Reasons for referral.
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Concerns of coastal states about increasing ship-source marine pollution and oil spills started to grow as well. Some of the occurred incidents with tankers clearly demonstrated that oil spills in an environmentally or economically sensitive area could cause irreparable damage (Gold, 1998).
Oil pollution of the ocean comes from shipping activity and offshore oil production. Sea-bed activities on oil exploration and production constitute a relatively small part in the general amount of the pollution of marine environment with oil. The principal cause of marine pollution with oil is shipping. Traditionally shipping is considered to be “a polluting industry”. The world’s tanker fleet counts approximately 7 000 vessels with cargo capacities between 76 000 and 175 000 tons (Gennaro, 2004). Usual shipping operations, especially transportation of oil by tankers and accidents, result in the dumping of around 600 000 – 1 750 000 tons of oil into the ocean per year (Brubaker, 1993).
Due to the use of pipelines for petroleum products, oil transportation with tankers decreased significantly (Gennaro, 2004). However, the incidents with this type of vessels and the occurred oil spills occur constantly. The last oil pollution incident, which gained publicity and attention of the mass media, happened in October 2011 off the New Zealand’s coast. The grounding off of the tanker “Rena” and the followed oil leaking caused the environmental disaster. This oil spill seriously damaged wildlife, including penguins, seals, dolphins, whales and rare sea birds (New Zealand oil spill ship captain charged, 2011).
It must be stressed here that the oil spills and individual catastrophes are very spectacular, but the scientific research demonstrates that pollution from other sources damages the marine environment more. Furthermore, it should be noted that a small amount of oil is constantly seeping in the seas being assimilated into the ocean environment (Brubaker, 1993). Many chemicals carried at sea are intrinsically far more harmful to the marine environment. Although the impact of the oil pollution constitutes only a small part of a general pollution to the maritime environment, the consequences of oil spills and oil wastes are extremely damaging for marine landscape and ocean’s inhabitants.
Spilled oil is very toxic. It can be lethal to adult animals even in relatively low concentrations. It may also cause physiological or behavioral disruptions of species. Oil spills also cause death through the prevention of normal feeding, respiration and movement functions not only of ocean wildlife, but also of marine life at the sea shore. Particularly dangerous oil spills are for birds. Oil spill can lead sometime to the tainting of fish and shellfish. Sometimes one can feel the consequences of the oil spills through the oily taste or smell to the seafood. An oil spill directly damages not only animals, plants and corals, fisheries, but also affects human activity in the area of fisheries through damaging of fishing boats, fishing gear, floating fishing equipment.
Oil spills affect not only the ocean space around them, but also shorelines, open waters and the seabed; wetlands; corals. They also damage fisheries and coastal amenities. Especially vulnerable for the potential damage is the area of shorelines. The caused damage is unpredictable and does not depend on the size of the oil spill. It depends rather on the closeness to the shoreline and vulnerability of the area. For example, a 9 000-ton diesel fuel spill from the “Tampico Maru”, in the Baja California in 1957, damaged over 10 km of coastline. On the other hand, 10 000 tons of crude oil discharged by the “Argea Prima”, in Puerto Rico in 1962, caused very little actual damage. The oil spill of 476 000 tonnes of crude oil, caused by the Ixtoc I oil platform blowout in the Gulf of Mexico, had caused relatively little damage. The damage from the “Argo Merchant” grounding in 1976 and oil spill of 50 000 tons were very serious. The oil spill of 40 000 tons by the VLCC “Exxon Valdez” in especially vulnerable area of Prince William Sound in Alaska, in 1989, resulted in an ecological disaster and very long and costly clean-up operations. The same phenomena were observed during the Iran-Iraq and Iraq-Kuwait military actions and resulted oil spills. The oil spill with “Atlantic Empress” with loss of almost 300 000 tons of crude oil in 1978 in the Atlantic Ocean did not cause any significant impact on economy, but seriously damaged an offshore ecosystem around the site of the catastrophe.
Under the right conditions the marine environment recovery natural process is incredibly quick and “painless”, however, the internal mechanisms of the nature are not endless and marine environment needs proper treatment and protection. The new oil and gas development projects also raise more and more serious concerns of the environmentalists. For example, the recent decision to start the drilling in the Arctic seriously worried the environmentalists especially in light of the climate change issue, which have been widely discussed in the mass media. On 29 August 2011 Exxon Mobil Corp and Rosneft signed an agreement on the development of oil and gas in the Russian sector of the Arctic (Korsunskaya & Reddall, 2011). The region presumably obtains around 13% of the undiscovered oil resources and 30% of its natural gas. Although this project is considered to be highly beneficial for both sides, it is stressed by both sides that environmental safety is very important in this area (Howard, 2011), since this area is considered to be ecologically fragile. Partly the concerns address the transportation of oil and possible oil incidents.
In the international law in the course of time a comprehensive regulatory regime on prevention of marine oil pollution (particularly oil spills) was developed. Special attention was paid to the regulation of marine oil pollution by shipping (Salter & Ford, 2001), so the existing rules cover mostly vessel-source pollution. The most effective instruments in the marine environment protection are regional treaties. Almost all regional treaties include a general obligation for signatory states to prevent, reduce and control all forms of maritime pollution. In the Helsinki convention Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area, 1992. Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic, 1992.
However, the elaborated rules need to be enforced and complied with. A closer co-operation and sharing of informational resources within the international community is urgently required, especially in the cases of conventions and their amendments ratification.
This chapter is devoted to the existing rules of international law and certain unilateral legislation on the issue of marine environment pollution with oil as well as their development in the XX-XXI centuries. The liability and compensation schemes in cases of occurred oil pollution are also analyzed. The chapter also deals with the existing regional conventions on marine oil pollution and makes certain proposals on the improvement of the existing at present legislation.
The first international convention on oil pollution was adopted in 1926 by the International Maritime Conference in Washington. This document however was not ratified.
Because of the significant pollution especially of the Atlantic Ocean during the World War II (military operations with submarines, torpedoes etc.), since 1945 the issue of oil pollution became very acute and more and more important.
Marine pollution particularly with oil is not clearly regulated in any particular global environmental convention. This form of pollution is considered in some of the international legal documents. The provisions of the international conventions on this issue are, however, relatively limited.
The Declaration on the Human Environment (Stockholm Declaration) Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, 1972. Action Plan for the Human Environment, 1972.
It was stressed in the Principle 7 of the Stockholm Declaration on the Human Environment, 1972 that states shall take all possible steps to prevent pollution of the seas by substances that create hazards to human health, harm living resources and marine life, damage amenities or interfere with other legitimate uses of the sea (Sokolova, 2005).
Principle 22 addresses the issue of liability and compensation for marine pollution damage requiring from states further cooperation in order to develop rules of international law regarding this issue.
Action Plan consisting of 109 recommendations proposes to address pollution by means of the environmental assessment, environmental management and supporting measures.
One of the most important achievements during the UNCHE was the establishment of a new United Nations institution - the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). As for the issues of marine environment protection, the UNEP adopted “regional seas action plans”. The organization also monitors pollution in some of the regional seas areas. This shift to the regional perspective was caused by the idea that the transboundary problems of the oceans or environmental protection of any particular sea could be better managed from a regional basis. The first covered region was the Mediterranean (Suarez, 2006).
As a separate issue oil pollution is not regulated in the global conventions on the law of the sea. However, the Geneva Conventions of 1958 contain the provisions on environmental protection of the ocean against oil pollution through oil pipelines or continental shelf development (Art. 5(1) and 5(7) of the Geneva Convention on the Continental Shelf Convention on the Continental Shelf, 1958. United Nations, Treaty Series. Vol. 499. P. 311. Convention on the High Seas, 1958. United Nations, Treaty Series. Vol. 450. P. 11, p. 82.
Another comprehensive document for the different aspects of ocean matters including marine environment protection is the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1982.
The provisions of UNCLOS on maritime protection are of great importance world-wide. They are contained in Part XII of the Convention. These regulations are general. The convention proclaims general obligation of states to protect the marine and coastal environment and its resources (Art. 192). Art. 193 grants to the states the right to develop their natural resources under the consideration of their natural environmental policy. Art. 193 stresses as well the duty of states to protect and preserve the marine environment.
The general provisions of the mentioned Art. 192 and Art. 194 on measures to prevent, reduce and control pollution of the marine environment are considered to be a part of the international customary law.
Art. 195 and 197 require from state not to transfer damage or hazards or transform one form of pollution into another and to cooperate with each other on global or regional basis (Dahm et al., 2002).
The convention also contains the enforcement procedure for the rules on marine pollution prevention by the flag state (Art. 217) and by the coastal states over the vessels in its ports or off-shore terminals (Art. 220).
The protection of marine environment during the offshore development of oil is reflected in Art. 207, regulating the protection of marine environment against pollution from land-based sources. Art. 208 regulates protection of the marine environment from sea-bed activities under their jurisdiction. Art. 208 (4) stresses the need to reach a compromise in this respect on a regional level, what should be considered as a recognition of necessity to solve this problem on the regional level. Art. 213-214 contain the enforcement rules for the mentioned provisions.
Art. 235 proclaims liability of the states for their international obligations concerning the preservation and protection of marine environment. Art. 235 (2) requires the states to ensure the possibility to obtain compensation or other relief in case of the damage caused by the pollution.
Another international conference – The Earth Summit, which took place in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil from 3-14 June 1992 – was also very important for the environmental and development issues. This meeting was prepared by the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED).
