Types of source water
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More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
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Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10479",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"21st Century Advanced Carbon Materials for Engineering Applications - A Comprehensive Handbook",title:"21st Century Advanced Carbon Materials for Engineering Applications",subtitle:"A Comprehensive Handbook",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Advanced carbon materials such as graphene, fullerenes, hierarchical carbon, and carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have exceptional physical properties, making them useful for several applications in fields ranging from energy and industry to electronics and drug delivery. This book includes comprehensive information on fabrication, emerging physical properties, and technological applications of advanced carbon materials. Over three sections, chapters cover such topics as advanced carbon materials in engineering, conjugation of graphene with other 2D materials, fabrication of CNTs and their use in tissue engineering and orthopaedics, and advanced carbon materials for sustainable applications, among others.",isbn:"978-1-78985-924-9",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-912-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-991-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92494",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"21st-century-advanced-carbon-materials-for-engineering-applications-a-comprehensive-handbook",numberOfPages:130,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"712d04d43dbe1dca7dec9fcc08bc8852",bookSignature:"Mujtaba Ikram and Asghari Maqsood",publishedDate:"October 13th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10479.jpg",numberOfDownloads:1982,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:11,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:3,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:15,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 28th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 25th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 24th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 12th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 13th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"286820",title:"Dr.",name:"Mujtaba",middleName:null,surname:"Ikram",slug:"mujtaba-ikram",fullName:"Mujtaba Ikram",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bReopQAC/Profile_Picture_1636383457578",biography:"Dr. Mujtaba Ikram has obtained his BS hons. (computational physics), MS (materials and surface engineering) and Ph.D. (material sciences and engineering), respectively. His research interests include nanotechnology, renewable energy, material science and engineering. His work has been cited by scientists from all over the world. He has authored/co- authored number of publications with 100+ cumulative impact factor in world prestigious journals as Advanced materials, RSC advances, Journal of Materials Chemistry C, RSC New Journal of chemistry, Chemcatchem, Journal of alloys and compounds, Applied nanoscience, International Journal of hydrogen energy, Journal of physics and chemistry of solids, Journals of solid state chemistry and many others. He has represented his research in the USA, Italy, Egypt, Germany, Slovenia, China, Hong Kong, Malaysia, UAE and many other countries. He has attended various research training/conferences/workshops on industrial physics, renewable energy, advanced carbon materials and nanotechnology in various parts of the world. He is a frequent visiting scholar at the Abdus Salam International center for theoretical physics (ICTP)-Italy. He has attended training on renewable and sustainable energy, which was organized by world prestigious national renewable energy lab (NREL)-USA and university of colorado at boulder-USA. He has attended AIP Industrial physics forum, ICTP- UNESCO-Italy conferences on energy co sponsored by American Institute of Physics (AIP), I-CAMP-colorado conference-USA, International conference on nanotechnology, biotechnology and spectroscopy (ICNBS)-Egypt, TWAS Energy science diplomacy Conference-Italy, International conference on advanced carbon Materials-Jinan-China and International ICTP nanosystems workshop-Italy. He was selected among two young scientists from south Asia for TWAS science diplomacy, which was held in Trieste Italy, 2013. He has been invited many times as Invited lecturer by CAS-TWAS Beijing. In 2015, he was awarded with CAS-TWAS green technology award. In 2017, he was awarded with CAS-TWAS green chemistry and technology (GCT) award for his guest lectures. He has been awarded with various world prestigious fellowships as CAS- TWAS presidential fellowship 2014, I-CAMP University of Colorado at boulder (USA) fellowship 2012, International center for theoretical physics (ICTP-Italy) participant fellowship (thrice), UNESCO fellowship for nano system workshop (Italy) 2013, Intercontinental advanced materials and photonics university of Cambridge (UK) participant fellowship 2013, Emerging nation science foundation (ENSF) travel fellowship 2012 and NUST foreign research