic analysis of bioethanol production using lignocellulose as feedstocks. For instance, Quintero et al. conducted a techno-economic analysis of bioethanol production from sugar cane bagasse, coffee cut-stems, rice husk, and empty fruit bunches for the Colombian case [61]. These researchers used Aspen Plus and Aspen Process Economic Analyzer for the process simulation and economic analysis, respectively. The results obtained showed that considering the four lignocellulosic biomasses assessed, the production cost of bioethanol from the empty fruit bunches was the lowest (0.49 US$/L).
Exergy is the maximum amount of work that can be obtained when a mass or energy stream is brought to equilibrium with a reference environment. Exergy analysis helps in: identifying the location, source, and the magnitude of true thermodynamic losses; determining the exergy losses in each process step which reduces the performance of the system, and comparing various process configurations to determine the most efficient route for maximum productions. Exergy analysis can be used to evaluate the thermodynamic efficiency (η) of a system, Eq. (2) [62].
Eq. (2) can be adapted to evaluate the overall efficiency (
Where;
Exergy balance can be applied to the system boundary of a unit operation of a process to evaluate the thermodynamics losses, Eq. (4). This equation shows that contrary to energy, exergy is not conserved.
Where;
From Eq. (4) exergy loss associated with the unit process =
The exergy analysis can be combined with life cycle assessment (LCA) to form exergetic life cycle assessment (ELCA) which helps to account for all environmental issues as well as the depleting natural resources [62]. This involves closed material and energy balances and can be carried out by determining the exergy destruction during the process.
Several works have been carried out by investigators in the area of applying the exergy tools to evaluate the process performance in the bioethanol production from biomass. Hurtado et al. used exergy analysis to evaluate the efficiency of the bioethanol production processes using rice husks as feedstock [63]. Aspen Plus software was used to simulate the process and the results of the exergy analysis showed that the pretreatment stage required improvement of either mass or energy as the stage gave the lowest exergetic efficiency and highest irreversibilities.
This is the pictorial representation of chemical, physical, biological, other technical processes and unit operations in a simulation software. The software helps: in the design of environmental-friendly and safe processes, reduction of capital and operating costs, to provide functionality and flexibility needed for modelling efficient biofuel processes, to enhance heat recovery processes, reconcile data, verify operating conditions, efficient and optimal process design, regulatory compliance, and operational analysis of the biofuels process [64]. With the simulation software, engineers can work virtually, thereby avoiding expenses and time delays associated with testing the process in the real world [64]. Examples of simulation software used in simulating the bioethanol production include Aspen plus, Chemcad, Prosimplus, Hysys and PRO/II [1, 64]. The most commonly used software in biorefinery is the Aspen plus [1]. The simulation of bioethanol production from lignocellulosic biomass requires interconnecting the various unit operations: pretreatment, hydrolysis, fermentation and distillation involved. This has been demonstrated by Peralta-Ruίz et al. by simulating the bioethanol production process using residual microalgae biomass as the feedstock [65]. These investigators evaluated the most effective route from three technologies: simultaneous saccharification and co-fermentation (SSCF), simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) and separate saccharification and fermentation using acid hydrolysis (SHF) leading to the highest yield of bioethanol. The simulation was carried out using Aspen Plus 7.1 and the results obtained showed that SSCF gave the highest yield of 23.6% and SHF the lowest yield of 18.5%. With these results, they concluded that enzymatic technologies could be used for microalgal production of bioethanol.
The quantity of bioethanol produced globally is increasing (110 billion liters in 2018 and could be 140 billion liters in 2022) with US and Brazil currently the highest producers. These countries produce bioethanol (1G bioethanol) from corn and sugar cane, respectively. Due to high cost of production with 40–70% contribution from the feedstocks, other sources of feedstocks are being considered leading to the production of the 2G, 3G and 4G bioethanol, respectively. The high cost of processing lignocellulosic biomass into bioethanol still makes the route unattractive compared to 1G bioethanol. The 2G bioethanol constitutes less than 3% of the total bioethanol production and has a higher GHG reduction potential compared to 1G bioethanol. Results show that bioethanol has the capacity to reduce the greenhouse gases emission and global warming potential substantially and hence facilitates the protection of the ozone layer.
In order to increase the yield of bioethanol and minimize the cost of production, different processes maybe combined through integrated processes, for example SHCF, SCCF and CBP.
Based on the LCA of the bioethanol production, the environmental impacts depend on the feedstock availability and the technology used for converting them to bioethanol.
There is a wide variety of wearable devices, such as smartwatches, wearable mobile sensors, mobile hub medical devices, among others. This technology makes it possible to collect data on the user’s health status. A widespread example of the use of this technology is the detection systems of blood glucose levels in diabetic patients [1]. However, wearable technology has also been used in other fields of clinical application, such as minimally invasive surgery (MIS). In this case, this type of technology could make it possible to evaluate the surgeon’s ergonomic conditions, the interaction with the patient or the quality of the surgical performance, as well as to provide tools for medical training and surgical assistance.
