\r\n\t \r\n\tContamination with biomedical waste and its impact on the environment are global concerns. Biomedical waste that has not been collected and disposed in accordance with the regulations can become a total environmental hazard and cause negative impact on human health and the environment. Medical centers including hospitals, clinics, and places where diagnosis and treatment are conducted generate waste that is highly hazardous and put people under risk of fatal diseases. On the other hand, food waste is commonly produced in all the steps of food life cycle, such as during agricultural production, industrial manufacturing, processing and distribution, and is even consumer-generated within private households. Food waste mostly contains high-value components such as phytochemicals, proteins, flavor compounds, polysaccharides, and fibers, which can be reused as nutraceuticals and functional ingredients. Adsorption is a practicable separation method for purification, along with bulk separation where surface characteristics and pore structures are the main properties in determining equilibrium rate. Managing waste materials on the whole is often unsatisfactory, especially in developing countries, and the unreasonable disposal of waste is a major issue worldwide.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe following issues will be of particular interest for this book: effects of waste on environment and health, biomedical waste - storage, management, treatment, and disposal, biomedical waste contamination, food waste, potential applications of low-cost sorbents in agricultural and food sectors, biosorbents and bioadsorbents, adsorption of modified agricultural and biological wastes (biosorption), compounds recovered from food waste, and agricultural and food waste-derived sorbents.
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1. Introduction
Granular materials are a broad category of materials of interest in Civil engineering, Chemical engineering, Mining Industry, Physics, Chemistry, Pharmacy and Agriculture. In engineering, great advances took place recently by the introduction, both, of experimental and computational methods. X-ray tomography revealing the grain materials structure and the distinct elements computational method are two of them. The granular materials may behave as fluids or solids or both. The grains size may span from microscopic to macroscopic scale. From the wet sand effect, Reynolds inspired in 1885 [1] the notion of granular universe introducing the term “dilatancy.” In his Rede Lecture in Cambridge [2] entitled On an Inversion of Ideas as to the Structure of Universe, he presented an explanation of the cause of electromagnetism giving a physical interpretation of the equations linking electricity with magnetism. In Figure 1, the experiment to show the effect of dilatation in the Rede Lecture is presented.
Figure 1.
Experiment presented in Reynolds’ Rede Lecture to show the dilatancy phenomenon. In Fig. 11 of the original publication, a bag filled with water is shown. After squeezing the bag, the water rises in the tube. In contrary, in Fig. 12, as above, a big filled with small shot and colored water is shown. In this case, the squeezing of the bag caused a drop of the water in the tube resulted from the increase of voids in the coarse material.
Later on, Lorentz gave the relativistic explanation of the electromagnetic waves. Schofield [3] gives a short account of Reynolds’ ideas. In 1930, Casagrande introduced the concept of critical voids ratio to explain the liquefaction phenomenon. Donald Taylor in 1948 used the concept of dilatancy to explain the friction as result of the interlocking of grains. Later on in 1960, Cambridge soil mechanics group [4] introduced the models of Cam-Clay and Granta-Gravel to explain the plastic behavior of soil. On the other hand, researchers from Mathematics and Physics like Bak et al. [5] and Bak [6] used the sand pile as a representative model of complex systems (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
The sand pile as the prototypical example of the self-organized criticality [6].
Many researchers continue developing the concept of self-organized criticality to explain physical phenomena like earthquakes, landslides and avalanches. Werner [7], using notions and principles of Complexity Theory, explains the localization of shear: “…the most rapidly changing parts of the system tend to be localized in space. Familiar examples include localization of shear into narrow bands in turbulent fluids and in solid deformation or fracture. Patterns inherently involve localization because they can be described with fewer spatial dimensions than the space in which they are embedded: lines for two-dimensional patterns and surfaces in three-dimensional patterns.”
This volume presents basic notions and fundamental properties of granular materials covering a wide spectrum of granular material mechanics. In this collection of chapters, granular dynamics, granular flow from dilute to jammed states, dynamics of granular gas in microgravity, particle jetting induced by impulsive loadings, particle migration phenomena in embankment dams and the grading entropy-based criteria of granular materials and filters are presented. The scientific areas of the above are very broad, with applications from earth dams to space flights.
In the first chapter, a theoretical framework of granular dynamics using a generalized Lagrangian approach is presented, discussing future directions of computational granular dynamics. The second chapter focuses on the mechanical responses of a granular material describing the mechanical behavior of dissipative, deformable particles in different states, from fluid to solid states. The next chapter presents an experimental study of the dynamical behavior of a model granular medium. The model has been submitted to external vibrations under microgravity, the whole process being recorded using high-speed video camera. The fourth chapter is an experimental and numerical study of the particle jetting phenomenon observed in the explosive or shock disposal of particle rings, shells or cylinders. Continuum approach, for the explosive case, and Distinct Element Method for the shock-induced jetting have been adopted. In the following two chapters, important hydraulic properties of earth dams are presented, affecting their structural integrity. First, a numerical procedure has been developed to simulate particle migration phenomena due to seepage resulting erosion. The method has been applied in case studies. The final chapter presents entropy-based criteria to control the internal erosion process in earth dams. According to this procedure, the whole grading curve is used instead of a limited number of points, as is usually adopted.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/56746.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/56746.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56746",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56746",totalDownloads:1087,totalViews:117,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:52,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"June 21st 2017",dateReviewed:"July 6th 2017",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"September 6th 2017",dateFinished:"August 18th 2017",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/56746",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/56746",book:{id:"5915",slug:"granular-materials"},signatures:"Michael G. Sakellariou",authors:[{id:"16550",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Sakellariou",fullName:"Michael Sakellariou",slug:"michael-sakellariou",email:"mgsakel@mail.ntua.gr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/16550/images/system/16550.jpg",institution:{name:"National Technical University of Athens",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Reynolds O. On the dilatancy of media composed of rigid particles in contact, with experimental illustrations. Philosophical Magazine Series 5. 1885;20(127):469-481'},{id:"B2",body:'Reynolds O. On an Inversion of Ideas as to the Structure of the Universe. The Rede Lecture 1902. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge; 1902'},{id:"B3",body:'Schofield A. Disturbed Soil Properties and Geotechnical Design. Thomas Telford Ltd, London; 2005. p. 33'},{id:"B4",body:'Roscoe KH. Tenth Rankine Lecture: The Influence of Strains in Soil Mechanics. Géotechnique. 1970;20(2):129-170'},{id:"B5",body:'Bak P, Tang C, Wiesenfeld K. Self-organized criticality: An explanation of 1/f noise. Physical Review Letters. 1987;59(4):381-384'},{id:"B6",body:'Bak P. Self-organized criticality. Physica A. 1990;163:403-409'},{id:"B7",body:'Werner BT. Complexity in natural landform patterns. Science. 1999;284(5411):102-107'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Michael G. Sakellariou",address:"mgsakel@mail.ntua.gr",affiliation:'
National Technical University of Athens, Greece
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1. Carotenoids: natural pigments for coloring in food industry
Carotenoids are a class of natural pigments broadly distributed in nature and synthesized by plants, certain bacteria, fungi and algae. These molecules are classified in two main groups: carotenes, which are pure hydrocarbons (α−/β-carotenes and lycopene), and xanthophylls, which represent the oxygenated derivatives (lutein, zeaxanthin, astaxanthin, fucoxanthin and cryptoxanthin) [1]. These hydrocarbons are formed by eight five-carbon isoprenoid units with conjugated double bonds, responsible of multiple geometrical isomers (cis/trans), although carotenoids are mainly found in the most stable configuration, the all-trans one [2, 3]. These double bonds act as chromophores and are responsible for light absorption in the visual range of the spectrum [4], providing yellow, orange and red coloration [5]. Among the main biological properties described for carotenoids, they stand out for their antioxidant capacity and ability to quench singlet oxygen species [6]. Carotenoids have also been described to wield anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and anti-hyperglycemic activities, to prevent cardiovascular and/or neurodegenerative diseases and to stimulate the immune system [7, 8]. These beneficial properties made them emerge as a promising alternative to synthetic additives, which have been related with negative side-effects. Besides, these pigments improve the nutritional value of foodstuff and can be used for food coloring. These reasons have boosted carotenoids’ market size, which is expected to reach $300 billion by 2024, due to the interest shown by food, animal feeding, pharmaceutical, nutraceutical and cosmetic industries [9].