presentation grant 2012.",institutionString:"University of the Punjab",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of the Punjab",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"321219",title:"Dr.",name:"Asghari",middleName:null,surname:"Maqsood",slug:"asghari-maqsood",fullName:"Asghari Maqsood",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002w6QhQQAU/Profile_Picture_1636447379567",biography:"Professor Emeritus Dr Asghari Maqsood is currently working as an advisor to the vice-chancellor, Air University, Islamabad, Pakistan, where she also served as a founding dean in the Faculty of Basics and Applied Sciences. She has more than forty-eight years of experience in the research of advanced materials. She obtained her MSc from Oxford University, and Ph.D. in Materials Science from Goteborg University, Sweden, along with a diploma from Uppsala University, Sweden. She has more than 250 research publications to her credit including more than 230 journal publications and 4 books, 5 chapters and one edited book.\r\nShe has arranged many international and national conferences and has presented her work as an invited speaker internationally in Bangladesh, China, Iran, Malaysia, Singapore, Sri Lanka, United Kingdom etc. She has been awarded many national and international awards including a Gold Medal from the Pakistan Academy of Sciences (2000), President’s Award for Pride of Performance (2001), HEC Best University Teacher Award (2002), Prime Minister Gold Medal (2004), Izaz-i-Fazeelat for Academic Distinction (2005), and Civil Award Sitara- e- Imtiaz (2010). Professor Maqsood is a fellow of Pakistan Academy of Sciences and Pakistan Nuclear Society. She has supervised more than 130 post graduate theses. Recently, her name appeared among the world's top 2% of scientists on a list by Stanford University, California, USA.",institutionString:"Air University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Air University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"208",title:"Material Science",slug:"nanotechnology-and-nanomaterials-material-science"}],chapters:[{id:"74964",title:"Introductory Chapter: Introduction to Advanced Carbon Materials and Innovative Engineering Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95969",slug:"introductory-chapter-introduction-to-advanced-carbon-materials-and-innovative-engineering-applicatio",totalDownloads:199,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Sadia Sharif, Sana Arbab, Amna Saeed, Khurram Shahzad, Muhammad Aamir Iqbal, Abdullah Khan Durrani, Asghari Maqsood and Mujtaba Ikram",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74964",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74964",authors:[{id:"286820",title:"Dr.",name:"Mujtaba",surname:"Ikram",slug:"mujtaba-ikram",fullName:"Mujtaba Ikram"},{id:"321219",title:"Dr.",name:"Asghari",surname:"Maqsood",slug:"asghari-maqsood",fullName:"Asghari Maqsood"},{id:"325636",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdullah Khan",surname:"Durrani",slug:"abdullah-khan-durrani",fullName:"Abdullah Khan Durrani"},{id:"329337",title:"Dr.",name:"Sana",surname:"Arbab",slug:"sana-arbab",fullName:"Sana Arbab"},{id:"343632",title:"Prof.",name:"Khurram",surname:"Shahzad",slug:"khurram-shahzad",fullName:"Khurram Shahzad"},{id:"345882",title:"Dr.",name:"Sadia",surname:"Sharif",slug:"sadia-sharif",fullName:"Sadia Sharif"},{id:"345883",title:"Ms.",name:"Amna",surname:"Saeed",slug:"amna-saeed",fullName:"Amna Saeed"},{id:"345884",title:"Mr.",name:"Muhammad Aamir",surname:"Iqbal",slug:"muhammad-aamir-iqbal",fullName:"Muhammad Aamir Iqbal"}],corrections:null},{id:"74947",title:"Advanced Carbon Materials: Base of 21st Century Scientific Innovations in Chemical, Polymer, Sensing and Energy Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95869",slug:"advanced-carbon-materials-base-of-21st-century-scientific-innovations-in-chemical-polymer-sensing-an",totalDownloads:309,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Advance carbon material that includes graphene, fullerenes, hierarchical carbon, and CNTs are referred to as strength of revolution and advancement in the era of material science and technology. In general, 20th century corresponds to plastic meanwhile 21st century will be named as “Century of Graphene” owing to its exceptional physical properties. Graphene is now well-known and prominent 2D carbon allotrope that is considered as multipurpose material in comparison with any material discovered on earth. One of the interesting properties of graphene is strongest and lightest material that enables it to conduct electricity and heat as compared to any other material. Such features permit it to utilize in numerous applications including biosensors, electronic industry, environmental remediation, drug delivery, energy storage, and production as well. Owing to these capabilities, it can be stated that graphene can be utilized to improve effectiveness and performance of existing substances and materials. In the future, conjugation of graphene with other 2D material will be devolved to produce further remarkable compounds that make it appropriate for an extensive variety of applications. This chapter grants the utilization and applications of advanced carbons materials in chemical, polymer, sensing