Enlisted a few genes associated with heat tolerance in goats.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5121",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Free Radicals and Diseases",title:"Free Radicals and Diseases",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'The current volume entitled, "Free Radicals and Diseases" integrates knowledge in free radical-associated diseases from the basic level to the advanced level, and from the bench side to bed side. The chapters in this book provide an extensive overview of the topic, including free radical formations and clinical interventions.',isbn:"978-953-51-2747-5",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2746-8",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4165-5",doi:"10.5772/61358",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"free-radicals-and-diseases",numberOfPages:386,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"9f5f123060d6e78a2f4bb7d37e781d92",bookSignature:"Rizwan Ahmad",publishedDate:"October 26th 2016",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5121.jpg",numberOfDownloads:38264,numberOfWosCitations:56,numberOfCrossrefCitations:45,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:3,numberOfDimensionsCitations:91,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:5,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:192,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 9th 2015",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 30th 2015",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 27th 2015",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 26th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 21st 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,8,9",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"411",title:"Cancer Biology",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology-microbiology-cancer-biology"}],chapters:[{id:"50858",title:"Oxygen: From Toxic Waste to Optimal (Toxic) Fuel of Life",doi:"10.5772/63667",slug:"oxygen-from-toxic-waste-to-optimal-toxic-fuel-of-life",totalDownloads:1743,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Some 2.5 billion years ago, the great oxygenation event (GOE) led to a 105‐fold rise in atmospheric oxygen [O2], killing most species on Earth. In spite of the tendency to produce toxic reactive oxygen species (ROS), the highly exergonic reduction of O2 made it the ideal biological electron acceptor. During aerobic metabolism, O2 is reduced to water liberating energy, which is coupled to adenosine triphosphate (ATP) synthesis. Today, all organisms either aerobic or not need to deal with O2 toxicity. O2‐permeant organisms need to seek adequate [O2], for example, aquatic crustaceans bury themselves in the sea bottom where O2 is scarce. Also, the intestinal lumen and cytoplasm of eukaryotes is a microaerobic environment where many facultative bacteria or intracellular symbionts hide from oxygen. Organisms such as plants, fish, reptiles and mammals developed O2‐impermeable epithelia, plus specialized external respiratory systems in combination with O2‐binding proteins such as hemoglobin or leg‐hemoglobin control [O2] in tissues. Inside the cell, ROS production is prevented by rapid O2 consumption during the oxidative phosphorylation (OxPhos) of ATP. When ATP is in excess, OxPhos becomes uncoupled in an effort to continue eliminating O2. Branched respiratory chains, unspecific pores and uncoupling proteins (UCPs) uncouple OxPhos. One last line of resistance against ROS is deactivation by enzymes such as super oxide dismutase and catalase. Aerobic organisms profit from the high energy released by the reduction of O2, while at the same time they need to avoid the toxicity of ROS.",signatures:"Mónica Rosas‐Lemus, Cristina Uribe‐Alvarez, Martha Contreras‐\nZentella, Luis Alberto Luévano‐Martínez, Natalia Chiquete‐Félix,\nNorma Lilia Morales‐García, Emilio Espinosa Simón, Adriana Muhlia‐\nAlmazán, Edgardo Escamilla‐Marván and Salvador Uribe‐Carvajal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50858",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50858",authors:[{id:"71648",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvador",surname:"Uribe-Carvajal",slug:"salvador-uribe-carvajal",fullName:"Salvador Uribe-Carvajal"},{id:"90919",title:"Dr.",name:"Adriana",surname:"Muhlia-Almazan",slug:"adriana-muhlia-almazan",fullName:"Adriana Muhlia-Almazan"},{id:"150034",title:"Dr.",name:"Edgardo",surname:"Escamilla",slug:"edgardo-escamilla",fullName:"Edgardo Escamilla"},{id:"178014",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",surname:"Rosas Lemus",slug:"monica-rosas-lemus",fullName:"Monica Rosas Lemus"},{id:"183307",title:"Mrs.",name:"Cristina",surname:"Uribe-Alvarez",slug:"cristina-uribe-alvarez",fullName:"Cristina Uribe-Alvarez"},{id:"183309",title:"Dr.",name:"Martha",surname:"Contreras-Zentella",slug:"martha-contreras-zentella",fullName:"Martha Contreras-Zentella"},{id:"183310",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis A.",surname:"Luévano Martinez",slug:"luis-a.-luevano-martinez",fullName:"Luis A. Luévano Martinez"},{id:"183311",title:"Dr.",name:"Natalia",surname:"Chiquete-Félix",slug:"natalia-chiquete-felix",fullName:"Natalia Chiquete-Félix"}],corrections:null},{id:"52315",title:"Retracted: Influence of Radical Structure on the Kinetics of Photopolymerization",doi:"10.5772/64711",slug:"influence-of-radical-structure-on-the-kinetics-of-photopolymerization",totalDownloads:1319,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Janina Kabatc",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52315",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52315",authors:[{id:"114910",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Janina",surname:"Kabatc",slug:"janina-kabatc",fullName:"Janina Kabatc"}],corrections:null},{id:"52345",title:"Oxidative Stress in Invertebrate Systems",doi:"10.5772/64573",slug:"oxidative-stress-in-invertebrate-systems",totalDownloads:2455,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:22,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Invertebrates have been valuable research models in the discovery of many scientific principles owing to the numerous advantages they provide. Throughout the life cycle, many of them thrive in pathogen-rich environments, manage harsh weathers, exposed to a number of allochemicals, and adapt well to both terrestrial and marine ecosystems. Their remarkable ability to cope up with the enormous oxidative stress generated in all these circumstances, make them attractive models in this field of research. Endocrine control of oxidative stress in insects is recently emerging. Adipokinetic hormone, glucagon, ecdysteroids and juvenile hormone have been implicated in antioxidative protective role in insects. Drosophila and Caenorhabditis elegans have provided the largest body of evidence addressing the free radical theory of ageing. Oxidative stress is also induced by pesticides/insecticides. In mollusks, pesticides exert their biological effects via generation of ROS. Oxidative stress has been shown to be associated with exposure to several organophosphorous compounds and different classes of pyrethroids. Malathion is a potential hazard to the environment. Adverse effects induced by malathion in earthworms and insects have been reported. Information is now available in great detail on the role of ROS in modulating insect immunity during parasite invasion and bacterial infection. In Drosophila melanogaster ROS are actively produced in the midgut at a basal level in the presence of commensal microbiota and highly generated upon bacterial challenge. The involvement of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in mosquito immunity against bacteria and Plasmodium was investigated in the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae. The concentration of ROS increased in sand fly midguts after they fed on the insect pathogen Serratia marcescens. Elevated oxidative stress was previously reported for a mosquito line experimentally infected with Wolbachia, indicating that oxidative stress may be important for Wolbachia-mediated antiviral protection. In a nutshell, this chapter highlights the current advances of oxidative stress in invertebrate model systems and its implications.",signatures:"R.K. Chaitanya, K. Shashank and P. Sridevi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52345",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52345",authors:[{id:"178087",title:"Dr.",name:"Rk",surname:"Chaitanya",slug:"rk-chaitanya",fullName:"Rk Chaitanya"}],corrections:null},{id:"51890",title:"Oxidative Stress and Autophagy",doi:"10.5772/64569",slug:"oxidative-stress-and-autophagy",totalDownloads:1939,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:12,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Free radical production related with many stress factors including radiation, drugs, ageing and trauma plays a key role in cell death. Notwithstanding, free radicals can cause pathology in a variety of diseases through oxidative stress: Under oxidative stress, excessive production of free radicals can trigger cell death by primarily DNA and all cellular macromolecule damages. Also, excessive free radicals have a role in early inducers of autophagy cell death upon nutrient deprivation. Autophagy is physiologic process of eukaryotic systems, which have significant role in adaptation to oxidative stress by degradation of metalloproteins and oxidatively damaged macromolecules. By oxidizing, membrane injuries allow the leakage of enzymes and contribute to cell damage. However, recent publications demonstrate the protecting role of lysosome system during excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) production by the elimination of damaged proteins or organelles. Activation of autophagic or lysosomal system can eliminate the oxidizing components of cell in oxidative stress response. This chapter aims to provide the novel insight data for oxidative damage-mediated autophagy as well as their metabolic networks.",signatures:"Adem Kara, Semin Gedikli, Emin Sengul, Volkan Gelen and Seckin\nOzkanlar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51890",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51890",authors:[{id:"177953",title:"Dr.",name:"Adem",surname:"Kara",slug:"adem-kara",fullName:"Adem Kara"},{id:"178363",title:"Dr.",name:"Emin",surname:"Sengul",slug:"emin-sengul",fullName:"Emin Sengul"},{id:"178365",title:"Dr.",name:"Semin",surname:"Gedikli",slug:"semin-gedikli",fullName:"Semin Gedikli"},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen"},{id:"178367",title:"Dr.",name:"Seckin",surname:"Ozkanlar",slug:"seckin-ozkanlar",fullName:"Seckin Ozkanlar"}],corrections:null},{id:"51395",title:"Natural Compound-Generated Oxidative Stress: From Bench to Bedside",doi:"10.5772/64183",slug:"natural-compound-generated-oxidative-stress-from-bench-to-bedside",totalDownloads:1820,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Oxidants are constantly generated in a biological system as a result of physiological processes. However, an imbalance between oxidants and antioxidants can lead to a pathophysiological condition known as oxidative stress. Natural compounds as inducers of oxidative stress are able to modulate physiological functions of cancer cells leading to cell death or survival. This chapter aims at providing an overview of pro- and antioxidant activities of natural compounds related to cancer and related therapies.",signatures:"Aloran Mazumder and Marc Diederich",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51395",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51395",authors:[{id:"65237",title:"Prof.",name:"Marc",surname:"Diederich",slug:"marc-diederich",fullName:"Marc Diederich"},{id:"178076",title:"MSc.",name:"Aloran",surname:"Mazumder",slug:"aloran-mazumder",fullName:"Aloran Mazumder"}],corrections:null},{id:"51933",title:"Oxidative Stress, Inflammation, and Formation of Beta‐ Amyloid 1‐42 in Brain",doi:"10.5772/64709",slug:"oxidative-stress-inflammation-and-formation-of-beta-amyloid-1-42-in-brain",totalDownloads:1775,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Alzheimer's disease is characterized by the pathognomonic presence of intracellular neurofibrillary tangles containing hyperphosphorylated tau protein and extracellular senile plaques primarily formed by β‐amyloid. Both the neurofibrillary tangles and the plaques formed by β‐amyloid 1‐42 are the final result of a chain of events that progressed along with the disease for a long time. Oxidative stress plays a fundamental role among those events as proven by the experiments carried out using animal models. This can be demonstrated since there are studies indicating that, although the formation of β‐amyloid is inhibited through different mechanisms (using drugs or specific antibodies), cognitive deficit is not prevented. In this chapter, we will focus on reviewing the role the chronic state of oxidative stress plays in the development of Alzheimer's disease and how the loss of redox balance induces a vicious cycle that may change normal signaling. As a consequence, there are alterations in multiple metabolic pathways that end up in the formation of hyperphosphorylated tau and insoluble β‐amyloid, leading to the advance of a progressive neurodegeneration process. This is characterized by neuronal dead, astrocytic changes, microglia activation, and the loss of brain repair.",signatures:"Selva Rivas‐Arancibia, Erika Rodriguez‐Martinez, Angélica Méndez‐\nGarcía, Mariana Moctezuma‐Salgado, Paola Jiménez‐Espíndola and\nUlises López‐Gonzales",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51933",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51933",authors:[{id:"75639",title:"Prof.",name:"Selva",surname:"Rivas-Arancibia",slug:"selva-rivas-arancibia",fullName:"Selva Rivas-Arancibia"},{id:"178545",title:"Prof.",name:"Erika",surname:"Rodriguez-Martinez",slug:"erika-rodriguez-martinez",fullName:"Erika