\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7044",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Liver Cancer",title:"Liver Cancer",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book offers remarkable coverage of liver cancer from etiology to prevention and treatment. It provides an updated and new vision of this major cancer that continues to affect hundreds of thousands of people and remains one of the leading causes of cancer deaths around the world. To ensure the high quality of this book, important insights are included and rigorously discussed in a simple and authentic way. The book includes detailed and updated descriptions of the main causes of liver cancer and also the prevention and treatment of this disease. This book is a relevant source of knowledge, very useful for researchers, medical doctors, medical residents, students, healthcare providers, public health decision makers, and all individuals interested in the prevention of this disease.",isbn:"978-1-78984-449-8",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-448-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-754-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73806",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"liver-cancer",numberOfPages:186,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"6eba0444c02b59c08c06a5f0c54a113c",bookSignature:"Ahmed Lasfar",publishedDate:"November 21st 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7044.jpg",numberOfDownloads:10453,numberOfWosCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitations:9,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:10,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:23,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 27th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 17th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 16th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 4th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 3rd 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"32546",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Lasfar",slug:"ahmed-lasfar",fullName:"Ahmed Lasfar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32546/images/system/32546.png",biography:"Dr. Ahmed Lasfar is a Cancer Immunologist and a leading expert on melanoma. He is a full member of the Rutgers-Cancer Institute of New Jersey, principal investigator, and a faculty member at Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers University, New Jersey. Dr. Lasfar’s laboratory focuses on understanding the immune mechanisms controlling cancer development and metastasis. In addition to melanoma, Dr. Lasfar’s laboratory is studying hepatocellular carcinoma and breast cancer.\n\nDr. Lasfar has edited several books and research topics in cancer. He is an editor, board member, and reviewer of relevant international journals and foundations. Dr. Lasfar also serves as a consultant scientific adviser for the pharmaceutical industry.\n\nDr. Lasfar obtained his undergraduate and graduate degrees in France from Paris Rene Descartes University and Denis Diderot University. He completed his postdoctoral training in cancer immunology at Robert Wood Johnson Medical School in New Jersey.",institutionString:"Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1078",title:"Gastrointestinal Oncology",slug:"gastrointestinal-oncology"}],chapters:[{id:"64087",title:"Introductory Chapter: Liver Cancer, Risk Factors and Current Therapies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81720",slug:"introductory-chapter-liver-cancer-risk-factors-and-current-therapies",totalDownloads:1215,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Ahmed Lasfar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64087",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64087",authors:[{id:"32546",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",surname:"Lasfar",slug:"ahmed-lasfar",fullName:"Ahmed Lasfar"}],corrections:null},{id:"62719",title:"Pathogenesis of Hepatitis B Virus Associated Chronic Liver Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79746",slug:"pathogenesis-of-hepatitis-b-virus-associated-chronic-liver-disease",totalDownloads:1622,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is associated with chronic liver diseases (CLD), which progress from hepatitis to fibrosis, cirrhosis, and finally hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) over 30–50 years. The pathogenesis of CLD is immune mediated, which is characterized by persistent immune responses against virus infected hepatocytes. During bouts of CLD, the virus gene encoding the hepatitis B x antigen (HBx) is increasingly found integrated at multiple sites within the human genome. Many of these integrated templates express HBx, which is a trans-regulatory protein that supports virus gene expression and replication on one hand, but also alters patterns of gene expression in the infected cell. HBx alters gene expression by constitutively activating signal transduction pathways in the cytoplasm and promoting epigenetic mediated changes in the expression of cellular genes. In doing so, HBx contributes to the persistence of virus infected cells and to the pathogenesis of CLD by triggering multiple hallmarks which are characteristic of cancer.",signatures:"Mark A. Feitelson",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62719",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62719",authors:[{id:"252092",title:"Prof.",name:"Mark",surname:"Feitelson",slug:"mark-feitelson",fullName:"Mark Feitelson"}],corrections:null},{id:"63081",title:"HCC in Elderly Patients. Curative Intraoperative Strategies and Management in Recurrences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79748",slug:"hcc-in-elderly-patients-curative-intraoperative-strategies-and-management-in-recurrences",totalDownloads:1061,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) incidence is growing among general population and especially in elderly patients. Recent development in surgical technique, surgical equipment, interventional radiology, and radiotherapy (hadrontherapy) allows us to use different techniques and approaches in order to treat this cancer. Patients are conventionally considered disease-free after a 10-year recurrence-free period. Commonly, patients remain into a lifelong follow-up and recurrences are treated as they show. In this chapter, we will give description and indications of different curative techniques, especially hepatic resections and Radio-frequency thermal ablation (RFTA). We will also describe and give indications to palliative care techniques such as transarterial chemoembolization (TACE), Selective Internal Radio-Therapy (SIRT), hadrontherapy, and supportive care. The aim of this chapter is to give information to clinicians and specialists dealing with the disease about the most effective approach to treat HCC, taking into account not only biological age, but also “physiological age,” performance status, comorbidities, and number of liver operative treatments. This chapter highlights that patients advanced in age are in particular need of a tailored medicine, where benefits are well weighted against invasivity of treatment and its side effects, in spite of assuring the best QoL and survival.",signatures:"Stefania Brozzetti, Simone Bini, Leonardo Luca Chiarella, Katia\nFazzi, Michele Di Martino and Mario Bezzi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63081",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63081",authors:[{id:"252047",title:"Prof.",name:"Stefania",surname:"Brozzetti",slug:"stefania-brozzetti",fullName:"Stefania Brozzetti"},{id:"252284",title:"Dr.",name:"Simone",surname:"Bini",slug:"simone-bini",fullName:"Simone Bini"},{id:"252285",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonardo Luca",surname:"Chiarella",slug:"leonardo-luca-chiarella",fullName:"Leonardo Luca Chiarella"},{id:"252289",title:"Dr.",name:"Katia",surname:"Fazzi",slug:"katia-fazzi",fullName:"Katia