and energy enegineering.",signatures:"Muhammad Ikram, Ali Raza, Khurram Shahzad, Ali Haider, Junaid Haider, Abdullah Khan Durrani, Asim Hassan Rizvi, Asghari Maqsood and Mujtaba Ikram",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74947",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74947",authors:[{id:"286820",title:"Dr.",name:"Mujtaba",surname:"Ikram",slug:"mujtaba-ikram",fullName:"Mujtaba Ikram"},{id:"321219",title:"Dr.",name:"Asghari",surname:"Maqsood",slug:"asghari-maqsood",fullName:"Asghari Maqsood"},{id:"325636",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdullah Khan",surname:"Durrani",slug:"abdullah-khan-durrani",fullName:"Abdullah Khan Durrani"},{id:"343632",title:"Prof.",name:"Khurram",surname:"Shahzad",slug:"khurram-shahzad",fullName:"Khurram Shahzad"},{id:"325637",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Ikram",slug:"muhammad-ikram",fullName:"Muhammad Ikram"},{id:"342880",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",surname:"Haider",slug:"ali-haider",fullName:"Ali Haider"},{id:"342882",title:"Mr.",name:"Junaid",surname:"Haider",slug:"junaid-haider",fullName:"Junaid Haider"},{id:"343631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",surname:"Raza",slug:"ali-raza",fullName:"Ali Raza"},{id:"343633",title:"Dr.",name:"Asim Hassan",surname:"Rizvi",slug:"asim-hassan-rizvi",fullName:"Asim Hassan Rizvi"}],corrections:null},{id:"76289",title:"Carbon Nanotubes Integrated Hydroxyapatite Nano-Composite for Orthopaedic and Tissue Engineering Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97428",slug:"carbon-nanotubes-integrated-hydroxyapatite-nano-composite-for-orthopaedic-and-tissue-engineering-app",totalDownloads:279,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The reassessment of the literature stipulates that an increasing amount of research in exploring the Hydroxyapatite Carbon Nanotubes (HA-CNT) system for orthopedic application. Chemical precipitation, CNT functionalization, and spray drying are the routinely used methods for CNT dispersal in HA matrix for the application such as bone tissue engineering, nanostructured scaffolds, dental regeneration, myocardial regeneration, and skin regeneration. Although mechanical strength and biocompatibility is a substantial concern for the fabrication of structures. Developing composite and bioceramic scaffolding with different natural and synthetic biomaterials are the futuristic approach in the biomedical engineering field. The problems such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, and mechanical resistance can be solved by combining natural, and artificial biomaterials. The natural biomaterials, such as collagen, cellulose, chitosan, have a close resemblance to the natural extracellular matrix (ECM). These materials are biocompatible, biodegradable. The artificial biomaterials, such as Poly Vinyl Pyrrolidone (PVP), Poly Capro Lactone (PCL), Poly Ethylene Glycol (PEG), and Poly Lactic Acid (PLA) are also the material of choice for the fabrication of the composite materials. Additional effort is necessary to fabricate biocompatible composite scaffolding for tissue engineering. Moreover, vascularization, differentiation, cellular proliferation, and cells to scaffold interaction are the foremost challenges in the area of tissue engineering that remains to overcome.",signatures:"Khalid Parwez, Arun A. Bhagwath, Asif Zawed, Bhagwan Rekadwad and Suman V. Budihal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76289",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76289",authors:[{id:"281461",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Khalid",surname:"Parwez",slug:"khalid-parwez",fullName:"Khalid Parwez"}],corrections:null},{id:"78704",title:"Advanced Carbon Materials for Sustainable and Emerging Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100213",slug:"advanced-carbon-materials-for-sustainable-and-emerging-applications",totalDownloads:247,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Advanced carbon nanomaterials, which comprises fullerene, graphene, and carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are considered as backbone of engineering and scientific Innovation due to their versatile chemical, physical and electrical properties. Sustainable carbon materials are fabricated using different physical and chemical methods, respectively. Moreover, fabrication methods are used to achieve advanced carbon monoliths which are constituents with desirable properties. Keeping a view of desirable monoliths, diverse allotropes of advanced carbon nanomaterials are mostly employed in renewable energy resources, organic photovoltaic, and energy conservation technology, respectively. Carbon nanomaterials offer tremendous potential for enhancing biology and drug delivery because of biocompatibility. The proposed chapter grants a variety of fabrications methods for sustainable carbon materials as well as highlights the miscellaneous applications. Further, graphene, carbon nanotube (CNT) and fullerene are considered as fast and effective nanocarriers for delivering therapeutic molecules. As advanced carbon materials have controllable porous structure, high surface area, high conductivity, high temperature stability, excellent anti-corrosion property and compatibility in composite