Rodriguez-Martinez"}],corrections:null},{id:"52087",title:"Biomarkers in ROS and Role of Isoprostanes in Oxidative Stress",doi:"10.5772/64706",slug:"biomarkers-in-ros-and-role-of-isoprostanes-in-oxidative-stress",totalDownloads:1881,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Biomarkers of reactive oxygen species serve as indicators of oxidative stress in the pathology of cardiovascular diseases. This chapter presents an overview of the various biomarkers available to quantify oxidative stress to advance the understanding of the pathophysiology of cardiovascular diseases as well as to serve as an adjunct in their diagnosis and prognosis. The plasma levels of reactive oxygen species themselves are unstable and unreliable markers of oxidative stress. The commonly used stable biomarkers are derivatives of oxygen radicals such as products of lipid peroxidation and protein oxidation, with isoprostanes and malondialdehyde (MDA) being the most widely used biomarkers due to higher specificity and ease of measurement. Recently, micro‐RNA is emerging as stable and specific biomarkers for detection of heart failure. Other biomarkers have a role in certain conditions; for example, advanced oxidation protein products indicate acute inflammation, whereas advanced glycation end products serve as indicators of chronic disease.",signatures:"Mini Chandra, Manikandan Panchatcharam and Sumitra Miriyala",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52087",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52087",authors:[{id:"177890",title:"Dr.",name:"Sumitra",surname:"Miriyala",slug:"sumitra-miriyala",fullName:"Sumitra Miriyala"},{id:"184161",title:"BSc.",name:"Mini",surname:"Chandra",slug:"mini-chandra",fullName:"Mini Chandra"},{id:"184163",title:"Dr.",name:"Manikandan",surname:"Panchatcharam",slug:"manikandan-panchatcharam",fullName:"Manikandan Panchatcharam"}],corrections:null},{id:"51886",title:"Redoxomics and Oxidative Stress: From the Basic Research to the Clinical Practice",doi:"10.5772/64577",slug:"redoxomics-and-oxidative-stress-from-the-basic-research-to-the-clinical-practice",totalDownloads:1642,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Potentially oxidant chemical species, which include not only free radicals but also other oxidizing chemical species such as reactive oxygen species (ROS), for example, hydroxyl radical and hydrogen peroxide, and nitrogen reactive species (RNS), for example, nitric oxide, play a relevant role in all biological processes and especially in cell defenses and molecular signaling. Their action is finely modulated by the antioxidant network that is composed either by endogenous or exogenous compounds (e.g., enzymes, peptides, lipids, and vitamins). An impaired modulation of oxidant species can lead to the so-called oxidative stress that is now considered an emerging health risk factor in almost all living organisms including plants, animals, and humans. Indeed, oxidative stress is related to a reduced lifespan and many diseases (e.g., cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative disorders, and metabolic diseases) both in humans and in animals. Unfortunately, oxidative stress does not show any clinical picture, but it can be detected only by means of specific laboratory tests. The recent recognition of a specific “redox code” and the definition of a redoxomics as a new “omics” are now enlarging the horizon of the traditional oxidative stress field leading to the definition of the so-called electrophilic stress. The aim of this chapter is to review the basic principles of redox reaction starting from the concept of free radicals and antioxidant in order to define the “electrophilic stress” as an emerging health risk factor for early aging and almost 1000 illness from infectious diseases to cancer. A paragraph is dedicated to the tests to measure oxidative stress in clinical practice either in humans or in animals in order to prevent, to treat and to monitor electrophilic-related diseases.",signatures:"Simona Tafuri, Natascia Cocchia, Francesco Landolfi, Eugenio Luigi\nIorio and Francesca Ciani",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51886",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51886",authors:[{id:"32033",title:"Dr.",name:"Natascia",surname:"Cocchia",slug:"natascia-cocchia",fullName:"Natascia Cocchia"},{id:"117666",title:"Prof.",name:"Francesca",surname:"Ciani",slug:"francesca-ciani",fullName:"Francesca Ciani"},{id:"173334",title:"Prof.",name:"Simona",surname:"Tafuri",slug:"simona-tafuri",fullName:"Simona Tafuri"},{id:"173431",title:"Prof.",name:"Eugenio Luigi",surname:"Iorio",slug:"eugenio-luigi-iorio",fullName:"Eugenio Luigi Iorio"},{id:"184940",title:"Dr.",name:"Francesco",surname:"Landolfi",slug:"francesco-landolfi",fullName:"Francesco Landolfi"}],corrections:null},{id:"50827",title:"The Role of Attractin in Neurodegeneration Caused by Oxidative Stress",doi:"10.5772/63330",slug:"the-role-of-attractin-in-neurodegeneration-caused-by-oxidative-stress",totalDownloads:1287,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Oxidative stress is linked to dopaminergic (DA) neurodegeneration in Parkinson’s disease. Our laboratory reported slowly progressive DA neurodegeneration in the zitter (zi) rat, which is Attractin (Atrn) deficient. However, little is known about the function of Atrn in the central nervous system (CNS). Thus, we investigated whether DA neurodegeneration in the zi rat was induced by oxidative stress, and how Atrn affects oxidative stress. First, we summarize our previous in vivo data, which revealed suppression of DA neurodegeneration using antioxidants (vitamin E and melatonin) in zi rats. Second, our current ex vivo and in vitro studies are introduced. Using primary neuronal cultures of zi mesencephalon as a model of Atrn-deficient neurons or Atrn-GFP-overexpressing HEK293 cells, accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in mitochondria and cell viability was examined under oxidative stress. Atrn-deficient neurons accumulated excess ROS in mitochondria, resulting in neurodegeneration, whereas Atrn-overexpressing cells showed suppression of ROS accumulation under oxidative stress. These results showed that Atrn plays a suppressive role against ROS and that the loss of Atrn function induced excess ROS accumulation and led to DA neurodegeneration. This is the first report to show that Atrn directly modulates mitochondrial ROS accumulation in the CNS.",signatures:"Ayuka Ehara, Shin-ichi Sakakibara and Shuichi Ueda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50827",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50827",authors:[{id:"178235",title:"Prof.",name:"Shuichi",surname:"Ueda",slug:"shuichi-ueda",fullName:"Shuichi Ueda"},{id:"178395",title:"Dr.",name:"Ayuka",surname:"Ehara",slug:"ayuka-ehara",fullName:"Ayuka Ehara"}],corrections:null},{id:"51482",title:"Oxidative Stress and Parkinson’s Disease: Effects on Environmental Toxicology",doi:"10.5772/63794",slug:"oxidative-stress-and-parkinson-s-disease-effects-on-environmental-toxicology",totalDownloads:2291,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Epidemiological studies have found an increased risk of Parkinson’s disease (PD) with environmental factors such as exposure to substances derived from industrial processes, use of agrochemicals, or living in a rural environment. The hypothesis that certain environmental toxins could be the source of the EP is supported by the discovery that chemicals such as herbicides paraquat, diquat, and the fungicide maneb are selectively toxic in nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons. Also, one of the insecticides produced by plants, such as rotenone, and by-product of the synthesis of synthetic heroin MPTP (1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine) can be reproduced in animal models where neurochemicals, histopathological, and clinical characteristic of PD can be found. Interestingly, there are similarities in the chemical structure of paraquat and MPTP. Recent evidence exhibited that inflammation and oxidative stress play an essential role in the development of PD. So, in our laboratory we found that in an animal model melatonin decreases the products of lipid oxidation, nitric oxide metabolites, and the activity of cyclooxygenase 2, which are induced by an intraperitoneal injection of MPTP. This suggests that the neuroprotective effects of melatonin are partially attributed to its antioxidant scavenging and anti-inflammatory action.",signatures:"Genaro Gabriel Ortiz, Fermín P. Pacheco-Moisés, Mario A. Mireles-\nRamírez, L. Javier Flores-Alvarado, Héctor González-Usigli, Angélica\nL. Sánchez-López, Lorenzo Sánchez-Romero, Irma E. Velázquez-\nBrizuela, Erika Daniela González-Renovato and Erandis Dheni\nTorres-Sánchez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51482",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51482",authors:[{id:"26109",title:"Dr.",name:"Genaro",surname:"Ortiz",slug:"genaro-ortiz",fullName:"Genaro Ortiz"},{id:"166323",title:"Dr.",name:"Fermín",surname:"Pacheco-Moisés",slug:"fermin-pacheco-moises",fullName:"Fermín Pacheco-Moisés"},{id:"166326",title:"Dr.",name:"Irma E",surname:"Velázquez-Brizuela",slug:"irma-e-velazquez-brizuela",fullName:"Irma E Velázquez-Brizuela"},{id:"173290",title:"MSc.",name:"Erica Daniela",surname:"González-Renovato",slug:"erica-daniela-gonzalez-renovato",fullName:"Erica Daniela González-Renovato"},{id:"173292",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Angélica L.",surname:"Sánchez López.",slug:"angelica-l.-sanchez-lopez.",fullName:"Angélica L. Sánchez López."},{id:"173295",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario",surname:"Mireles-Ramírez",slug:"mario-mireles-ramirez",fullName:"Mario Mireles-Ramírez"},{id:"173377",title:"Dr.",name:"J Luis",surname:"Flores-Alvarado",slug:"j-luis-flores-alvarado",fullName:"J Luis Flores-Alvarado"},{id:"178191",title:"Dr.",name:"Héctor",surname:"González-Usigli",slug:"hector-gonzalez-usigli",fullName:"Héctor González-Usigli"},{id:"178192",title:"BSc.",name:"Lorenzo",surname:"Sánchez-Romero",slug:"lorenzo-sanchez-romero",fullName:"Lorenzo Sánchez-Romero"}],corrections:null},{id:"51096",title:"Nitroso-Redox Crosstalk in Diabetic Cardiomyopathy",doi:"10.5772/63668",slug:"nitroso-redox-crosstalk-in-diabetic-cardiomyopathy",totalDownloads:1610,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Diabetes mellitus is one of the most common chronic diseases worldwide. Diabetic cardiomyopathy (DM) is the deterioration of the myocardial function and morphology produced by the altered glucose metabolism imposed in diabetes. This process of cardiac deterioration involves the generation of oxidative species. In the diabetic heart, several sources contribute to the observed oxidative stress, such as xanthine oxidoreductase (XOR), nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH), nitrogen oxidases (NOX), mitochondria, and uncoupled nitric oxide synthases (NOS). A direct consequence of the increased production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is NOS uncoupling. This is the aftermath of the oxidation of tetrahydrobioterin (BH4), an essential cofactor for NOS activity. When NOS is uncoupled, its activity is redirected toward the production of superoxide, instead of nitric oxide (NO), further contributing to the oxidative process. This nitroso-redox disarrangement has a direct impact on the excitation-contraction-coupling machinery of the myocyte, in the mitochondrial stability impairing energy production and favoring apoptosis, myocardial fibrosis, ultimately reducing cardiac function. This review focuses on the impact of superoxide sources in the diabetic heart and the pharmacological approaches that are currently under investigation as possible therapeutic tools.",signatures:"Daniel R González, Adriana V Treuer and Ulises Novoa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51096",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51096",authors:[{id:"54305",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Gonzalez",slug:"daniel-gonzalez",fullName:"Daniel Gonzalez"},{id:"177979",title:"Dr.",name:"Ulises",surname:"Novoa",slug:"ulises-novoa",fullName:"Ulises Novoa"},{id:"177980",title:"Dr.",name:"Adriana",surname:"Treuer",slug:"adriana-treuer",fullName:"Adriana Treuer"}],corrections:null},{id:"51146",title:"Ubiquinone, Ezetimibe/Simvastatin and Rosuvastatin Effects on Mitochondrial Function in Diabetic Polyneuropathy",doi:"10.5772/63656",slug:"ubiquinone-ezetimibe-simvastatin-and-rosuvastatin-effects-on-mitochondrial-function-in-diabetic-poly",totalDownloads:1595,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Diabetic polyneuropathy (DPN) pathophysiologic findings include loss of multifocal and focal nerve fibers secondary to axonal degeneration and segmental demyelization due to oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction induced by chronic hyperglycaemia.",signatures:"Luis M. Román-Pintos, Geannyne Villegas-Rivera, Ernesto G.\nCardona-Muñoz, Adolfo D. Rodríguez-Carrizalez, Fermín P.