1.1 Carotenes
1.1.1 Alpha and beta-carotene
Found primarily in microalgae species such as Dunaliella sp. or Arthrospira sp. and vegetables like carrots and pumpkins, β-carotene is an isomer form of α-carotene (Figure 1). The latter compound is also found in these vegetables and in cereals like corn and fruits like peaches and apples [10]. Since β-carotene bioconversion efficiencies surpass those of α-carotene, it is more abundantly distributed among the vegetal kingdom [11]. Carotenes have been approved as Group II food additives by the European Commission under the E160 number [12], being used as an orange-red pigment on non-alcoholic beverages, cheese, pastry and ice cream [13]. Moreover, both pigments are known for being vitamin A (retinal, retinol and retinoic acid) precursors [5]. Vitamin A intake has proven to prevent the development of ocular diseases associated with its deficiency [11, 14] and systemic affections involving an increase of the oxidative status as in immunological diseases or cancers [5]. Thus, their versatility and multiple benefits have made them emerge as high-valued food additives with large economic significance, catching the attention of food industry.
Figure 1.
Chemical structure of α-carotene and β-carotene.
1.1.2 Lycopene
Lycopene can be found in fruits and vegetables, especially in tomatoes (Figure 2), being the carotenoid with the highest antioxidant capacity. It has been seen that this pigment is involved in modulating many anti-inflammatory processes, and some authors have linked it with the prevention of bone diseases, such as osteoporosis [15]. Furthermore, lycopene also shown anticancer effects against several tumoral and normal cell lines, particularly prostate cancer cell lines (PrEC and PC-3), in in vitro and in vivo studies [16, 17]. For all these health benefits and for being easily obtainable, lycopene is widely used by the food industry as a colorant, being applied into many foodstuffs like cheese, sausages or dairy drinks, among many others [10]. However, the major drawback of lycopene is its bioavailability, which depends on several factors, including the food source, people’s metabolism and even the interaction with other food [18].
Figure 2.
Chemical structure of lycopene.
1.2 Xanthophylls
Xanthophylls comprise oxidized derivatives of carotenoids, being broadly available in nature. These pigments are characterized for having yellow, orange or red coloration. Some of the most common xanthophylls present in nature include lutein, zeaxanthin, astaxanthin, β-cryptoxanthin and fucoxanthin (Figure 3) [6]. These compounds are polar molecules and, unlike non-polar carotenes, they get accumulated, contributing to skin pigmentation [1]. Antioxidant, neuroprotective, antiplasmodial or anticancer are some of the biological activities that pointed xanthophylls as a promising nutraceutical. These beneficial bioactivities may have preventive effects in an extensive variety of diseases such as oral, allergic, neurologic, ophthalmologic and immune affections [6]. Moreover, beneficial properties may be transferred to food. Hence, these characteristics have prompted the incorporation of xanthophylls as natural additives to obtain products with a better appearance according to the consumers’ standards [1, 19].
Figure 3.
Chemical structure of a) lutein, b) zeaxanthin, c) astaxanthin, d) cryptoxanthin and e) fucoxanthin.
1.2.1 Lutein
Lutein is a dihydroxy derivative of β-carotene with hydroxyl groups at both sides of the molecule (Figure 3a), converting it in a dipolar xanthophyll. This chemical configuration confers hydrophilic characteristics and improves its capacity to scavenge free radicals [6, 20]. The most common chemical configuration of lutein is acylated with different fatty acids [1], such as lauric (C12:0) or palmitic acid (C16:0), becoming mono- and diacylated derivatives [21]. Leafy vegetables and plants, flower petals and yellow and orange fruits are the most important sources of lutein. Its extraction is mainly carried out with organic solvents from flower petals that have been previously fermented and/or dried [1].
1.2.2 Zeaxanthin
Zeaxanthin (Figure 3b) is a structural isomer of lutein with a darker yellow tone, closer to orange [20]. It is naturally found in leaves of green vegetables, flower petals, in some yellow and orange fruits, corn and even in microbial Flavobacterium sp. Also, it can be transferred into animal products such as egg yolks [6, 20, 22]. Zeaxanthin’s poor stability in presence of oxygen and light and its lipophilic nature limit its applications in food industry. Nanoencapsulation of the molecule seems to be a promising strategy to improve zeaxanthin stability in the final product [22]. Currently, in the food industry, zeaxanthin is used as colorant and feed additive in birds to color skin and egg’s yolk, and in swine and fish for skin pigmentation [20].
1.2.3 Astaxanthin
Astaxanthin (Figure 3c) is a lipophilic carotenoid with a reddish-orange color [23]. This pigment is found in high concentrations in microalgae like Haematococcus pluvialis, and Chlorella zofingiensis. Furthermore, it is also encountered in red yeast like Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous and some bacteria like Agrobacterium aurantiacum [24]. Ascending in the food chain, astaxanthin gets accumulated in crustaceans like krill, shrimps, lobsters or crabs, and fish flesh like in salmon [20, 25]. This xanthophyll is mainly used as a food additive in aquaculture for animal feeding, as well as in poultry, to provide the characteristic pigmentation [24]. However, astaxanthin presents several disadvantages such as undesirable sensory attributes, low solubility in water and is easily oxidated, problems that can be overcome by microencapsulation [26]. Moreover, this molecule exerts a powerful quenching of singlet oxygen activity and scavenging oxygen free radicals, translated into a high antioxidant activity. These qualities convert astaxanthin into a promising supplement with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties [24, 27].