Apart from the numerous advantages of MIS for the patient, these surgical techniques present several limitations for the surgeon. Some of these challenges include the loss of depth perception due to two-dimensional vision, awkward postures during surgery due to restricted movements, and decreased tactile sensation. All this leads to an increased mental and physical burden on the surgeon during surgery, as well as the possible onset of musculoskeletal disorders. The constant evolution of wearable technology allows for a comprehensive analysis of these parameters in order to improve the surgeon’s ergonomics during surgery, and therefore the patient’s surgical outcomes [2, 3].
Medical education is a long and demanding process which involves learning complex theoretical and practical aspects. During its early stages, training methods are often based on static and unrealistic learning content. Currently, these methods are being replaced thanks to advances in information and communication technologies. In this regard, new technologies, such as virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), and mixed reality (MR), present the potential to provide medical students with interactive and realistic training contents using head mounted displays (HMD) [4].
During surgical training, the assessment of the technical surgical skills to be acquired by novice surgeons has traditionally been performed by expert surgeons, being a subjective assessment that may be biased. Recent advances in the Internet of Things (IoT), the ability to embed sensors in objects and environments to collect large amounts of data, and advances in machine learning allow for a more objective and automated assessment of MIS skills [5].
On the other hand, advances in preoperative imaging systems have made it a fundamental element in surgical planning [6, 7]. In particular, when facing complex surgeries, surgical planning provides valuable information to predict and reduce any potential risks during surgery, thus improving its safety levels. The application of wearable technology (mainly HMD) in this area provides the surgical team with access to this information in situ and without compromising the asepsis of the surgical procedure [8]. The use of three-dimensional (3D) representations of this data in immersive environments provides new ways to explore the patient information and further enhance the tools available to medical professionals in several areas, such as medical training, surgical planning and intraoperative guidance.
In this chapter we will review some of the aforementioned technologies and medical applications, both described in the scientific literature and those developed by our research group.
Physiological sensing remains one of the most challenging topics in minimally invasive biomedical signal acquisition today. The clinical gold standard protocols needed to measure biochemical and physiological parameters often require invasive and time-consuming techniques, thus lacking the real-time and comfort factor requirements present in wearable technology.
To date, the most commonly used physiological parameters in the context of wearable technology are still heart rate variability (HRV) [9], as a function of heart rate, and galvanic skin response [10]. Other alternatives are biomarker analysis measured from eccrine sweat [11] and saliva [12], as well as the well-known electroencephalogram (EEG) [13] and surface electromyography (sEMG) [14] techniques.
Smartwatches in particular present a suitable solution as they offer the possibility of acquiring heart rate and motion data simultaneously from the user. Although heart rate sensors included in smartwatches are not adequate for medical use or diagnosis, they offer a quick and affordable approach to measure parameters like HRV.
In MIS field, we have made use of smartwatches (Figure 1) to monitor hand motion and HRV data of surgeons during the performance of laparoscopic training tasks. Apart from evaluating the surgeon’s physiological parameters and performance, we sought to build a machine learning model that could predict stressful situations and quality of surgical performance during laparoscopic practice [2, 15]. Although more data is required in order to build a reliable model, smartwatches are proving to be a promising alternative to more invasive and expensive solutions that are often used in these types of studies.
Smartwatch being used during laparoscopy to acquire surgeon’s hand motion and HR.
The level of effort involved in performing work tasks in a given job is a risk factor for musculoskeletal pathologies. In this sense, different instrumental techniques and wearable systems have been used to evaluate this factor, such as sEMG. Surface electromyography makes it possible to characterize the intensity of muscular intervention of a particular muscle and to identify the onset of muscle fatigue [3]. In the surgical setting, in a study by Wong et al. [16] it was observed that 83% of surgeons showed musculoskeletal symptoms during microlaryngeal surgery, especially in the neck and upper back. However, the assessment of fatigue in microsurgical techniques is especially difficult due to the minimal range of body movement and the low amount of muscle activation required for the performance of the surgical tasks, making them challenging to analyze.
We have studied the effect of experimental microsurgery training on surgeon ergonomics. For this purpose, a total of ten surgeons of different levels of surgical experience were evaluated during the performance of eleven anastomoses in a simulator. A wireless sEMG system (Delsys Trigno; Natick, MA, USA) was used to evaluate the muscle activation of the analyzed muscles (paravertebral, upper trapezius, lower lumbar, and supinator longus muscles) (Figure 2). All surgeons showed improvement in their surgical performance. The results revealed that novice surgeons showed, on average, a higher level of muscle activation than intermediate and expert surgeons. In addition, novice surgeons showed greater activation in the muscles on their dominant side, whereas expert surgeons had similar levels of activation on both sides.