\nPacheco-Moisés and Alejandra G. Miranda-Díaz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51146",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51146",authors:[{id:"166323",title:"Dr.",name:"Fermín",surname:"Pacheco-Moisés",slug:"fermin-pacheco-moises",fullName:"Fermín Pacheco-Moisés"},{id:"178033",title:"Dr.",name:"Alejandra Guillermina",surname:"Miranda-Diaz",slug:"alejandra-guillermina-miranda-diaz",fullName:"Alejandra Guillermina Miranda-Diaz"},{id:"184047",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis Miguel",surname:"Roman-Pintos",slug:"luis-miguel-roman-pintos",fullName:"Luis Miguel Roman-Pintos"},{id:"184049",title:"Dr.",name:"Geannyne",surname:"Villegas-Rivera",slug:"geannyne-villegas-rivera",fullName:"Geannyne Villegas-Rivera"},{id:"184050",title:"Dr.",name:"Adolfo Daniel",surname:"Rodriguez-Carrizalez",slug:"adolfo-daniel-rodriguez-carrizalez",fullName:"Adolfo Daniel Rodriguez-Carrizalez"},{id:"184051",title:"Dr.",name:"Ernesto German",surname:"Cardona-Muñoz",slug:"ernesto-german-cardona-munoz",fullName:"Ernesto German Cardona-Muñoz"}],corrections:null},{id:"52065",title:"Involvement of Free Radicals in the Development and Progression of Alzheimer’s Disease",doi:"10.5772/64708",slug:"involvement-of-free-radicals-in-the-development-and-progression-of-alzheimer-s-disease",totalDownloads:2004,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a major dementia related to an overproduction of free radicals (FRs), which leads to the generation of oxidative stress in brain tissue. Amyloid beta-peptide of 42 amino acid residues (Aβ1–42) is the main source of FRs in patients with AD. βA1–42 results from hydrolysis of the amyloid precursor protein by β-secretase in a process known as the amyloidogenic pathway. During βA1–42 aggregation, the peptide interacts with various transition metals to produce hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) by the Fenton reaction, generating the hydroxyl radical (•OH), which damages lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids, thereby contributing to neurodegeneration. In addition, βA1–42 is recognized by microglial receptors; it activates these cells, causing overproduction of superoxide anion (O2•−) by NADPH oxidase; O2•− is also converted into H2O2 and finally to •OH in the Fenton reaction. Other factors that contribute to oxidative stress during microglial activation are the overproduction of nitric oxide and interleukins and the overexpression of some enzymes, including cyclooxygenase and inducible nitric oxide synthase, all of which contribute to FR production. Currently, various models in vitro and in vivo exist that permit quantification of O2•− and H2O2 and determination of the effects of these reactive oxygen species.",signatures:"Martha C. Rosales Hernández, Maricarmen Hernández Rodríguez,\nJessica E. Mendieta Wejebe and José Correa Basurto",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52065",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52065",authors:[{id:"177968",title:"Dr.",name:"Martha Cecilia",surname:"Rosales Hernández",slug:"martha-cecilia-rosales-hernandez",fullName:"Martha Cecilia Rosales Hernández"},{id:"184168",title:"MSc.",name:"Maricarmen",surname:"Hernández-Rodriguez",slug:"maricarmen-hernandez-rodriguez",fullName:"Maricarmen Hernández-Rodriguez"},{id:"184169",title:"Dr.",name:"Jessica Elena",surname:"Mendieta-Wejebe",slug:"jessica-elena-mendieta-wejebe",fullName:"Jessica Elena Mendieta-Wejebe"},{id:"184170",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",surname:"Correa Basurto",slug:"jose-correa-basurto",fullName:"Jose Correa Basurto"}],corrections:null},{id:"51334",title:"Free Radicals and Biomarkers Related to the Diagnosis of Cardiorenal Syndrome",doi:"10.5772/63898",slug:"free-radicals-and-biomarkers-related-to-the-diagnosis-of-cardiorenal-syndrome",totalDownloads:3748,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Working Group has postulated the cardiorenal syndrome (CRS) as an interaction between the kidneys and the cardiovascular system in which therapy to relieve congestive heart failure (HF) symptoms is limited by the further worsening renal function. CRS is classified from type I to V, taking into account the progression of the symptoms in terms of mechanisms, clinical conditions, and biomarkers. Experimental and clinical studies have shown the kidney as both a trigger and a target to sympathetic nervous system (SNS) overactivity. Renal damage and ischemia, activation of the renin angiotensin aldosterone system (RAAS), and dysfunction of nitric oxide (NO) system are associated with kidney adrenergic activation. Indeed, the imbalances of RAAS and/or SNS share an important common process in CRS: the activation and production of free radicals, especially reactive oxygen species (ROS). The present chapter addresses connections of the free radicals as potential biomarkers as the imbalances in the RAAS and the SNS are developed. Understanding the involvement of free radicals in CRS may bring knowledge to design studies in order to develop accurate pharmacological interventions.",signatures:"Carolina B.A. Restini, Bruna F.M. Pereira and Tufik M. Geleilete",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51334",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51334",authors:[{id:"178144",title:"Dr.",name:"Carolina",surname:"Baraldi A. Restini",slug:"carolina-baraldi-a.-restini",fullName:"Carolina Baraldi A. Restini"},{id:"178387",title:"Ms.",name:"Bruna",surname:"Pereira",slug:"bruna-pereira",fullName:"Bruna Pereira"},{id:"184159",title:"Dr.",name:"Tufik",surname:"Geleilete",slug:"tufik-geleilete",fullName:"Tufik Geleilete"}],corrections:null},{id:"51914",title:"Subcellular ROS Signaling in Cardiovascular Disease",doi:"10.5772/64570",slug:"subcellular-ros-signaling-in-cardiovascular-disease",totalDownloads:1635,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This review discusses recent findings that have challenged the long-held dogma in the field that reduction in reaction oxygen species (ROS) would improve clinical outcome in the patients with cardiovascular disease (CVD). Attempts will be made to shed light on the differential spatial and temporal roles of subcellular ROS in vascular endothelium in health and disease. Recent findings demonstrating that above-physiological levels of endothelial cell (EC)-specific NADPH oxidase-derived ROS in vivo exert beneficial effects on vascular endothelium will be discussed. The paradoxical roles of ROS in CVD suggest that subcellular sources and types of ROS may play crucial roles in the prevention, development, and progression of CVD. A better understanding of the precise mechanisms by which subcellular ROS modulate cardiovascular health and functions will certainly better prepare us with effective treatment modalities for CVD.",signatures:"M. Ruhul Abid and Frank W. Sellke",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51914",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51914",authors:[{id:"178147",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Ruhul",surname:"Abid",slug:"md.-ruhul-abid",fullName:"Md. Ruhul Abid"},{id:"178149",title:"Prof.",name:"M. Ruhul",surname:"Abid",slug:"m.-ruhul-abid",fullName:"M. Ruhul Abid"}],corrections:null},{id:"50965",title:"Free Radicals and Neuronal Recovery from an Ischaemic Penumbra: A Review",doi:"10.5772/63366",slug:"free-radicals-and-neuronal-recovery-from-an-ischaemic-penumbra-a-review",totalDownloads:1706,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Stroke remains the second leading cause of death worldwide. The major problem is that the therapeutic window is short and no accepted treatment is completely efficient. Even though there is evidence of free radical participation in the pathophysiology of stroke, no beneficial effects of antioxidants have been demonstrated in clinical assays. Moreover, some reports paradoxically indicate that antioxidants could be harmful and that oxidative stress preconditioning could reduce the long-term effects of stroke. There are two major areas within the ischaemic zone: (1) the core, where neuronal necrosis develops in minutes, and (2) the penumbra surrounding the core, where some neurons could eventually be recovered over an extended time. The present review specifically focuses on the role of free radicals in the life or death of brain cells (mainly neurons) within the ischaemic penumbra. It also analyses the effects of oxidative stress on blood-brain barrier disruption. In conclusion, we postulate a cascade of events that follow cerebral ischaemia and what type of therapeutic approach could eventually change the effect of free radicals on neuronal recovery from an ischaemic penumbra.",signatures:"Cleva Villanueva, Robert D. Kross and Luis Pérez-Astudillo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50965",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50965",authors:[{id:"178299",title:"Dr.",name:"Cleva",surname:"Villanueva",slug:"cleva-villanueva",fullName:"Cleva Villanueva"},{id:"178301",title:"Dr.",name:"Robert",surname:"Kross",slug:"robert-kross",fullName:"Robert Kross"},{id:"178302",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",surname:"Perez-Astudillo",slug:"luis-perez-astudillo",fullName:"Luis Perez-Astudillo"}],corrections:null},{id:"51903",title:"Role of Oxygen Free Radicals in Cancer Development and Treatment",doi:"10.5772/64787",slug:"role-of-oxygen-free-radicals-in-cancer-development-and-treatment",totalDownloads:3610,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:17,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"It is well known that species derived from oxygen are cytotoxic and are involved in the etiology of cancer. Several carcinogens during metabolism exert their effect by producing reactive oxygen species (ROS). One of the consequences of oxidative damage to cellular DNA is mutated. It plays a vital role in the process of carcinogenesis (especially in the initiation and progression). The alters, including rearrangement of DNA sequence, base modification, DNA miscoding lesions, gene amplification, and the activation of oncogenes, could be implicated in the initiation stage of several cancers. Mitochondrial changes in the cancer cells are well known and as a result are respiratory injured. Mitochondrial dysfunction could lead to a low coupling efficiency of the mitochondrial electron transport chain (mETC), raising electron leakage and increased ROS formation. It has been documented that by reducing and inactivation of antioxidant system, the oxidative stress (OS) in cancer cells is higher. Cancer cells exhibit a higher oxidative stress level compared to normal cells, rendering tumor cells more vulnerable to raise ROS levels. Therefore, increasing ROS levels through redox modulation can be a strategy to selectively kill cancer cells but not normal cells. A promising anti-cancer method named “oxidation therapy” has been developed by causing cytotoxic oxidative stress for cancer therapy. In this chapter, we described the role of ROS as a double-edged sword in cancer development and treatment.",signatures:"Jalal Pourahmad, Ahmad Salimi and Enaytollah Seydi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51903",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51903",authors:[{id:"172672",title:"Prof.",name:"Jalal",surname:"Pourahmad",slug:"jalal-pourahmad",fullName:"Jalal Pourahmad"}],corrections:null},{id:"50851",title:"Role of Dietary Antioxidant Agents in Chronic Kidney Disease",doi:"10.5772/63669",slug:"role-of-dietary-antioxidant-agents-in-chronic-kidney-disease",totalDownloads:2797,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is defined as the atrophy of the kidney or progressive decline of renal function mainly caused by chronic diseases such as diabetes mellitus and hypertension. CKD affects more than 10% of the world's population. Moreover, there is no single treatment to improve kidney function in CKD patients. Consequently, this condition is considered a worldwide public health problem. The development of novel CKD therapies is highly needed because current treatment methods are ineffective. Since oxidative stress plays a critical role in CKD, the study of the effect of antioxidants in this pathology is highly important. Dietary antioxidant agents have shown protective effects in CKD. Hence, they may be key for the development of feasible therapies. The aim of this chapter is to provide recent information about the therapeutic role of dietary antioxidants in experimental models of CKD and clinical trials, as well as to describe the mechanisms through which antioxidants exert nephroprotection. The dietary antioxidants revised in this chapter are curcumin, sulforaphane, resveratrol, quercetin, proanthocyanidins, flavan‐3‐ols, soy protein, red propolis, and Mediterranean diet.",signatures:"Dianelena Eugenio‐Pérez, Liliana Yazmín Medina‐Fernández,\nJennyfer Andrea Saldivar‐Anaya, Eduardo Molina‐Jijón and José\nPedraza‐Chaverri",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50851",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50851",authors:[{id:"178060",title:"Prof.",name:"José",surname:"Pedraza-Chaverri",slug:"jose-pedraza-chaverri",fullName:"José Pedraza-Chaverri"},{id:"184010",title:"Ms.",name:"Dianelena",surname:"Eugenio-Pérez",slug:"dianelena-eugenio-perez",fullName:"Dianelena Eugenio-Pérez"},{id:"184012",title:"BSc.",name:"Liliana Yazmín",surname:"Medina-Fernández",slug:"liliana-yazmin-medina-fernandez",fullName:"Liliana Yazmín Medina-Fernández"},{id:"184013",title:"Ms.",name:"Jennyfer Andrea",surname:"Saldivar-Anaya",slug:"jennyfer-andrea-saldivar-anaya",fullName:"Jennyfer Andrea Saldivar-Anaya"},{id:"184014",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",surname:"Molina-Jijón",slug:"eduardo-molina-jijon",fullName:"Eduardo Molina-Jijón"}],corrections:null},{id:"51172",title:"Novel Antioxidant Therapy Against Myocardial Ischemia– Reperfusion Injury During Percutaneous Coronary Angioplasty",doi:"10.5772/63658",slug:"novel-antioxidant-therapy-against-myocardial-ischemia-reperfusion-injury-during-percutaneous-coronar",totalDownloads:1414,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Acute myocardial infarction (AMI) is the leading cause of mortality worldwide. Major advances in the treatment have included coronary interventions, such as systemic thrombolysis and percutaneous coronary angioplasty (PCA). These procedures have been aimed to recover the blood flow in the cardiac zones affected by the occlusion of a branch of the coronary artery. However, damage is generated in the heart tissue known as myocardial reperfusion injury, an event associated with increased oxidative stress. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are able to trigger cell death pathways, and myocardial structural and functional impairment. Studies on animal models of AMI suggest that lethal reperfusion accounts for up to 50% of the final size of a myocardial infarct, a part of the damage likely to be prevented. Although a number of strategies have been aimed to ameliorate lethal reperfusion injury, up to date the beneficial effects in clinical settings remain elusive. The accumulated body of evidence suggests that redox balance is a crucial determinant of ischemia–reperfusion injury, with clear mechanistic insights into pharmacological approaches. This chapter presents the molecular basis for a novel cardioprotection of patients with AMI subjected to PCA, based on a reinforcement of the antioxidant system.",signatures:"Pablo Parra and Ramón Rodrigo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51172",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51172",authors:[{id:"178438",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramón",surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"ramon-rodrigo",fullName:"Ramón Rodrigo"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"779",title:"Protein Purification",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8aa371cf1ed6990c6ede21238f467547",slug:"protein-purification",bookSignature:"Rizwan Ahmad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/779.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6397",title:"Free Radicals, Antioxidants and Diseases",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7b0703d537f4f738f46848aac66f5d34",slug:"free-radicals-antioxidants-and-diseases",bookSignature:"Rizvan Ahmad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6397.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5267",title:"Tumor Metastasis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ac0d598a394585f0b00dcc15347e1f89",slug:"tumor-metastasis",bookSignature:"Ke Xu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5267.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"59529",title:"Dr.",name:"Ke",surname:"Xu",slug:"ke-xu",fullName:"Ke Xu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2857",title:"Apoptosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ecedf2c21b8be33b3e6b587c5eb71fca",slug:"apoptosis",bookSignature:"Justine Rudner",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2857.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"138726",title:"Dr.",name:"Justine",surname:"Rudner",slug:"justine-rudner",fullName:"Justine Rudner"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5175",title:"Role of Biomarkers in Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f47eae7f8443697d384b2c8e763f0c55",slug:"role-of-biomarkers-in-medicine",bookSignature:"Mu Wang and Frank A. Witzmann",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5175.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"40766",title:"Prof.",name:"Mu",surname:"Wang",slug:"mu-wang",fullName:"Mu Wang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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Ashraf",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8268.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"199287",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghulam Md",middleName:null,surname:"Ashraf",slug:"ghulam-md-ashraf",fullName:"Ghulam Md Ashraf"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"219759",title:"Dr.",name:"Winnie",middleName:null,surname:"Sun",fullName:"Winnie Sun",slug:"winnie-sun",email:"winnie.sun@uoit.ca",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Ontario Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"284558",title:"Dr.",name:"Shelby-Lynne",middleName:null,surname:"Clarke",fullName:"Shelby-Lynne Clarke",slug:"shelby-lynne-clarke",email:"shelbylynne.clarke@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"284561",title:"Dr.",name:"Hanaan",middleName:null,surname:"Madahey",fullName:"Hanaan Madahey",slug:"hanaan-madahey",email:"hanaan.madahey@uoit.net",position:null,institution:null},{id:"284562",title:"Dr.",name:"Ping",middleName:null,surname:"Zou",fullName:"Ping Zou",slug:"ping-zou",email:"pingz@nipissingu.ca",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"65375",slug:"recovery-intervention-to-promote-social-connectedness-through-social-recreational-programs-for-perso",signatures:"Winnie Sun, Shelby-Lynne Clarke, Hanaan Madahey and Ping Zou",dateSubmitted:"November 12th 2018",dateReviewed:"December 22nd 2018",datePrePublished:"January 28th 2019",datePublished:"April 10th 2019",book:{id:"8268",title:"Advances in Dementia Research",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Advances in Dementia Research",slug:"advances-in-dementia-research",publishedDate:"April 10th 2019",bookSignature:"Ghulam Md. 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Hence, the methodology can be used in multiple applications such as probing cellular processes in live cells, developing multiple biomedical imaging modalities, material characterizations, remote sensing, etc. Hyperspectral imaging can also take advantage of deep learning algorithms to retrieve valuable information from high-dimensional data in real-time. It is worth emphasizing that hyperspectral imaging is not limited to visible light. With other available excitation sources such as X-ray, electrons, etc. new hyperspectral imaging modalities can be extended to nanometer scales.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book intends to bring together diverse research areas of hyperspectral imaging. We hope to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art in this fascinating and important field and make this book project a useful platform to allow all those working in hyperspectral imaging to be benefited from the knowledge of widely different fields.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-094-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-093-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-113-3",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"b95808f12e716f6494aaedba4d67d98d",bookSignature:"Dr. Jung Y. Huang",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11950.jpg",keywords:"Spectroscopic Imaging, Snapshot Imager, Spectral Filter Arrays, Machine Learning, Deep Learning Network, Compressive Sensing, Super Resolution, Image Segmentation, Tera-Hertz Radiation, X-ray Photoemission Imaging, Molecular Imaging, Chemical Imaging",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 19th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 23rd 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 22nd 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 10th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 9th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"12 days",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"An academic researcher specialized in developing optical probes for unraveling dynamic processes in live cells and nanostructured materials, with over 100 publications and a high h-index (34). Dr. Huang holds several patents in laser techniques, solar cells, and hyperspectral imaging, including ‘’Method of integrating light-trapping layer to thin-film solar cell’’ and ‘’Coherent multiple-stage optical rectification terahertz wave generator’’.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"457620",title:"Dr.",name:"Jung",middleName:"Y.",surname:"Huang",slug:"jung-huang",fullName:"Jung Huang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/457620/images/system/457620.jpg",biography:"Jung Y. Huang received his Ph.D. in 1988 from the Applied and Engineering Physics of Cornell University. He was a full professor and investigator in the Department of Photonics and T.K.B. Research Center for Photonics, Chiao Tung University, Taiwan. His research interests focus on the development of optical probes for unraveling cellular processes in live cells and characterizing functional properties of nanostructured materials. He had been an editorial board member of the Advances in Optoelectronics for twelve years, and a reviewer for about twenty scientific journals in optics, chemistry, and material sciences. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"117",title:"Artificial Neural Networks",subtitle:"Methodological Advances and Biomedical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"artificial-neural-networks-methodological-advances-and-biomedical-applications",bookSignature:"Kenji Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/117.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3828",title:"Application of Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"51a27e7adbfafcfedb6e9683f209cba4",slug:"application-of-nanotechnology-in-drug-delivery",bookSignature:"Ali Demir Sezer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3828.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"56421",title:"Robotic Splenic Flexure and Transverse Colon Resections",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69881",slug:"robotic-splenic-flexure-and-transverse-colon-resections",body:'\nSince the 1990s, laparoscopic technique has become a standard approach for several surgical procedures in the field of colorectal surgery [1]. All the main prospective trials comparing open and laparoscopic technique for colorectal cancer have shown same clinical and oncological outcomes of the two approaches [2–5]. Laparoscopic approach to splenic flexure and transverse colon cancer, however, has not been investigated and it is still a matter of debate, mainly due to the rare incidence of the cancer of the left flexure, ranging approximately from 3 to 10% of all colon cancers, and to technical difficulties in approaching the transverse colon. Splenic flexure cancers are generally considered as all those cancers occurring between the distal part of the transverse colon and the proximal part of the descending colon [6]. Pure transverse colon cancers are commonly defined as all those cancers occurring in the middle part of the transverse colon. Surgical technique for this kind of tumors is not standardized yet, because of anatomical aspects and technical issues. Laparoscopic approach has been considered a challenging procedure, with longer operative time than in open surgery and a relative risk of splenic and pancreatic injuries, suggesting its use by expert surgeons and for early stage disease. Robotic surgery has been introduced in colorectal surgery about 15 years ago, and it is spreading worldwide, thanks to its advantages over laparoscopic technique.
\nPatient is placed in the reverse Trendelenburg position (15°), with a 30°-tilt to the right with the arms alongside the trunk and the legs abducted (\nFigure 1\n). The cart approaches the operative table from patient’s left hip (\nFigure 2\n). The procedure is carried out with a five-trocar technique and begins with the insertion of the Veress needle in the left hypochondrium and the induction of a 12-mmHg pneumoperitoneum. The optical trocart is placed 2 cm right and up the umbilical scar. The robotic trocarts R1, R2, and R3 are inserted in the right iliac fossa at the cross between the line passing through the antero-superior iliac spine and the umbilical scar, and the middle clavicular line; in the epigastrium/left flank between the midline and the left-middle clavicular line, and in the right hypochondrium 2 cm below the right rib margin along the middle clavicular line, respectively. A laparoscopic 12-mm trocart is placed in the right flank between R1 and R3, for the assistant at the operative table. Arm 1 is connected to R1, arm 2 is connected to R2, and arm 3 is connected to R3. The complete trocarts and operating theatre setups are shown in \nFigures 3\n and \n4\n.
\nPosition of the patient on the operative table.
Direction of the docking of the robotic cart in left colic flexure resection.
Trocarts position in left colic flexure resection. SUL, spine-umbilical line; MCL, middle clavicular line.
Operative theater setting.
Robotic instruments used in this procedure are bipolar fenestrated forceps, for coagulation and traction, the ProGrasp for traction and exposure, and robotic scissors for cutting and blunt dissection (when used with closed jaws). The robotic monopolar scissors are mounted on arm 1, the robotic bipolar fenestrated forceps on arm 3, and the ProGrasp on arm 2 (\nFigure 5\n).
\nRobotic instruments used during robotic left colic flexure resection.
A laparoscopic exploration of the abdominal cavity and an intraoperative ultrasonography of the liver are systematically performed to identify the site of the neoplasm (tattoo or the cancer itself) and to complete the staging of the disease. This is a fundamental step that allows also in finding out the connections between the splenic flexure and the inferior pole of the spleen. The robotic arms are connected to the trocarts (robot docking). The first step of the flexure takedown is the dissection of the gastrocolic ligament. The transverse colon is pulled down by the assistant with a laparoscopic grasper, while the stomach is pulled up by the bipolar forceps on arm 3, in order to maximize the exposition of the gastrocolic ligament and to identify the Bouchet’s area, the starting point of the dissection carried out by the robotic scissors on arm 1 in a right-to-left direction (\nFigure 6\n). The dissection continues till the lower pole of the spleen is reached, then the splenocolic ligament and the superior part of the left paracolic gutter are incised. The access to the lesser sac is achieved. The inferior margin of the pancreas is identified and the root of the mesocolon is incised 1 cm below the pancreatic margin by the robotic scissors on arm 1, from left to right, till reaching the first jejunal loop, at the Treitz area. The transverse and left colon are medialized by the assistant and the separation of the Toldt’s fascia from the Gerota’s fascia is carried out in a lateral-to-medial direction; during this step, the paracolic gutter is completely incised up to the sigmoid colon. The takedown of the splenic flexure is completed.