Fazzi"},{id:"252440",title:"Dr.",name:"Michele",surname:"Di Martino",slug:"michele-di-martino",fullName:"Michele Di Martino"},{id:"252441",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",surname:"Bezzi",slug:"mario-bezzi",fullName:"Mario Bezzi"}],corrections:null},{id:"63803",title:"Surgical Resection in HCC",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81345",slug:"surgical-resection-in-hcc",totalDownloads:1244,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a deadly disease. Its incidence is rising worldwide without significant improvement in survival in spite of improving therapies. A wide array of treatment options for HCC exist and include surgery, catheter-based therapies, radiation and systemic therapy. These modalities are often used in combination for optimal management in a multidisciplinary approach. Surgical resection remains one of the only curative therapeutic options for HCC, although it is indicated in select patients with localized disease. Herein, we cover the role of surgical resection in the management of HCC, reviewing the perioperative and operative considerations, in addition to highlighting the advances in minimally invasive surgery and novel navigation technologies.",signatures:"Kevin Labadie, Kevin M. Sullivan and James O. Park",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63803",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63803",authors:[{id:"253481",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"James",surname:"Park",slug:"james-park",fullName:"James Park"},{id:"258475",title:"Dr.",name:"Kevin",surname:"Labadie",slug:"kevin-labadie",fullName:"Kevin Labadie"}],corrections:null},{id:"62944",title:"Novel Techniques in the Surgical Management of Hepatocellular Carcinoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79982",slug:"novel-techniques-in-the-surgical-management-of-hepatocellular-carcinoma",totalDownloads:906,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common primary liver malignancy with cirrhosis preceding its development in most cases. Surgical resection remains the primary therapeutic option despite the recent emergence of locoregional therapies. Novel surgical techniques are being proposed to overcome the limitations of traditional anatomical open liver resection. Laparoscopic resection is a safe and effective alternative to open liver resection, especially for left lateral or peripheral segment tumors. It is associated with less postoperative morbidity, intraoperative blood loss, and medial hospital stay with no difference in oncological outcomes. Robotic-assisted liver resection overcomes the technically difficult resection of tumors located at the posterosuperior segments with similar outcomes to laparoscopic resection. Associated liver partition and portal vein ligation for staged hepatectomy (ALPPS) procedure allows resection in patients with HCC, and associated major vascular resection or small future liver remnant (FLR) with long-term results yet to be announced. For patients with small solitary tumors or poor liver function, nonanatomical liver resection is a feasible therapeutic option due to minimal postoperative morbidity and similar oncological results of anatomical resection.",signatures:"Vasileia Ntomi, Anna Paspala and Dimitrios Schizas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62944",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62944",authors:[{id:"203349",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimitrios",surname:"Schizas",slug:"dimitrios-schizas",fullName:"Dimitrios Schizas"},{id:"254619",title:"MSc.",name:"Vasileia",surname:"Ntomi",slug:"vasileia-ntomi",fullName:"Vasileia Ntomi"},{id:"254620",title:"MSc.",name:"Anna",surname:"Paspala",slug:"anna-paspala",fullName:"Anna Paspala"}],corrections:null},{id:"63150",title:"Metabolic Risk Factors in Hepatocellular Carcinoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80527",slug:"metabolic-risk-factors-in-hepatocellular-carcinoma",totalDownloads:1021,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most frequent primary malignancy of the liver and it is one of the leading causes of cancer-related deaths worldwide. The global burden of hepatocellular carcinoma is growing nowadays. Most cases of hepatocellular carcinoma develop in the background of chronic hepatitis C and B and liver cirrhosis‑well-known risk factor. But despite the reducing incidence of chronic hepatitis infections, an increase in the incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma was observed in the last decades. This could be explained by the increasing prevalence of obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), which are becoming important risk factors in hepatocellular carcinoma. Regular surveillance, as performed for patients with viral hepatitis, is required for patients with metabolic risk factors.",signatures:"Andra-Iulia Suceveanu, Laura Mazilu, Andreea-Daniela Gheorghe,\nAnca Pantea Stoian, Felix Voinea and Adrian-Paul Suceveanu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63150",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63150",authors:[{id:"165823",title:"Dr.",name:"Andra-Iulia",surname:"Suceveanu",slug:"andra-iulia-suceveanu",fullName:"Andra-Iulia Suceveanu"},{id:"166632",title:"Dr.",name:"Adrian-Paul",surname:"Suceveanu",slug:"adrian-paul-suceveanu",fullName:"Adrian-Paul Suceveanu"},{id:"202493",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",surname:"Voinea",slug:"felix-voinea",fullName:"Felix Voinea"},{id:"206380",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",surname:"Mazilu",slug:"laura-mazilu",fullName:"Laura Mazilu"},{id:"222779",title:"Dr.",name:"Andreea",surname:"Gheorghe",slug:"andreea-gheorghe",fullName:"Andreea Gheorghe"},{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian"}],corrections:null},{id:"63142",title:"What Chinese Medicine Can Do for Liver Cancer?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80061",slug:"what-chinese-medicine-can-do-for-liver-cancer-",totalDownloads:1277,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Liver cancer is an international problem, especially in Asian countries. It is because that most liver cancers are already late stage when they are diagnosed, and also most liver cancers have various previous chronic liver diseases induced by alcoholic, virus, and steatosis, etc. In recent years, laboratory and clinical studies focusing on liver cancer by Chinese medicine has been extensively studied. What Chinese medicine treatment formalities can be used in liver cancer? How Chinese medicine can be employed in treatment of liver cancer? What Chinese medicine can contribute to liver cancer? To answer these questions in this chapter, we will review and discuss treatment of liver cancer from Chinese medicine’s perspective with scientific evidences as following three parts: (1) Chinese medicine as the source of discovering new treatment for liver cancer, (2) Chinese medicine as a complementary treatment of liver cancer, and (3) to discuss future research and application of Chinese medicine in liver cancer treatment.",signatures:"Feiyu Chen, Ning Wang and Yibin Feng",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63142",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63142",authors:[{id:"14428",title:"Prof.",name:"Yibin",surname:"Feng",slug:"yibin-feng",fullName:"Yibin Feng"},{id:"175059",title:"Dr.",name:"Ning",surname:"Wang",slug:"ning-wang",fullName:"Ning Wang"},{id:"262796",title:"MSc.",name:"Feiyu",surname:"Chen",slug:"feiyu-chen",fullName:"Feiyu Chen"}],corrections:null},{id:"62856",title:"Interaction of Mitochondrial and Epigenetic Regulation in Hepatocellular Carcinoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79923",slug:"interaction-of-mitochondrial-and-epigenetic-regulation-in-hepatocellular-carcinoma",totalDownloads:1114,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a pathology preceded