The outcome of this conference was the adoption of several non-binding legal instruments, including Agenda 21 Agenda 21. http://www.un.org/esa/dsd/agenda21/res_agenda21_00.shtml
Chapter 17 of this document is devoted to the oceans “Protection of the Oceans, All Kind of Seas, including Enclosed and Semi-enclosed Seas, and Coastal Areas and the Protection, Rational Use and Development of their Living Resources”. This chapter links the activities of the conference with the UNCLOS. The chapter stresses the need of the marine pollution protection (Gold, 1998). The danger of offshore oil and gas operations for the marine environment and the need to minimize this danger are also in this chapter. Agenda 21 stresses the need to prevent especially the marine pollution from vessels including illegal discharges and pollution caused by ships in particularly sensitive areas. The need to reduce the risks of accidents is also stressed. Shipping has to comply with the provisions of the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution From Ships, 1973 as modified by the Protocol of 1978 (MARPOL) International Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Ships, 1973, United Nations, Treaty Series. Vol. 1340. P. 184 (as modified by Protocol, 1978, United Nations, Treaty Series. Vol. 1340. P. 61).
This document did not establish a new legal framework on ocean governance, but confirmed the importance and fundamental role of the UNCLOS in this respect especially in the protection and sustainable development of the marine and coastal environment and its resources (Suarez, 2006).
It addressed the discharge of oil and oily wastes into the water. OILPOL`54 prohibited the intentional discharge of oil and oily mixtures from certain vessels in specified ocean areas. The ballast discharges have to be made in the permitted areas with a special record in an oil record book. This book shall be inspected at regular intervals. The enforcement of the convention had to be fulfilled by the flag state.
The Convention became a significant achievement at that time. In the preamble of the later adopted MARPOL convention it is stressed that OILPOL was the first multilateral instrument to be concluded with the prime objective of protecting the environment. The preamble of the MARPOL also appreciates the significant contribution, which the OILPOL has made in preserving the seas and coastal environment from pollution.
On 18 March 1967 in the English Channel the accident with the oil supertanker “Torrey Canyon” occurred. The grounding of the vessel was caused by human error. The entire cargo of the vessel - 120 000 tonnes of crude oil – was spilt. Around 15 000 sea birds died because of the spill. Damage claims in Great Britain amounted to GBP 6 million and to FRF 40 million in France. States quickly recognized the danger of a major oil spill to the coastlines.
The “Torrey Canyon” incident demonstrated that there was no internationally agreed means of responding to accidents that had environmental implications. The regulation of compensation to be paid also did not exist on the international level (Özçayir, 2004).
This incident was the first major oil pollution incident. Due to its strong impact on the development of the international law it became historical. This oil spill clearly demonstrated that the development of the marine environmental legislation is closely connected with the occurring incidents at sea.
The International Maritime Organization established a Legal Committee to deal with the deficiencies in the international system for assessing liability and compensation for oil-spill damage, and a new subcommittee of the Maritime Safety Committee (MSC) to deal with environmental issues (Özçayir, 2004).
The occurred incident accelerated the formation of MARPOL convention and in 1973 the
As another consequence of this incident the International Maritime Organization adopted the International Convention Relating to Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Oil Pollution Casualties, 1969. United Nations, Treaty Series. Vol. 970. P. 211.
In its preamble it stresses the need to protect the interest of people against the consequences of a maritime casualties resulting in oil pollution. Measures of an exceptional character taken in order to protect the environment on the high seas are admissible. These measures do not affect the principle of freedom of the high seas.
In Article I the Convention grants a permission to take such measures on the high seas as may be necessary to prevent, mitigate or eliminate grave and imminent danger to their coastline or related interests from pollution or threat of pollution of the sea by oil in cases of a maritime casualty or acts related to it against vessels which pose a threat to their coastlines.
Article VI declares the obligation of a state caused damage to others to pay compensation in case, if the measures exceeded those reasonably necessary.
It provides coastal states with limited rights to take preventive measures on the high seas against foreign vessels which are considered to present a grave and imminent danger to coastlines and other coastal interests from oil pollution as a result of a maritime casualty.
The Convention has been criticized both for allowing too much discretion to coastal states and for limiting the rights of such states to take action. In 1973 a Protocol Protocol Relating to Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Pollution by Substances Other Than Oil, 1973. United Nations, Treaty Series. Vol. 1313. P. 4.
The “Torrey Canyon” incident demonstrated that in case of the oil pollution of the ocean there were no rules of international law making the polluter liable. OILPOL’54 left the issue of liability for pollution to the national law.
It was decided to develop international legal scheme with the liability regime for oil spills.
The present international regime of compensation for damage caused by oil pollution is based on two conventions:
The CLC 1969 was elaborated within the Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization and signed on 29 November 1969 in Brussels. It ensures the compensation to be paid. The general principle provided in the convention is that those causing oil pollution should pay compensation.
The convention aims to ensure the adequate compensation to victims of oil pollution damage resulting from maritime casualties involving oil-carrying ships. The convention applies to the pollution damage caused on the territory of the Member States to the Convention and related preventive measures (Art. II). The CLC does not apply to ships or vessels owned or operated by a State and used for non-commercial service. The CLC applies to State-owned merchant fleets.
Art. III of the Convention makes the owner of a ship strictly liable for the pollution damage caused by the discharge from the ship. The shipowner is liable even in the absence of any fault, for any damage by pollution caused by the oil. However, the shipowner can normally limit his financial liability up to an amount established according to the tonnage of the ship. This amount is guaranteed by his liability insurer. The liability insurance is compulsory.
Traditional liability exemption concept of fault and negligence did not apply under the CLC. The admissible exceptions out of “strict liability”-rule are damage resulting from an act of war or grave natural disaster or damage wholly attributable to sabotage by a third party or wholly caused by the failure of authorities to maintain navigational aids.
The Amendments of the Protocol of 1992 Amendments of the Limitation Amounts in the Protocol of 1992 to Amend the International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage, 1969. Resolution LEG.1(82), 18 October 2000. Amendments of the Limitation Amounts in the Protocol of 1992 to Amend the International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage, 1969.
The convention uses the standard of the Special Drawing Rights (SDR) of the International Monetary Fund.
This convention provided for a uniform set of international rules and procedures for determining liability and compensation. The introduction of the CLC convention significantly facilitated the recovery of compensation for oil pollution damage.
This convention is widely accepted, however, the US refused to adopt the CLC. The CLC’s provisions do not apply to the waters of states not accepted the CLC. In such a way, oil spills in the waters of the non-CLC states, such as the United States, remain uncovered.
During the 1969 conference at the Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization, which developed the CLC, it was recognized that there would be incidents which would require compensation limits in excess of the available under the CLC.
To provide for compensation for the circumstances not covered by this convention, an international fund was established under the terms of the 1971 Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage to administer this compensation system.
The FUND Convention is expertly administered by the International Oil Pollution Compensation Fund Secretariat in London. This fund is an intergovernmental organization established by States. Any state which accepts the FUND Convention automatically becomes a member of the International Oil Pollution Compensation (IOPC) Fund. The FUND is financed by a levy applied to individuals and corporations dealing with the import and export of oil in contracting states.
The convention also introduced a compulsory liability insurance requirement for ship owners.
Only oil (cargo or bunkers) carried in bulk by vessels is covered. Parties to the FUND must also be parties to the CLC, and the flag state of the vessel, which caused the damage, must also be a party to the FUND, if the shipowner is also seeking compensation.
The IOPC Fund becomes involved by providing supplementary compensation when the amount payable by the shipowner and his insurer is insufficient to cover all of the damage. Any person or company, which has suffered pollution damage in a Member State of the IOPC Fund 1992 caused by oil transported by ship, can claim compensation from the shipowner, his insurer and the Fund. This applies to individuals, business, local communities or States.
To be entitled to compensation, the damage must result from pollution and have caused a quantifiable economic loss. The claimant must substantiate the amount of his loss or damage by producing accounting records or other appropriate evidence. Compensation may be claimed for property damage, clean-up operations, economic losses of fishermen or those engaged in mariculture and tourism sector (ITOPF, 2002).
Since its establishment the IOPC Fund has been involved in some 120 incidents of different graveness in around 20 countries. Over US$ 630 million were paid as a compensation.
The FUND pays compensation to any claimant who has suffered pollution damage in cases where no liability arises under the CLC as the shipowner is protected by one of the CLC exemptions; or the shipowner is financially unable to meet the CLC obligations and the available insurance coverage is insufficient; or the damage exceeds the shipowner’s CLC liability. Most cases fall within the third category.
Claims for the compensation shall be brought in the applicable courts of contracting states.
During the 1984 Diplomatic Conference at the International Maritime Organization it was decided to revise completely both the CLC and the FUND instruments. This decision was strongly lobbied by the USA. After the “Amoco Cadiz” incident it was obvious that the CLC and FUND limits were not sufficient.