\nDissection of the gastrocolic ligament. The transverse colon is pulled down by the assistant with a laparoscopic grasper, while the stomach is pulled up by the bipolar forceps on arm 3, in order to maximize the exposition of the gastrocolic ligament and to identify the Bouchet’s area.
Vascular anatomy of the left colic flexure is constituted by secondary branches of the two main intestinal vascular trunks; blood supply is provided by the left branch of the middle colic artery originating from the superior mesenteric artery, and by the left colic artery (LCA), originating from the inferior mesenteric artery (IMA); venous drainage flows into the superior mesenteric vein, through the left branch of the middle colic vein, and into the inferior mesenteric vein (IMV), through the left colic vein (LCV).
\nSplenic flexure cancer has various lymphatic drainage pathways. The standard lymphatic way is satellite to the left branch of the middle colic artery and left colic artery, but lymphatic metastases to the infrapancreatic lymph node region and the splenic hilum have been reported. Indocyanine green (ICG) fluorescence may help analyzing metastatic lymphatic spread, if injected subserosally or submucosally. The optimal dose range is between 0.1 and 0.5 mg/kg and should not exceed 2 mg/kg. For the detection of the lymph flow, a dose of ICG of 2.5 mg/1.0 mL is injected into the subserosal-submucosal layer around the tumor at two points after trocar insertion; the lymph flow is observed using the robotic integrated near-infrared system (NIR) 30 min after ICG injection.
\nThe transverse colon is pulled upward by the assistant with the laparoscopic grasper, and the left colon is lifted up and laterally by the ProGrasp on arm 2. The inferior mesenteric vein (IMV) is identified at the inferior margin of the pancreas. The dissection starts at the lateral margin of the IMV in order to identify the left colic vein (LCV). An accurate lymphadenectomy of the root of the IMV is performed. The left mesocolon is lifted up by the ProGrasp on arm 2, while the IMV is medialized by the assistant with a laparoscopic grasper. The dissection continues till the LCV is identified and isolated between non-adsorbable clips, applied by the assistant or by the robotic clip applier on arm 1, and cut by the assistant or by the scissors on arm 1 (\nFigure 7a\n and \nb\n). The dissection is carried out with a medial to lateral direction, joining the previous plane between Toldt’s and Gerota’s fascia. The sigmoid colon is completely mobilized, preserving the left gonadal vessels and the ureter, lying down Gerota’s fascia (\nFigure 8\n).
\nVascular dissection. the LCV is identified and isolated between non-adsorbable clips, applied by the assistant or by the robotic clip applier on arm 1, and cut by the robotic scissors on arm 1. LCV, left colic vein.
Mobilization of the sigmoid colon. The left gonadal vessels and ureter are preserved under Gerota’s fascia.
The left mesocolon is then lifted up by the ProGrasp on arm 2 to identify the inferior mesenteric artery (IMA): the dissection follows the lateral aspect of the IMA till reaching the origin of the left colic artery (LCA). An accurate lymphadenectomy of the origin of the IMA is performed. The LCA is isolated between non-adsorbable clips and cut by the assistant or by the robotic scissors on arm 1 (\nFigure 9\n).
\nThe vascular dissection continues with the isolation of the left branches of the middle colic vessels (LMCV) (\nFigure 10a\n). The transverse mesocolon is pulled upward by the ProGrasp on arm 2, and the identification of the main trunk of the middle colic vessels starts at its origin from the superior mesenteric vein (SMV), upward. The dissection is carried out by the robotic bipolar forceps on arm 3 and the robotic scissors on arm 1. After identification of the main trunk, the left branch is dissected and freed from the surrounding lymphatic and fatty tissue, and cut by the assistant or by the scissors on arm 1, after being isolated between clips, as well (\nFigure 10b\n and \nc\n).
\nVascular dissection. The LCA is isolated between non-adsorbable clips and cut by the robotic scissors on arm 1.
Vascular dissection. Identification of the left middle colic vessels (a), isolation between clips (b) and section (c).
Lymphadenectomy and vascular dissection have been completed.
\nOnce the mobilization of the splenic flexure and the vascular dissection are completed, the evaluation of the vascularization of the colon with ICG is performed to identify the correct site of transection (\nFigure 11a\n). After intravenous injection, in a time interval between 5 and 30 s, ICG reaches the arterial and venous vessels. The assistant, then, cut the transverse colon and the proximal sigmoid colon by a laparoscopic linear stapler (\nFigure 11b\n). A robotic linear stapler can be used if available on arm 1. A recheck of both the two colonic stumps is carried out to avoid postoperative risk of anastomotic or stumps dehiscence, mainly caused by tissue devascularization (\nFigure 11c\n and \nd\n). The specimen is inserted into an endobag for further removal. The two colonic stumps are approached. The robotic bipolar forceps on arm 3 holds the descending colon stump and a colotomy is performed at the level of the tenia, with the robotic scissors on arm 1, as well as for the transverse colon stump. The laparoscopic linear stapler is introduced into both the two colostomies while the surgeon at the console helps the introduction of the two branches of the stapler inside the colonic stumps with the robotic bipolar forceps on arm 3. A colocolic side-to-side antiperistaltic mechanical anastomosis is then performed (\nFigure 12\n). The entry hole of the stapler is closed by two running barbed sutures starting from the opposite angles. The first running suture is performed from the inferior angle upward. The second suture is performed from the upper angle downward (\nFigure 13a\n and \nb\n). Afterwards, the robotic system is undocked and a Pfannenstiel incision is performed for specimen extraction.
\nEvaluation of the vascularization of the colon with ICG (a), section of the colon (b), recheck of the two colonic stumps (c-d).
Fashoning of the colo-colic side-to-side mechanical anastomosis.
Closure of the entry hole.
Patient is placed in anti-Trendelenburg position with the arms along the trunk and the legs abducted. The robotic cart approaches the operative table from patient’s head (\nFigure 14\n). The procedure is carried out with a five-trocar technique and begins with the insertion of the Veress needle in the left hypochondrium and the induction of a 12-mmHg pneumoperitoneum. The optical trocart is placed 2 cm right the umbilical scar. Three robotic trocarts are placed in the right (R2) and left (R1) hypochondrium 2–3 cm under the rib margin and in the right flank (R3) along the middle clavicular line 2 cm below the transverse umbilical line. A laparoscopic 12 mm trocart is inserted in the left flank along the middle clavicular line 2 cm below the transverse umbilical line for the assistant. Arm 1 is connected to R1, arm 2 is connected to R3, and arm 3 is connected to R2. The complete trocarts and operating theatre setup are shown in \nFigures 15\n and \n16\n.
\nDirection of the docking of the robotic cart in transverse colon resection.
Trocarts position in transverse colon resection. SUL, spine-umbilical line; MCL, middle clavicular line.
Operative theater setting.
As for splenic flexure procedure, robotic instruments used in transverse colon resection are bipolar fenestrated forceps, for coagulation and traction, the ProGrasp for traction and exposure, and robotic scissors for cutting and blunt dissection (when used with closed jaws). The robotic monopolar scissors are mounted on arm 1, the robotic bipolar fenestrated forceps on arm 2, and the ProGrasp on arm 3.
\nTransverse colon receives blood supply from the two main intestinal trunks: the superior mesenteric artery (SMA) and the IMA, via the middle colic arteries and the left colic artery, as well as the venous drainage is tributary of both the two vascular systems (SMV and IMV). Venous drainage, however, is especially variable and closely related to pancreatic and omental veins, as for the close relationship of the transverse colon with the greater omentum, the pancreas, and the stomach. Even though locoregional lymphadenectomy of the root of the SMV and SMA is commonly considered oncologically adequate, some authors suggest exploring and dissecting lymph nodes of the infrapancreatic and gastroepiploic region.
\nThe first step of the procedure is the dissection of the gastrocolic ligament carried out by the robotic scissors on arm 1. The stomach is pulled up by the surgeon with the robotic ProGrasp on arm 3, and the transverse colon is pulled downward by the assistant. The dissection continues laterally to the sigmoid colon on the left side to the cecum on the right: the phrenicocolic and splenocolic ligament, and the parietocolic ligament are sectioned on the left; on the right, the gastrocolic ligament is dissected below the gastroepiploic vessels, performing a locoregional lymphadenectomy. The right colon is then retracted medially by the assistant and by the robotic ProGrasp on arm 3, and the dissection of the right parietocolic ligament is performed by the robotic scissors on arm 1. A blunt dissection is performed lateral-to-medial from both sides and over the pancreas till reaching the Treitz area and the origin of the middle colic vessels. Then, the transverse colon is pulled up by the robotic ProGrasp on arm 3, enhancing the main trunk of the middle colic vessels. The dissection of the root of the transverse mesocolon is completed toward the end of the pancreatic tail. The root of the main trunk of the middle colic vessels is clipped by the assistant or by the robotic clip applier and sectioned by the assistant or by the robotic scissors on arm 1, and the locoregional lymphadenectomy is carried out. The incision of the transverse mesocolon is performed by the robotic scissors, starting from the middle colic vessels straight to the flexure on both sides.
\nThe transection of the colon is performed by the assistant with a laparoscopic flexible stapler or by the surgeon with the robotic stapler on arm 1, and it includes both the two flexures. The left and the right colon are joined and a colotomy is carried out at the closed margin of both the two colonic stumps. The right colon is held by the surgeon with the ProGrasp on arm 2, the left colon by the assistant. A double running suture colocolic end-to-end anastomosis is performed with two needle-holders on arms 1 and 3. Afterward, the robotic system is undocked and a Pfannenstiel incision is performed for specimen extraction.
\nThe role of minimally invasive surgery has been recently established in the colorectal field thanks to a series of randomized clinical trials that compared laparoscopic and open techniques. Their results definitely eliminated any doubts concerning the oncological adequacy of minimally invasive treatment. The spread of minimally invasive surgery may be also justified by the reduced postoperative pain, decreased hospital stay and faster postoperative recovery, reduced incidence of postoperative complications, improved cosmetic outcome, and decreased incidence of incisional hernias. Alongside these encouraging results, technologic innovations have been introduced in minimally invasive surgery. Robotic technique has spread worldwide thanks to its advantages over standard and advanced laparoscopy (three-dimensional (3D)). Several generic aspects of robotic assistance, such as three-dimensional view, better ergonomics, magnified vision, and articulated tips of the robotics instruments are reported to be significant technical advantages in colorectal surgery. Splenic flexure and transverse colon resections seem to be challenging procedures, which robotics may help with. Surgical approach of left flexure and transverse colon cancers is not standardized yet, due to the rare incidence of the flexure cancer and the technical difficulties of the latter. Left colic flexure cancers have an incidence ranging from about 3–10% of all colon cancers [7] and were initially correlated to a poor prognosis and a high risk of obstruction [8]. This correlation has been recently overcome by some studies showing comparable survival outcomes to those of other colonic cancers, and demonstrating that neither the splenic flexure site nor colonic obstruction has an independent influence on patient survival after surgery [8–10]. One of the aspects that remain controversial is the extension of lymphadenectomy [6, 11]. As previously reported, the classic pathways follow the main nourishing arterial trunks: the middle colic vessels, essentially the left branch, and the left colic artery. Some authors argue that lymphatic spread may follow the IMV and the IMA, thus requiring their ligation and a consequent standard left colectomy in order to achieve an oncologically adequate lymphadenectomy; aberrant metastatic pathways to the infrapancreatic lymph node region and the splenic hilum have been reported [12], even though no systematic data in the literature regarding the frequency of lymphatic drainage roots at this site have been clarified yet. Recently, indocyanine green fluorescent imaging (ICG) in colorectal cancer has been used to evaluate the blood flow, but there are few reports on the lymphatic flow [13–15]. Some authors conducted a study on the pattern of lymph flow for splenic flexure colon cancers with ICG on 31 consecutive patients [15]. The amount of ICG injected was 2.5 mg (1 mL of solution) into the subserosal-submucosal layer. The main lymphatic diffusion was observed through the IMV and LCA areas, with or without the presence of aberrant vascularization. The conclusion was that lymph node dissection of the root of the IMV area is important and it should be always performed, avoiding ligation of both the left middle colic artery (lt-MCA) and LCA, in those cases without widespread lymph node metastases. Unnecessary splenectomy is one of the main complications reported on laparoscopic studies for splenic flexure colon cancers, due to the anatomical relations between these two organs, and the characteristics of the laparoscopic instruments. Poor dexterity, instrument stiffness, and a limited range of motion make splenic flexure resection a challenging procedure, requiring also several modification of patient’s position. Moreover, the use of 3D laparoscopy is controversial as it seems to fail showing any advantages in colonic resection or other more complex procedures, as it is in its infancy and further comparative studies are necessary to assert whether it can reduce learning curve [16–18]. Robotic assistance may help performing an accurate lymphadenectomy thanks to motion scaling, tremor filtering, 7-degrees of freedom and the 3D magnified view, avoiding unnecessary vessel ligation or inadverted injuries to the surrounding organs. These results suggest that robotic assistance, associated to ICG imaging, may introduce the concept of “tailored” surgery and can facilitate surgical resection of splenic flexure colon cancer. Further studies on lymph flow pattern may lead to a “standardization” of this procedure. Fluorescence was integrated into the da Vinci Si HD System (Intuitive Surgical, Sunnyvale, CA, USA) in 2010. The surgeon can quickly switch between normal viewing mode to fluorescence (near-infrared light) by pressing the pedal on the surgical console (\nFigure 17\n). Indocyanine green is a sterile, water-soluble protein-binding dye with low toxicity and fast biliary excretion. ICG fluorescence imaging system is a simple, safe, useful method and can be used in several fields of general surgery, particularly in oncologic surgery [13].