Use of the Delsys Trigno™ EMG wireless system as a tool for recording sEMG and motion data to assess the surgeon’s posture and workload in microsurgery.
The adoption of forced postures for prolonged periods of time is one of the well-known limitations of laparoscopic surgery. This is why the analysis and evaluation of the working conditions in the operating room (OR) is essential to improve the its ergonomics during MIS. To perform these ergonomic studies, which have traditionally used techniques including photogrammetry and cumbersome EMG systems, techniques based on wearable technologies such as body tracking systems, data gloves, electrogoniometers, smart devices or pressure sensors are now being used [3, 17]. The ultimate goal is to provide practical objective and reliable ergonomic criteria during surgical activity.
Kinematic parameters are associated with the motion of body parts. The technology related to kinematics has been widely studied and implemented in multiple fields as diverse as aeronautics, navigation, video games, or health, among others. Several approaches can be found depending on the needs of the clinical application. The most popular include the use of acceleration sensors, followed by optical tracking solutions. These solutions range from a simple and affordable smartwatch that can measure a subject’s hand accelerations from accelerometer sensors [2], to more complex and expensive systems such as the Xsens™ (Xsens Technologies B.V.) that uses inertial sensors [17].
The application of wearable technology for the analysis of full body posture is carried out using markers or sensors placed on the subject’s body to quantify the movements of the different body segments. In the case of optical tracking techniques, use is made of a set of retroreflective markers identified by a system of cameras and infrared light [17]. The main limitation of these solutions is the occlusions they may have in the working environment, which is worsened in crowded settings such as an OR.
In recent years, the introduction of inertial sensors has facilitated the application of kinematic analysis techniques in more complex environments as the OR. These inertial measurement systems are not affected by visual occlusions, making them suitable for clinical settings (Figure 3). This is a more efficient instrumental technique for postural characterization in MIS than conventional techniques such as 3D photogrammetry [3]. In this sense, a study was carried out in which the body posture of 8 laparoscopic surgeons (4 novices and 4 experts) was analyzed by means of the Xsens™ system during the performance of laparoscopic suturing tasks. The kinematic results showed a high variability of the surgeons’ body posture, with a coefficient of variation greater than 70% in all the joints, especially in flexion-extension of the wrist and its radial and ulnar deviation [3].
Motion tracking system based on inertial sensors placed on the surgeon’s body (left). A biomechanical model of the subject is created in real time (right). (Source: [
Surgical tasks and instruments directly affect the position of the surgeon’s wrist and hand. Data gloves allow comprehensive analysis of the subject’s hand movements (Figure 4A). Typically, such systems employ electromechanical technology or conductive sensors.
Use of the CyberGlove™ device (A) and an electrogoniometer (B) for recording the surgeon’s hand posture during laparoscopic practice. (Source: [
In the clinical setting, the CyberGlove™ system (CyberGlove Systems, San José, CA, USA) has been used to analyze the surgeon’s hand movements while using different surgical instruments during laparoscopic practice [18]. The data were analyzed according to an adaptation of the Rapid Upper Limb Assessment (RULA) ergonomic evaluation method. In this study, the hand posture of experienced surgeons in laparoscopic surgery was analyzed during the handling of various handle designs for laparoscopic instruments: axial, axial with rings, and pistol. For all handle designs analyzed, most of the surgeons showed unfavorable flexion-extension angles, with the pistol handle being the most ergonomically suitable design. In another study, instruments for laparoendoscopic single-site surgery (LESS) were found to be ergonomically more suitable than conventional laparoscopic instruments [19].
Wrist flexion-extension and radioulnar deviation during surgical practice can also be recorded using electrogoniometers (Figure 4B). These are devices whose measurement signals (usually electrical voltages) are directly related to flexion-extension or rotation between body segments. They must be precalibrated to relate the measured voltage to the angles described by the analyzed joint. As with data gloves, the information provided by electrogoniometers would allow us to measure the degree of risk of the surgeon’s posture. However, in both cases these devices are difficult to integrate into the surgical environment, and are relegated mainly to experimental studies. This technology has been used to objectively study the surgeon’s wrist posture in the use of new handle designs for laparoscopic instruments [20].
Another relevant risk factor in the surgical context is the localized contact pressure during the use of laparoscopic instruments. Excessive pressure, repeatedly or for long periods of time, can result in nerve damage to the surgeon’s fingers. In order to analyze this factor during laparoscopic practice and thus potentially improve the ergonomic conditions of the surgeon and the design of the surgical instruments, wearable systems such as the FingerTPS™ (Pressure Profile Systems, Inc., Hawthorne, CA, USA) can be used. This system makes it possible to measure and map the contact pressures exerted on or by the fingers and the palm of the hand when using the laparoscopic tools (Figure 5). This technology makes it possible to assess whether pressure levels are detrimental to the surgeon and to draw conclusions about the most appropriate design for the laparoscopic instruments.