These protocols were some sort of the compromise between oil and shipping industries and coastal states for the protection of the marine and coastal environment. The Protocol of 1984 to Amend the International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage, 1969; and the Protocol of 1984 to Amend the International Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage, 1971 raised the liability limits and extended jurisdiction to the exclusive economic zone. However, both documents met the opposition of the USA after the “Exxon Valdez” grounding and did not enter into force. The 1992 Protocols Protocol of 1992 to Amend the International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage, 1969. http://www.iopcfund.org/npdf/Text%20of%20Conventions_e.pdf; Protocol of 1992 to Amend the International Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage, 1971. http://www.iopcfund.org/npdf/Text%20of%20Conventions_e.pdf
The 2000 amendments IMO Resolution, 18 October 2000. Adoption of Amendments of the Limits of Compensation in the Protocol of 1992 to Amend the International Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage, 1971. http://www.iopcfund.org/npdf/Text%20of%20Conventions_e.pdf
Simultaneously with the development of the CLC and the FUND Conventions the shipping and oil industries elaborated compensation regime schemes. It was made under the pressure of the publicity after the Torrey Canyon incident. Contract Regarding an Interim Supplement to Tanker Liability for Oil Pollution, 1971. International Legal Materials. Vol. 10, No. 1, 1971. P. 137.
TOVALOP was a voluntary agreement amongst tanker owners, including bareboat charterers. The main aim of this agreement was to encourage tanker owners to clean up spills, regardless of fault, with the assurance of recovering their costs from their P&I club and to compensate governments for the clean-up costs. TOVALOP members were required to carry sufficient insurance to cover their obligations under the scheme, including the clean-up costs. TOVALOP scheme was made as close as possible to the CLC provisions. After the elaboration of the Protocol to the CLC in 1984 there were even proposals to make in the TOVALOP the tanker owner liable for all cases of oil spills, even covered by the FUND. This risk had to be additionally insured. However, these proposals have been rejected.
TOVALOP was managed by the International Tanker Owners’ Pollution Federation (ITOPF) in London. ITOPF was charged with interpreting the scheme and handling claims directly.
Another voluntary interim agreement introduced by the oil industry was Contract Regarding an Interim Supplement to Tanker Liability for Oil Pollution (CRISTAL). This initiative commenced in April 1971 (the FUND convention entered into force seven years later).
The scheme was administered by the Oil Companies Institute for Marine Pollution Compensation Ltd. in Bermuda. Marine Pollution Compensation Services Ltd. (CRISTAL) in London was responsible for its everyday activities.
The both initiatives clearly demonstrated that the oil industry under the environmental pressure was ready to take the responsibility for pollution claims.
Both schemes have been amended several times according to the amendments of the CLC and FUND conventions.
From the beginning the both schemes were developed as the interim measures. However, CLC and FUND schemes became widely accepted and both TOVALOP and CRISTAL have been terminated on 20 February 1997.
Another proposal from the oil industry sector was a Pollution Agreement among Tanker Owners (PLATO) in 1985. This initiative reduced the liability of oil sector trying to put a greater burden on the shipping sector, since the level of the safety of shipping was still not sufficient. The initiative was not supported.
Further international document on the oil pollution was the International Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by the Dumping of Wastes or Other Matter (London Convention), 1972 Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, 1972. United Nations, Treaty Series. Vol. 1046. P. 120. Protocol of 1996 to the 1972 Convention on Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter. 2006 Australian Treaty Series 11.
The effectiveness of the London convention was demonstrated in the incident with the dumping of high-level radioactive waste in the Arctic by the USSR (Stokke, 1998). The dumping was documented in the Yablokov Report in the 1990s. Certain efforts were made to enforce the provisions of this convention through the Russian-Norwegian Environmental Committee and the International Arctic Sea Assessment Program. The behavior of the USSR was condemned during the Consultative Meeting under the London Convention. Further treatment and storage projects for the hazardous wastes for the former countries USSR under the framework of the London Convention.
The international community was dissatisfied with the OILPOL’54 convention and its environmental and technical requirements. The International Maritime Organization adopted another convention on the prevention of vessel-source pollution on 2 November 1973 - the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL). It covered pollution by oil, chemicals, and harmful substances in packaged form, sewage and garbage. The convention aimed to prevent both international and negligent pollution and minimize accidental spills. The Convention represents the compromise between coastal and shipping interests. The Convention introduced new anti-pollution regime and more modern operating requirements.
MARPOL effectively superseded OILPOL’54. However, in its preamble MARPOL Convention recognizes the importance of the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil, 1954.
Tanker accidents which took place in 1977/78 led the Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization to convene an International Conference on Tanker Safety and Pollution Prevention (TSPP Conference) in February 1978. This conference adopted MARPOL Protocol of 1978 in order to speed up the adoption of MARPOL convention. This 1978 Protocol is also known as the Tanker Safety and Pollution Protocol.
A few weeks after this conference the VLCC “Amoco Cadiz” spilt 230 000 tons of crude oil (Gold, 1998). This incident stressed the importance and urgency of the oil pollution prevention for the international community.
The combined instrument is referred to as the International Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modified by the Protocol of 1978 relating thereto (MARPOL 73/78), and it entered into force on 2 October 1983 (Annexes I and II). Later further Annexes (III-VI) were adopted to this document.
Annex I with regulations for the prevention of pollution by oil covers prevention of pollution by oil from operational measures as well as from accidental discharges. It also contains the mandatory requirements for new oil tankers to have double hulls and a phase-in schedule for existing tankers on double hulls (Gold, 1998).
Annex II with regulation for the control of pollution by noxious liquid substances - regulates the discharge of noxious substances, and prevents their discharge within 12 miles of the nearest land.
Annex III on prevention of pollution by harmful substances carried by sea in packaged form requires the packaging, labeling and documenting of harmful substances.
Annex IV is devoted to the prevention of pollution by spillage from ships.
Annex V on prevention of pollution by garbage from ships specifies distances from land and manner of disposal of garbage from ships and completely prohibits disposal of plastic.
Annex VI on prevention of air pollution from ships regulates discharge of sulphur oxide and nitrous oxide. The discharge of ozone depleting gases is prohibited.
Since the definition of “ship” in the convention includes vessels of any type operating in the marine environment (hydrofoil boats, air-cushion vehicles, submersibles, floating craft and fixed or floating platforms, oil-drilling vessels and platforms), all of their discharges of oil into the sea are also covered by the scope of this convention.
The “oil” in the convention is defined as petroleum in any form, including crude oil, fuel oil, sludge, oil refuse and refined products (other than petro-chemicals).
The discharge of oil is completely prohibited in a number of ‘special areas’ which are considered particularly vulnerable to pollution, for example, Mediterranean, Baltic, Black Sea, Red Sea, Gulf and Antarctic. In these areas for technical oceanographic and ecological reasons and the particular character of traffic, special mandatory methods for the prevention of sea pollution by oil are required.
MARPOL laid down the mechanism to check the seaworthiness of a ship by providing a framework for certification of ships with respect to safety and pollution compliance. Powers to inspect, detain and prosecute have been given to flag states and port states (Gautam, 2010).
The convention requires from vessels to have on board Oil Record Book (for tankers and other vessels over a certain tonnage) and Cargo Record Book (for ships carrying noxious substances other than oil). These books have to contain records on on-board operations.
MARPOL introduces a number of certificates to be kept on board: International Oil Pollution Certificate 1973 (IOPC); International Pollution Prevention Certificate for the Carriage of Noxious Liquid Substances in Bulk 1973; International Sewage Pollution Certificate 1973. These certificates could be demanded by surveyors and inspectors in flag and port states. Lack of or improper certification may result in sailing permission being withheld.
The convention introduces a system of communication between states. All relevant information of interest shall be communicated to other state(s) or organizations. For information on accidents and results of investigations reports are required. The International Maritime Organization shall be informed on such issues as reception facilities, inspection/survey authorities, specimens of certifications, texts of laws and regulations, annual reports and statistical index of violations and fines imposed.
MARPOL concerns mainly pollution from vessels. Exploration and other relevant offshore resources development activity is excluded.
The MARPOL Convention became the main international convention covering prevention of pollution of the marine environment by ships from operational or accidental causes. For the first time the whole issue of marine pollution was addressed. This document became an innovation. If earlier anti-pollution conventions had been limited to pollution by oil, MARPOL aimed at all kinds of sea-borne pollution: oil, chemicals, sewage, garbage, and other harmful materials (Rosenne, 1999).
In order to maintain its impact considering the constantly developing technical innovations the convention is being updated by amendments.
This convention serves as a certain “environmental code” for the shipping industry.
One can find certain provisions on marine pollution with oil in other relevant international legal documents.
Convention for the prevention of marine pollution from land-based sources Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Land-Based Sources, 1974.
International Convention Relating to the Limitation of the Liability of Owners of Sea-going Ships, 1957 International Convention relating to the Limitation of the Liability of Owners of Sea-Going Ships, 1957. http://www.admiraltylawguide.com/conven/limitation1957.html Convention on Limitation of Liability for Maritime Claims, 1976.
Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage Resulting from Exploration of Seabed Mineral Resources, 1977 (CLEE 1977) Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage Resulting from Exploration and Exploitation of Seabed Mineral Resources, 1977. http://www.dipublico.com.ar/english/convention-on-civil-liability-for-oil-pollution-damage-resulting-from-exploration-and-exploitation-of-seabed-mineral-resources/
The issue of oil pollution offshore drilling and exploration and exploitation activities is also concerned in a voluntary agreement amongst oil companies operating in northwestern Europe the Offshore Pollution Liability Agreement (OPOL) Offshore Pollution Liability Agreement. http://www.opol.org.uk/agreement.htm
In aftermath of the “Exxon Valdez” catastrophe under the pressure of the USA the International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-Operation (OPRC 1990) International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation, 1990.