\nICG NIR-Fluorescence System. Fluorescence was integrated into the da Vinci Si HD System (Intuitive Surgical, Sunnyvale, CA, USA) in 2010. The surgeon can quickly switch between normal viewing mode to fluorescence (near-infrared light) by pressing the pedal on the surgical console.
Laparoscopic transverse colon resection for middle cancers is a rare procedure as population suffering with it is too small. Moreover, transverse colectomy requires advanced laparoscopic surgical skills and, consequently, a longer learning curve than other colorectal procedures. Dissection of the middle colic vessels and locoregional lymphadenectomy are more challenging than in other laparoscopic colectomies as well as the complete mobilization of hepatic and splenic flexures, which is an essential step of transverse colectomy. Colic flexures takedown may help anastomosis fashioning; even though there is no statistical difference between the advantages of intracorporeal versus extracorporeal anastomosis, it is preferable to perform an intracorporeal colocolic end-to-end anastomosis because of some well-known advantages: better chance to choose the site of the minilaparotomy (suprapubic or median), especially in obese patients, low traction on the mesentery and avoidance of twisting of the mesentery [19–21]. Some authors argue that excessive mobilization of the colon, without the flexures takedown, can be avoided when adopting an intracorporeal anastomosis [22], but it can result in a unadverted traction on the anastomosis itself and a moderate risk of dehiscence in the postoperative, then, it is always preferable to take down both the two flexures even in an intracorporeal anastomosis. Robotic approach provides specific advantages in intracorporeal anastomosis sewing, thanks to the endo-wrist function and the stability of the robotic arms, thus reproducing all the steps as in open surgery, and the 3D magnified view. Initially, the lack of tactile sensation was considered a pitfall of the robotic system, and several studies of engineering are still ongoing in order to provide a tactile sensation by the robotic system. This aspect, however, was recently confuted as it was shown that visual feedback of an expert surgeon can successfully replace tactile sensation, without the need of a tactile-feedback device [23].
\nIn conclusion, few cases have been reported on robotic splenic flexure and transverse colon resection, but robotic assistance seems to provide several advantages on performing these procedures. Further studies are necessary to assess the real role of robotics in the treatment of the splenic flexure and mid-transverse colon cancers.
\nHeat stress is one of the challenging stress factors for goat farming under changing climatic scenario across the world due to global warming [1]. It is well established that environment stressor either hot or cold negatively affect the productive and reproductive performance of goat via reducing growth [2], milk yield [3], reproductive performance [4] and meat production [5], as well as immunity, making the goats more susceptible to various diseases and extreme cases even death [6, 7]. Therefore, the focus should be on adaptive capacity of goats for selection of breed which are best suited and reproduce, perform better under extreme environment [8, 9]. Hence, there is a growing demand for selection of goats that are best suited to a wide range of geographical and harsh environment. Like every animal, goats possess several unique morphological and physiological adaptive mechanisms [6]. It is important to understand the adaptive mechanisms of goat to heat stressor, to evolve fast-growing new breed of goat, identification of bio-markers at the gene level to produce heat-tolerant transgenic goat having high growth rate and adaptability. This chapter is therefore, an attempt to provide the underlying various adaptive mechanisms of goat to heat stressor.
Adaptation is the capacity and the process of adjustment of an animal to itself, to other living material and to external physical environment. In term of biology, adaptation (biology) is defined as the morphological, anatomical, physiological, biochemical and behavioural characteristics of the animals, which promotes welfare and favour the survival in a specific environment. According to genetic, adaptation (genetic) is defined as the heritable animal characteristics which favour survival of a population in a particular environment. Further, in term of physiology, adaptation (Physiology) is defined the capacity and process of adjustment of the animals to itself to other living materials and its external physical environment. These adaptive changes either genetic or phenotypic (physiological) occur in animals in response to internal and external stimuli [10], which allows normal activity of the animals in an altered but tolerable climatologically range. There are series of behavioral, physiological, biochemical, hormonal, and molecular changes at the gene level to cope with heat stressor which may or may not lead to permanent genetic changes. Therefore, the adoptive capacity of animals to a stressful condition is a function of both its genetic and the intensity & duration of the stressor.
Adaptive mechanisms of goat to heat stress either hot or cold were evaluated on the basis of behavioral, morphological, physiological, biochemical, hormonal and molecular changes at the gene level. This adaptive response to heat stress experiments were conducted either in climatic chamber under control climatic conditions or under natural environmental conditions especially seasonal variations such as extreme hot (summer) and cold season (winter). Many experiments were conducted in terms of comparative assessment between indigenous native goat breeds in their own home tract with that of exotic, crossbred as well as goat breed originated in different environmental condition under similar managemental condition, sufficient feed and clean adlibitum water.
A temperature humidity index (THI) was the most preferred method to detect goat under heat stress and co-relation to access adaptive capacity of goats to different environments/heat stressor. It was calculated from dry and wet bulb temperature using following formula.
where Dbt = dry bulb temperature in °C and Wbt = wet bulb temperature in °C.
Body length, body height, body heart girth, horn length, ear length, tail length, coat colour, pigmentation and body weight are the mostly studied morphological variables to determine the adaptive capacity of goat to heat stressor. Body weight of the goats were weighed in fasting condition at early morning on settled platform after the setting of weighing balance at zero [9].
Behavioral responses like standing time, lying time, drinking frequency, defecation frequency, and urination frequency were recorded during the study period [11].
Physiological variable such as respiration rate (RR) was recorded by counting flank movements per minute, from adistance of 4–5 meters without disturbing the experimental goats. The unit of measurement of RR was in breaths per minute. Rectaltemperature (RT) was recorded using a clinical thermometer by gently restraining the goats. The unit of measurement of RTwas in degrees centigrade. Skin temperature ST) o f goats varies based on the quantum of sun rays to which the different body parts were exposed. Generally, in male goats, the skin temperature was recorded on the head, scrotum, and flank region. Skin temperatures were recorded using a infrared thermometer (B.S.K. Technologies, Hyderabad, India) by maintaining a distance of 5 to 15 cm [11].
Heart rate (HR) was measured by auscultation method with the aid of a flexible stethoscope by counting the number of heart sounds and beats for 20 s; the results were multiplied by 3 to express the values on a minute-time scale.
Sweat glands number was analyzed by the histological method [12]. Approximately 1–2 cm of skin sampled from the neck, flank and hindquarters were collected. These samples were processed by paraffin embedding and prepared skin smear and stained with hematoxylin and eosin. The stained skin smear was conducted on a photomicroscope under 20 × magnifications. A total of 20 fields were examined for each skin smear and images were captured to count the number of sweat gland appeared by the ImageJ® software program. The numbers of sweat glands in these images were counted on the basis of the number of hair follicles that were observed.
Blood samples were collected from experimental goats from jugular vein in vacutainer tubes with anticoagulant under aseptic conditions at fortnightly intervals for estimation of hematological, biochemical and hormonal variables. Plasma was immediately separated aftercentrifugation at 3500 g for 8 min and aliquated the plasma samples were stored at−80 °C until analysis.
Haematological variables were measured in fresh blood samples. These variables were measured using an automated blood analyzer. It was also measured as per conventional methods. Total erythrocyte and total leucocytes was measured by haemocytometer method. Packed cell volume was determined using capillary tubes inmicrohaematocrit centrifuge based on the technique described by Wintrobe method. Haemoglobin concentration was estimated by cyanmethemoglobin method. Fresh blood was used for preparing smears for differential leukocytes count (DLC). The bloodfilm was dried by waving the slide in the air and stained with field stain, and counting was done under microscope. The biochemical variables such as AST, ALT, glucose, total protein, albumin, globulin, total cholesterol, triglycerides, and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) were analysed using a biochemical analysis apparatus (Thermo Scientific Genesys 10S Vis, Centreville, VA, USA) as well as few experiments quantified by using commercial diagnostic kits as per manufactures protocols. Non-Ester fatty acids (NEFA), betahydroxybutyrate (β-HBA), cortisol, aldosterone, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) were quantified by using commercial diagnostic kits as per manufactures protocols.
Blood samples were collected from experimental goats from the jugular vein in a heparinized vials and centrifugation was done at 3500 rpm for 25 min at 4 °C for collection of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) pellet. Total RNA was extracted from the PMBC pellet using RNA extraction kit as per manufacturer’s protocol. The total RNA was reverse transcribed into complementary DNA (c-DNA) using cDNA synthesis kit for real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction as per manufacturer’s protocol. Relative expression of mRNA transcripts of Heat Shock Protein (HSP) and other stress associated genes by quantitativereal-time PCR using SYBR Greenas per manufacturer’s protocol. Each sample was run in triplicate and in all cases, samples of total RNA were used as negative control.
The data were analyzed by two way ANOVA using SPSS 16.0 statistical software. Results were expressed as the mean ± SEM. A difference with value p < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.
Behaviour is the first and foremost one of the most effective adaptive mechanism, at least for the short term period. This mechanism allows goat to reduce the heat load by avoiding/reducing direct exposure to solar radiation. Behavioral changes include seeking shelter [11], changing posture (eg: standing or altering orientation to the shade or wind breaks [13, 14], reducing feed intake (When exposed to hot) or increasing feed intake (When exposed to cold) [15], standing time, lying time, drinking frequency, defecation frequency, urination frequency [11] etc. Goat tends to spend more time on standing in hot humid environment to avoid direct solar radiation as well as radiation heat from the ground. For example; Fawn goats have different eating behaviors in comparison with Saanen x hair goats, when they were exposed to heat stress and poor nutritional condition [16]. These behavioral responses are to prevent additional heat load from the ground as well as to facilitate effective heat dissemination from the body of the animals to the surrounding environment [17]. Hence, the understandings of normal behaviors goats are paramount for assessing the impact of heat stress and adaptive capabilities.
Goats can cope with a variety of geography that include deserts, alpine regions, high altitude mountain hilly area, wet and dry tropics, arctic and temperate zone. Morphological or phenotypic variations are part of adaptive changes to a wide range of geography and environment. These variations are depending upon their ecological niche where they are originated. The most common morphological changes are
Size and shape.
Coat colors and pigmentation.
Morphological adaptive changes due to heat stressor in animals are the most pronounced and efficient response to cope with the heat stressor. Bergmann [18] stated that the smaller sized breed of a given species are found in the warmer regions of ecological range and the larger sized breeds in the cooler localities. Further, the extremities (eg. ear, tail, bills) are smaller in the species inhabiting the cooler part of ecological range than those in warmer parts [19]. All these morphological characteristics are very crucial from the adaption point of view as it directly influence the heat exchange mechanisms via convection, radiation and evaporation between goats and surrounding environment [13]. For example Sudanese and Egyptian desert goats have relatively medium to large body size, which help in evaporative heat loss and it is a part of morphological adaptive response [20]. Similarly, non-dwarfed breeds of goats in the desert and savannah areas of Africa are much smaller than typical European breed of goats [21].