mainly by cirrhosis of diverse etiology and is associated with uncontrolled dedifferentiation and cell proliferation processes. Many cellular functions are dependent on mitochondrial function, among which we can mention the enzymatic activity of PARP-1 and sirtuin 1, epigenetic regulation of gene expression, apoptosis, and so on. Mitochondrial dysfunction is related to liver diseases including cirrhosis and HCC; the energetic demand is not properly supplied and mitochondrial morphologic changes have been observed, resulting in an altered metabolism. There is a strong relationship between epigenetics and mitochondrion since the first one is dependent on the correct function of the last one. There is an interest to improve or to maintain mitochondrial integrity in order to prevent or reverse HCC; such is the case of IFC-305 that has a beneficial effect on mitochondrial function in a sequential model of cirrhosis-HCC. In this model, IFC-305 downregulates the expression of PCNA, thymidylate synthase, HGF and its receptor c-Met and upregulates the cell cycle inhibitor p27, thereby decreasing cell proliferation. Both effects, improvement of mitochondria function and reduction of tumor proliferation, suggest its use as HCC chemoprevention or as an adjuvant in chemotherapy.",signatures:"Victoria Chagoya de Sánchez, Enrique Chávez, Gabriela Velasco-\nLoyden, María Guadalupe Lozano-Rosas and Alejandro Rusbel\nAparicio-Cadena",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62856",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62856",authors:[{id:"100474",title:"Dr.",name:"Victoria Chagoya De",surname:"Sanchez",slug:"victoria-chagoya-de-sanchez",fullName:"Victoria Chagoya De Sanchez"},{id:"264471",title:"Dr.",name:"Enrique",surname:"Chávez",slug:"enrique-chavez",fullName:"Enrique Chávez"},{id:"264472",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriela",surname:"Velasco-Loyden",slug:"gabriela-velasco-loyden",fullName:"Gabriela Velasco-Loyden"},{id:"264476",title:"MSc.",name:"María Guadalupe",surname:"Lozano-Rosas",slug:"maria-guadalupe-lozano-rosas",fullName:"María Guadalupe Lozano-Rosas"},{id:"264478",title:"Mr.",name:"Alejandro Rusbel",surname:"Aparicio-Cadena",slug:"alejandro-rusbel-aparicio-cadena",fullName:"Alejandro Rusbel Aparicio-Cadena"}],corrections:null},{id:"63171",title:"Biologic and Immunotherapy Developments in Advanced Hepatocellular Carcinoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79872",slug:"biologic-and-immunotherapy-developments-in-advanced-hepatocellular-carcinoma",totalDownloads:993,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common primary cancer of the liver, and the second leading cause of cancer-related mortality worldwide with a very poor 5-year survival. Treatment for HCC includes surgery, liver-directed therapies and systemic therapies. Until 2008, no effective systemic therapy was available for advanced HCC. Sorafenib is the first drug to show improvement in overall survival among patients with advanced HCC in comparison to placebo, and it is approved by U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as a first-line treatment of advanced HCC. After sorafenib approval, several targeted and immune therapies were tested and showed efficacy in advanced HCC. Lenvatinib has been shown to be non-inferior to sorafenib as first-line treatment. Both nivolumab and regorafenib showed improvement in overall survival among patients with advanced HCC as a second line treatment after progression on sorafenib, and both are FDA approved for this indication. There is a limited role for cytotoxic agents in the treatment of advanced HCC.",signatures:"Mohammad Telfah, Mohammed Al-Jumayli and Anwaar Saeed",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63171",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63171",authors:[{id:"254897",title:"Dr.",name:"Anwaar",surname:"Saeed",slug:"anwaar-saeed",fullName:"Anwaar Saeed"},{id:"263408",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",surname:"Telfah",slug:"mohammad-telfah",fullName:"Mohammad Telfah"},{id:"263409",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammed",surname:"Al-Jumayli",slug:"mohammed-al-jumayli",fullName:"Mohammed Al-Jumayli"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8002",title:"Tumor Progression and Metastasis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db17b0fe0a9b6e80ff02b81a93bafa4e",slug:"tumor-progression-and-metastasis",bookSignature:"Ahmed Lasfar and Karine Cohen-Solal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8002.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"32546",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",surname:"Lasfar",slug:"ahmed-lasfar",fullName:"Ahmed Lasfar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10338",title:"Melanoma",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"911948e45d7c681a350a511fd44bb4b3",slug:"melanoma",bookSignature:"Ahmed Lasfar and Karine Cohen-Solal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10338.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"32546",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",surname:"Lasfar",slug:"ahmed-lasfar",fullName:"Ahmed Lasfar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"655",title:"Colorectal Cancer Biology",subtitle:"From Genes to Tumor",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9395fca282ee086f4d33451bca1eadbc",slug:"colorectal-cancer-biology-from-genes-to-tumor",bookSignature:"Rajunor Ettarh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/655.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"78549",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajunor",surname:"Ettarh",slug:"rajunor-ettarh",fullName:"Rajunor Ettarh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"744",title:"Neuroblastoma",subtitle:"Present and Future",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"771ff9574ef2d155e663e4af7244d5ce",slug:"neuroblastoma-present-and-future",bookSignature:"Hiroyuki Shimada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/744.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"77693",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroyuki",surname:"Shimada",slug:"hiroyuki-shimada",fullName:"Hiroyuki Shimada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"696",title:"Hepatocellular Carcinoma",subtitle:"Basic Research",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"893673ea2bfb1c196266aa55ae52f1f0",slug:"hepatocellular-carcinoma-basic-research",bookSignature:"Wan-Yee Lau",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/696.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"73356",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph W.Y.",surname:"Lau",slug:"joseph-w.y.-lau",fullName:"Joseph W.Y. 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Chitin is obtained at an industrial scale from a variety of natural sources including, crustacean and insect exoskeletons, fungi cell walls, squid pen, etc. Chitosan is biodegradable, biocompatible, non-toxic, water-soluble under acidic conditions, and linear cationic amino polysaccharide derived from the deacetylation of chitin. It contains free amino and hydroxyl groups that can be functionalized by binding with the cationic and anionic groups. It has numerous applications, especially in the environmental remediation, biomedical, pharmaceutical, agriculture, and food industries.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book will present an update of articles addressing isolation, properties, and certain applications of chitin and chitosan, including films, fibers, nanoparticles, composite materials, hydrogels, polymeric complexes, water purification, antimicrobials, textile, cosmetics, biosensors, nanoporous scaffolds, and membranes. We invite world-class researchers from around the world, industry, academia, government, and private research institutions are encouraged to publish research or review articles on chitin and chitosan.