The convention stresses in its preamble the serious threat posed to the marine environment by oil pollution incidents and reminds that in case of the oil pollution incident, prompt and effective action is essential in order to minimize the damage. In Art. 6 Convention puts an obligation upon Party States to establish a national system addressing the oil pollution incidents. The convention recognizes the importance of mutual assistance and international cooperation and establishes the basis for the exchange of information respecting the capabilities of states to respond to oil pollution incidents, the preparation of oil pollution contingency plans, the exchange of reports of incidents of significance which may affect the marine environment or the coastline and related interests of states, as well as research and development respecting means of combating oil pollution in the marine environment. The convention also sets a requirement for vessels and offshore units to have on board oil pollution emergency plans.
This convention is a framework treaty containing only general obligations without concrete ones. However, it should be stressed that a convention provides for legal basis for better cooperation between states in responding to oil pollution incidents (Gold, 1998). Besides the convention granted to the International Maritime Organization a central role in organizing an immediate response to polluting incidents, providing the basis for International Maritime Organization coordination of technical support and financial assistance for governments.
International Convention on Civil Liability for Bunker Oil Pollution Damage (BUNKER), 2001 International Convention on Civil Liability for Bunker Oil Pollution Damage, 2001. http://www.official-documents.gov.uk/document/cm66/6693/6693.asp
The international measures for the prevention and protection of the marine environment pollution are often considered to be slow and ineffective. Sometimes it makes the states to adopt the unilateral (or regional) measures for the protection of marine environment. However, it should be stressed that the number of states with a unilateral approach remains modest (Dahm et al., 1989).
As examples one could mention the reaction of the European Commission on the “Erika» oil spill or the Oil Pollution Act (OPA) U.S. Oil Pollution Act, 1990, Public Law 101-380, 104 U.S. Statutes at Large 484 (1990).
The company “Exxon Mobile” spent over $2 billion in order to clean up the Prince William Sound area after the Exxon Valdez oil spill (Gennaro, 2004).
It was the largest spill in the US waters. Being dissatisfied with the international community’s environmental protection legislation and common international standards (Pamborides, 1999), the US started its own new policy towards vessels calling at the US ports. Looking at the statistics one should say that after this legislation the volume of spilled oil in the US waters dropped by 70%.
The OPA, promulgated by the US Congress, introduced ahead of the International Maritime Organization double hull standards for oil tankers. This act was called “draconian legislation” (Gold, 1998). It allows to use single-hull tanker vessels of 5 000 gt or more for trade with the US until 2015, depending on their age, only if they were equipped with a double bottom or double sides. The vessels not complying with this requirement could be refused access to US waters after 2010.
This idea concerning the tank of the vessel was not particularly new. As far back as 1971 the amendments to the OILPOL have been elaborated. The proposed rules regulated the tank sizes of tankships in order to reduce the pollution. However, at that time this amendment proposal met a considerable opposition from the ship construction industry. Amendments did not enter into force (Gold, 1998).
The OPA applies to the navigable waters of the US, including the exclusive economic zone up to 200 miles from the baseline. ‘Oil’ is defined broadly to include petroleum, fuel oil, sludge, oil refuse and oily wastes. Hazardous substances are not included.
The OPA introduces liability provisions and establishes a supplemental fund to be used as compensation for losses not covered by polluters.
The OPA’90 allows to the US states to enact their own laws on issues of pollution liability and response.
The behavior of the US was condemned by the international shipping industry, especially tanker operators. In 1992 the International Maritime Organization adopted the amendment to MARPOL requiring mandatory double hulls for new tankers delivered on or after 6 July 1996. Existing tankers shall be fitted with double hulls within 30 years.
The revised measures on the phasing-out of single-hull oil tankers were adopted in December 2003 after incident with the “Prestige” tanker. Regulation 13G of Annex I of MARPOL concerning the final phasing-out dates was revised. The dates were pushed forward from 2007 to 2005 for “pre-MARPOL tankers” and from 2015 to 2010 for MARPOL tankers and smaller tankers. The Condition Assessment Scheme was made applicable to all single-hull tankers older than 14 years (Anianova, 2006).
The Arctic Waters Pollution Act of 1970 of Canada was the result of the beginning of the use of the Alaska territory for the transportation of oil. The Canadian law prohibits the dumping of hazardous wastes from vessels and from the land. The legal act grants to the Governor in Council the possibility to declare a certain area of the Arctic waters a safety zone. For such safety zone it is possible to enact separate regulations concerning the technical requirements to the vessels, their loading. The navigation of vessels through such zones can also be prohibited (Dahm et al., 1989). This act raised the protests of the USA. The attempt of the Canada to lobby the introduction of the environmental safety zones into the UNCLOS during the conference was not successful.
On December 12, 1999 the oil tanker “Erika” broke off the coast of Brittany, France. 14 000 tonnes of oil were spilled damaging 400 km of Atlantic coast. The “Erika” incident accelerated the amendments to MARPOL adopted in April 2001 on the phase-out of single-hull tankers by 2010. The case was brought to the court. The court found guilty the energy company Total, the owner and manager of the tanker, and the Italian classification society “RINA”, of negligence and criminal liability. They were ordered to pay 192 million Euros in damages. The Paris Court of Appeal increased the sum of damages to 200 million Euros.
The incident with the tanker “Prestige” in November 2002 off the coast of Spain when the vessel broke in two was followed by the collision of the Turkish tanker “VICKY” with a sunken carrier off the coast of France and the spill of 70 000 tons of flammable kerosene.
These accidents were reflected in the legislation of the European Union: the transport of heavy fuels have been prohibited in single-hulled tankers in EU waters and a phase-out plan for single-hulled tankers was introduced. For example, in Spain a ban against the transportation of heavy fuel in single hull tankers was introduced.
These unilateral measures concerning the international navigation could seem to be more effective than the international ones. However, they do not consider the interests of the international shipping. Such “competition” between unilateral initiatives and International Maritime Organization standards could be detrimental to international shipping and lead to the “selected ports” approach: the ports with the higher standards could not be simply ignored by some ships, while the ports with weaker port state control would be chosen. These ships with lower standards could threaten the environment in those regions (Anianova, 2006).
As for unilateral or national anti-pollution measures, one could say, that the effective marine environment protection is not possible without the cooperation with other states. However, the regional conventions dealing with pollution of certain seas or waters by oil could be more effective than the global ones with the general requirements. In particular it concerns regional seas and the need to protect their environment and regulate maintenance, exploration and exploitation of their resources (Gelberg, 1979). It is easier to consider the particularities of the regional seas with the help of the coastal states cooperation.
Most regional conventions on protection of particular regional seas include in their texts a common general obligation for the parties to take “appropriate” measures to prevent and control pollution arising from the exploration and exploitation of their seabed mineral resources:
Art. 8 of the Convention for Co-operation in the Protection and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the West and Central African Region (Abidjan Convention), 1981 Convention for Co-operation in the Protection and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the West and Central African Region, 1981.
Art. 4 of the Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and Coastal Area of the South-East Pacific (Lima Convention), 1981 Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and Coastal Area of the South-East Pacific, 1981. http://sedac.ciesin.org/entri/texts/marine.environment.coastal.south.east.pacific.1981.html
Art. VII of the Regional Convention for the Conservation of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Environment (Jeddah Convention), 1982 Regional Convention for the Conservation of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Environment, 1982.
Art. 8 of the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena de Indias Convention), 1983 Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region, 1983.
Art. 8 of the Nairobi Convention for the Protection, Management and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the Eastern African Region (Nairobi Convention) Convention for the Protection, Management and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the Eastern African Region, 1985.
Art. 8 of the Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific Region and related Protocols (Nouméa Convention), 1986 Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific Region, 1986. http://www.offshore-environment.com/regionalconventions.html
Art. 7 of the Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution (Barcelona Convention), 1976 Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea Against Pollution, 1976.
Most of the regional conventions on the seas protections contain an obligation to take decisive actions to protect their marine environment. Most of these conventions refer to the national legislation and the need to adopt the corresponding measures.
In some of the conventions (the Abidjan, Nairobi, Cartagena and Nouméa Conventions) the requirement on obligatory environmental management is introduced.
Most regional conventions also include cooperation clauses in their texts requiring the proper communication between concerned states and international organizations. Regional conventions contain mostly general rules and principles of environmental protection of the seas, however, the more detailed requirements and standards fail.
The anti-pollution legislation for all regional seas is at present still being developed and formed. There is already a number of regional arrangements for cooperation in combating pollution.
The first convention relating to offshore oil spills was the 1969 Bonn Agreement for Cooperation in Dealing with Pollution of the North Sea by Oil Agreement for Cooperation in Dealing with Pollution of the North Sea by Oil, 1969. Agreement for Cooperation in Dealing with Pollution of the North Sea by Oil and Other Harmful Substances, 1983. Official Journal L188 (16.07.1984). P. 9.
Mediterranean sea is protected by means of the Convention for the Protection Of The Mediterranean Sea Against Pollution (Barcelona convention), 1976. The provisions of this convention contain a non-binding obligation to undertake all possible steps in order to avoid the marine pollution of the Mediterranean sea by means of the seabed exploitation. Another obligation of coastal states concerns the adoption of the national legislation regarding the disposal of the offshore installations not in use in accordance with international guidelines and standards.