Coat colors and skin pigmentation are directly attributed towards heat loss from the body via conduction and convection in goats. The sensible heat loss via conduction and convection from the body of the animal are affected by the surface area per unit body weight, coat color, the magnitude of the temperature gradient between the goats the skin to the surrounding air [22]. Light coats colour and sleek and shiny hair coats are reflected a greater proportion of incident solar radiation than hair coats that are dark in colour or more dense and woolly [23]. For example, West African dwarf goats have smooth, short, and straight hair, which helps them to adapt in hot and humid environment [22]. Similarly, Black coat colour goats are dominant in hot deserts area and they have advantages to cope with direct exposure of solar radiation over white goats. Although, the black coat absorbs much more incident of direct solar radiation, these goats can drink an amount of water that equal to about 35% of their body weight, thus help in efficiently adjust to hot and humid environment by evaporation mechanism [24]. In addition, pigmented skin protects the deep tissues from direct short wave UV radiation by blocking its penetration in hot tropical regions. Thus, it prevents extra heat gain by the goats through direct solar radiation.
The physiological adaptations are most often caused by acute stressors. These changes are manifested as respiration rate, sweating rate, body temperature, skin temperature, heart rate etc.
Respiratory rate is the first foremost physiological response to heat stressors in goats [8, 25]. Respiration is the process of inhalation of oxygen (O2), followed by elimination of carbon dioxide (CO2), produced as a result of cellular metabolisms by the cells which lead to evaporative moisture loss from the respiratory tract to maintain thermal balance of the animals. This mechanism is very crucial for preventing the hypothermia which otherwise occur under thermal/heat stress [26]. As temperature increased above the thermal comfort zone of the goats, a marked increase in the respiratory rate from the normal level indicated that the goats are trying to maintain homeostasis by dissipating heat load from the body through evaporative cooling mechanism by vaporizing more moisture to the surrounding environment [27, 28]. Normally, respiration rate increased during summer due to increase in ambient temperature and decreased during winter due to decline in ambient temperature. Respiration rate increased during summer to increase heat loss through sweating and respiration. When this physiological adaptive response is failed to alleviate the effect of heat load by evaporation cooling mechanism, the body temperature may increase to a point at which goat’s well-being and productive performances are compromised mainly due to reduce feed intake and extra energy loss in the process heat loss from the body. Respiratory rate increased during the summer season which indicated that goats are under stressed [29]. So, rapid increase in the respiratory rate in response to heat stress indicates the greater susceptibility of goats to heat stress. This physiological response has been found to be different from breed to breed. This adaptive response may be attributed to breed difference and adaptation to different heat stress [1, 29, 30]. For example, a higher respiratory rate was recorded in cold-adapted goats (Gaddi and Chegu) compared to that of heat adapted goats (Sirohi and Barbari) during summer [30].
Rectal temperature represents the resultant of all heat gain (both metabolic and radiation heat) and heat loss of the body. It is used to measure the core body temperature of animals. Also, it acts as a natural passage way for dissipation of extra heat to maintain physiological homeostasis and body temperature [1]. Hence, it is an indicator of heat stress and may be used to assess the heat stress and adaptive capacity of goats. Normal rectal temperature of goats ranges between 38.3 to 40 °C. An elevation of the rectal temperature occurs only when the sweating and respiratory evaporation mechanisms failed to maintain homeothermy in goats [29, 30, 31]. This physiological response is varied from breed to breed and climatic conditions. For example, a higher rectal temperature was recorded in cold-adapted goats (Gaddi and Chegu) compared to that of heat adapted goats (Sirohi and Barbari) during summer and might be attributed to different heat stress [30].
Skin is an important passageway for heat exchange between the animal’s body and the surrounding environment. Skin temperature is a result of blood flow to the skin, which ends with regulation of heat exchange between body core and the skin [32]. Skin temperature increased under stressful condition for redistribution of blood flow to the skin surfaces so as to form a gradient between ambient temperature and skin surface temperature for heat dissipation from the body of the animals to the surrounding environment. So, when an ambient temperature is greater than skin temperature, the temperature gradient between the body surface and the environment decreases, impeding heat dissipation in this case by an evaporative mechanism [25]. But, it depends on heat stressor including nutritional stress. For example, highest skin temperature of the head, flank, and scrotum was recorded during the afternoon of a day in Osmanabadi goats subjected to combined (heat and nutritional) stressors [11]. This increased in skin temperature for vasodilatation of the skin capillary bed and consequently increases the blood flow to the skin surface to facilitate heat dissipation.
Heart rate reflects primarily the homeostasis of circulation along with the general metabolic status of animals. Heart rate of animals increased under stressful condition to increases blood flow from the core to the surface of the body to give a chance for more heat to be lost by sensible (conduction, convention and radiation) and insensible (diffusion water from the skin) means [33]. A marked acceleration of the heart rate occurs during the hottest part of the day to decrease heat production [34].
Heat stress leads to activation sweating to maintain physiological homeostasis and body temperature. Specially, when respiratory mechanism is failed to maintain physiological homeostasis, it activate the evaporative heat loss mechanisms by involving an increase in sweating rate and respiratory minute volume about 70–85% [35]. The goats have greater sweating rate and lower body weight: surface ratio, which allows efficient way to heat dissipation from the body to the surrounding environment [36]. For example Black Bedouin goats can able to store large volumes of body water, and have considerable sweating capacity which allows them to cope in hot environment [37].
The hematology profile is an attributing adaptive response to cope with heat stress either hot or cold in animals. Heat stress effects on hematological parameters such as packed cell volume (PCV), hemoglobin (Hb), total erythrocytes count (TEC), total leukocytes count (TLC), lymphocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils, monocytes, granulocytes, and pH [38]. Hb, PCV, TEC and TLC levels increased during winter season in cold climate climatic condition whereas these variables levels decreased during summer in goats [30, 39]. Similarly, Upadhyay and Rao [40] and Abdelatif et al. [41] observed decreased levels of mean TLC, TEC, Hb and PCV during summer months and increased during winter months in goat. Increased in PCV and Hb levels could be availability of adequate nutrients for synthesis of Hb as the goat consumes more feed during winter season [42]. Further, hematological response to the heat stressor is varied from breed to breed [30]. They reported a decreased in mean Hb, PCV, TEC and TLC levels during summer in Sirohi and Barbari goats as they were well adapted to hot climate and less susceptible to heat stress. But the decline in Hb, PCV, TEC and TLC was more in Gaddi and Chegu goats as they were less adapted to hot climate more susceptible to heat stress during summer.
Biochemical composition is directly proportional to the metabolic status of animals and can be used as an index for assessing the adaptation capacity to heat stressors. Heat stress causes alteration in blood biochemical parameters such as glucose, NEFA and β-HBA, total protein, albumin, globulin, to maintain physiological homeostasis especially energy balance through basal metabolic heat production. These responses may be due to a direct effect of high temperature on metabolic function or may be a result of heat impacting gene expression.
A decreased level of blood glucose, cholesterol and free fatty acid levels were recorded in goats in response to heat stress [38]. This low level of blood glucose level could be related to reduce feed intake due to heat stress especially during summer [30, 43]. Further, increased blood glucose level in cold-adapted goat breeds such as Gaddi and Chegu was higher during summer in compared to Sirohi and Barbari goats as they are well adapted to hot climate [29]. The high blood glucose level during summer may be due to increased glucocorticoids especially cortisol due to increase level of stress related to ambient temperature. Further, NEFA and β-HBA are used for energy status of the animals [28]. Heat-stressed goat showed a decreased level of NEFA and β-HBA [36]. This may be related to the adaptive capability of the goats to maintain constant energy requirements.
Heat stress affects the protein metabolism of goats [44]. Metabolism is a part of adaptive response to the heat stress. Helal et al., [45] reported decreased in total plasma protein, albumin and globulin levels in goats subject to heat stress [45]. This might be due to an increase in plasma volume as a result of heat stress. In contrast, heat stress increased total protein and albumin levels due to increase respiration rate in goats for enhancing evaporating cooling [46]. This variation is might be due to adaptive capacity of goods. Indigenous breeds of goats are relatively better adapted to heat stress in their own native place.
Neuro-endocrine responses to heat stress play an integral role in the adaptive mechanisms in animals. It is a crucial stress axis to accomplish physiological homeostasis by releasing several hormones for regulation of energy mobilization, cardiovascular and respiratory functions [47]. The hypothalamus serves as the main integrative control unit for neuro-endocrine responses. It receives information from peripheral as well as central nervous system and triggers an appropriate hormonal signal to maintain the internal milieu of the animals. The activation of the hypothalamo–pituitary–adrenal axis leads to enhance synthesis and release of cortisol and aldosterone levels into circulation under stressful conditions in goats [48]. These hormones are regulated the metabolism, also behavioral response to heat stressor in goats by favoring glycogenolysis, lipolysis, and proteolysis to supply required energy to restore homeostasis. However, the cortisol level was varied considerable between heat- and cold-adapted goats. For example, the cortisol level was higher in heat-adapted goats such as Sirohi and Barbari than in the cold-adapted breeds such as Gaddi and Chegu [30]. The differences in the cortisol levels may be due to adaptation of heat- and cold-adapted goats to different environment conditions, which might helps in physiological adjustment to the environment and enables goats to tolerate stressful conditions. In case of heat-tolerant breeds such as Sirohi and Barbari goats, the cortisol level increased during winter. This increase in cortisol level during winter due to cold stress so as to increase basal metabolism to maintains of the normal body temperature. However, in case of cold-tolerant goats, the cortisol level was lower during winter, thus it is reflected as adaptive response and comfortably to cold climatic condition.
Thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) stimulate oxygen consumption and heat production by the cells [49], and regulate the basal metabolic heat production in animals. Thus, the level of thyroid hormones may reflect an adaptation response to the heat stressor in order to reduce the basal metabolic heat production. Decrease levels of T3 and T4 during heat stress is an adaptive response [50], which enables reduces the basal metabolic rate and thus metabolic heat production goats [51, 52, 53] and heat production by the cells [54]. The secretion and release of thyroid hormones are affected by environmental stressor and adaptive capacity of the goats breed. For example, a high blood thyroid hormone levels was recorded in cold-adapted breeds (Gaddi and Chegu) than for heat adapted breeds (Sirohi and Barbari) goats [30]. This may be attributed to breed differences and their adaptation to different climatic conditions, which is associated with energy metabolism. The increased level of thyroid hormones may be due to low ambient temperature during winter to increase metabolic rate and increased body heat production to maintain core body temperature.
With the advancing modern biotechnological tools, it could able to identify and characterize gene expression patterns associated with cellular adaptation mechanisms of goats at the molecular level [29, 42]. A complex network of gene associated with adaptation to heat stressor in goat [55]. Out of these, many genes determine an individual’s capability to adapt to the heat stress. Heat shock proteins (HSPs) are perhaps the best-studied examples of genes whose expression are associated with adaptive capacity of to heat stress. These HSP genes such as HSP60, HSP70, and HSP90 are highly conserved proteins belong to the chaperones family proteins across evolutionary lines that are expressed under various kinds of stressor and play pivotal role in regulating the proper folding of proteins [56], intracellular transport, maintenance of proteins in an inactive form, the prevention of protein degradation [57], and to adapt progressively to the changing environment to ameliorate the deleterious effects of heat stress [58]. The genes expression profile is depended on kind of goat breeds and type of environmental stressor such as heat or cold [29, 59]. For example, the expression of HSP70 was unregulated in heat stressed goats remained elevated only for 4 hours and returned back to basal level after 8 hours of heat stress withdrawal [60, 61]. Further, it was reported that cold stress was not enough to produce an alteration in HSPs gene expression except in Jhakrana goats [29]. They reported that an increase in HSP90 expression during winter season in Jhakrana goats indicated that cold stress could induce stress in Jhakrana goats, while Barbari and Siorhi goats exhibited adaptation to the same. Madhusoodan et al. [58] reported that the native indigenous goats breed was comparatively better adopted to own ecological niche or environment. They recorded a low level of expression of all heat shock response genes such as HSP70, HSP90, super oxide dismutase (SOD), nitrous oxide synthase 1 (NOS1) in Salem Black goats. The lower level of expression may be due to a sub-threshold level of the heat stress attained in the study to induce cellular stress response in Salem Black goats.