1.2.4 Cryptoxanthin
β-cryptoxanthin is a naturally occurring pigment mainly found in tropical fruit like papaya, highlighting its accumulation in citrus fruit such as oranges and tangerines [28]. This xanthophyll is closely related to β-carotene since, aside from being a vitamin A precursor, their structures are very similar, varying by just the addition of a hydroxyl group in one of the β-ionone rings in β-cryptoxanthin’s structure (Figure 3d), resulting in a bipolar conformation. These conformation makes its bioaccumulation easier, facilitating food coloring as well as being more nutritionally valuable, contributing to vitamin A production [29]. Moreover, β-cryptoxanthin intake has been associated with a reduced risk of inflammatory diseases, like polyarthritis or rheumatoid arthritis, by suppressing bone resorption and stimulated bone formation [30].
1.2.5 Fucoxanthin
Fucoxanthin (Figure 3e) is mostly known for giving the characteristic brownish/olive-green color to brown algae (Phaeophyceae), as in species belonging to the genus Undaria, Sargassum and Laminaria, although some microalgae, mainly diatoms and Chrysophyta, can accumulate higher concentrations [31, 32]. This pigment has been related with antioxidant, anticancer, antihypertensive, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, anti-obesity, neuroprotective, anti-angiogenic and photoprotective bioactivities [33], being considered as a non-toxic and safe bioactive ingredient for coloring and food supplementation purposes [34]. However, some limitations arise due to its low water-solubility, reduced bioavailability, and sensitivity to temperature, light and oxygen [35]. In addition, its synthesis is complex and expensive and extraction procedures from algae have not been standardized yet [36, 37]. Despite these drawbacks, some studies reported great fucoxanthin stability after encapsulation [38, 39].
2. Natural sources of carotenoids
Generally, natural sources of carotenoids are divided into: i) fruits, vegetables and flowers; ii) microorganisms (microalgae, cyanobacteria, fungi, bacterial and yeasts); and iii) by-products (peels, seeds and skin).
2.1 Fruits, vegetables and flowers
There is a wide variety of fruits and vegetables recognized as natural sources of carotenoids in human diet. Besides, flowers, recently introduced in gastronomy, appeared to be a suitable source of carotenoids (Table 1). In general terms, the most relevant carotenoid found among these groups is β-carotene, although lutein, β-cryptoxanthin, lycopene and zeaxanthin are also highlighted as major carotenoids. Reviewed literature showed very different ranges of carotenoid concentrations depending on the analyzed tissue, variety, ripening stage, geographical origin, etc. [40, 41]. Nevertheless, Table 1 points to fruit as the most relevant source of carotenoids.
Carotenoids extracted from fruits, vegetables and flowers become too expensive due to high production costs associated with large production areas required. Besides, the supply of carotenoids extracted from plants becomes unstable, since it is dependent on unpredictable climatologic conditions [66]. Therefore, more sustainable and green approaches have been explored for a more efficient carotenoids’ collection, including the use of microorganism or the reutilization of agricultural by-products
2.2 Microorganisms
Nowadays, the interest on microbial carotenoids has increased because of their low production area requirements when compared to plants. Besides, microbial cultures are nearly independent of climatic conditions, seasonality and soil composition. Current technological advances permit a tight control of culturing conditions, which improves the efficiency of microbial carotenoid production and reduces costs. Examples of efficient production of carotenoids using microalgae, bacteria, yeasts or fungi are displayed in Table 2, that demonstrates the huge variability of microorganisms capable of producing specific types of carotenoids being the most relevant β-carotene, lutein, astaxanthin, canthaxanthin and torulene (Table 2).
Quantitative and qualitative analysis of carotenoids content in different species microorganisms such as microalgae, bacteria, yeasts, filamentous fungi and cyanobacteria.
Food waste has been increased in the last years driven by an increasing population, expected to reach 10 billion people by 2050, and inefficient and unsustainable production systems [81]. These factors boosted waste production, which is usually composted or burnt, emitting high amounts of CO2 to the atmosphere. To counteract this situation, multiple strategies have been explored in the last decades, such as the revalorization of wastes as source of biomolecules. In fact, peels, seeds, husks, pomace or pulp are recognized as alternative sources of compounds with diverse biological properties [82].
Table 3 collects information about potential agricultural and food by-products as sustainable sources of carotenoids.
In the last decades, macroalgae have been pointed out as a promising source of carotenoids. These photosynthetic organisms contain high amounts of pigments involved in light absorption for nourishment. However, they also have a secondary role related with damage protection from UV exposition. The main xanthophylls found in macroalgae include fucoxanthin, lutein, or zeaxanthin, being fucoxanthin the most abundant one, while β-carotene stands out from carotenes (Table 4). The main advantage of using macroalgae, is that invasive species can be used as an alternative source of carotenoids.
3. Extraction and production techniques for carotenoids recovery
3.1 Conventional extraction
In the last century, pigment extraction has been performed using solid–liquid extraction with different organic solvents. Extracts were later purified via semipreparative high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) [103] or clean up and separation columns using organic solvents such as hexane or dichloromethane [104]. The use of non-polar solvents for carotenoid extraction like petroleum ether or hexane has been linked with toxicity, having a negative impact in the environment in the long term. In addition, in the current legislation regarding the use of these solvents for the production of food ingredients is not allowed. For this reason, in the latest years, novel “greener” extraction processes have been developed for pigment recovery, including supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), pressurized liquid extraction (PLE), ultrasonic assisted extraction (UAE) and microwave assisted extraction (MAE) (Table 5). Implementing these techniques improved, among other things, extraction times, yields and solvent usage [105].
Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) emerged in 80s decade as a promising alternative to conventional organic extractions [106]. This is a process where a compound is separated from its matrix making use of the unique properties of supercritical fluids as solvents, being CO2 the most commonly used. Supercritical fluid technology applies pressures and temperatures above the critical point of the extracting solvent, leading to a balanced state between liquid and gas phases. This balance confers low viscosity, high diffusivity, enhanced solubility and no surface tension, facilitating mass transfer [107]. However, this process involves a high cost, due to high temperatures and pressures requirements. Moreover, CO2 only dissolves non-polar molecules, although using a co solvent overcomes this issue, being ethanol the most employed [108, 109].
As well as in SFE, pressurized liquid extraction (PLE), also called accelerated solvent extraction (ASE), makes use of high temperature and pressure, although along with a liquid solvent to accelerate the extraction of specific analytes from solid matrices. In this system, pressure is high enough to keep the solvent liquid without hampering extraction performance. However, extraction time, temperature, solvent type and volume have influence on extraction performance, especially temperature and solvent type. Temperature range is mostly comprised from 40 to 180°C and it has been seen that the use of Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) solvents, like water, ethanol or its mixtures enhance extraction efficiencies [110]. Nevertheless, other more non-polar solvent mixtures like methanol: tetrahydrofuran can also be used [42].
Ultrasonic assisted extraction (UAE) also emerged as a novel technique, which employs using ultrasonic waves that propagate causing the implosion of bubbles, phenomenon known as cavitation. This perturbation leads to a diffusion of the solute from the porous matrix to the solvent. Nowadays, UAE is used for extracting various compounds including carotenoids from a wide diversity of matrices, such as macroalgae, microalgae and plants. This technique is environment-friendly, simple, cheap and efficient, reporting high yields when compared to conventional techniques, although the reproducibility of the samples is jeopardized by equipment’s aging [111].