Kuwait Regional Convention for Co-operation on the Protection of the Marine Environment from Pollution, 1978 Kuwait Regional Convention for Co-operation on the Protection of the Marine Environment from Pollution, 1978. http://www.offshore-environment.com/regionalconventions.html
The 1992 Convention for the Protection or the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic (OSPAR) also mentions the issue of marine pollution from offshore installations (Art. 5 of the Annex III). Member states to the convention are obliged to avoid marine pollution caused by the activity on offshore installations. Article 3 of the Annex VI requires to organize a special environment examination before the exploration and exploitation of the sea-bed. The convention requires to apply the standards of the MARPOL 73/78. Besides the convention requires to cover all not used drilling holes and to dispose offshore installations not in use (Art. 8 Annex VI).
The 1972 Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping from Ships and Aircraft (the Oslo Dumping Convention) Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping from Ships and Aircraft, 1972.
It is stressed in the preamble of this Convention that the ecological equilibrium and the legitimate uses of the sea are increasingly threatened by pollution. Art. 1 of the Convention contains the general obligation of the Contracting Parties to take all possible steps to prevent the pollution of the sea by hazardous substances.
The list of the prohibited substances is in the Annex I. Annex II contains the list of substances and materials requiring special care.
The Convention On The Protection Of The Maritime Environment Of The Baltic Sea Area (Helsinki Convention) Convention on the Protection pf the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area, 1974. http://www.offshore-environment.com/regionalconventions.html
All decisions of the Helsinki Commission are only recommendations. In 1992 the area of responsibility was extended to include the inland waters landward of the baselines of the Baltic Sea states (Valencia, 2001).
The Helsinki Convention is a legal basis for permanent co-operation of Baltic states, especially through the Helsinki Commission (HELCOM) (Zhu, 2006).
The Regional Convention for the Conservation of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Environment Regional Convention for the Conservation of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden Environment, 1982.
For the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden a special Strategic Action Programme was adopted in 1982 and initiated in 1995 in order to develop a regional framework for protection of the environment and sustainable development of coastal and marine resources (Dzurek & Schofield, 2001).
Abidjan Convention for Co-Operation in the Protection and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the West and Central African Region, 1981 applies to the West African Atlantic Ocean. Its provisions concern first of all offshore oil producers in West and Central Africa. A general obligation is placed on contracting parties to prevent and relieve pollution caused by sea dumping and exploitation activities. Such activities should conform with recognized rules and practice in the London Convention, 1972. The Convention stresses in its preamble the need for sustainable, environmentally sound practices and inter-generational justice.
Another industry scheme for the North-Western European waters was adopted in 1975 - the Offshore Pollution Liability Agreement (OPOL). Its parties are oil companies operating in the mentioned area (Gavouneli, 1995).
One could also mention an attempt to develop a convention on liability for damage resulted from seabed pollution. One adopted the 1976 London Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage Resulting from Exploration for and Exploitation of Seabed Mineral Resources Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage Resulting from Exploration and Exploitation of Seabed Mineral Resources, 1976. http://www.dipublico.com.ar/english/convention-on-civil-liability-for-oil-pollution-damage-resulting-from-exploration-and-exploitation-of-seabed-mineral-resources/
Although it was scientifically proved that many chemicals carried at sea are intrinsically far more harmful to the marine environment, the impact of oil upon the ocean and its ecosystem is very dangerous. The spillage of even few tons of oil into sea causes a thin film on the water surface, what is deadly for marine life (Gautam, 2010).
Since the middle of the XX century not only numerous international legislative measures were adopted in the area of oil pollution prevention for the marine environment, but also national laws and regulations. This new legislation reflected not only the development of the legal position on the certain issues, but also the new developments in construction technology like, for example, improved tank stripping pumps, the load-on-top system, and other technological advances. All these preventive measures considerably reduced both vessel-source and offshore oil development pollution.
Beside the main legal documents on oil pollution and marine environment protection, general principles of international environmental law are also applicable to the cases of oil pollution. Such soft concepts as the «precautionary principle» and «polluter pays principle» could be applied (Salter & Ford, 2001). Besides these principles being a substantive element of sustainable development are reflected in conventions on liability and compensation in case of pollution (e.g. CLC, FUND etc.)
In comparison to the oil pollution prevention during the offshore oil development pollution, measures against the vessel-source oil pollution represent the better and more detailed regulated area of marine environmental law (the 1954 Brussels Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil (OILPOL) was superseded from 2 October 1983 by the 1978 protocol relating to the 1973 International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL 73/78)).
The statistics demonstrates that since the beginning of the international legislation on the oceans protection against the oil pollution there had been considerable improvements in the prevention of ship-generated oil pollution. It is not surprising, since the environmental regulation of the industry is becoming wider in its scope and tougher in its implementation (Salter & Ford, 2001).
Tanker incident at sea especially close to the coasts always raises the significant attention of the publicity (Mehr Sicherheit fuer Tanker, 2003). It should be stressed that 99% of the transported oil (about 1,9 billion tons of oil by some 3 000 tankers) is delivered safely (Gold, 1998). However, even this tiny amount of the spilled oil is sufficient to cause the irreparable damage.
Damage to coastal amenities, beaches, tourist and recreational areas, harbors, offshore installations depends on the geographical location of each spill. For example, a relatively small spill, due to the holing of the tanker “American trader” off the coast of California in 1990, caused serious damage. Claims for damage, clean-up costs and fines amounted to over USD 25 million. In the case of the oil spill of the VLCC “Haven” off Genoa in 1991, the French, Italian and even Spanish Mediterranean coasts were damaged. 1 300 Italian claims alone amounted to GBP 705 million.
There exist very good means and instruments to combat the oil pollution, what was demonstrated by clean-up operations after the “Exxon-Valdez” oil spill. There are four major options of responding to marine spills: mechanical containment and collection; use of chemical dispersants; physical shoreline clean-up; and natural removal, requiring no clean-up action. Other counter-measures that are less frequently used due to their limitations are burning, sinking, gelling and enhanced biodegradation. A decision, which clean-up action shall be applied, depends upon a given situation (Yoder, 1985). However, the best clean-up operations won’t recover the existed ecosystem. So let the oil pollution never had happened.
On the other hand, the demands of the maritime transportation system increase. For example, the Red Sea is still one of the world’s least ecologically damaged bodies of water. However, the vessel traffic through the Suez Canal and from oil terms along the Red Sea coast increases, what raises the concerns on environment, living resources, and tourism, but the vessels traffic continues to grow.
In such a way, there is still certain resistance of the oil industry and slow development of the anti-pollution legislation. It is quite understandable. For example, the move of the tankers from one-hull to the double hulls is just uneconomical (Mehr Sicherheit fuer Tanker, 2003). The other aspect concerns the quality and technical level of the vessels transporting oil (Mehr Sicherheit fuer Tanker, 2003). Often they are built in the developing countries with low loans and escape of technical innovations. Besides, it is now often discussed that only those ships which are insured by the shipping insurance companies or certified by “classification societies” shall be allowed to sail in international waters (Gautam, 2010).
It can be easily noted that maritime catastrophes of large scale lead to the development of the international law. For example, the “Titanic” (1912), “Torrey Canyon” (1967), “Amoco Cadiz” (1978), “Exxon Valdez” (1987) accidents served as a reason for the adoption of new safety and anti-pollution rules (Rosenne, 1998). As for oil pollution legislation, a series of tanker accidents occurred off the coast of North America in 1976-1977 (Özçayir, 2004) with “Sansinena”; “Oswego Peace”; “Olympic Games”; “Daphne”; “Grand Zenith”; “Barcola; Mary Ann”; “Universe Leader”, and several other tankers (although almost all of these disasters were caused by human error or negligence) accelerated adoption of the MARPOL convention and Protocol. The stranding of the “Argo Merchant” (Anianova, 2006), in December 1976 and an oil spill of 27 000 tonnes of the coast of Massachusetts resulted in the Conference of the International Maritime Organization on Tanker Safety and Pollution Prevention in February 1978 under the US lobby and adopted amendments on tanker design and operation incorporated in the Protocol of 1978 to the SOLAS Convention Protocol of 1978 relating to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as amended, United Nations, Treaty Series. Vol. 1340. P. 61,62
On the basis of the made research a conclusion should be made that hydrocarbons are also the main pollutants from offshore installations used for the exploitation of the natural resources of the seabed (Gavouneli, 1995). Offshore resources are used more and more. 20% of the today’s oil production comes from offshore wells.
Although the liability regime for oil rigs is well-established in the private sector and adequate pollution compensation for most incidents is available, one could imagine that the need for a widely accepted international regime, covering all aspects of oil rigs, will become necessary in future.
The subject is at present on the agenda of the International Maritime Organization. There is some opposition to a more comprehensive international treaty from some sectors of the oil industry, especially offshore operators who, at present, are able to conclude simple bilateral agreements with coastal states.
Intentional pollution occurs not too often because any loss of oil and gas goes against the commercial interests of the operator. The cases of accidental pollution from blowouts or tanker spillage and collisions are still numerous. The statistics shows that 75-90% of the oil released at sea comes from discharges of the oily water produced during drilling and the dumping of oil-based drilling muds and chemicals. The reported oil spills represent only about 1% of the oil released into the sea. For example, in the North Sea the prevailing geological formations tend to react with water-based muds. It results in the instability (Gavouneli, 1995), so it is necessary to use for the oil development the highly toxic oil-based muds.
The international legislation regarding the marine environmental protection during exploration and exploitation of seabed mineral resources is subject to surprisingly few international regulations. It is not well developed. Operations in the Area are under the control of the International Seabed Authority according to the rules of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1982, but oil and gas drilling operations are conducted in the continental shelf under the direct control of the coastal state, usually through a state-controlled oil company.