Apart from HSP genes, several other genes such as SOD, NOS, thyroid hormone receptor (THR) and prolactin receptor (PRLR) genes are associated with heat tolerant in animals [62]. Higher expression of NOS was reported in heat stressed goats, which help in vasodilatations of the skin to favor cutaneous evaporative cooling mechanisms to dissipate excess heat from the skin surface [31, 58]. Variations in the gene expression were due to gene–environment interaction and which favor the survival of a population in a particular environment [63, 64, 65]. Therefore; heat-tolerant genes play a significant role for regulation of physiological homeostasis and body temperature [66], and could be useful for production of heat stress tolerant goat breed by conventional approach through artificial selection as well as advance biotechnology tools using transgenic technology. Affymetrix Gene Chip Bovine Genome designed to monitor expression of approximately 23,000 transcripts, it has identified 39 and 74 genes whose expression was up- and down-regulated, and respectively by heat stressor in the blood cells of goats [3] and the genes are as follows (Table 1).
Breeds | Genes | Function | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Mexico goat | Thermo-tolerant | [67] | |
Chines goat | Coloration | [68] | |
Chines goat | Body size | [68] | |
Baraki goat | Thermo-tolerance (melanogenesis) | [66] | |
Baraki goat | Body size and development | [66] | |
Baraki goat | Energy and digestive metabolism | [66] | |
Baraki goat | Nervous and autoimmune response | [65] | |
Ugandan goat | Immune response | [69] |
Enlisted a few genes associated with heat tolerance in goats.
Heat stress has negatively affected the productive and reproductive performances of goat. Under the changing climate scenario due to global warming, the immediate need is to understand the adaptive mechanisms and identification of heat tolerant genes. Adaptive mechanism will provide basis strategies for management and to evolve fast-growing new goat breed as well as the production of heat tolerant transgenic goat for sustainable and profitable goat farming under challenged environment.
The authors are thankful to Hon’ble Vice Chancellor of Central Agricultural University, Imphal.
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Fish",authors:[{id:"36989",title:"Dr.",name:"Lynn",middleName:null,surname:"Fish",slug:"lynn-fish",fullName:"Lynn Fish"}]},{id:"17152",title:"Advanced Supply Chain Planning Systems (APS) Today and Tomorrow",slug:"advanced-supply-chain-planning-systems-aps-today-and-tomorrow",totalDownloads:10739,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:null,book:{id:"274",slug:"supply-chain-management-pathways-for-research-and-practice",title:"Supply Chain Management",fullTitle:"Supply Chain Management - Pathways for Research and Practice"},signatures:"Luis Antonio de Santa-Eulalia, Sophie D’Amours, Jean-Marc Frayret, Cláudio César Menegusso and Rodrigo Cambiaghi Azevedo",authors:[{id:"33605",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"de Santa-Eulalia",slug:"luis-antonio-de-santa-eulalia",fullName:"Luis Antonio de Santa-Eulalia"},{id:"34023",title:"Prof.",name:"Sophie",middleName:null,surname:"D'Amours",slug:"sophie-d'amours",fullName:"Sophie D'Amours"},{id:"34024",title:"Prof.",name:"Jean-Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Frayret",slug:"jean-marc-frayret",fullName:"Jean-Marc Frayret"},{id:"34025",title:"Mr",name:"Claudio",middleName:"Cesar",surname:"Menegusso",slug:"claudio-menegusso",fullName:"Claudio Menegusso"},{id:"34026",title:"Prof.",name:"Rodrigo",middleName:"Cambiaghi",surname:"Azevedo",slug:"rodrigo-azevedo",fullName:"Rodrigo Azevedo"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"446",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82344",title:"Supply Chain: A Modeling-Based Approach for Cyber-Physical Systems",slug:"supply-chain-a-modeling-based-approach-for-cyber-physical-systems",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105527",abstract:"Within the frame of this chapter, the author focuses on the distribution processes of green supply chain solutions and describes a potential mathematical model, taking environmental aspects into consideration. The first part of the chapter includes a systematic literature review. Based on the identified research gap, a new mathematical model is described, which makes it possible to describe last-mile logistics processes from an environmental point of view. The functional model of the distribution system includes the potential of Industry 4.0 technologies, which makes it possible to gather real-time information from the distribution process and use real-time status information for a sophisticated design and operation. The mathematical model of this approach defines an NP-hard optimization problem; therefore, heuristic optimization algorithm is supposed to solve the design and operation tasks of the green distribution problem. As the computational results show, cyber-physical systems increase the performance of green supply chain solutions and have a great impact on operational cost. As the numerical example shows, the integrated approach resulted in a 5.3% cost reduction in transportation operations.",book:{id:"11263",title:"Supply Chain - Recent Advances and New Perspectives in the Industry 4.0 Era",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11263.jpg"},signatures:"Ágota Bányai"},{id:"82191",title:"Open Innovation Strategies on New Product and Process Development Prospects: A Case of the Automotive Component Manufacturers in South Africa",slug:"open-innovation-strategies-on-new-product-and-process-development-prospects-a-case-of-the-automotive",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105035",abstract:"Competition between South African Automotive Component Manufacturers ACMs has focused on activities associated with supply chain management such as transporting raw materials and finished products. However, these activities are non-value, adding, so they are an area of relative opportunities for cost reduction; hence new product development presents a significant boost to competitiveness. This chapter\\'s primary goal is to determine which open innovation practices can benefit ACMs in developing new products and processes by using a sample survey of 10 ACMs in the automotive manufacturing industry in South Africa. The study adopted a quantitative methodology approach using a 5 Likert structured questionnaire. Data were collected from 33 respondents, including owners, senior and junior managers of ACMs. The results identified that idea generation positively influences the Open Innovation activity of seeking new outside applications for internally developed innovations, knowledge, tools and ideas on new product development. The significant implications are that ACMs should improve their dynamic capabilities to turn ideas generated into new innovative products to remain competitive. This chapter contributes to the existing knowledge by suggesting a contextualised impact of open innovation strategy on sustainable new product development of ACMs in South Africa.",book:{id:"11263",title:"Supply Chain - Recent Advances and New Perspectives in the Industry 4.0 Era",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11263.jpg"},signatures:"Arthur Mzwandile Gonyora and Pfano Mashau"},{id:"81340",title:"Sustainable and Efficient City Logistics",slug:"sustainable-and-efficient-city-logistics",totalDownloads:31,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104413",abstract:"This article is discussing the basic trend and challenges in city logistics operations. The role of each actor in city logistics has been highlighted. The actors have enabled city logistics to generates the main benefits for the city logistics operations need to focus. Critical trends and challenges that contributed towards city logistics development has shown that city logistics efficiency need to be addressed to ensure sustainable impact to the cities. Different approaches in making the city logistics operations were implemented to ensure that the customers get their possession according to the stipulated time. The usage of new technology has also assisted in enhancing the efficiency of city logistics deliveries. By providing the right strategies, the objective of achieving sustainable city logistics can be obtained.",book:{id:"11263",title:"Supply Chain - Recent Advances and New Perspectives in the Industry 4.0 Era",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11263.jpg"},signatures:"Shahrin Nasir"},{id:"81222",title:"Industry 4.0: The Tenets of the Next Generation of Supply Chain Management",slug:"industry-4-0-the-tenets-of-the-next-generation-of-supply-chain-management",totalDownloads:27,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102979",abstract:"The supply chain industry is at the crossroads of the business revolution through the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR), impacting business activities across industries. The transformative elements of 4IR offer individual consumers, corporations, and governments unprecedented opportunities to link, collaborate, process, and manage rising consumer and business data to boost decision-making, efficiency, and productivity. Evidence shows that have applied a mix of collaborative and innovative technologies to internal and external activities to manage supply chain disruptions. The groundbreaking technological advancements paved the way for the supply industry to shift supply business prototypes from traditional supply chain models to supply web models. The shift has helped firms resolve national and global supply chain disruptions. The present chapter introduces the Supply Web (SW) concept and its distinctive tenets by adding to the growing body of the evolving Industry 4.0 field, knowledge to help advance the field. The author calls on governments, the global supply industry, and academia to consider embracing the new SW paradigm evolving under 4IR to help resolve societal and consumer challenges emerging in the 21st Century.",book:{id:"11263",title:"Supply Chain - Recent Advances and New Perspectives in the Industry 4.0 Era",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11263.jpg"},signatures:"Andre T. Mayounga"},{id:"80946",title:"Industry 4.0 Technologies Impact on Supply Chain Sustainability",slug:"industry-4-0-technologies-impact-on-supply-chain-sustainability",totalDownloads:53,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102978",abstract:"A supply chain is a network that links technology, activities, resources and organisations involved in the manufacturing and distribution of product and services. Supply Chain Operations Reference model (SCOR) defines basic processes of the supply chain (SC) into five categories as Plan, Source, Make, Delivery and Return. The search for a more sustainable production and consumption system is so relevant today that the United Nations (UN) have selected it as one of their paramount societal objectives for sustainable development. The implementation of sustainability in production and consumption processes aims to mitigate negative pressures on the ecosystem generated by products, services, and transportation. Industry 4.0 (I40) technologies have sparked interest in recent years. The advanced digital technologies of I40 such as big data analytics (BDA), artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning (ML), internet of things (IoT) and sensors, block chain technology (BCT), robotic systems (RS), cloud computing (CC), cyber-physical system (CPS), additive manufacturing (AM) /3D printing (3D), virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), autonomous vehicles (AV), and drones have found applications in many processes of manufacturing, logistics and SC. The benefits are sustainability, efficiency, cost reduction, transparency, traceability, and collaboration. In addition to benefits, I40 implementation is not free from challenges.",book:{id:"11263",title:"Supply Chain - Recent Advances and New Perspectives in the Industry 4.0 Era",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11263.jpg"},signatures:"Mohammad Akhtar"},{id:"80711",title:"Enhancing the Resilience of Sustainable Supplier Management through Combination with Lean and Audit",slug:"enhancing-the-resilience-of-sustainable-supplier-management-through-combination-with-lean-and-audit",totalDownloads:44,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102465",abstract:"Industry 4.0 has positive effect on the enhancing of the resilience. However, if the resilience can be promoted by lean and auditing environment priority, after further combine with industry 4.0 environment, the resilience will become stronger. Even though, two research questions should be verified priority: How do manufacturers make good use of pull production and employee involvement under lean practices that can strengthen supplier management robustness and enhance the prevention ability of resilience? Why does the combination of lean practices with an audit mechanism strengthen the produce synergy to prevent and control opportunistic behaviour by suppliers? PLS and the Sobel test were applied to survey data from 231 Chinese manufacturers to test and verify research questions. Pull production and employee involvement can enhance responsible purchasing, emergency-response, manufacturing process coupling, and further strengthen supplier management robustness, further enhance the prevention ability of resilience in dealing with opportunistic behaviour. In addition, enhancing manufacturing process coupling has the indirect effect of strengthening emergency-response ability. The audit mechanism can control the dysfunctional behaviour of the supplier, further guiding cooperation with the practice of pull production and employee involvement; in addition, audits also trigger the supplier’s trade-off mindset in terms of risk and profit maintenance.",book:{id:"11263",title:"Supply Chain - Recent Advances and New Perspectives in the Industry 4.0 Era",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11263.jpg"},signatures:"Ping-Kuo Chen, Qiu-Rui He and Xiang Huang"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:11},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:133,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. 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He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,annualVolume:null,editor:null,editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11400,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11401,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. 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His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7139",title:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7139.jpg",slug:"current-approaches-in-orthodontics",publishedDate:"April 10th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Belma Işık Aslan and Fatma Deniz Uzuner",hash:"2c77384eeb748cf05a898d65b9dcb48a",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",editors:[{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. 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He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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