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He is a member of the American Chemical Society, Indian Society of Chemists and Biologists, Indian Science Congress Association, Dr. Kumar, and holder of two registered patents. Dr. Kumar is also included in the top 2% of the scientist list prepared by experts at Stanford University, USA.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"176093",title:"Dr.",name:"Brajesh",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"brajesh-kumar",fullName:"Brajesh Kumar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/176093/images/system/176093.JPG",biography:"Dr. Brajesh Kumar is currently working as an Assistant Professor and Head in the Post Graduate Department of Chemistry, TATA College, Chaibasa, India. He received a Ph.D. in Chemistry from the University of Delhi, India. His research interest is in the development of sustainable and eco-friendly techniques for (a) nanoparticles synthesis and their applications for environmental remediation, (b) active films of organic solar cells, (c) nanomedicine, (d) sensors, (e) natural product extraction, purification, and analysis,(f) natural polymers, (g) peptide chemistry, (h) microwave and ultrasound-assisted organic synthesis and (i) organic synthesis. Dr. Brajesh Kumar has been credited for different national and international fellowships and he has also worked as a faculty member in various universities of India, Ecuador, and South Korea. He has also published numerous SCI/ SCIE/ Scopus research articles (h index = 29, Citations 2917) and is also an active reviewer of more than 50 Journals. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Because of high-energy saving potentials, the building sector has become one of the priority areas to meet the EU’s targets for 2020 and 2050 [1]. The Energy Performance of Buildings Directive [2] promotes nearly net-zero energy buildings as a mandatory regulation within 2020. This means that new buildings need less than 30–50 kWh/m2 per year, while existing buildings consume approximately 250 kWh/m2 per year. Therefore, most of the energy consumption is attributable to the existing building stock. Energy savings obtained from retrofitting existing buildings are more significant than the ones that can be obtained with new buildings.
\nThis fact is reflected in the Energy Efficiency Directive [3] through the requirements for:\n
Public sector to renovate 3% of the central government building stock annually to high-energy performance level (nearly net-zero energy buildings).
Energy companies to reduce energy sales by 1.5% every year among their consumers.
Most of the energy savings of the retrofit can be contributed by two key targets: reducing heating demand and increasing the efficiency of HVAC systems. An important factor in achieving the expected reduction target is improving the efficiency of systems without affecting thermal comfort. Typical retrofit measures to reduce the heating demand include applying insulation layers on walls and/or replacing windows. Little attention is given to how the improvements on the building’s envelope affect the settings and efficiency of the heating system. Basically the increase of insulation reduces the heating demand which in turn can reduce flow rates and/or supply temperatures. Reducing the supply temperature makes low-temperature heating system interesting and economically viable [4, 5].
\nSince central-based heating systems with radiators are among the most widely used heating systems in Europe [6], retrofit measures should include heat distribution and heat emission elements. One of the most cost-effective measures on heating systems is the replacement of the heat generator and circulating pump while preserving the distribution system and heat emitters [7]. Reducing the heating demand results in an oversized existing heating system and thus enables a reduction in flow rates and supply temperatures. These steps should be taken to enhance the efficiency of heating system without affecting the level of thermal comfort.
\nThis chapter focuses on the issue of energy efficiency in retrofitted buildings by optimizing the existing heating systems. The heating equipment is considered holistically and it is not intended to improve only individual component efficiency. The following steps are presented:\n
The need for optimization
Impact of heating technology on the optimization process
Optimization of the hydraulic network
An integrated methodology for energy efficiency in retrofitted buildings is proposed through coupling active and passive strategies specifically tailored for application in traditional heating systems. The main results show how the applications of specific building energy retrofit actions could increase the energy efficiency of the heating system without compromising thermal comfort. Finally, a system optimization is also determined by different constraints, i.e., the use, economy rules, and technical regulations. Nevertheless, the optimization and improvement of the heating system efficiency in retrofitted buildings give a unique opportunity that new buildings are not given, namely, the possibility of energy saving [8].
\nContemporary type of building construction with smaller heat losses and demands for increased comfort requires new concept of radiator construction and regulation of heat output. The heat emission of a radiator depends on size, design, and mean temperature difference between the radiator surface and the indoor temperature—excess temperature. At given thermal constraints, the effect of geometrical and thermal parameters of a radiator could be optimized [9]. On the other side, to maintain the desired heat output, it must be regulated according to the condition of thermal comfort and outdoor conditions.
\nControl of the heat output can be realized by changing the radiator surface, by changing the heating water inlet temperature (temperature control), or by changing the mass flow through the radiator (mass control) [10]. The first option is not physically feasible; another option is feasible using relatively complex control system with three-way mixing valve. This control method is used primarily in the central control unit, which regulates the temperature of heating water to a large number of radiators. For local regulation of the heat output, the most commonly used principle is by varying the mass flow of water through the heater, where the flow change is controlled by a throttle valve. This system is easy and most affordable, so almost all systems of local regulation of radiators are based on “throttling.” From the standpoint of regulation, this system has several shortcomings. Since the radiator heat output varies exponentially according to the mass flow rate, in the case of large throttling, a small change in valve position (small change in flow rate) causes a disproportionately big change in heat output. This situation occurs at reduced heat output, oversized radiator (also as a result of proper dimensioning taking into account the heating-up reserve for intermittent/reduced mode of operation of heating system), inappropriate (too high) water inlet temperature, or because of internal and external heat sources.