Another critical issue in this topic remains, whether unilateral measures in the environmental protection should be admissible. Although the USA unilaterally introduced their own liability system for the cases of oil pollution, it was clearly demonstrated that this approach could be damaging to the international economy. Effective environmental protection is not possible with the efforts of only one state. However, regional conventions on cooperation in this area could be very effective. Geographical differences between various regions make regional efforts in the marine environmental protection more useful. The pollution problems are better tackled by regional agreements.
As the recent accidents show the established legal mechanisms (the CLC, MARPOL etc.) do not help totally to prevent oil spills in the ocean. The proposals to launch a system with the stronger advance cooperation with the shipping industry still remain only proposals. The incidents with “Prestige” and “VICKY” oil spills also demonstrated the inability of the existing liability system to compensate the victims of the oil pollution. They are also criticized for low liability limits (Gennaro, 2004).
In this research it was demonstrated by means of the overview of the existing international legal documents, that there exists a regime for oil pollution liability and compensation with more or less adequate coverage for the most serious incidents. One can make a conclusion that the industry is well controlled by legislation (Salter & Ford, 2001). But the question arises whether one can foresee everything in advance and to prevent it?
It was scientifically confirmed that the marine environment may eventually recover from very serious oil pollution incidents. However, it does not mean that there is no shorter-term damage to the marine environment, coasts, people and property. Besides we should think not only about the today’s interests, but consider “the interests of future generations” (Birnie & Boyle, 1992).
One shouldn’t forget that in such cases as oil pollution prevention on the level of the international legislation the most important aspect is a quick response in its time (Anianova, 2006).
This chapter presents the findings from a feasibility study of an equine assisted intervention (EAI) which is currently referred over 160 people with mental health and behavioural problems each year. Performing a feasibility study may be indicated when, “there are few previously published studies or existing data using a specific intervention technique” [1].
The framework used for this feasibility study has been designed to underpin public health feasibility studies and outlines eight areas of focus which will be addressed here [1]: Acceptability, demand, implementation, practicality, adaptation, integration, expansion and limited efficacy testing.
In the broader equine intervention related literature there have been studies showing positive impacts on wellbeing through equine assisted therapy with individuals suffering with disabilities, [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10] chronic illness physical or mental [11, 12, 13, 14], or individuals with eating disorders [15, 16, 17]. The potential benefits of equine assisted psychotherapy or experiential therapy have also been studied although outcomes have been mixed in terms of the efficacy of interventions with some studies showing positive results and some no effect [18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25].
Research by Dell’s [26] (equine assisted education) captured the improved communication skills and pride the young participants gained while interacting with horses. Hemingway et al., [27] also described the positive impact of an EAI with young prisoners in a young offender’s institution who said they felt calmer, and importantly more positive about learning with the prison guards reporting some improvements in behaviour whilst incarcerated. A qualitative study on an intervention in Guatemala which teaches natural horsemanship to reduce violence produced positive changes particularly in relation to increased calmness [28].
Pendry and Roeter [29] published a randomised controlled trial evaluating the effectiveness of an EAI which uses natural horsemanship to improve child social competence. The findings showed improvements with a moderate effect size for 5th to 8th grade children. In 2014 Hauge et al. [30], reported on a waiting list cross over design research study undertaken with young people aged 12–15. Those in the intervention group reported an increase in perceived social support compared with the control group which was statistically significant. In 2015 Boshoff et al., [31] shared the results from an experimental study, which measured subjective well-being, problem focused coping, and emotion focused coping. The findings from the study showed some positive changes for young men living in a custodial school.
Nimer & Lundahl [32] published a meta-analysis of animal assisted therapy for young people which showed a moderate positive affect for young people with autism, medical, behaviour and emotional issues. Two recent systematic reviews suggest a need for future studies to include when publishing detailed insights into the intervention and in addition to consider using both validated measures and a qualitative exploration [33, 34].
Two systematic reviews have been published [35, 36] considering the impact of equine assisted therapy on physical issues for adults living with disabilities and schizophrenia respectively. These reviews both found that studies lacked any randomisation within the sample and an adequate sample size. The reviews did show however that studies that have been published so far do report some positive outcomes in relation to a range of physical, behavioural and social issues.
A small study has considered equine assisted therapies impact on depression, anxiety, mindfulness and sleep quality. All areas showed statistically significant improvement, but the sample was small, and the intervention used within the study not well described [37].
EAIs have also been studied by occupational therapists. A pilot study [38] aimed to test an occupational therapy intervention offered in an equine environment and assess preliminary effects on occupational performance goals, behaviour, and social functioning of youth with autism. The findings showed there may be improvements in occupational, behavioural, and social outcomes for this group. Next steps in research terms included refining feasibility measures and implementing a randomised controlled efficacy study.
As the world is currently suffering in the grip of the COVID-19 pandemic it is important to note that the intervention under study here plus other equine assisted interventions internationally have reported increased demand to support young people particularly during the pandemic. As alternative learning or therapy providers equine assisted interventions offer non-pharmacological support for those for whom talk based therapies are not working. Particularly during lockdown and prolonged periods of isolation equine assisted support has been particularly in demand for supporting young people; albeit with strict safety measures in place and some changes made to how sessions are delivered [39].
It is also vital to consider the welfare of equines involved in this activity. Horses are highly susceptible to work stressors related to physical constraints and/or to the need to control emotions while interacting with humans. A narrative review of research [40] found that to date few studies have investigated horses’ stress responses during EAIs, and further studies are recommended, with the final aim to derive a reliable multidimensional method for assessing a horse’s reaction during therapeutic programs, ultimately helping professionals to better develop interventions by taking into consideration the animal’s perspective. However, it is clear that the use of interventions which enable humans to consider the world from the horse’s perspective as a prey animal are likely to improve the world for horses as they increase understanding of and empathy for these wonderful animals.
This intervention is offered by a charity which operates in the South of England and is referred over 160 people every year by a variety of referrers such as Schools & Pupil Referral Units, Children’s Social Services, NHS Mental Health Services, Troubled Families Local Authority Services, Offender Services and other specialist agencies such as charities working with Domestic Violence or Drug and Alcohol Services. The people referred are currently living with 2–4 issues from the list below and they are referred because they are disengaged from talk-based support.
Attention Deficit Hyper-Activity Disorder
Autism Spectrum Disorder
Anxiety/depression
Not attending school (training, work)
Relationship difficulties
Mood swings/impulsivity
Self-harm
Bullying, aggression, anger management issues
Drug & alcohol misuse/child or parents
Eating disorder
Offending
Domestic violence
Neglect / abuse
Parents with mental health problems
Living in care or leaving care
Conduct disorder
The intervention uses the principles of the Parelli Natural Horsemanship program as its philosophical underpinning and structure [41]. This approach is based on developing calmness, and partnership skills through learning natural horsemanship skills. At this introductory level this involves ‘playing’ with specially trained horses inviting them to respond to requests with the young person on the ground and the horse on a loose rope or at liberty. The learning is facilitated by a specialist facilitator and the students are taught how to play the seven ‘games’ with the horse. The course takes place in an indoor arena over 10 hours in five, two hour sessions.
The games taught are:
In order to be effective, the human needs to use clear, phased assertive communication and control their body language and energy in an assertive, non-aggressive way.
All the horses who engage in these courses are kept outside in a natural environment (hedges, trees other horses) in friendship groups with access to shelter if they want it. The workload for each horse is logged and kept light in line with the charities welfare policy. All horse training, handling and husbandry uses natural horsemanship methods and underpinning philosophies and is informed by the charities welfare policy. The horses taking part in this intervention are trained to Parelli level 3 or above by the course facilitators (who are Parelli trained, and trained by the charity to provide this intervention specifically). In addition, rescue horses are retrained using natural horsemanship methods and then take part in the intervention and are then rehomed as appropriate through the registered rescue charity in partnership with the charity providing this intervention.
The methods used to answer the questions posed by the elements of the feasibility study included:
Analysis of referral data from the charity
Interview with the charity CEO (who set up the intervention)
Analysis of before and after scores for participants completed by referrers
The charity beneficiaries are now 600 individuals every year, out of those around 160 undertake the Restart intervention which is evaluated here, the rest benefit from lighter touch support over a longer period, volunteer activities to support the course and/or accredited training through a local college. Over the period of data collection for this study (2016–2018/19) 326 had completed the intervention with an evaluation tool (before they start the program and then two months after they finished the program) completed by their referrer. Completion rates for those who start the Restart intervention are 95%. Referrals are increasing year on year with referrers from multiple agencies as outlined sending those people for whom talk based interventions are not working. Referrers report that between 10 and 15% of their clients do not respond well to talk based interventions. During the COVID – 19 pandemic numbers did drop however the charity stayed open to support individuals with acute mental health and behavioural issues. The charity has been running for ten years and has consistently grown throughout this period.
Since the establishment of this intervention different agencies are becoming aware of it and now the demand is outstripping supply with overall more than 1000 people having completed the course and over 160 per year now being referred just for the Restart intervention.
The intervention which we are focusing on in this paper forms the majority of the activity undertaken by this charity. The lighter touch work with a wider group has now also picked up momentum and is benefitting more individuals, with less acute needs. This variety of offer from the charity has been developed in response to need with many individuals experiencing poor mental health and cuts in mental health services on the NHS in the UK causing wide spread need and little support in many areas.