Use of the FingerTPS™ system during the handling of laparoscopic instruments with a ring handle. (Source: [
In a study, we evaluated the pressure exerted by the surgeon’s distal phalanges of the thumb and the index, middle and ring fingers, as well as the palm of the hand during the use of new handle designs for laparoscopic instruments and with different sizes [20]. The participating surgeons performed three laparoscopic basic tasks to analyze the influence of handle size. The results showed that there was a significant increase in palmar pressure with the incorrectly sized instrument handle.
On the other hand, in another study we compared the grip pressure in the use of a robotic laparoscopic instrument (Dex Device™; Dex Surgical, Verrières-le-Buisson, France) with respect to conventional laparoscopic tools during urethrovesical anastomosis in experimental model [3]. The results showed that the pressure exerted by the thumb was significantly higher during the use of the robotic instrument. This was due to the interaction with the controls installed on the instrument handle. Additionally, the results showed that the force exerted by the distal phalanx of the index finger was significantly higher with the conventional handle. The palm of the hand was the area that received the greatest pressure while using both instruments.
Telementoring, defined as mentoring by means of telecommunications and computer networks, allows an experienced physician to directly provide information and share knowledge at a distance with a less experienced practitioner. This is a safe modality for delivering intraoperative surgical education and provides some equivalence to on-site mentoring with regard to clinical and educational outcomes [21].
Meijer et al. demonstrated the feasibility of using wearable technology in combination with the TedCube device (TedCas Medical Systems; Pamplona, Spain) for hands-free interaction with the computer during the course of surgery and for telementoring purposes. The combination of wearable sensors, an integrating device and internet-based remote desktop sharing software proved a feasible set-up for telementoring in situations when asepsis for both the mentor and the mentee is necessary, and distance needs to be overcome. A successful connection without any downtime was established between the Academic Medical Center in Amsterdam, The Netherlands, and Jesús Usón Minimally Invasive Surgery Centre (JUMISC) in Cáceres, Spain [22].
In MIS, preoperative imaging studies are fundamental to facilitate diagnosis and surgical planning. These personalized patient studies allow analysis of anatomical details prior to surgery, improving the course of the procedure. However, surgical environments require very strict aseptic conditions. This makes it difficult to use traditional interaction devices such as keyboard and mouse to consult preoperative patient information during surgery. In addition, some equipment requires the surgeon to leave the OR to access preoperative images, which hinders the surgical process.
The use of wearable systems could offer suitable solutions to these limitations and help maintain surgeon asepsis while interacting with the patient’s preoperative data during surgery. One possible device is the MYO armband (Thalmic Labs Inc., Kitchener, ON, Canada), which is worn on the arm (placed just below the elbow). The MYO is equipped with 8 EMG sensors that allow it to recognize the user’s hand gestures and arm movements. In a study during the development of several laparoscopic procedures, we demonstrated the feasibility of using a gestural control system by means of the MYO device in conjunction with voice commands to interact with the patient’s preoperative imaging studies while maintaining aseptic conditions [23].
Head-mounted displays (HMD) are, of all the devices that allow viewing digital content, the ones that achieve greater user immersion in digital content. Technologies such as stereoscopy (projecting a different image of the same environment in each eye, thus achieving a sense of depth) allow user immersion in a virtual environment. The possibility of using hand gestures, voice commands or eye-tracking devices that allow interaction with the environment represents a paradigm shift since, without these elements, HMDs would be passive devices, being able only to display content but not to interact with it.
These wearable devices allow the visualization of content through different types of technologies [24]. At one extreme is Virtual Reality (VR) where all the content displayed is completely digital and the real environment is ignored. At the other extreme is Augmented Reality (AR), in which the environment is visualized and layers of digital information are added based on what is seen. Mixed Reality (MR) is in the middle ground, as it displays computer-generated content that is aware of the environment, allowing users to interact with the content but taking into account the environment around them. VR can be a useful tool for various simulators or educational applications, although it has limitations in terms of assistance during surgical applications (Figure 6).
VR application oriented to anatomical education.
Until 2016, Google Glasses (Google Inc.; Mountain View, California, USA) [25] was the most widely used HMD for viewing digital content. However, several publications have mentioned the limitations of this device for its application in the medical field. Some of them are its restricted functionalities, low computational capacity, poor display resolution, information projected on a single eye (which negates stereoscopy), and usability limitations due to its incompatibility with the use of glasses or privacy aspects [26]. Over time, MR devices have become a standard, as they allow the inclusion of holographic images or 3D objects, which are displayed in the user’s field of view and integrated with the real environment, improving the immersive experience during work.