Microwave assisted extraction (MAE) is a relatively new extraction technique that combines microwave and traditional solvent extraction. Since the late 1980s, MAE has become one of the most popular and cost-effective extraction methods [112]. This technique is based on the application of microwaves for heating both solvents and matrices, increasing the kinetic of the extraction. Compared to conventional and novel (SFE and PLE) techniques, MAE reduced extraction time and solvent usage, leading to higher extraction rates and reduced costs [93].
4. Carotenoids’ incorporation into food: reported and future applications
Color is an important sensory attribute associated with safety and nutritional values of food, reason why, in the last years, consumer awareness regarding the use of synthetic food coloring has been increased. In order to develop a more natural food industry, natural pigment demand has raised, as is the case for carotenoids. These pigments are used for their coloring properties as well as for their antioxidant potential and biological functions. Carotenoids can be either applied directly into food matrices like beverages or pasta, among others [119, 120], or indirectly, into animal feeding to improve pigmentation of final products as in eggs or fish flesh [1, 29, 121]. Moreover, carotenoids have pointed out as promising ingredients in active packaging films. Their inclusion in protective films can improve the storing properties of the package, extending the shelf-life of the product, as well as transferring carotenoids’ nutritional values [122, 123]. Several applications of carotenoids in the food industry have been collected in Table 6.
Since the late 1980s, carotenoids implementation into food has significantly increased. Among all, β-carotene is the most applied one, being used for coloring oils and butters, providing a yellowish color. In addition, it has been also used to fortify different food matrices for its provitamin A activity [127]. Apart from β-carotene, other carotenoids have been incorporated as free molecules into food matrices (Table 6). However, the direct application of these natural pigments is limited by their low stability, so micro- and nanoencapsulation technologies have been applied. Multiple encapsulation technologies including spray or freeze drying, emulsion, spray chilling, extrusion coating, liposome entrapment, coacervation and ionic gelation [128] have been applied to improve solubility, chemical stability and bioavailability of pigments, as well as for masking unpleasant organoleptic properties [129]. Most of these technologies have been applied to encapsulate carotenoids, generally on a nanometric scale (≤100 nm). The type of encapsulation materials used for food applications have to be food-graded biopolymers such carbohydrates or gums (Persian gum), proteins (gelatin or whey), and animal or vegetal lipids [22, 26, 130]. Emulsion is also a prominent encapsulation processes, which results in an improved bio accessibility and bioavailability [131]. Lutein emulsions, β-carotene oil-in-water emulsions or microcapsules containing lycopene are just some examples of microencapsulation found in the food industry to improve the stability, bio accessibility and bioavailability of these pigments [129, 132, 133]. Similarly, multiple studies support carotenoids’ nanoencapsulation [134, 135].
A different way to incorporate natural pigments in human food is through animal feeding. By doing so, pigments get incorporated in foodstuff such as in fish flesh or eggs, giving a characteristic pigmentation and an increased nutritional value that will be further transferred to humans or animals [121, 136]. One of the main industries where carotenoids have been implemented is aquaculture. Fish factories have been making use of pigments such as β-carotene as an important source of provitamin A, which has been shown to improve the antioxidant capacity and immune system of fish, enhancing growth and preventing lipid peroxidation [137]. In fact, in aquaculture, different biological sources of xanthophylls such as green microalgae, yeast, krill, or crab waste have been utilized as feeding supplements. This complementary pigmentation enhances the nutritional value of fish products by providing strong antioxidant activity and higher amounts of provitamin A [1]. Other industry where pigments are widely use is poultry. EU approved egg yolk and poultry tissues pigmentations with yellow and red carotenoids, including lutein, zeaxanthin, β-cryptoxanthin, violaxanthin and capsanthin [136].
Natural pigments can also be incorporated into packaging materials to improve food preservation. Carotenoids such as lycopene or β-carotene prevent color alterations due to oxidation processes and UV-induced damage, providing stability to packaging polymers [123]. Besides, pigment migration from active packaging into food matrices has been reported, transferring the beneficial properties. As could be seen in Table 6, several carotenoids such have been included in active packaging, achieving promising results.
5. Conclusions
Synthetic pigments have been frequently used as food additives to improve food appearance since colorful products have been associated with healthy and high-quality properties by consumers. However, tendency has slowly shifted towards a stronger presence of natural ingredients due to a raising concern about the negative side effects associated with synthetic molecules. In this context, carotenoids have come up as an attractive replacement of synthetic pigments, being found in multiple sources, like plants, algae, fungi, microorganisms and by-products. Moreover, carotenoids have been linked with diverse beneficial properties, such as antioxidant, prevention of degenerative diseases, cancer and stimulation of the immune system. For all these reasons, carotenoids have caught the attention of many industries, including food, nutraceutical and cosmetic industries.
In order to extract these pigments, novel technologies emerged to improve the extraction rates of traditional techniques, mostly based on maceration. Among these new strategies, SFE and PLE highlight. Equipment may result into an initial economic expense, but they offer satisfactory extraction rates while minimizing solvent usage and experimental times.
Regarding food industry, carotenoids have been widely used for their application into food matrices or as part of packaging materials. Their inclusion as food additives or feed supplements for animals is the most extended and explored application, improving the organoleptic properties and nutritional values, aiming for a higher commercial acceptance. Besides, carotenoids have also been used as ingredients for active packaging films to extend products’ shelf-life. Regardless the matrix of inclusion, natural carotenoids have been incorporated as free molecules or encapsulated. This last strategy prolongs the stability and bio accessibility of carotenoids, protecting core ingredients from chemical degradation.
Furthermore, due to their extensive bioactivities, carotenoids are very useful to formulate new cosmetic ingredients. Besides, its antioxidant properties that can benefit the skin and promote skin regeneration and healthy aging, carotenoids also mitigate the harmful effects of UV radiation, which makes them excellent candidates for their application in cosmetic formulations as preservatives with photoprotective, antioxidant and anti-aging properties.
Acknowledgments
The research leading to these results was funded by Xunta de Galicia supporting the Axudas Conecta Peme, the IN852A 2018/58 NeuroFood Project and the program EXCELENCIA-ED431F 2020/12; to Ibero-American Program on Science and Technology (CYTED—AQUA-CIBUS, P317RT0003) and to the Bio Based Industries Joint Undertaking (JU) under grant agreement No 888003 UP4HEALTH Project (H2020-BBI-JTI-2019). The JU receives support from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program and the Bio Based Industries Consortium. The project SYSTEMIC Knowledge hub on Nutrition and Food Security, has received funding from national research funding parties in Belgium (FWO), France (INRA), Germany (BLE), Italy (MIPAAF), Latvia (IZM), Norway (RCN), Portugal (FCT), and Spain (AEI) in a joint action of JPI HDHL, JPI-OCEANS and FACCE-JPI launched in 2019 under the ERA-NET ERA-HDHL (n° 696295).