The main resource issues are the highly trained instructors in natural horsemanship (individuals with typically 10+ years of training). In addition, these individuals need further development to facilitate this intervention from the charity. A physical site for the intervention is needed, and having a yard and an indoor school with a special soft surface is required in order for the charity to function all year round plus ancillary buildings for administration rest rooms etc. In addition, the site for the charity needs to be both accessible to local people in the areas from which the referrals mainly originate which is primarily areas of deprivation and able to house horses in a natural environment which needs safely fenced outdoor space for grazing and social interaction for them.
According to the charity CEO the intervention has not substantially changed since the first month, however the relationships within the family of those who are referred and the resilience skills within the family as a whole (where appropriate) have been identified as very important by the participants, course facilitators and the referrers. Therefore, the charity is now undertaking work with troubled families, foster families and the teams around the family to try to positively impact on these processes. This is being done both through the Restart intervention and as part of the ‘lighter touch’ support offered which includes longer term support for those who need it after completing the intervention and educational opportunities with local colleges to develop social skills as well as volunteering opportunities. All these have been developed through local networking and identification of local need.
This intervention is now recognised as a professional partner by Social Care, Community Mental Health Teams, Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services, Domestic Violence and Drug & Alcohol Services. It is now part of the landscape of care for schools, General Practitioners and social prescribing ‘navigators’. Working across so many sectors however is demanding on the time of the charity staff and requires excellent networking and communication skills. It is interesting that all these agencies are seeing some individuals and families many times however as their ‘offer’ is primarily talk based there is a consistent group for whom their services are not working. Indeed, it would appear that individuals tend to get referred to this charity when they are stuck in ‘treatment’ being ‘bounced’ between services over and over again. They then do this intervention which is intended to positively influence their engagement with services, family, relationships and education.
This charity has now replicated its programmes across eight sites in the UK. With two international sites also launched. Additional facilitators have been trained by the charity to aid replication, recruited primarily from those who already hold instructor status with Parelli Natural Horsemanship.
In this study before and after measures were completed by the person’s referrer to the course 326 completed scales were included in the analysis (see Figure 1).
Star chart.
The star chart tool and further assessment tool was completed electronically by the referrer. The scores were then stored on an excel spread sheet by charity staff with each participant being allocated a code number so the researcher could not identify the person or the referrer, ethical permission was gained from the researchers employing universities ethics panel. This registered charity undertakes risk assessments for all participants who are never left unsupervised with the horses. The horses are all observed for possible stress/distress continuously throughout the course activities informed by the ethogram of horse behaviour [40] activities would cease immediately if any observations of this were made.
The sample constitutes a convenience sample of 7–68 year olds (mean age 20) accessing the course over a three year period for whom full data were obtained female = 193 male = 133. The reasons for referral are shown below in Table 1.
Main reason for referral | Anxiety/depression | Mental health diag- nosis | ADHD/ASD | Bullying/angry/aggressive/violent | Lacks confidence/bullied/ lonely/low self esteem | Witness to domestic violence/ abuse/ neglect | Not attending school/ excluded from school | Self-harm/suicidal | Relationship issues/ attachment disorder |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N = 326 | 45 | 13 | 16 | 68 | 41 | 30 | 43 | 22 | 20 |
Reasons for referral.
The star chart (Figure 1) used has been developed for this EAI program. The referrer rates the young person from 0 (stuck) to 4 (independently using the skills being assessed).
Pre-test scores were analysed using cronbach’s alpha in order to assess the tools internal reliability the score was 0.9 indicating the tool has high internal reliability.
Data was analysed using SPSS and a non-parametric related sample sign test which showed statistically significant improvements between the pre and post-test scores for all eight outcomes with a significance level of p.000. Included here in Table 2 are the numbers of positive, negative and no change scores for the sample.
Star chart skills development pre and post assessment by referrer n = 326 | Number of participants with a positive score change | Number of participants with a negative score change | Number of participants with no score change | Total number of scores in analysis for each Skill |
---|---|---|---|---|
Realistic Planning | 228 | 30 | 68 | 326 |
Assertiveness | 238 | 23 | 65 | 326 |
Communication | 212 | 43 | 71 | 326 |
Calmness | 241 | 24 | 61 | 326 |
Engagement (as a learner) | 220 | 28 | 78 | 326 |
Focus and Perseverance | 222 | 24 | 80 | 326 |
Empathy | 213 | 37 | 76 | 326 |
p.000. Numbers of positive negative and no change scores.
Overall scores for all eight outcomes on the star chart improved for 293 of the participants with 33 experiencing a worsening of their overall score two months after completing the course. On examination of each of these individuals there was no consistent area which worsened across this group. All of the 33 did have some dimensions where they had improved their score or remained at the same score pre and post the intervention.
This intervention does not use cognitive (talking or classroom based) approaches, a key element of this intervention would appear to be that the facilitator and the student are guided by the same principles used for teaching horses, which focus on reading body language and responding appropriately in the moment. The course teaches through practical simulation rather than verbal explanation and uses primarily non-verbal methods (through rehearsal) to potentially positively impact on the emotions and behaviour of the students. The students are coached to success throughout the intervention which enables them to rehearse and achieve successful embodied communication with the horses throughout the course.
Embodied pedagogy is defined as an educational program which brings together body and mind in a physical and mental act of knowledge, skill and behaviour creation [42]. Embodied communication transcends linguistic capabilities, proclivities and differences and seems to offer a universal language that humans share with other mammals. This mode of communication is available to us as human mammals for learning as a pre-language ability [43]. Through this intervention as participants rehearse the embodied skills through ‘playing’ with the horse they become proficient at communicating calmly. The ‘learning’ appears to be rehearsed and reinforced through repetition thus enabling them to feel calm and assertive.
Arguably this embodied or pre-speech capability to communicate with other species as with young children using ‘inter-natural’ embodied mechanisms may offer an opportunity to disrupt maladaptive behaviours previously established by participants to deal with communication and emotions [43]. This learning process may indeed therefore, offer safe opportunities to rehearse effective calm communication.
It is particularly important when evaluating an intervention to consider the qualities that render it effective. Participants on this intervention have to try to understand the point of view of another being, the horse a prey animal, in order to develop effectiveness when communicating through their bodies. As a result of this course participants learnt to ‘listen’ to another ‘being’ through their body language and rehearse this skill throughout the course [44].
The people who are generally referred to this intervention have a wide variety of different behavioural and mental health issues as outlined here many of which are associated with experiencing Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE’s) such as abuse, neglect or witnessing violence in the home. Through evaluation of this intervention it is interesting to note that many leave the course with similar benefits the most consistent and strong of which is calmness thus enabling participants to re-engage with services, education and relationships. With referrers to the intervention (primarily social workers and mental health services) reporting rapid and effective changes in behaviour. As one participant said following completion of the course ‘I feel reborn’. Does using embodied inter-species interventions offer opportunities for those for whom ‘talk’ based interventions and traditional service models are not working to gain beneficial outcomes?
The intervention considered here would lend itself to a more robust study on effectiveness using a randomised controlled trial particularly in relation to ensuring statistical reliability. Access to school/work attendance and achievement records could also be explored pre and post intervention. Further study of this intervention would also benefit from detailed economic analysis of the potential future costs of not treating people for whom violent behaviour and lack of success in talk-based treatment are primary problems.
Starting to think about how to help people develop or learn the path to wellbeing through learning embodied skills is a new way of thinking about this area. The long-term success and expansion of this intervention which has grown from local need would suggest that using alternative embodied approaches for mental health and behavioural issues particularly for those not currently engaging with ‘treatment as usual’ could be a way forward. Indeed, do we need to consider that the increases in mental ill health and distress need us to re-configure services to the point that embodied nature-based approaches are part of, or at the forefront of what is offered routinely. It is important to recognise that in these interventions there is no need for long term costly consultations, diagnostics and pharmacological approaches along with the stigma and labelling which accompanies them. Nature based embodied approaches are very acceptable to both participants and practitioners with little associated stigma, low drop-out rates and high completion rates and may be the most appropriate initial approach for those with non-psychotic issues.
Supporting women in scientific research and encouraging more women to pursue careers in STEM fields has been an issue on the global agenda for many years. But there is still much to be done. And IntechOpen wants to help.