materials so they can be employed in energy storage as electrocatalysts, electro-conductive additives, intercalation hosts and ideal substrate for active materials. Meanwhile, the chapter sums up the required demands of advanced carbon materials for technological innovation and scientific applied research.",signatures:"Aneeqa Bashir, Azka Mehvish and Maria Khalil",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78704",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78704",authors:[{id:"435073",title:"Dr.",name:"Aneeqa",surname:"Bashir",slug:"aneeqa-bashir",fullName:"Aneeqa Bashir"},{id:"435075",title:"Dr.",name:"Azka",surname:"Mehvish",slug:"azka-mehvish",fullName:"Azka Mehvish"},{id:"435076",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",surname:"Khalil",slug:"maria-khalil",fullName:"Maria Khalil"}],corrections:null},{id:"74312",title:"Electrochemical Exfoliation of 2D Advanced Carbon Derivatives",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94892",slug:"electrochemical-exfoliation-of-2d-advanced-carbon-derivatives",totalDownloads:549,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Advanced 2D carbon materials such as graphene and derivatives are basic building blocks for future nanostructured generation in electronics and energy horizons owing to their remarkable physical and chemical properties. In this context, production scalability of 2D materials having high purity with distinctive and multi-functionalities, that facilitate in fundamental research and advanced studies as well as in industrial applications. A variety of techniques have been employed to develop 2D advanced carbon materials, amongst state-of-the-art synthetic protocols, electrochemical is deliberated as a promising approach that provides high yield, great performance, low cost, and excellent up-scalability. Notably, playing with electrochemical parameters not only allows tunable properties but also enhances the content variety from graphene to a wide spectrum of 2D semiconductors. In this chapter, a succinct and comprehensive survey of recent progress in electrochemical exfoliation routes and presents the processing techniques, strategic design for exfoliations, mechanisms, and electrochemistry of graphene.",signatures:"Muhammad Ikram, Ali Raza, Sarfraz Ali and Salamat Ali",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74312",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74312",authors:[{id:"325637",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Ikram",slug:"muhammad-ikram",fullName:"Muhammad Ikram"},{id:"337345",title:"MSc.",name:"Ali",surname:"Raza",slug:"ali-raza",fullName:"Ali Raza"},{id:"337401",title:"Mr.",name:"Sarfraz",surname:"Ali",slug:"sarfraz-ali",fullName:"Sarfraz Ali"},{id:"337402",title:"Prof.",name:"Salamat",surname:"Ali",slug:"salamat-ali",fullName:"Salamat Ali"}],corrections:null},{id:"74549",title:"Carbon Nanotubes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95442",slug:"carbon-nanotubes",totalDownloads:404,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are referred to as carbon nano-architecture allotropes, with wrapped graphene sheets forming a cylindrical structure. CNTs are either developed by metals or narrow-band semiconductors with rolling graphene sheets in various ways. Researchers have dedicated a great deal of attention to understanding the fascinating properties of CNTs over the years, and possess certain peculiar properties, such as a high degree of stiffness, a wide ratio of length to diameter, and remarkable toughness, and are employed in a number of applications. These properties can be enhanced by scheming the diameter, nature of walls, chirality, length of CNTs which is rolled up, and depending on the synthesis process. This chapter extensively covers the various properties of CNTs and how it influences to desired applications and also explains numerous methods of synthesis and processing of CNTs with advantages and some drawbacks.",signatures:"Muhammad Ikram, Ali Raza, Atif Shahbaz, Haleema Ijaz, Sarfraz Ali, Ali Haider, Muhammad Tayyab Hussain, Junaid Haider, Arslan Ahmed Rafi and Salamat Ali",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74549",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74549",authors:[{id:"325637",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Ikram",slug:"muhammad-ikram",fullName:"Muhammad Ikram"},{id:"342880",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",surname:"Haider",slug:"ali-haider",fullName:"Ali Haider"},{id:"342882",title:"Mr.",name:"Junaid",surname:"Haider",slug:"junaid-haider",fullName:"Junaid Haider"},{id:"337345",title:"MSc.",name:"Ali",surname:"Raza",slug:"ali-raza",fullName:"Ali Raza"},{id:"337401",title:"Mr.",name:"Sarfraz",surname:"Ali",slug:"sarfraz-ali",fullName:"Sarfraz Ali"},{id:"337402",title:"Prof.",name:"Salamat",surname:"Ali",slug:"salamat-ali",fullName:"Salamat Ali"},{id:"342877",title:"Dr.",name:"Atif",surname:"Shahbaz",slug:"atif-shahbaz",fullName:"Atif Shahbaz"},{id:"342878",title:"Ms.",name:"Haleema",surname:"Ijaz",slug:"haleema-ijaz",fullName:"Haleema Ijaz"},{id:"342881",title:"Mr.",name:"M Tayyab",surname:"Hussain",slug:"m-tayyab-hussain",fullName:"M Tayyab Hussain"},{id:"342883",title:"Mr.",name:"Arsalan",surname:"Ahmed Rafi",slug:"arsalan-ahmed-rafi",fullName:"Arsalan Ahmed Rafi"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7640",title:"Perspective of Carbon Nanotubes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8b85a9957fad5206369eadf0c1ffa27d",slug:"perspective-of-carbon-nanotubes",bookSignature:"Hosam El-Din Saleh and Said Moawad Mohamed El-Sheikh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7640.