The research leading to these results was supported by MICINN supporting the Ramón y Cajal grant for M.A. Prieto (RYC-2017-22891) and the FPU grant for Anxo Carreira Casais (FPU2016/06135); by Xunta de Galicia for supporting the post-doctoral grant of M. Fraga-Corral (ED481B-2019/096), the pre-doctoral grants of P. García-Oliveira (ED481A-2019/295), and by UP4HEALTH Project that supports the work of P. Otero and C. Lourenço-Lopes.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"carotenoids, natural colorants, natural pigments, natural additives, antioxidant, green carotenoid extraction",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/79447.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/79447.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79447",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79447",totalDownloads:152,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"March 29th 2021",dateReviewed:"October 13th 2021",datePrePublished:"November 25th 2021",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"November 25th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The application of natural colorants is increasing in the food industry because they are considered safer and healthier than some synthetic pigments. Natural colorants can improve the organoleptic properties of foodstuffs, provide additional benefits such as enhance their nutritional value and/or extend shelf-life. Plants, fungi, bacteria or algae naturally produce different natural colorants, including carotenoids. These compounds are classified into two main groups: pure hydrocarbon carotenes (α- and β-carotenes, lycopene) and oxygenated derivatives of xanthophylls (lutein, zeaxanthin, astaxanthin, fucoxanthin, cryptoxanthin, etc.). Carotenoids have been related with beneficial properties like antioxidant, antidiabetic, antitumor or antimicrobial, so they are a natural and healthy alternative to the use of synthetic colorants. Thus, it is critical to optimize their extraction, by utilizing novel and green techniques, and their stability through encapsulation processes. This chapter aims to review natural sources of carotenoids, strategies to efficiently extract and produce them and their potential application as food colorants.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/79447",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/79447",signatures:"Catarina Lourenço-Lopes, Anxo Carreira-Casais, Maria Fraga-Corral, Paula Garcia-Oliveira, Antón Soria, Amira Jarboui, Marta Barral, Paz Otero, Jesus Simal-Gandara and Miguel A. Prieto",book:{id:"10362",type:"book",title:"Food Additives",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Food Additives",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Miguel Ángel Ángel Prieto Lage and Dr. Paz Otero",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10362.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-83968-960-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-959-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-961-1",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"317263",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel Ángel",middleName:"Ángel",surname:"Prieto Lage",slug:"miguel-angel-prieto-lage",fullName:"Miguel Ángel Prieto Lage"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Carotenoids: natural pigments for coloring in food industry",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 Carotenes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_1_3",title:"1.1.1 Alpha and beta-carotene",level:"3"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"1.1.2 Lycopene",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"1.2 Xanthophylls",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"1.2.1 Lutein",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"1.2.2 Zeaxanthin",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"1.2.3 Astaxanthin",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"1.2.4 Cryptoxanthin",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"1.2.5 Fucoxanthin",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11",title:"2. Natural sources of carotenoids",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"2.1 Fruits, vegetables and flowers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"2.2 Microorganisms",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"2.3 By-products",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"2.4 Macroalgae",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16",title:"3. Extraction and production techniques for carotenoids recovery",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"3.1 Conventional extraction",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"3.2 Novel techniques",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19",title:"4. Carotenoids’ incorporation into food: reported and future applications",level:"1"},{id:"sec_20",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_24",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Breithaupt DE. Modern application of xanthophylls in animal feeding - a review. Trends in Food Science and Technology. 2007;18:501-506'},{id:"B2",body:'Domonkos I, Kis M, Gombos Z, Ughy B. Carotenoids, versatile components of oxygenic photosynthesis. Progress in Lipid Research. 2013;52:539-561'},{id:"B3",body:'Rodriguez-Concepcion M, Avalos J, Bonet ML, Boronat A, Gomez-Gomez L, Hornero-Mendez D, et al. A global perspective on carotenoids: Metabolism, biotechnology, and benefits for nutrition and health. 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Food Chemistry. 2019;298:125061'},{id:"B111",body:'Roohinejad S, Nikmaram N, Brahim M, Koubaa M, Khelfa A, Greiner R. Potential of novel technologies for aqueous extraction of plant bioactives. In: Domínguez González H, González Muñoz MJ, editors. Water Extraction of Bioactive Compounds: From Plants to Drug Development. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 2017. pp. 399-419 ISBN 9780128096154'},{id:"B112",body:'Delazar A, Nahar L, Hamedeyazdan S, Sarker SD. Microwave-assisted extraction in natural products isolation. Methods in Molecular Biology. 2012;864:89-115'},{id:"B113",body:'Macías-Sánchez MD, Mantell C, Rodríguez M, Martínez de la Ossa E, Lubián LM, Montero O. Comparison of supercritical fluid and ultrasound-assisted extraction of carotenoids and chlorophyll a from Dunaliella salina. Talanta. 2009;77:948-952'},{id:"B114",body:'Mehariya S, Iovine A, Di Sanzo G, Larocca V, Martino M, Leone GP, et al. Supercritical fluid extraction of lutein from Scenedesmus almeriensis. Molecules. 2019;24:1-15'},{id:"B115",body:'Abrahamsson V, Rodriguez-Meizoso I, Turner C. Determination of carotenoids in microalgae using supercritical fluid extraction and chromatography. Journal of Chromatography. A. 2012;1250:63-68'},{id:"B116",body:'de Andrade Lima M, Kestekoglou I, Charalampopoulos D, Chatzifragkou A. Supercritical fluid extraction of carotenoids from vegetable waste matrices. Molecules. 2019;24:446'},{id:"B117",body:'Gallego R, Martínez M, Cifuentes A, Ibáñez E, Herrero M. Development of a green downstream process for the valorization of Porphyridium cruentum biomass. Molecules. 2019;24:15642'},{id:"B118",body:'Lianfu Z, Zelong L. Optimization and comparison of ultrasound/microwave assisted extraction (UMAE) and ultrasonic assisted extraction (UAE) of lycopene from tomatoes. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry. 2008;15:731-737'},{id:"B119",body:'Giuffrida D, Zoccali M, Mondello L. Recent developments in the carotenoid and carotenoid derivatives chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis in food matrices. TrAC, Trends in Analytical Chemistry. 2020;132:116047'},{id:"B120",body:'Cheng S-H, Khoo HE, Kong KW, Prasad KN, Galanakis CM. Extraction of carotenoids and applications. In: Galanakis CM, editor. Carotenoids: Properties, Processing and Applications. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Academic Press; 2020. pp. 259-288 ISBN 9780128170670'},{id:"B121",body:'Moreno JA, Díaz-Gómez J, Fuentes-Font L, Angulo E, Gosálvez LF, Sandmann G, et al. Poultry diets containing (keto)carotenoid-enriched maize improve egg yolk color and maintain quality. Animal Feed Science and Technology. 