\nAnother problem is the heat output at reduced water flow rate [11]. Due to the smaller water speed in the radiator, the retention time is longer, resulting in a lower water temperature at the exit of the radiator and a lower average temperature of the radiator. Low water flow rate also causes mixing of inlet water with colder water in the radiator. These result in a less effective inlet water temperature, so the heat emitted is significantly different—lower—than expected, according to standard calculation methods with respect to excess temperature. Heating systems mostly operate at variable loads, which depend on the regulation. One of the tasks of heating systems is not only to provide the necessary heat but also to adapt the heat output as quickly as possible to the change of heat load. From this viewpoint, it is recommended to have heating systems (including radiators) with low thermal inertia.
\nThe refurbishment of the building envelope affects the thermal characteristics, which have a significant effect on the heating system operating conditions and consequently on its energy efficiency. To ensure the latter, we must consider the following aspects: the efficiency of each component and the efficiency of the system, which is determined with the interactions of individual components. For the whole system efficiency, the following conditions must be met:\n
properly sized and set system elements (radiators, valves, piping system, pumps, heat generators)
setting of local and central regulation
optimal hydraulics
These conditions apply both to new and existing buildings. Most of the heating system components are already determined in existing buildings. The refurbishment of the building envelope therefore requires an adjustment of existing system components to achieve optimal operation and consequently proper energy efficiency. The fundamental difference between the optimization of an existing and new system is that optimal operation of existing systems is achieved with adjusting their settings, whereas the optimization of new systems is based on selecting components of proper quality and characteristics.
\nOptimization and efficiency are closely connected with internal environment quality and operating conditions. Internal environment conditions that enable a proper quality of living or a proper thermal comfort level must be considered [12]. Thermal comfort level of a certain thermal environment directly determines energy use. Therefore, we cannot discuss the heating system efficiency without the achieved thermal environment. The optimization goal is to achieve a proper thermal comfort level with minimal energy use.
\nThe refurbishment of the building envelope results in a decrease of the required heat for heating and the power of radiators. Therefore, operation of the heating system has to be adjusted to the new operating conditions. After the building envelope refurbishment, the heating load of the outer rooms generally decreases more significantly than at the inner rooms. The heating load decrease depends on the improvement of the building envelope thermal transmittance and the fraction of outer wall area. A larger fraction of outer wall area results in a more significant decrease in the required radiator power. However, thermal insulation does not cause a significant decrease in the required radiator power for inner rooms. Consequently, it is important that we after the building envelope refurbishment properly adjust the thermal power of radiators according to the heating load decrease in the room in which they are installed.
\nThe radiator thermal power is defined by the supply temperature and the mass flow. For the determination of the required thermal power of the radiator heat, losses due to transmission (Eq. (1)) must be considered:
where
The change of the heat load before and after the envelope refurbishment is therefore:
where index 1 designates the properties before the refurbishment and index 2 the properties after the latter. It is assumed that the areas of external walls as well as internal and external temperature do not change.
\nThe required heat is provided by the radiator, whereby its thermal power is defined according to Ref. [13]:
where
The radiator excess temperature is defined as a logarithmic temperature difference between the average radiator surface temperature and the room temperature:
where
The change of the emitted heat by the radiator is defined with the following relation:
where
If we assume that the radiator area does not change and that the radiator exponent is constant, the change of the emitted heat depends only on the excess temperature change:
The heat required for heating is provided with the flow of heated water through the radiator. The heat emitted from water depends on the mass flow and cooling down of the water:
where
The change of the emitted heat is so defined with the following relation:
where index 1 designates the state before while index 2 designates the state after the refurbishment.
\nFrom Eqs. (2), (6), and (8), the influence of building thermal envelope change on the change of radiator heat output can be seen. It can also be seen that this change can be compensated with:
\n\nHereby, we considered the interdependence between Eqs. (6) and (8). At constant water temperature, the return and excess temperatures change because of the water mass flow change. The interdependence between water mass flow and the radiator excess temperature can be depicted graphically [14, 15]. Figure 1 shows the emitted heat of a radiator with radiator exponent
The emitted heat is shown as a relation between the heat output at standard conditions
\nFigure 2 shows an example of the effect of heat loss reduction on the change of radiator operating conditions.
\nHeat output of the radiator at operating conditions 75/65/20 [
Heat output at the reduced heat demand for 33%.
Point 1 represents the radiator thermal power before the refurbishment, whereby the temperature regime 75/65/20 [13] was assumed. If the radiator is properly sized and selected, the thermal power is
Point 2: mass flow
Point 3: mass flow
Point 4: mass flow
The difficulty in determining the heating system operating parameters is that the reduction in the required thermal power is generally not the same for the other rooms (other radiators). For a room with a higher fraction of external surfaces, the reduction in the required thermal power is more significant, e.g., 40%. This case is depicted in Figure 3.
\nHeat output at reduced heat demand for 40%.
Instead of starting point 1, the required radiator heat output at maintained water mass flow is achieved at temperature operating conditions determined with the previously described procedure. The new state corresponds to the temperature regime 57/51/20 or the mean logarithmic excess temperature 33.9 K. We reach the required heat output with the temperature and mass flow combinations depicted as the red line in Figure 3.
\n\nFigures 2 and 3 show that a higher flow rate can be necessary despite the lower thermal power of the radiator after the refurbishment (point 3 in Figures 2 and 3) or a supply temperature equal or lower to the previous value (point 4 in Figures 2 and 3). The dependency between the flow rate and temperature is depicted with a red line between points 3 and 4. Therefore, in the first step, we can determine the boundary conditions, which define optimal operation of the heating system:\n
The water supply temperature should be lower or equal to the value before the refurbishment.
Water flow rate should be lower or equal to the value before the refurbishment.
We can depict the restrictions on the operating parameters of the heating system as constrictions of individual radiator operating parameters. Figure 4 shows the operating parameters of both radiators. The maximal supply temperature is limited with point 1, whereas the minimal value is limited with point 2.
\nOperating conditions for both radiators after refurbishment.
Since the supply temperature must be equal for all radiators, an intermediate temperature is chosen, e.g.,
Radiator heat output at a unified supply temperature.
With the heating system temperature, we determine the type of the heat generator or its temperature regime. If we want to use a gas-fired condensing boiler or a heat pump, the required maximal supply temperature is
However, in the described example, a supply temperature decrease is possible at the assumption that the critical radiator is replaced. Figure 6 depicts the case in which the system supply temperature in additionally lowered to
Influence of reduced supply temperature.