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. 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\r\n\tCloud computing services play a very important role in many applications that involve the provision of machines for computing and storage. Additionally, the cloud infrastructure can also offer data platform services that span the different available databases. With all developments in cloud computing infrastructures and services, it becomes mandatory to use cybersecurity and Artificial Intelligence (AI) to address the needs of end-users of Cloud Computing. Utilizing AI software-based machine learning (ML) algorithms in cloud environments is widely used nowadays to deliver intuitive for users and customers. Alexa and Siri are good examples that use AI to search the cloud to get much information or to play songs to make a purchase. Cybersecurity in cloud computing environments is required for involving best practices in user access and privileges, hardware and software security, virtualization, firewalls, and other processes used to protect data and infrastructure.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book will concentrate on all aspects of Cloud Computing. Principally, it will address topics that are core to Cloud Computing, focusing on the Cloud applications, the Cloud systems, utilizing both the AI and cybersecurity to advance Cloud systems for better use in the future.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-708-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-707-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-709-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"d0810b3f0c23214bf7dddeaafcb6c3ef",bookSignature:"Dr. Yasser Ismail",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11925.jpg",keywords:"Cloud Computing, Artificial Intelligence (AI), Private Cloud, Cognitive Cloud Computing, Cybersecurity, Cloud Security, Cloud Infrastructure, Cloud System, Cloud Applications, Cloud Deployment, Types of Cloud Computing, Cloud Computing Features",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 23rd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 31st 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 30th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 18th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 17th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Yasser Ismail has over twenty years of professional experience in teaching and research in national and international universities, such as Southern University, A&M College, Mansoura University, and the University of Bahrain. He has obtained a Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at the University of Louisiana at Lafayette. He is awarded the Partnering, Research, Innovation, Development, and Entrepreneurship award by Southern University and A&M College.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"255636",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasser",middleName:null,surname:"Ismail",slug:"yasser-ismail",fullName:"Yasser Ismail",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255636/images/system/255636.png",biography:'Overview\nA highly motivated detail-oriented professional with excellent organizational and results-oriented abilities. My educational background and diverse experiences have provided me with wide knowledge and a strong set of skills that allow me to contribute to many fields of image processing – based Machine Learning (ML) and how it may be used to characterize various materials’ degradations, digital video, and VLSI design (algorithmic and architecture levels), smart traffic system design, cybersecurity based Additive Manufacturing, and Internet of Video Things (IoVT).\nResearch Interest:\n•\tImage Processing – Based Machine Learning (ML): Develop a system that can monitor and determine the effect that long-term exposure to some chemical materials that can be added to plants and soils. This work may be extended to characterize various materials’ degradations,\n•\tSmart traffic-Based Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML): Develop smart systems-based Deep Learning algorithms that can automatically count different objects. Such systems and algorithms are very helpful in designing new smart cities.\n•\tInternet of Video Things (IoVT): Design video surveillance systems, for homeland security applications that match the allowed hardware complexity of the Internet of Video Things (IoVT) infrastructure.\n•\tDigital Video Processing Algorithms/Architectures levels: Develop video processing algorithms and architectures. My research involves Video Compression algorithms and architectures, specifically Motion Estimation and Compensation, DCT transform, and Vector Quantization.\n•\tVLSI and FPGA Design (Low-Power and High-Speed Performance Embedded Systems): Design video systems taking into consideration optimizing the encoding speed and study the effect on both the area and power consumption of the designed systems. Systems are tested and implemented in either FPGA or ASIC flow design.