In the educational field, most VR applications dedicated to surgeon training have a fully immersive nature, due to the inherent characteristics of this type of technology. Simulation using devices such as Oculus Rift (Oculus VR; Menlo Park, CA, USA) offers complete immersion and VR controls mimic the surgeon’s surgical tools [27]. Other applications are able to offer a much more detailed visualization of the human anatomy using HMD devices such as HTC Vive (HTC Corporation; Xindian, Taiwan) [28]. In most cases, this methodology offers possibilities for training outside the OR, collecting surgical performance metrics from the user as if it were a serious game [29]. These solutions allow procedures to be repeated without any restriction, reducing training costs [30], and obtaining also progression feedback for each user, thus enabling the improvement of less developed surgical skills.
In the case of Google Glass, these have been used mainly as a means of sharing with students the surgeon’s view during his/her performance, along with real-time comments, which allows the generation of comprehensive content for learning [31]. Finally, it is worth mentioning the use of this device together with an ultrasound probe for the visualization of the 3D ultrasound images generated, facilitating the learning of human anatomy [32].
Regarding AR/MR devices, most training applications are based on the visualization of anatomical elements [33]. As the main potential of these technologies lies in knowing the environment and coupling spatially augmented information to it, numerous applications opt for using visual markers and superimposing digital content on them [34]. On the other hand, it is worth highlighting the wide possibilities offered by these devices in telemedicine and remote medical training [35]. This technology offers a significant improvement in 3D perception compared to two-dimensional illustrations or more traditional training content (Figure 7A). MR devices, such as HoloLens (Microsoft; Redmond, Washington, USA), make it possible to scan the working environment (Figure 7B) and provide 3D anatomical models, as well as organize them into different systems (nervous, muscle, bone, or vascular) (Figure 7C). The user can interact (move, rotate or scale) with the holograms by means of gestures or voice commands (Figure 7D). These applications have been tested in various contexts by expert surgeons at the JUMISC, concluding that the visualization of 3D anatomical models using this technology is useful and facilitates the transfer of knowledge to real clinical practice [36].
MR application for anatomical training: (A) traditional simulator with medical illustrations; (B) spatial detection of the simulator using the HoloLens depth camera; (C) selection of the anatomical element to be displayed; (D) example of gestural interaction with the 3D hologram.
In relation to surgical assistance, Google Glass emerged as a means of broadcasting the surgeon’s vision for telementoring applications and requesting expert opinion outside the OR [37]. On the other hand, this device has also been used to provide the endoscopic image in place of traditional laparoscopic monitors. Another surgical assistance application is the display of checklists to proceed in a more orderly and safe way with the surgical procedure [38]. Various sensors of this device (camera, microphone) have also been exploited in combination with other devices such as Fitbit™ (Fitbit, San Francisco, California, USA) to collect data and facilitate surgical evaluation and performance [39]. Of note is the feasibility, safety and usability study by Borgmann et al. in which preoperative studies were shown during ten types of urological surgery procedures [40].
Since 2016, the use of Microsoft’s HoloLens glasses has been gaining presence in the field of AR applied to surgery to the detriment of Google Glass. This device marked a milestone in AR HMD devices, even defining a new term (mixed reality -MR-) since, due to the built-in depth cameras, the device is aware of both the surrounding spatial environment (Figure 8A and D) and the gestures that the user performs with the hands even when holding the surgical tools (Figure 8B and C), thus resulting in a more complete integration of the information displayed on the glasses with the OR. The nature of this device makes it an exceptional choice for use in surgical assisting applications. Recently, applications have been presented on the use of this type of device in MIS, in kidney and prostate surgical procedures [41], lung, and uterus [42], among others.
MR application for surgical assistance: spatial detection of the surgical environment (A and D); detection of the surgeon’s hand gestures (B and C).
The Remote Assist application (Microsoft) for HoloLens has recently been presented, which could facilitate medical training and telementoring tasks. This application is capable of video calls sharing the surgeon’s point of view, allowing both communicating surgical knowledge with trainees and consulting with clinical experts in real time. The application accesses the depth camera to spatially locate 3D elements in the OR environment, allowing to point out elements such as surgical material or equipment or to explain the operation of the equipment in an intuitive way (Figure 9). In addition, the user using the device is be able to see the expert/apprentice in the form of a hologram (Figure 9D). Due to the recent need for distance learning/mentoring solutions, these tools are emerging as useful alternatives.
Use of the Remote Assist (Microsoft) application: spatial markers (A–C); video call sharing the surgeon’s point of view (D).
MR technology can also be used for surgical planning. It could facilitate visualization and analysis of the patient’s preoperative imaging studies for a better and safer approach to surgery. MR devices, in combination with new emerging medical imaging techniques, have been successfully applied as a planning tool in different surgical disciplines such as urology [43], thoracic surgery [44], neurosurgery, colorectal surgery, and bariatric surgery [45], among others.