Because of the lower supply temperature, a higher water mass flow is required. The required flow rate for radiator 1 is
During building retrofit energy use efficiency and cost-effectiveness must also be considered besides the costs. In practice, the retrofit of a building usually consists of a building envelope refurbishment and heat generator replacement. Because of the high cost and the interference in living areas, the heating system (pipping and radiators) is not significantly altered. The envelope refurbishment results in a decrease in the heat required for heating and consequently in the lowering of the required thermal power of the radiators and the heat generator. The lowered thermal power enables the lowering of the heating system temperature regime and thereby the option of using a more efficient heat generator. However, heating system efficiency is conditioned with ensuring thermal comfort, which must be met in every case.
\nIn this work, a method for determining the heating system operation conditions is presented. The problem of uneven reduction in the required thermal power of radiators is exposed, which is a consequence of uneven decreases in room heat losses. A larger fraction of outer wall area results in a more significant decrease in the required radiator power in that room. Therefore, new operation parameters must be determined based on the load of individual radiators. The presented method is demonstrated on a case of two radiators with different thermal characteristics.
\nThe influence of radiators on the building system’s energy efficiency is taken into account in two respects: with the determination of the whole system’s temperature regime and the required mass flow rate. Both parameters are interdependent; thus, parameter optimization is achieved under the consideration of proper boundary conditions. In the demonstrated example, the following conditions were considered: the flow rate must be lower or equal to the existing one—hereby minimal energy use of the circulating pump is assured. The second restriction represents the supply temperature, which must be lower or equal to the existing value, which is a precondition for efficient heat generator operation. The temperature of radiators required to still ensure thermal comfort of the room was also considered. The combination of both parameters ensures optimal and energy-efficient operation of the heating system.
\nLong-term change in the weather pattern is affected by natural and human factors. Climate is changing every day due to several natural processes as well as by human acts. One of the biggest sources of climate change is the accumulation of carbon dioxide in our atmosphere. Carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere by burning fossil fuel, automobile smoke, chlorofluorocarbons released from electric appliances (Air conditions or refrigerators), and volcanic eruptions. Humans release carbon dioxide into the air during respiration. Accumulation of carbon dioxide in an atmosphere enhanced the greenhouse effect because carbon dioxide is considered one of the most important gases in greenhouse gases. It is observed that amount of carbon in the atmosphere is 80% increases today from the time when life on earth started. The main reason for this increased value is humans. In past released carbon was utilized by plants as it is the main element in photosynthesis. But with the passage of time human population increases and agricultural land is being utilized by humans for shelter. With the advancement of colonization deforestation started and agricultural land or cultivated land turned into housing societies. Carbon dioxide released from automobile vehicles accumulates in the air [1]. Other gases include methane, Nitrous oxide, Ozone, Water vapor, Halocarbons. These gases create a sheet around the earth. This sheet is denser in the northern hemisphere because of extreme cold they use more fossil fuels. This sheet of gases causes a rise in temperature on earth also known as global warming. These two terms are inter-related. This temperature rise not only affects humans but also disturbs all the natural habitats and ecosystems on earth. Climate change effect not externally humans, plants, animals, and microbes but also internally by interrupting their genome and causing mutation and cause permanent change on a species level. It causes many animal and plants species endangered. This also interferes with the life cycle of insects and it makes pathogens resistant and cultivars fail to respond better which ultimately leads to food security issues.
Due to global warming agriculture faces serious threats like low crop productivity which leads to global hunger and this low production rise the cost of food commodities and makes it unaffordable for the poor population. Global warming affects the pattern of rainfall which contributes to other disasters. Rise in atmospheric carbon dioxide reduced wheat products as well as nutritional value also down and, in some cases, due to change in the chemical composition some crops start producing toxins [2]. Plant responses to climate change by altering their phenological characteristics. Flowering and fruiting or grain filling in the case of cereals is a very important stage that is particularly affected, it affects pollination, root growth, seed formation, number of seed production, leaf expansion, and ripening of the crop. Time for flowering and fruit ripening is affected by the environment, photoperiod, and vernalization [3].
Wheat is a major cereal crop everywhere in the world, it is an important source of energy for the human diet [4]. Wheat is 90% irrigated by arid and semi-arid climates to grow wheat. Wheat in rainfed areas is most affected by climate change. Climate change affects wheat productivity in Australia, Mexico, every year 2.85 billion dollars of wheat loss [5].
Expected food demand will be double by 2050, and production yield losses due to global warming and rise in carbon dioxide concentration. This global warming causes very negative aspects on plants, pathogens, insects, and pests [6] (Figure 1) .
Crop yield dependency and limiting factors related to climate change [
In this hot climate, every prediction regarding climate shows extreme weather conditions [9]. Climate change has a very different effect on crop productivity. It is estimated that a 1°C increase in temperature can cause a 10–20% decrease in crop yield globally. Similarly, a 1 to 3°C increase in temperature is estimated to reduce 20–30% yield reduction in potato crops [10]. This effect can be even worse till the end of this century it is expected to be 2–4°C even more rise in temperature which affects crop production [11]. Change in weather conditions ultimately made extreme climate shift permanently and affect agriculture in the whole world [12]. These extreme temperature changes during sensitive stages like flowering, anthesis, and milking stage affect wheat yield, grain weight, and grain size at the end of season significantly [13]. Nuttall et al. [14] experimented on wheat production with the combined effect of high temperature and CO2 enhanced concentration. Results showed that when the temperature was 36 ± 2°C during anthesis it reduced 13 percent and most grains were sterile. Asseng et al. [15] concluded that a 2°C increase in temperature in the Australian core growing area would reduce yield up to 50%. Therefore, heat stress is very critical for future wheat production in Australia, numerous studies are carried out around the globe for risk assessment for yield regarding heat, rainfall, and drought condition along with different cropping patterns [16]. Early maturity rescues the wheat from drought stress in Europe. Drought is linked with low rainfall and high temperature but it is can be managed up to some extent [17].
The wheat crop suffers due to several limiting factors, i.e., biotic (insects, disease, pest, weeds), abiotic stress (heat, cold, drought, and nutrients) effects. At specific wheat growth stages, these factors have decreasing and restricted aspects on wheat crop. The CO2, radiation, and temperature have positive and significant effects on wheat growth. These factors are directly proportional to the wheat yield [7, 8].