\n•\tWireless and Digital Communication Systems: Design several techniques and systems that help in compressing the transmitted bit-rate of a speech signal over wireless communication channels. \nEducation\t\n•\tPh.D. Computer Engineering. University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Lafayette, LA, USA, 2010. Dissertation Title: “Efficient Smart Algorithms and Architectures for Real-time Video Transmission in Pixel and Frequency Domains”.\n•\tM.S. Computer Engineering. University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Lafayette, LA, USA, 2007.\n•\tM.S. Electrical Communication Engineering. Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt, 2002. \n•\tB.Sc. Electronics Engineering. Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt, 1999.\nHonors and Awards\n•\tThe 2019 Partnering, Research, Innovation, Development, and Entrepreneurship award (P. R. I. D. E) by Southern University and A&M College – USA.\n•\tListed in Marquis Who’s Who in America 2009 and 2010.\n•\tThird place winner in “the student paper contest” at the University of Louisiana at Lafayette in 2009 and 2008.\n•\tHonored Student, The University of Louisiana at Lafayette Honors Convocation Committee (2006) and (2007).\n•\tFirst Rank Graduate in MS, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt (2003).\n•\tSecond Rank Graduate in BS, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt (1999).\nAppointments and Teaching Experience \n\n•\tMay 2022 to Present: Associate Professor, Southern University and A&M College, Department of Electrical Engineering, Baton Rouge, LA, USA.\n•\tAugust 2017 to May 2022: Assistant Professor, Southern University and A&M College, Department of Electrical Engineering, Baton Rouge, LA, USA.\n•\tJuly 2016 to July 2017: Assistant Professor, Mansoura University, Electronics and Communications Department, Egypt, \n•\tSeptember 2016 to June 2017: Adjunct Assistant Professor, Zewail City of Science and Technology - University of Science and Technology - Zewail City, Egypt.\n•\tSeptember 2012 to June 2016: Assistant Professor, University of Bahrain, Computer Engineering Department, Kingdom of Bahrain.\n•\tOctober 2010 to July 2012: Assistant Professor, Umm Al-Qura University, Computer Science Department, Makkah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.\n•\tJanuary 2005 to May 2010: Teaching Assistant, College of Engineering – Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, University of Louisiana at Lafayette (ULL), Lafayette, LA, USA.\n•\tJanuary 2001 to January 2005.Teaching Assistant, Mansoura University, Electronics and Communications Department, Egypt.\nCourses taught\n•\tMicroprocessors, Computer Design and Implementation \n•\tDigital Logic Design Circuits\n•\tDesign and Analysis of Algorithms\n•\tElectromagnetic Waves\n•\tSignals and Systems\n•\tDigital communication system\n•\tElectrical Circuits I/II\t•\tVLSI design of embedded systems\n•\tComputer Architecture and Organization \n•\tElectronics I/II/III \n•\tDigital Signal Processing\n•\tProgramming Languages\n•\tImage Processing and Computer Vision\n•\tTroubleshooting\n•\tRobotic Design and Implementation\n•\tAn Introduction to Cybersecurity\nPending Grant\n\n•\tSouthern University Partnership for Research and Education in Materials Excellence (SUPREME), National Science Foundation (NSF) (2021 – 2027), (Role: Co-PI) ($3,992,932).\n•\tCAREER: Improving Student Learning in Machine Learning and Internet of Things Applications and Technologies Utilizing Modern Learning, National Science Foundation (NSF) (2022 – 2027), (Role: PI) (738,985).\n\nAwarded Grant\n\n•\tUsing Sensor Networks and Machine Learning to Characterize Agricultural Responses to Stimuli – Funded by US Federal Government (2021 – 2023), BAA ID#: CGR-2020-0001-P1. (Role: Co-PI) ($ 350,000) \n•\tHigh-Fidelity Fatigue, Drowsiness, and Drunk Drivers Detection (FD4) System, - Funded by Louisiana Transportation Research Center (LTRC) (2021 – 2022), (Role: PI) ($ 30,000)\n•\tSupervised Undergraduate Research Experiences (SURE) Competition, BOARD OF REGENTS, Baton Rouge 2020-2021. (Role: Supervise undergraduate student; LaBreya Brumfield). ($5,000) \n•\tSupervised Undergraduate Research Experiences (SURE) Competition, BOARD OF REGENTS, Baton Rouge 2020-2021. (Role: Supervise undergraduate student; Dailynn Thomas). ($5,000)\n•\tEnhancing Computer Engineering and Big Data Education (CEBDE) at Southern University and A&M College, Microsoft Impact2020 (2020 – 2021). (Role: Co-PI) ($ 200,000).