Surgeons can interact with the 3D models generated from preoperative studies of the patient for a better understanding of the anatomy to be operated on (Figure 10B). Recent studies have managed to visualize in real time the preoperative studies stored in DICOM format, allowing a more complete and interactive view in the form of a hologram. These applications make it possible to visualize the preoperative imaging study based on the density of each point, as well as to perform filters on the point cloud (Figure 10A, C and D). We have used this surgical planning application during a laparoscopic renal tumorectomy in experimental model [46] and during a laparoscopic lobectomy at the University Hospital of Cáceres (Spain) [47]. Surgeons highlighted the usefulness of the application for planning laparoscopic procedures, although they also reported some ergonomic limitation of the MR device.
MR application used to visualize preoperative studies: Visualization of the volumetric point cloud (A, C, D); visualization of the 3D model (B).
Another application of this technology for surgical assistance is its use as an additional monitor during surgery. Ten surgeons evaluated this function during the performance of a simple laparoscopic training task (object transfer task) (Figure 11A, C and D). For this purpose, the participants used the HoloLens v2 glasses as a holographic monitor, instead of a conventional laparoscopic monitor. Most surgeons concluded that they could perform more complex tasks using the holographic monitor. The application achieved positive results in terms of latency, image quality and user experience. The surgeons showed a slight learning curve when it came to spatially positioning the monitor (Figure 11B), mainly due to the fact that in most cases it was their first experience with this type of device.
Use of MR application as a holographic monitor during laparoscopic practice: setting of the study (A); positioning and scaling of the holographic monitor (B); start and end of the transfer task (C and D).
The constant evolution of wearable technology has boosted its application in the surgical field, especially in minimally invasive surgery. This technology allows an exhaustive analysis of the surgeon’s physiological and ergonomic conditions during the surgical practice, improving the surgeon health and surgical equipment design, and therefore surgical outcomes for the patient. On the other hand, this technology has led to a paradigm shift in medical training, taking the student to the same operating room in which an intervention is being performed or offering holographic and interactive 3D anatomical models close to reality. In addition, head-mounted displays offer surgeons advanced tools for surgical planning, providing access to the patient’s preoperative information in the operating room, while maintaining aseptic conditions. Undoubtedly, developments in sensors, data analysis techniques, artificial intelligence and mixed reality will continue to offer new and innovative solutions to clinical needs.
This study has been partially funded by the MISTI Global Seed Funds, “la Caixa” Foundation, Junta de Extremadura (Spain), European Social Fund, European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) “A way to make Europe”, and the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities through ERDF funds of the Intelligent Growth Operational Program (LCF/PR/MIT18/11830006, TA18023, PD18077, GR18199, CPI-2019-2033-1-TRE −14).
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Conversely, dismissive attitude by decision-makers towards architectural practice and education, even among architects, in recognizing architecture as data-driven and source of data deserve rethink. Here the chapter demonstrates architects as data scientists and the symbiotic relationship that exist between architecture and 3D computer graphics while highlighting emerging data sciences opportunities and threats. The chapter adopted principally reviews of scholarly literatures, draws from authors’ 20-years personal experiences, and industry leaders’ views. The language is accessible yet academically concise. The chapter concluded with recommendations, including highlights of big data technologies potential transformation of 3D computer graphics. 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In a series of four studies, we collected data and compared results from the performance in a COTS game to scores on a traditional multiple-choice assessment written for the purposes of each study. Each assessment was written to evaluate the same content presented in the game for each respective study. Three of the four studies demonstrated a significant correlation between the COTS game and the traditional multiple choice assessment scores. The non-significant value in Study 4 was likely due to a small sample size (n < 100). The results of these studies support our hypothesis and demonstrate that COTS games may be a useful educational tool for training or assessment purposes. We recommend that future research focuses on specific applications of COTS games to explore further opportunities for utilizing COTS in education and assessment.",book:{id:"11192",title:"Computer Game Development",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11192.jpg"},signatures:"Diana R. Sanchez, Amanda Rueda, Leila Jimeno Jimènez and Mahsa Norouzi Nargesi"},{id:"80731",title:"The Use of Serious Games for Learning Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation Procedures: A Systematic Mapping of the Literature",slug:"the-use-of-serious-games-for-learning-cardiopulmonary-resuscitation-procedures-a-systematic-mapping-",totalDownloads:70,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102399",abstract:"This article presents a systematic mapping, with an analysis of 35 selected works according to established criteria, seeking to connect the points and find relevant information for the following research areas: basic life support, cardiopulmonary resuscitation, serious games, and games for healthcare. Among the main results found, we can mention the representativeness of works by regions and their most productive years, the most common platforms, noting a focus on VR technologies, in addition to identifying the preference for the Unity 3D tool for implementations. It was also possible to show that serious games can be very effective in teaching CPR.",book:{id:"11192",title:"Computer Game Development",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11192.jpg"},signatures:"Ingrid Nery Mendes, Maicon de Araújo Nogueira, Filipe Valente Mendes, Otavio Noura Teixeira and Viviane Almeida