2020;260:114334'},{id:"B122",body:'Xu J, Wei R, Jia Z, Song R. Characteristics and bioactive functions of chitosan/gelatin-based film incorporated with ε-polylysine and astaxanthin extracts derived from by-products of shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei). Food Hydrocolloids. 2020;100:105436'},{id:"B123",body:'Stoll L, Rech R, Flôres SH, Nachtigall SMB, de Oliveira Rios A. Poly(acid lactic) films with carotenoids extracts: Release study and effect on sunflower oil preservation. Food Chemistry. 2019;281:213-221'},{id:"B124",body:'Jaswir I, Noviendri D, Hasrini RF, Octavianti F. Carotenoids: Sources, medicinal properties and their application in food and nutraceutical industry. Journal of Medicinal Plant Research: Planta Medica. 2011;5:7119-7131'},{id:"B125",body:'Cardoso LAC, Karp SG, Vendruscolo F, Kanno KYF, Zoz LIC, Carvalho JC. Biotechnological production of carotenoids and their applications in food and pharmaceutical products. In: Carotenoids. Rijeka: InTech; 2017'},{id:"B126",body:'Arab M, Razavi SH, Hosseini SM, Nayebzadeh K, Meybodi NM, Khanniri E, et al. Production and characterization of functional flavored milk and flavored fermented milk using microencapsulated canthaxanthin. LWT. 2019;114:108373'},{id:"B127",body:'Van Wayenbergh E, Struyf N, Rezaei MN, Sagalowicz L, Bel-Rhlid R, Moccand C, et al. Cereal bran protects vitamin A from degradation during simmering and storage. Food Chemistry. 2020;331:127292'},{id:"B128",body:'Mart Ó, Calvo MM. Recent advances in astaxanthin micro / nanoencapsulation to improve its stability and functionality as a food ingredient. Marine Drugs. 2020;18:1-25'},{id:"B129",body:'Liu W, Wang J, McClements DJ, Zou L. Encapsulation of β-carotene-loaded oil droplets in caseinate/alginate microparticles: Enhancement of carotenoid stability and bioaccessibility. Journal of Functional Foods. 2018;40:527-535'},{id:"B130",body:'Gomez-Estaca J, Comunian TA, Montero P, Ferro-Furtado R, Favaro-Trindade CS. Encapsulation of an astaxanthin-containing lipid extract from shrimp waste by complex coacervation using a novel gelatin-cashew gum complex. Food Hydrocolloids. 2016;61:155-162'},{id:"B131",body:'Zhang Z, Zhang R, McClements DJ. Encapsulation of β-carotene in alginate-based hydrogel beads: Impact on physicochemical stability and bioaccessibility. Food Hydrocolloids. 2016;61:1-10'},{id:"B132",body:'Xavier AAO, Mercadante AZ. The bioaccessibility of carotenoids impacts the design of functional foods. Current Opinion in Food Science. 2019;26:1-8'},{id:"B133",body:'Pal S, Bhattacharjee P. Spray dried powder of lutein-rich supercritical carbon dioxide extract of gamma-irradiated marigold flowers: Process optimization, characterization and food application. Powder Technology. 2018;327:512-523'},{id:"B134",body:'Steiner BM, Shukla V, McClements DJ, Li YO, Sancho-Madriz M, Davidov-Pardo G. Encapsulation of Lutein in Nanoemulsions Stabilized by Resveratrol and Maillard Conjugates. Journal of Food Science. 2019;84:2421-2431'},{id:"B135",body:'Medeiros AK de OC, Gomes C. de C, Amaral MLQ de A, Medeiros LDG de, Medeiros I, Porto DL, et al. Nanoencapsulation improved water solubility and color stability of carotenoids extracted from Cantaloupe melon (Cucumis melo L.). Food Chemistry. 2019;270: 562-572'},{id:"B136",body:'Grashorn M. Feed additives for influencing chicken meat and egg yolk color. In: Carle R, Schweiggert RM, editors. Handbook on Natural Pigments in Food and Beverages: Industrial Applications for Improving Food Color. Amsterdam: Elsevier Inc.; 2016. pp. 283-302 ISBN 9780081003923'},{id:"B137",body:'Hassaan MS, Mohammady EY, Soaudy MR, Sabae SA, Mahmoud AMA, El-Haroun ER. Comparative study on the effect of dietary β-carotene and phycocyanin extracted from Spirulina platensis on immune-oxidative stress biomarkers, genes expression and intestinal enzymes, serum biochemical in Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus. Fish & Shellfish Immunology. 2021;108:63-72'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Catarina Lourenço-Lopes",address:null,affiliation:'
Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Nutrition and Bromatology Group, Analytical and Food Chemistry Department, University of Vigo, Spain
Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Nutrition and Bromatology Group, Analytical and Food Chemistry Department, University of Vigo, Spain
'},{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Miguel A. Prieto",address:"mprieto@uvigo.es",affiliation:'
Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Nutrition and Bromatology Group, Analytical and Food Chemistry Department, University of Vigo, Spain
Centro de Investigação de Montanha (CIMO), Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Portugal
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"10362",type:"book",title:"Food Additives",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Food Additives",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Miguel Ángel Ángel Prieto Lage and Dr. Paz Otero",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10362.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-83968-960-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-959-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-961-1",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"317263",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel Ángel",middleName:"Ángel",surname:"Prieto Lage",slug:"miguel-angel-prieto-lage",fullName:"Miguel Ángel Prieto Lage"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"311199",title:"Mr.",name:"Farhad",middleName:null,surname:"Soheili",email:"f.soheili92@gmail.com",fullName:"Farhad Soheili",slug:"farhad-soheili",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:{name:"University of Science and Culture",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{id:"70269",title:"The Effect of Place Attachment on Educational Efficiency in Elementary Schools",slug:"the-effect-of-place-attachment-on-educational-efficiency-in-elementary-schools",abstract:"Close attention to education and its effects on the identities of societies has been ingrained in the history of studies. Nowadays, a considerable amount of criticism in the field of education is related to inefficient and obsolete educational scheduling, with a large number of researchers exploring new learning methods. Logically, these new methods require new architectural environments, which can meet the needs of a new generation with the approach of positively affecting students’ learning efficiency. The main purpose of this research is to identify effective factors in students’ sense of attachment to school. First, this research finds factors on the sense of attachment by studying past literature. Second, a number of questions and hypothesis are developed. Third, in order to validate the effective factors and answer the developed questions, a questionnaire is devised and distributed among 278 students of 10 state primary schools of Shahriyar, Iran. The collected data are then analyzed using SPSS software. The findings indicate that there is a meaningful relation between students’ educational efficiency and their sense of attachment to school. It also shows that important factors, such as social activities and connection with natural elements in design, can have a noticeable impact on the students’ sense of attachment to school and consequently their educational efficiency.",signatures:"Farhad Soheili, Reyhaneh Karimi, Behnaz Avazpour and Samad M.E. Sepasgozar",authors:[{id:"221172",title:"Dr.",name:"Samad M.E.",surname:"Sepasgozar",fullName:"Samad M.E. Sepasgozar",slug:"samad-m.e.