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Ashkenazi, E. Mentovich, D. Cvikel, O. Barkai, A. Aronson and Y. 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In this chapter, we have presented a brief comprehensive survey of cultural heritage using augmented reality systems. This survey describes the main objectives and characteristics of marker-less augmented reality systems through presenting up-to-date research results in this area. 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These associations have been based almost entirely on the presence or absence of lesmas and “projectile points,” regardless of their morphological and technological features. In the Uruguayan archaeological literature, three other cultures are recognised: Fell industry, Catalanense industry, and Tigre tradition, all in the Uruguayan region. However, the last 10 years of systematic studies on the lithic assemblages from these sites have shown that Paleoindian societies from Eastern South America are more culturally diverse than expected and that previously defined archaeological cultures present several issues in their definition, suggesting that many of these “traditions” are not valid and should no longer be used. Instead, new lithic industries and archaeological cultures should be defined only when cultural patterns are observable through systematic analyses.",book:{id:"9251",slug:"pleistocene-archaeology-migration-technology-and-adaptation",title:"Pleistocene Archaeology",fullTitle:"Pleistocene Archaeology - Migration, Technology, and Adaptation"},signatures:"João Carlos Moreno De Sousa",authors:[{id:"303361",title:"Dr.",name:"João Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Moreno De Sousa",slug:"joao-carlos-moreno-de-sousa",fullName:"João Carlos Moreno De Sousa"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"36570",title:"Archaeological Geophysics - From Basics to New Perspectives",slug:"archaeological-geophysics-from-basics-to-new-perspectives",totalDownloads:6552,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:null,book:{id:"1999",slug:"archaeology-new-approaches-in-theory-and-techniques",title:"Archaeology",fullTitle:"Archaeology, New Approaches in Theory and Techniques"},signatures:"Roger Sala, Ekhine Garcia and Robert Tamba",authors:[{id:"131865",title:"Dr.",name:"Roger",middleName:null,surname:"Sala",slug:"roger-sala",fullName:"Roger Sala"}]},{id:"36576",title:"Homage to Marcel Proust - Aspects of Dissemination and Didactic in a Museum and a Science Centre: Science Communication Visions for the Third Generation Museums",slug:"generations-of-ancient-history-dissemination-towards-the-public-at-the-university-museum-in-trondhei",totalDownloads:2644,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:null,book:{id:"1999",slug:"archaeology-new-approaches-in-theory-and-techniques",title:"Archaeology",fullTitle:"Archaeology, New Approaches in Theory and Techniques"},signatures:"Kistian Overskaug",authors:[{id:"117119",title:"Dr.",name:"Kristian",middleName:null,surname:"Overskaug",slug:"kristian-overskaug",fullName:"Kristian Overskaug"}]},{id:"63772",title:"Cultural Heritage in Marker-Less Augmented Reality: A Survey",slug:"cultural-heritage-in-marker-less-augmented-reality-a-survey",totalDownloads:1628,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Augmented reality (AR) is considered as one of the most significant technologies in the field of computer graphics and is utilised in many applications. In this chapter, we have presented a brief comprehensive survey of cultural heritage using augmented reality systems. This survey describes the main objectives and characteristics of marker-less augmented reality systems through presenting up-to-date research results in this area. We describe the marker-less technologies in the area of AR, indoor marker-less AR, outdoor marker-less AR, real-time solutions to the tracking problem, real-time registration, cultural heritage in AR, 3D remonstration techniques, as well as presenting the problems in each research.",book:{id:"7699",slug:"advanced-methods-and-new-materials-for-cultural-heritage-preservation",title:"Advanced Methods and New Materials for Cultural Heritage Preservation",fullTitle:"Advanced Methods and New Materials for Cultural Heritage Preservation"},signatures:"Hoshang Kolivand, Abdennour El Rhalibi, Mostafa Tajdini, Sarmad Abdulazeez\nand Pisit Praiwattana",authors:[{id:"151219",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdennour",middleName:null,surname:"El Rhalibi",slug:"abdennour-el-rhalibi",fullName:"Abdennour El Rhalibi"},{id:"225824",title:"Dr.",name:"Hoshang",middleName:null,surname:"Kolivand",slug:"hoshang-kolivand",fullName:"Hoshang Kolivand"},{id:"256916",title:"Dr.",name:"Sarmad",middleName:null,surname:"Abdulazeez",slug:"sarmad-abdulazeez",fullName:"Sarmad Abdulazeez"},{id:"256917",title:"Dr.",name:"Pisit",middleName:null,surname:"Praiwattana",slug:"pisit-praiwattana",fullName:"Pisit Praiwattana"},{id:"289071",title:"Dr.",name:"Mostafa",middleName:null,surname:"Tajdini",slug:"mostafa-tajdini",fullName:"Mostafa Tajdini"}]},{id:"73769",title:"Human Evolution in the Center of the Old World: An Updated Review of the South Asian Paleolithic",slug:"human-evolution-in-the-center-of-the-old-world-an-updated-review-of-the-south-asian-paleolithic",totalDownloads:847,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The Indian Subcontinent was an important geographic region for faunal and hominin evolution in Asia. While the Oldowan as the earliest technocomplex continues to be elusive, the oldest Acheulean is dated to ~1.5 Ma and the early Middle Paleolithic is ~385 ka (from the same site). New Late Pleistocene dates have been reported for the Middle Paleolithic which continues up to 38 Ka in southern India. The Upper Paleolithic remains ambiguous and requires critically multidisciplinary investigations. The microlithic evidence appears to spread rapidly across the subcontinent soon after its emergence at ~48 Ka (though its origin is debated) and continues into the Iron Age. The timeline of the initial arrival of Homo sapiens continues to be debated based on the archaeology (advanced Middle Paleolithic vs. microlithic) and genetic studies on indigenous groups. Other issues that need consideration are: interactions between archaics and arriving moderns, the marginal occurrence of symbolic behavior, the absolute dating of rock art and the potential role of hominins in specific animal extinctions and ecological marginalization. The region does not appear to have been a corridor for dispersals towards Southeast Asia (although gene flow may have occurred). Instead, once various prehistoric technologies appeared in the Subcontinent, they possibly followed complex trajectories within relative isolation.",book:{id:"9251",slug:"pleistocene-archaeology-migration-technology-and-adaptation",title:"Pleistocene Archaeology",fullTitle:"Pleistocene Archaeology - Migration, Technology, and Adaptation"},signatures:"Parth R. Chauhan",authors:[{id:"307040",title:"Dr.",name:"Parth",middleName:null,surname:"Chauhan",slug:"parth-chauhan",fullName:"Parth Chauhan"}]},{id:"73386",title:"Island Migration, Resource Use, and Lithic Technology by Anatomically Modern Humans in Wallacea",slug:"island-migration-resource-use-and-lithic-technology-by-anatomically-modern-humans-in-wallacea",totalDownloads:725,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Island migration and adaptation including both marine and terrestrial resource use and technological development by anatomically modern humans (AMH) are among the most significant issues for Pleistocene archaeology in Southeast Asia and Oceania, and directly related to the behavioral and technological advancements by AMH. This paper discusses such cases in the Wallacean islands, located between the past Sundaland and the Sahul continent during the Pleistocene. The Pleistocene open sea gaps between the Wallacean islands and both landmasses are very likely the major factor for the relative scarcity of animal species originating from Asia and Oceania and the high diversity of endemic species in Wallacea. They were also a barrier for hominin migration into the Wallacean islands and Sahul continent. We summarize three recent excavation results on the Talaud Islands, Sulawesi Island and Mindoro Island in Wallacea region and discuss the evidence and timeline for migrations of early modern humans into the Wallacean islands and their adaptation to island environments during the Pleistocene.",book:{id:"9251",slug:"pleistocene-archaeology-migration-technology-and-adaptation",title:"Pleistocene Archaeology",fullTitle:"Pleistocene Archaeology - Migration, Technology, and Adaptation"},signatures:"Rintaro Ono, Alfred Pawlik and Riczar Fuentes",authors:[{id:"177123",title:"Dr.",name:"Rintaro",middleName:null,surname:"Ono",slug:"rintaro-ono",fullName:"Rintaro Ono"},{id:"300616",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfred",middleName:null,surname:"Pawlik",slug:"alfred-pawlik",fullName:"Alfred Pawlik"},{id:"330591",title:"Dr.",name:"Riczar",middleName:null,surname:"Fuentes",slug:"riczar-fuentes",fullName:"Riczar Fuentes"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"263",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. 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He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. 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Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:null},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. 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He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356823",title:"MSc.",name:"Seonghee",middleName:null,surname:"Min",slug:"seonghee-min",fullName:"Seonghee Min",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu University",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"353307",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoosoo",middleName:null,surname:"Oh",slug:"yoosoo-oh",fullName:"Yoosoo Oh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Yoosoo Oh received his Bachelor's degree in the Department of Electronics and Engineering from Kyungpook National University in 2002. He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. His research interests include Activity Fusion & Reasoning, Machine Learning, Context-aware Middleware, Human-Computer Interaction, etc.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"262719",title:"Dr.",name:"Esma",middleName:null,surname:"Ergüner Özkoç",slug:"esma-erguner-ozkoc",fullName:"Esma Ergüner Özkoç",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Başkent University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"346530",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Kaya",slug:"ibrahim-kaya",fullName:"Ibrahim Kaya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"419199",title:"Dr.",name:"Qun",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"qun-yang",fullName:"Qun Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Auckland",country:{name:"New Zealand"}}},{id:"351158",title:"Prof.",name:"David W.",middleName:null,surname:"Anderson",slug:"david-w.-anderson",fullName:"David W. Anderson",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Calgary",country:{name:"Canada"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"92",type:"subseries",title:"Health and Wellbeing",keywords:"Ecology, Ecological, Nature, Health, Wellbeing, Health production",scope:"\r\n\tSustainable approaches to health and wellbeing in our COVID 19 recovery needs to focus on ecological approaches that prioritize our relationships with each other, and include engagement with nature, the arts and our heritage. This will ensure that we discover ways to live in our world that allows us and other beings to flourish. We can no longer rely on medicalized approaches to health that wait for people to become ill before attempting to treat them. We need to live in harmony with nature and rediscover the beauty and balance in our everyday lives and surroundings, which contribute to our well-being and that of all other creatures on the planet. This topic will provide insights and knowledge into how to achieve this change in health care that is based on ecologically sustainable practices.
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Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment"},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology"},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",keywords:"Novel Viruses, Virus Transmission, Virus Evolution, Molecular Virology, Control and Prevention, Virus-host Interaction"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:null},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/16997",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"16997"},fullPath:"/profiles/16997",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()