dos Santos"},{id:"80515",title:"View Synthesis Tool for VR Immersive Video",slug:"view-synthesis-tool-for-vr-immersive-video",totalDownloads:142,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102382",abstract:"This chapter addresses the view synthesis of natural scenes in virtual reality (VR) using depth image-based rendering (DIBR). This method reaches photorealistic results as it directly warps photos to obtain the output, avoiding the need to photograph every possible viewpoint or to make a 3D reconstruction of a scene followed by a ray-tracing rendering. An overview of the DIBR approach and frequently encountered challenges (disocclusion and ghosting artifacts, multi-view blending, handling of non-Lambertian objects) are described. Such technology finds applications in VR immersive displays and holography. Finally, a comprehensive manual of the Reference View Synthesis software (RVS), an open-source tool tested on open datasets and recognized by the MPEG-I standardization activities (where “I” refers to “immersive”) is described for hands-on practicing.",book:{id:"11192",title:"Computer Game Development",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11192.jpg"},signatures:"Sarah Fachada, Daniele Bonatto, Mehrdad Teratani and Gauthier Lafruit"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:8},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261",scope:"Modern physiology requires a comprehensive understanding of the integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, including the cooperation between structure and function at the cellular and molecular levels governed by gene and protein expression. While a daunting task, learning is facilitated by identifying common and effective signaling pathways mediated by a variety of factors employed by nature to preserve and sustain homeostatic life. \r\nAs a leading example, the cellular interaction between intracellular concentration of Ca+2 increases, and changes in plasma membrane potential is integral for coordinating blood flow, governing the exocytosis of neurotransmitters, and modulating gene expression and cell effector secretory functions. Furthermore, in this manner, understanding the systemic interaction between the cardiovascular and nervous systems has become more important than ever as human populations' life prolongation, aging and mechanisms of cellular oxidative signaling are utilised for sustaining life. \r\nAltogether, physiological research enables our identification of distinct and precise points of transition from health to the development of multimorbidity throughout the inevitable aging disorders (e.g., diabetes, hypertension, chronic kidney disease, heart failure, peptic ulcer, inflammatory bowel disease, age-related macular degeneration, cancer). With consideration of all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, gut, skeletal and smooth muscle, liver, pancreas, kidney, eye) and the interactions thereof, this Physiology Series will address the goals of resolving (1) Aging physiology and chronic disease progression (2) Examination of key cellular pathways as they relate to calcium, oxidative stress, and electrical signaling, and (3) how changes in plasma membrane produced by lipid peroxidation products can affect aging physiology, covering new research in the area of cell, human, plant and animal physiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/10.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"July 20th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:14,editor:{id:"35854",title:"Prof.",name:"Tomasz",middleName:null,surname:"Brzozowski",slug:"tomasz-brzozowski",fullName:"Tomasz Brzozowski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35854/images/system/35854.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Thomas Brzozowski works as a professor of Human Physiology and is currently Chairman at the Department of Physiology and is V-Dean of the Medical Faculty at Jagiellonian University Medical College, Cracow, Poland. His primary area of interest is physiology and pathophysiology of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, with the major focus on the mechanism of GI mucosal defense, protection, and ulcer healing. He was a postdoctoral NIH fellow at the University of California and the Gastroenterology VA Medical Center, Irvine, Long Beach, CA, USA, and at the Gastroenterology Clinics Erlangen-Nuremberg and Munster in Germany. He has published 290 original articles in some of the most prestigious scientific journals and seven book chapters on the pathophysiology of the GI tract, gastroprotection, ulcer healing, drug therapy of peptic ulcers, hormonal regulation of the gut, and inflammatory bowel disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jagiellonian University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"10",title:"Animal Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/10.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/11.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"133493",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/133493/images/3091_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Angel Catalá \r\nShort Biography Angel Catalá was born in Rodeo (San Juan, Argentina). He studied \r\nchemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where received aPh.D. degree in chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From\r\n1964 to 1974, he worked as Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of MedicineUniversidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. From 1974 to 1976, he was a Fellowof the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor oBiochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Angel Catalá belongto the Editorial Board of Journal of lipids, International Review of Biophysical ChemistryFrontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics, World Journal oExperimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International, W orld Journal oBiological Chemistry, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, Diabetes and thePancreas, International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, International Journal oNutrition, Co-Editor of The Open Biology Journal.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"12",title:"Human Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. Her main research interest is sarcopenia in older adults, especially its association with nutritional status. Additionally, to understand how to maintain and improve physical function in older adults, to conduct studies about the mechanism of sarcopenia and determine when possible interventions are needed.