-sepasgozar",email:"samad.sepasgozar@gmail.com"},{id:"308025",title:"Mrs.",name:"Reyhaneh",surname:"Karimi",fullName:"Reyhaneh Karimi",slug:"reyhaneh-karimi",email:"reyhanehkarimi1992@gmail.com"},{id:"310530",title:"Ms.",name:"Behnaz",surname:"Avazpour",fullName:"Behnaz Avazpour",slug:"behnaz-avazpour",email:"b.avazpour@unsw.edu.au"},{id:"311199",title:"Mr.",name:"Farhad",surname:"Soheili",fullName:"Farhad Soheili",slug:"farhad-soheili",email:"f.soheili92@gmail.com"}],book:{id:"9431",title:"Smart Cities and Construction Technologies",slug:"smart-cities-and-construction-technologies",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"193947",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",surname:"Mojtahedi",slug:"mohammad-mojtahedi",fullName:"Mohammad Mojtahedi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"UNSW Sydney",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"211659",title:"Dr.",name:"Faham",surname:"Tahmasebinia",slug:"faham-tahmasebinia",fullName:"Faham Tahmasebinia",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/211659/images/system/211659.jpg",biography:"Faham Tahmasebinia holds ME and ME-Research degrees in Civil/Structural Engineering from the University of Wollongong – Australia. He has also completed two Ph.D. degrees in the field of Structural Engineering at the University of Sydney and in the field of Rock Mechanics at the University of New South Wales – Sydney. Currently, he is an academic at the University of Sydney – Australia. His research areas are numerical and analytical simulations in both ductile and brittle materials.",institutionString:"The University of Sydney",institution:{name:"UNSW Sydney",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"221172",title:"Dr.",name:"Samad M.E.",surname:"Sepasgozar",slug:"samad-m.e.-sepasgozar",fullName:"Samad M.E. Sepasgozar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221172/images/system/221172.png",biography:"Dr. Samad M.E. Sepasgzoar is a senior lecturer and the co-convenor for the smart city and infrastructure cluster. He is also an associate editor, editorial board member, guest editor, or reviewer for more than thirty-five peer-reviewed journals. 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She also serves as the co-chair of BE\\'s Smart Cities and Infrastructure Cluster. Dr. Shirowzhan works as tomorrow\\'s leading champion for the Chartered Institute of Building (CIOB). Her research interests include sensing technologies, enhanced GIS, BIM, digital twins, and artificial intelligence in technologies pertinent to BE informatics. She teaches and supervises students at UNSW in the areas of GIS, BIM, digital twins, AI, machine learning, city analytics, urban informatics, smart cities, infrastructure, construction informatics, and other relevant topics. She now serves on the editorial boards of the journals MDPI and Advances in Civil Engineering. She is also a topic board member of the ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information as well as Buildings. Dr. Shirowzhan received her Ph.D. in Geomatics Engineering from the School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, UNSW.",institutionString:"UNSW Sydney",institution:{name:"UNSW Sydney",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"303523",title:"Ms.",name:"Anqi",surname:"Shi",slug:"anqi-shi",fullName:"Anqi Shi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"306365",title:"Dr.",name:"Laurence",surname:"Kimmel",slug:"laurence-kimmel",fullName:"Laurence Kimmel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"306367",title:"Mr.",name:"Jack",surname:"Peacock",slug:"jack-peacock",fullName:"Jack Peacock",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"308025",title:"Mrs.",name:"Reyhaneh",surname:"Karimi",slug:"reyhaneh-karimi",fullName:"Reyhaneh Karimi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"309432",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Alan",surname:"McNamara",slug:"alan-mcnamara",fullName:"Alan McNamara",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"310530",title:"Ms.",name:"Behnaz",surname:"Avazpour",slug:"behnaz-avazpour",fullName:"Behnaz Avazpour",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"UNSW Sydney",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},generic:{page:{slug:"copyright-policy",title:"Copyright Policy",intro:"
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These reactions occur through a regular radical chain causing growth of polymer by three steps, namely, initiation, propagation, and termination. To understand ionizing radiation-induced polymerization, the water radiolysis must be taken into consideration. This chapter explores the mechanism of water molecules radiolysis paying especial attention to the basic regularities of solvent radicals’ interaction with the polymer molecules for forming the crosslinked polymer. Water radiolysis is the main engine of the polymerization processes, especially the “free-radical polymerization.” The mechanisms of the free-radical polymerization and crosslinking will be discussed in detail later. Since different polymers respond differently to radiation, it is useful to quantify the response, namely in terms of crosslinking and chain scission. A parameter called the G-value is frequently used for this purpose. It represents the chemical yield of crosslinks, scissions and double bonds, etc. For the crosslinked polymer, the crosslinking density increases with increasing the radiation dose, this is reflected by the swelling degree of the polymer while being immersed in a compatible solvent. If crosslinking predominates, the crosslinking density increases and the extent of swelling decreases. If chain scission predominates, the opposite occurs. A further detailed discussion of these aspects is presented throughout this chapter.",book:{id:"6149",slug:"ionizing-radiation-effects-and-applications",title:"Ionizing Radiation Effects and Applications",fullTitle:"Ionizing Radiation Effects and Applications"},signatures:"Mohamed Mohamady Ghobashy",authors:[{id:"212371",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Mohamady Ghobashy",slug:"mohamed-mohamady-ghobashy",fullName:"Mohamed Mohamady Ghobashy"}]},{id:"32846",doi:"10.5772/36950",title:"Current Importance and Potential Use of Low Doses of Gamma Radiation in Forest Species",slug:"current-importance-and-potential-use-of-low-doses-of-gamma-radiation-in-forest-species",totalDownloads:5254,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:null,book:{id:"1590",slug:"gamma-radiation",title:"Gamma Radiation",fullTitle:"Gamma Radiation"},signatures:"L. G. Iglesias-Andreu, P. Octavio-Aguilar and J. 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Radiation is proven as an effective method as a unique method to increase the genetic variability of the species. Gamma radiation is the most preferred physical mutagen by plant breeders. Several mutant varieties have been successfully introduced into commercial production by this method. Combinational use of in vitro tissue culture and mutation breeding methods makes a significant contribution to improve new crops. Large populations and the target mutations can be easily screened and identified by new methods. Marker assisted selection and advanced techniques such as microarray, next generation sequencing methods to detect a specific mutant in a large population will help to the plant breeders to use ionizing radiation efficiently in breeding programs.",book:{id:"5451",slug:"new-insights-on-gamma-rays",title:"New Insights on Gamma Rays",fullTitle:"New Insights on Gamma Rays"},signatures:"Özge Çelik and Çimen Atak",authors:[{id:"147362",title:"Dr.",name:"Özge",middleName:null,surname:"Çelik",slug:"ozge-celik",fullName:"Özge Çelik"},{id:"147364",title:"Prof.",name:"Çimen",middleName:null,surname:"Atak",slug:"cimen-atak",fullName:"Çimen Atak"}]},{id:"58410",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72074",title:"Radiation-Induced Degradation of Organic Compounds and Radiation Technologies for Purification of Aqueous Systems",slug:"radiation-induced-degradation-of-organic-compounds-and-radiation-technologies-for-purification-of-aq",totalDownloads:1381,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Environmental application of radiation technologies is an important part of radiation processing. Radiation treatment of aqueous systems contaminated with organic compounds is a promising method of water and wastewater purification and corresponding technologies are being developed. In this chapter, the following aspects of radiation treatment process are considered: sources of contamination and major