Different studies reported that climate change reported that directly predict crop yield. Every 1-degree rise in temperature decrease the growth attributes and ultimately yield. A comprehensive change in growing season temperature was reported. They predict 100 years crop model for global climate change (variation in temperature & rainfall) and their effect on the wheat yield based on 100 years’ data [18].
In the north of Europe, flowering time is very much affected by dry climatic conditions and it causes drastic yield losses [19].
Wilcox and Makowski [20] used 90 articles and made data set of climate change of different regions, i.e., USA, Spain, UK, and Australia. Variability in average yield is high in regions like UK, USA, and Australia, it ranged between −100 and + 90% in the Australian region.
The conclusion of this analysis includes a meta-analysis for wheat production and yield in the future. Analysis was done with high CO2 concentration, a decline in rainfall along with rising temperature this increased wheat yield but results varied with location. Meta-analysis for wheat explores quick results regarding wheat production [20].
Effect of wheat yield with this climate change scenario till 2050 and impact of this change impart negative effect on wheat production. All studies carried on wheat production were based on global warming and rising temperature with several global climate change models, Hernandez-Ochoa et al. [21] studied the effect of temperature with the rise in carbon dioxide and change in rainfall pattern. The researcher used 5 global climate modeling and 2 ensembles with 2 scaling methods and quantified uncertainty. Spatial and temporal variability on different locations under study showed yield reduction with high temperature and carbon dioxide concentration. The same results were shown with other studies [22].
Under high-temperature spikes, production is reduced and spikes get vulnerable to disease stress. Temperature above 32°C at the time of anthesis, make grain shorter in size, grain filling duration in the spikes is also reduced which ultimately affects the wheat yield [22]. Wheat in rainfed areas is more affected with change in rainfall pattern, rainfall declines and it affects the production of wheat directly, yield decline 5–7 percent with the rise in each degree of temperature [23]. Asseng et al. [24] counted in Sudan, and find a 6 percent yield reduction with a 13°C rise in temperature, which was raised from 27°C.
Carbon dioxide in the air is an important source of carbon for plants, unfortunately, this CO2 level is increasing day by day due to human activities. This elevation not only results in ozone depletion but also affects the growth and yield of field crops. It is observed that an increase in carbon dioxide increases the rate of photosynthesis, it increases water efficiency and high nutrient availability [25]. In C3 plants increase of CO2 level up to 1 k ppm stimulates the rate of photosynthesis [26] but this does not increase the yield or biomass of the plant. As yield in the wheat crop is depends not only on the rate of photosynthesis but also on the active phase of photosynthesis along with sink capacity of grain [26].
The experiment performed by Fangmeier et al. [27] and concluded that the rise in CO2 level increases nitrogen sink capacity and also reduces the photosynthetic period which results in poor growth and reduced yield. Another experiment performed by Kimball et al. [28] increase carbon dioxide to 12% with the limited supply of nutrients and yield increase was observed only 7% as compared to control but consume more water. Daepp et al. [29] experimented with wheat by adding nitrogen fertilizer along with elevated CO2, this nitrogen helps in overcoming carbon sinking especially during the reproductive stage. The researcher concludes that if a crop is grown the plant can be enhanced by using biological nitrogen fixation process, this also favors the yield of legume crops as they already have this natural phenomenon [30].
Carbon dioxide elevation and temperature by a few degrees may disturb the positive aspects. The experiment was done on wheat by doubling CO2 and increasing 1.5 to 4°C showed a negative effect on wheat yield.
The temperature of the atmosphere is increasing day by day due to global warming and greenhouse gasses. Temperature increases decrease the positive aspects caused by elevated carbon dioxide for plants. The rise in temperature increases the rate of leaf transpiration from the plant [31]. Nevertheless, carbon dioxide elevation can offset the negative effect of high temperature by lowering the stomatal opening and reducing the transpiration rate. Higher temperature can also help in plant production, especially in Mediterranean regions where crop production effects by lower temperature [32]. But elevated CO2 and temperature change the pattern of rainfall in arid and semi-arid regions which affect plant production very badly. This shift of rainfall has negative as well as positive effects on agriculture. Like in rainfed areas it limits the plant growth while in high rainfall areas it avoids water logging conditions and helps plants to grow well. Wheat is normally grown in the area of less than 550 mm of rainfall and 325 mm is received by the wheat plants in that region. But according to rainfall prediction for 2070, it is expected that by an increase of 10% reduce the winter rain up to 60%, while another research predicted that rainfall will be reduced by 15% till 2030 and 30% till 2070. This prediction is proving right during past years and it is the biggest threat to wheat in rainfed areas of the world [33].
Increased carbon dioxide level is beneficial for C3 plant, as it increases biomass yield and increases metabolism and stomatal conductance as well as an increased rate of photosynthesis. If temperature increases, it changes the uptake of nitrogen, carbon and decreases the nutritional value of the grains [34]. The condition is even worse when drought, rainfall, and less humidity affect plant growth and production [35].
Fusarium causes different diseases in wheat-like, foot rot, root rot, and head blight in wheat, which causes huge yield losses [36].
Jacobs et al. [40] experimented on plant decomposition and study on soil temperature and its effect on microbe’s survival under natural field conditions. In this experiment amount of bacteria and fungus were counted with the amino sugars and muramic acid. For fungus, ergosterol is used to access fungal biomass as it does not mix with soil organic components plus it is a major part of the fungal cell membrane [41].
Lukas et al. [38] performed an experiment on the survival of three fungal pathogens
Climate changes where effect every part of agriculture it does not leave insects unaffected. Plant productivity decreases due to the rise in temperature and drought conditions are directed linked with global warming. When plant population decreases it directly affects the insect population which survives on plants. It also contributed to increasing insect outbreaks [44, 45]. This temperature and drought increase causes wildfire and causes plant mortality which ultimately carbon sinks and rising carbon levels in the air [46, 47]. Major insects which threaten wheat yield are wheat stem sawfly, and orange blossom wheat midge, which causes losses up to the economic threshold level [48]. Change in carbon dioxide amount in the atmosphere causes a significant impact on plants, insects, and microorganisms. Insects along with disease pathogens reduce significant yield losses besides all the control strategies [34].