\n•\tEnhancing Additive Manufacturing Education with Cybersecurity and Virtual Reality – Funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF) (2019 – 2024), Award Id: 1915520. (Role: Senior Investigator) ($ 851,877) \n•\tTargeted Infusion Project: A Computer Engineering Research Lab (CERL) at Southern University and A&M College (SUBR) – Funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF) (2019 – 2021), Award Id: 1912397. (Role: PI) ($ 396,190) \n•\tEvaluation of Counting Device for Pedestrians and Bicyclists - Funded by Louisiana Transportation Research Center (LTRC) (2018 – 2019), Award Id: LTRC 19-1SA. (Role: PI) ($ 85,792)\n•\tAutomatic Recognition of Arabic handwriting in Historical Manuscripts - Funded by the King Abdul-Aziz City for Science and Technology (KACST) (2014 - 2015). (Role: Co-PI) ($ 379,337)\n•\tFast and Smart Security Cameras for Video Surveillance systems in Hajj Rites – Funded by The Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques Institute of Hajj researches – KSA (2014-2015). (Role: PI) ($ 35,000)\n•\tASIC Design of a Low Complexity High-Speed H.265/HEVC for Wireless Transmission Video Surveillance System - Funded by University of Bahrain (2014 -2015). (Role: PI) ($ 13,297)\n•\tFast video surveillance system for Hajj rites security - Funded by the Transportation and Crowd Management Center of Research Excellence (2014 - 2015). (Role: PI) ($ 26,595)\n•\tUS-Bahrain Cooperative Research with Central Michigan University: Intelligent Video Surveillance Systems for Hajj — Funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF) (2013 – 2014), Award Id: 1341126. (Role: Co-PI) ($ 36,649)\n•\tFast Video Surveillance system for the roadway security monitoring — Funded by University of Bahrain (2012 -2013). (Role: PI) ($ 13,297)\n•\tDesktop and Mobil-phone Secure Backup System hosted on a Storage Cloud — Funded by the Center of Research for Hajj and Omrah – Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) (2011 - 2012). (Role: Co-PI) ($ 132,978)\n\nMaster and Ph.D. Students Supervision\n•\tOpeyemi P. Ojajuni “Fostering 21st-Century Skills and Computational Skills in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Students Using the Internet of Things (IoT) Technology” Southern University and A&M College, Electrical Engineering Department, Expecting graduation on (2023).\n•\tSunday Bezaleel Anwansedo “Using Mobile-Based Application for Healthcare Management In Sub-Sahara Africa: A Case Study of Covid-19 Vaccine Distribution” Southern University and A&M College, Electrical Engineering Department, (2021).\n•\tSurya Veera Reddy Sirigireddy “Predicting Material Composition by Analyzing Color in Copper Silver Gold Alloys” Southern University and A&M College, Electrical Engineering Department, (2021).\n•\tAkodu Moruf Olagunju “The application of Machine learning algorithms in healthcare classification: Prostate Cancer as a case study” Southern University and A&M College, Electrical Engineering Department, (2021).\n•\tWillson Junior Meli Ngong “Video-Based Automated Pedestrians Counting Algorithms for Smart Cities” Southern University and A&M College, Electrical Engineering Department, (2020).\n•\tAli H Al Majed “Smart Detection Algorithms Under Different Weather Conditions” Southern University and A&M College, Electrical Engineering Department, (2020).\n•\tRaja Naga Rahul Paramkusam “Synthesis and Analytical Characterization of Graphene Oxide and Reduced Graphene Oxide for Gas Sensing Applications” Southern University and A&M College, Electrical Engineering Department, (2019).\n•\tDe’Shon Swafford “Fabrication of Zinc Oxide Varistor used in Gas Sensing Application” Southern University and A&M College, Electrical Engineering Department, (2019).\n•\tYeshak A. Dabels “Miniaturization of Chemical Identification bY Magnetoelastic Sensing (ChIMES) Technology” Southern University and A&M College, Electrical Engineering Department, (2018).\n•\tMohamed Nabil Hammad “High-Speed On-Chip Motion Estimation Co-Processor for H.265/HEVC Standard,” University of Bahrain, Computer Engineering Department, (2016).\n\nPublications\nJournal Papers\n1.\tMahmoud Darwich, Yasser Ismail, Talal Darwich, and Magdy Bayoumi” Cost Minimization of Cloud Services for On-Demand Video Streaming” Accepted to be published in SN Computer Science Springer Journal, June 2021.\n2.\tYasser Ismail, Mohamed Hammad, Mahmoud Darwichand, and Wael Elmedany “Homeland Security Video Surveillance System Utilizing the Internet of Things (IoT) for Smart Cities” IET Computers & Digital Technique journal, Volume 15, Issue 4, Pages: 241-319, 04 April 2021.\n3.\tWillson Meli, Fred Lacy, and Yasser Ismail “Video-Based Automated Pedestrians Counting Algorithms for Smart Cities” International Journal of Computing and Digital Systems (IJCDS), 2020.\n4.\tAli Al Majed, Fred Lacy, and Yasser Ismail “Smart Detection Under Different Weather Conditions” International Journal of Computing and Digital Systems (IJCDS), 2020.\n5.\tYeshak Dabels, Yasser Ismail, and Fred Lacy “CHIMES: Chemical Identification by Magneto Elastic Sensing” International Journal of Computing and Digital Systems (IJCDS), vol. 9, issue 4, July 2020.\n6.\tOpeyemi Ojajuni, Yasser Ismail and Albertha Lawson, “Distributed Denial-of-Service (DDoS) Attack Detection and Mitigation for Internet of Things (IoT)” International Journal of Technology Diffusion (IJTD), 2020.\n7.\tChase Richardson, Ali Ghawwas, Yasser Ismail, Raynaud Henton, and Jiecai luo, " Multiple Smart Phones Inductive Charging Station System " International Journal of Computing and Digital Systems (IJCDS), vol. 7, issue. 6, November 2018.\n8.\tSamar Ali, Ashraf Badawi, and Yasser Ismail, “Adaptive Multi-connection Scalable Video Coding for Wireless Area Networks,” International Journal of Computing and Digital Systems (IJCDS), vol. 7, issue. 3, May 2018.\n9.\tYasser Ismail, “6-DOF Robotic Arm Using Haptic Feedback Wired and Wireless Platforms,” International Journal of Computing Network Technology (IJCNT), vol. 4, issue. 