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ritsumeikan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/13.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"332229",title:"Prof.",name:"Jen-Tsung",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"jen-tsung-chen",fullName:"Jen-Tsung Chen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332229/images/system/332229.png",biography:"Dr. Jen-Tsung Chen is currently a professor at the National University of Kaohsiung, Taiwan. He teaches cell biology, genomics, proteomics, medicinal plant biotechnology, and plant tissue culture. Dr. Chen\\'s research interests include bioactive compounds, chromatography techniques, in vitro culture, medicinal plants, phytochemicals, and plant biotechnology. He has published more than ninety scientific papers and serves as an editorial board member for Plant Methods, Biomolecules, and International Journal of Molecular Sciences.",institutionString:"National University of Kaohsiung",institution:{name:"National University of Kaohsiung",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:16,paginationItems:[{id:"82135",title:"Carotenoids in Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105210",signatures:"Lovina I. Udoh, Josephine U. Agogbua, Eberechi R. Keyagha and Itorobong I. 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Buchholz and Erik J. Behringer",hash:"e373a3d1123dbd45fddf75d90e3e7c38",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Calcium and Signal Transduction",editors:[{id:"89438",title:"Dr.",name:"John N.",middleName:null,surname:"Buchholz",slug:"john-n.-buchholz",fullName:"John N. Buchholz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89438/images/6463_n.jpg",biography:"Full Professor and Vice Chair, Division of Pharmacology, Loma Linda University, School of Medicine. He received his B.S. Degree in Biology at La Sierra University, Riverside California (1980) and a PhD in Pharmacology from Loma Linda University School of Medicine (1988). Post-Doctoral Fellow at University of California, Irvine, College of Medicine 1989-1992 with a focus on autonomic nerve function in blood vessels and the impact of aging on the function of these nerves and overall blood vessel function. Twenty years of research funding and served on NIH R01 review panels, Editor-In-Chief of Edorium Journal of Aging Research. Serves as a peer reviewer for biomedical journals. Military Reserve Officer serving with the 100 Support Command, 100 Troop Command, 40 Infantry Division, CA National Guard.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Loma Linda University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6925",title:"Endoplasmic Reticulum",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6925.jpg",slug:"endoplasmic-reticulum",publishedDate:"April 17th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Angel Català",hash:"a9e90d2dbdbc46128dfe7dac9f87c6b4",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Endoplasmic Reticulum",editors:[{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6924",title:"Adenosine Triphosphate in Health and Disease",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6924.jpg",slug:"adenosine-triphosphate-in-health-and-disease",publishedDate:"April 24th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Gyula Mozsik",hash:"04106c232a3c68fec07ba7cf00d2522d",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Adenosine Triphosphate in Health and Disease",editors:[{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Hungary"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"8008",title:"Antioxidants",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8008.jpg",slug:"antioxidants",publishedDate:"November 6th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Emad Shalaby",hash:"76361b4061e830906267933c1c670027",volumeInSeries:5,fullTitle:"Antioxidants",editors:[{id:"63600",title:"Prof.",name:"Emad",middleName:null,surname:"Shalaby",slug:"emad-shalaby",fullName:"Emad Shalaby",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63600/images/system/63600.png",biography:"Dr. Emad Shalaby is a professor of biochemistry on the Biochemistry Department Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo University. He\nreceived a short-term scholarship to carry out his post-doctoral\nstudies abroad, from Japan International Cooperation Agency\n(JICA), in coordination with the Egyptian government. Dr.\nShalaby speaks fluent English and his native Arabic. He has 77\ninternationally published research papers, has attended 15 international conferences, and has contributed to 18 international books and chapters.\nDr. Shalaby works as a reviewer on over one hundred international journals and is\non the editorial board of more than twenty-five international journals. 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He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. 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He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. 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Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"426586",title:"Dr.",name:"Oladunni A.",middleName:null,surname:"Daramola",slug:"oladunni-a.-daramola",fullName:"Oladunni A. Daramola",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Technology",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"357014",title:"Prof.",name:"Leon",middleName:null,surname:"Bobrowski",slug:"leon-bobrowski",fullName:"Leon Bobrowski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bialystok University of Technology",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"354126",title:"Dr.",name:"Setiawan",middleName:null,surname:"Hadi",slug:"setiawan-hadi",fullName:"Setiawan Hadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Padjadjaran University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"332603",title:"Prof.",name:"Kumar S.",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"kumar-s.-ray",fullName:"Kumar S. Ray",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Statistical Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"415409",title:"Prof.",name:"Maghsoud",middleName:null,surname:"Amiri",slug:"maghsoud-amiri",fullName:"Maghsoud Amiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Allameh Tabataba'i University",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"27",type:"subseries",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11423,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. 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Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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