contaminants of water and wastewater; primary processes in aqueous systems initiated by ionizing radiation; principal ways of contaminant conversion as consequences of primary processes (complete mineralization of organic compounds, partial decomposition of organic molecules resulted in detoxification, decolorization, disinfection of polluted water, and improvement in biological degradation of contaminant, polymerization of monomers’ contaminants, oxidation-reduction processes, and coagulation of colloids); sources of ionizing radiation; and main equipment applied in radiation technologies of aqueous system purification.",book:{id:"6149",slug:"ionizing-radiation-effects-and-applications",title:"Ionizing Radiation Effects and Applications",fullTitle:"Ionizing Radiation Effects and Applications"},signatures:"Igor E. Makarov and Alexander V. Ponomarev",authors:[{id:"213652",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:null,surname:"Makarov",slug:"igor-makarov",fullName:"Igor Makarov"},{id:"213657",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Ponomarev",slug:"alexander-ponomarev",fullName:"Alexander Ponomarev"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"32842",title:"Sterilization by Gamma Irradiation",slug:"sterilization-by-gamma-irradiation",totalDownloads:74725,totalCrossrefCites:36,totalDimensionsCites:82,abstract:null,book:{id:"1590",slug:"gamma-radiation",title:"Gamma Radiation",fullTitle:"Gamma Radiation"},signatures:"Kátia Aparecida da Silva Aquino",authors:[{id:"102109",title:"Dr.",name:"Katia",middleName:"Aparecida Da S.",surname:"Aquino",slug:"katia-aquino",fullName:"Katia Aquino"}]},{id:"32837",title:"Environmental Gamma-Ray Observation in Deep Sea",slug:"environmental-gamma-ray-observation-in-deep-sea-",totalDownloads:2898,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"1590",slug:"gamma-radiation",title:"Gamma Radiation",fullTitle:"Gamma Radiation"},signatures:"Hidenori Kumagai, Ryoichi Iwase, Masataka Kinoshita, Hideaki Machiyama, Mutsuo Hattori and Masaharu Okano",authors:[{id:"108174",title:"Dr.",name:"Hidenori",middleName:null,surname:"Kumagai",slug:"hidenori-kumagai",fullName:"Hidenori Kumagai"},{id:"108237",title:"Dr.",name:"Masa",middleName:null,surname:"Kinoshita",slug:"masa-kinoshita",fullName:"Masa Kinoshita"},{id:"137650",title:"Dr.",name:"Ryoichi",middleName:null,surname:"Iwase",slug:"ryoichi-iwase",fullName:"Ryoichi Iwase"},{id:"137656",title:"Dr.",name:"Hideaki",middleName:null,surname:"Machiyama",slug:"hideaki-machiyama",fullName:"Hideaki Machiyama"},{id:"146918",title:"Dr.",name:"Mutsuo",middleName:null,surname:"Hattori",slug:"mutsuo-hattori",fullName:"Mutsuo Hattori"},{id:"146919",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaharu",middleName:null,surname:"Okano",slug:"masaharu-okano",fullName:"Masaharu Okano"}]},{id:"58998",title:"Ionizing Radiation-Induced Polymerization",slug:"ionizing-radiation-induced-polymerization",totalDownloads:1756,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Ionizing radiation can induce some kinds of reactions, other than polymerization, such as dimerization, oligomerization, curing, and grafting. These reactions occur through a regular radical chain causing growth of polymer by three steps, namely, initiation, propagation, and termination. To understand ionizing radiation-induced polymerization, the water radiolysis must be taken into consideration. This chapter explores the mechanism of water molecules radiolysis paying especial attention to the basic regularities of solvent radicals’ interaction with the polymer molecules for forming the crosslinked polymer. Water radiolysis is the main engine of the polymerization processes, especially the “free-radical polymerization.” The mechanisms of the free-radical polymerization and crosslinking will be discussed in detail later. Since different polymers respond differently to radiation, it is useful to quantify the response, namely in terms of crosslinking and chain scission. A parameter called the G-value is frequently used for this purpose. It represents the chemical yield of crosslinks, scissions and double bonds, etc. For the crosslinked polymer, the crosslinking density increases with increasing the radiation dose, this is reflected by the swelling degree of the polymer while being immersed in a compatible solvent. If crosslinking predominates, the crosslinking density increases and the extent of swelling decreases. If chain scission predominates, the opposite occurs. A further detailed discussion of these aspects is presented throughout this chapter.",book:{id:"6149",slug:"ionizing-radiation-effects-and-applications",title:"Ionizing Radiation Effects and Applications",fullTitle:"Ionizing Radiation Effects and Applications"},signatures:"Mohamed Mohamady Ghobashy",authors:[{id:"212371",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Mohamady Ghobashy",slug:"mohamed-mohamady-ghobashy",fullName:"Mohamed Mohamady Ghobashy"}]},{id:"53780",title:"Gamma-Ray Spectrometry and the Investigation of Environmental and Food Samples",slug:"gamma-ray-spectrometry-and-the-investigation-of-environmental-and-food-samples",totalDownloads:2477,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Gamma radiation consists of high‐energy photons and penetrates matter. This is an advantage for the detection of gamma rays, as gamma spectrometry does not need the elimination of the matrix. The disadvantage is the need of shielding to protect against this radiation. Gamma rays are everywhere: in the atmosphere; gamma nuclides are produced by radiation of the sun; in the Earth, the primordial radioactive nuclides thorium and uranium are sources for gamma and other radiation. The technical enrichment and use of radioisotopes led to the unscrupulously use of radioactive material and to the Cold War, with over 900 bomb tests from 1945 to 1990, combined with global fallout over the northern hemisphere. The friendly use of radiation in medicine and for the production of energy at nuclear power plants (NPPs) has caused further expositions with ionising radiation. This chapter describes in a practical manner the instrumentation for the detection of gamma radiation and some results of the use of these techniques in environmental and food investigations.",book:{id:"5451",slug:"new-insights-on-gamma-rays",title:"New Insights on Gamma Rays",fullTitle:"New Insights on Gamma Rays"},signatures:"Markus R. 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Some candidates of the GeV counterpart of gamma-ray bursts, observed by Tupi telescopes, are also presented.",book:{id:"5451",slug:"new-insights-on-gamma-rays",title:"New Insights on Gamma Rays",fullTitle:"New Insights on Gamma Rays"},signatures:"Carlos Navia and Marcel Nogueira de Oliveira",authors:[{id:"189908",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Navia",slug:"carlos-navia",fullName:"Carlos Navia"},{id:"243084",title:"MSc.",name:"Marcel",middleName:null,surname:"De Oliveira",slug:"marcel-de-oliveira",fullName:"Marcel De Oliveira"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1220",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
\r\n
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\r\n
\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
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\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 19th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:0,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. 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In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment"},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology"},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",keywords:"Novel Viruses, Virus Transmission, Virus Evolution, Molecular Virology, Control and Prevention, Virus-host Interaction"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:{title:"Infectious Diseases",id:"6"},selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:null},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/311199",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"311199"},fullPath:"/profiles/311199",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()