Global warming changes the biochemistry of plants which impacts herbivorous insects and pathogens [49]. Insect populations are disturbed by different abiotic factors due to global warming. Insect population increases in this rising temperature and transmit virus very smoothly from infected to a healthy plant. These climate changes affect badly beneficial insects which cannot survive in dry weather with hot temperatures, it also affects their ability to kill harmful insects [50]. The negative effect of climate change, increase in temperature and CO2 concentration, an increased photosynthesis rate, and increase productivity but reduce agricultural production due to changing weather patterns [51].
The amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide increasing day by day due to the modern standard of living and industrialization. It had been raised to 50% after the industrial revolution [52]. It was 270 μmol/mol which was 408 μmol/mol in 2017 [53]. It was predicted that if carbon dioxide is released at this rate its concentration in the atmosphere will be around 550 μmol/mol till 2050 [54]. Carbon dioxide is the main constituent of photosynthesis so this affects directly to plant growth and metabolism. But this too much carbon dioxide is harmful to C3 plants, this increases the plant biomass and leads to the carbon dioxide fertilization effect. This phenomenon is explained in different perspectives of the agricultural ecosystem but its extent varied from region to region depending upon the environmental condition and temperature and amount of water in soil [55]. Rainfall in arid, semi-arid, and temperate region and its effect on plants are monitored by free air CO2 enrichment (FACE) [56]. Different regions respond differently to this elevated CO2 like nutrient uptake, water supply to the plant, water reservoirs in the hot and dry time of year, modeling presents that massive uncertainty in the response of the crop to elevated crop. Wheat is grown everywhere and almost 15% of annual yield is affected by climatic conditions in Mediterranean areas. In Mediterranean regions main water source is rainfall, which is important for the early growth stages of the wheat plant. The grain filling stage in wheat is badly affected due to a shortage of water supply this condition is termed as terminal drought which ultimately affects the yield of the crop [57, 58]. This drought helps wheat to produce a long root system plus reduce stomatal conductance to conserve available water, but this may be harmful at the grain filling stage. On the other hand, if more water is available then it kept on increasing vigor and plant height, and delayed reproductive stages of the plant may be died off before grain formation. The plant also gets vulnerable to disease attacks [59].
The reason for global warming and temperature variation is CO2 elevation and many other greenhouse gases which trap heat and raise the temperature in the atmosphere. Prediction on temperature elevation on this planet till 2100 will be increased from 2, 9.7°C which is 1.1–5.4°C is now. The temperature will fluctuate due to heat-trapping gases. CO2 is added to the air due to the burning of coal and fossil fuels. So, if humans kept on using these things as an energy source, then exact figures for temperature variation are impossible. Scientists work to develop so much for better understanding and awareness in public, they develop a model named as global climate model for prediction, and this is computerized software. This predicts the number of greenhouse gases and concentrations in the air in different situations. For example, the current concentration of CO2 in the air is 9 billion metric tons per annum and it would be 12 billion if kept on growing till the end of 2040, but if the situation is controlled it can be reversed to 5 billion which was in 1990. Temperature mainly depends upon the carbon dioxide emission if it increases temperature will go up and vice versa [60, 61].
Global warming affects crop productivity throughout the world. Expensive food items are the first sign of a sudden food shortage in the world’s crop yield which will be even more shortly if remain uncontrolled. For this reason, scientist needs to develop crop seeds that are resistant to drought, salinity, and major diseases which are the major threatening factors. So that wheat crop production increases to meet the demand of the human population. Adaptation includes agronomic practices like time of sowing, water management, nutrient availability, timely weeding, and resistant cultivars are helpful tools. Genetically modified crops are important tools for production. It is an easy and quick way as compared to a conventional breeding method which is not reliable and time taking. Molecular breeding enhances the wheat productivity to fight with different abiotic and biotic stresses that crops have to face when cultivated in a field. Molecular markers help to identify the insertion and activity of various genes. Advancement in DNA sequencing helps in finding novel resistant genes and their insertion in different crops possible [62]. Government should make management strategies for the minimization of global warming. New projects should be designed for the conservation of water loss, minimizing the use of pesticides in fields. Public awareness campaigns should be initiated at the individual level to stop activities that are changing our ecosystem. Pollution-free water should be used to irrigate agricultural land. There should be instruments for the assessment of Carbon concentration in air, and temperature monetization. Training sessions should be made to practice techniques that are helpful in conservation [63].
Climate changes cause an increase in carbon dioxide emission, which causes the greenhouse effect around the globe, it affects all agriculture ecosystems in different ways, sometimes one factor favors plant growth but in combination with other shifts the positive effect into a drastic negative effect. This chapter detail about rise in temperature variation in different regions of the world and its effect on wheat plant growth, biochemistry, grain size and weight, effect on insect pest population, on microbial pathogens. Reviewing literature it has been found that global increase in carbon dioxide helps C3 plants to increase growth, improve plant water uptake capacity and yield of crops. It also favors C3 plants to compete with C4 weed that is grown side by side with the main crop, plants become more resistant to diseases. But these benefits turn negative when the temperature of the area increases, suddenly plants lose the ability to uptake minerals from the soil, and reeducation of grain size, grain weight, and crop resistance towards diseases, increase pest population and water holding capacity of plants. Temperature variation alters the rate of precipitation which ultimately increases drought conditions which is very crucial for wheat growing in rainfed and Mediterranean regions of the world. This condition helps C4 weeds instead of the wheat crop which increases the competition between crop and nutrient for food and water. It is also included as a topic of discussion that if these effects remain uncontrolled it will cause a major food shortage in coming years when food is already expected to be doubled as the world population increases day by day and industrialization increases all these risks. So, it is important to practice the management practice suggested in the chapter to conserve our ecosystem and make this planet a safe place to live.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. 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While manufacturing nonwovens, some conventional textile operations, such as carding, drawing, roving, spinning, weaving or knitting, are partially or completely eliminated. For this reason the choice of fiber is very important for nonwoven manufacturers. The commonly used fibers include natural fibers (cotton, jute, flax, wool), synthetic fibers (polyester (PES), polypropylene (PP), polyamide, rayon), special fibers (glass, carbon, nanofiber, bi-component, superabsorbent fibers). 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