2, May 2016.\n10.\tYasser Ismail, “FPGA Implementation of Fast and Efficient CODEC for H.264/AVC Real-Time Video Applications,” International Journal of Technology Diffusion (IJTD) - USA, vol. 7, issue. 1, March 2016.\n11.\tYasser Ismail, “A cost-effective Programmable SoC for H.265/HEVC Full Search Motion Estimation using Xilinx ZYNQ-7 ZC706 FPGA,” International Journal of Computing Network Technology (IJCNT), vol. 4, issue. 1, January 2016.\n12.\tYasser Ismail, Ahmed Abdelgawad, Sherif El-etriby, “High-speed on-chip multiple cosine transform generator,” Journal of Real-Time Image Processing, Springer, ISSN: 1861-8200, DOI 10.1007/s11554-015-0528-0, (print version), and ISSN: 1861-8219 (electronic version), September 2nd, 2015.\n13.\tYasser Ismail, “A complete Verification of a Full Search Motion Estimation Engine,” International Journal of Computing and Digital Systems, 2015. Int. J. Dig. Sys. 4, No. 4, pp. 221-232, Oct. 2015. \n14.\tYasser Ismail, “High-Speed Transform Coding on Chip for Wireless Video Surveillance Systems,” International Journal of Computing and Digital Systems, 2015. Int. J. Dig. Sys. 4, No. 2, pp. 81-89, Apr. – 2015. \n15.\tYasser Ismail, Wael El-Medany, Hessa Al-Junaid, and Ahmed Abdelgawad, “High-Performance Architecture for Real-time HDTV Broadcasting”, Journal of Real-Time Image Processing, Springer, Volume 11, Issue 4, pp 633–644, ISSN: 1861-8200 (print version), and ISSN: 1861-8219 (electronic version), May 27, 2014.\n16.\tYasser Ismail, “A Fast Diamond Motion Estimation Search Algorithm for Real-Time Video Applications”, International Journal of Computing and Digital Systems, Dig. Sys. 3, No. 2, pp. 101-110, May 1st, 2014.\n17.\tYasser Ismail, “A Novel Lattice Architecture for High-Speed Discrete MultiTone (DMT) Modulation”, International Journal of Computing and Digital Systems, Dig. Sys. 2, No. 2, pp. 11-18, April 2013.\n18.\tYasser Ismail, Jason McNeely, Mohsen Shaaban, and Magdy A. Bayoumi, “Fast Motion Estimation Algorithm Using Dynamic Models for H.264 Video Coding,” IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems for Video Technology (TCSVT), Volume 22, Issue 1, pp. 28 – 42, January 2012.\n19.\tSumeer Goel, Yasser Ismail, and Magdy A. Bayoumi, " High-speed Motion Estimation Architecture for Real-time Video Transmission," Oxford Journals - The Computer Journal (2012) 55(1): 35-46 first published online April 29, 2011.\n20.\tYasser Ismail, Mohsen Shaaban, Jason McNeely, and Magdy A. Bayoumi, “An Efficient Adaptive High-Speed Manipulation Architecture for Fast Variable Padding Frequency Domain Motion Estimation,” IEEE Transactions on Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) Systems. Volume: PP, Issue: 99, pp. 1 – 10, 2010. \n21.\tYasser Ismail, Mohamed Elgamel, and Magdy Bayoumi, “Fast Variable Padding Motion Estimation Using Smart Zero Motion Prejudgment technique for Pixel and Frequency Domains,” IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems for Video Technology (TCSVT), Volume 19, Issue 5, pp. 609 – 626, May 2009.\nProject Reports\nYasser Ismail “Evaluation of Counting Device for Pedestrians and Bicyclists”, Final report (2019-2020) published by – March 2021. https://www.ltrc.lsu.edu/pubs_annual_reports.html#\n\nBooks\n1.\tYasser Ismail, et al., " Internet of Things (IoT) for Automated and Smart Applications" IntechOpen, ISBN: 978-1-78984-096-4, Website: https://www.intechopen.com/books/internet-of-things-iot-for-automated-and-smart-applications, 2019.\n2.\tYasser Ismail and M. Bayoumi, "Smart Algorithms and Architectures for Real-Time Video Transmission," VDM Verlag, Saarbrucken, ISBN-NR.: 978-3-639-34323-6, Germany, 2011.\nBook Chapter\n1.\tBook title: Smart Algorithms and Architectures for Real-Time Video Transmission\nChapter title: Introductory Chapter: Internet of Things (IoT) Importance and Its Applications\nAuthors: Yasser Ismail\n2.\tBook title: The Future of Television - Convergence of Content and Technology \nChapter title: High-Efficient Video Transmission for HDTV Broadcasting\nAuthors: Yasser Ismail\n3.\tBook title: Search Algorithms (ISBN 980-953-307-672-5)\nChapter title: Fast Motion Estimation System Using Dynamic Models for H.264/AVC Video Coding \nAuthors: Yasser Ismail\n4.\tBook title: Search Algorithms and Applications (ISBN 978-953-307-483-2)\nChapter title: Enhanced Efficient Diamond Search Algorithm for Fast Block Motion Estimation\nAuthors: Yasser Ismail and Magdy A. Bayoumi\nConference papers\n1.\tMahmoud Darwich, Yasser Ismail, Talal Darwich, and Magdy Bayoumi “Improving Hierarchy Storage for Video Streaming in Cloud” IEEE Virtual World Forum on Internet of Things, New Orleans, 2021.\n2.\tM. Hammad, W. Elmedany and Y. Ismail, "Design and Simulation of AES S-Box Towards Data Security in Video Surveillance Using IP Core Generator," 2021 International Conference on Innovation and Intelligence for Informatics, Computing, and Technologies (3ICT), 2021, pp. 469-476, doi: 10.1109/3ICT53449.2021.9581825.\n3.\tM. Hammad, W. El-medany and Y. Ismail, "Intrusion Detection System using Feature Selection With Clustering and Classification Machine Learning Algorithms on the UNSW-NB15 dataset," the 2020 International Conference on Innovation and Intelligence for Informatics, Computing and Technologies (3ICT), 2020, pp. 1-6, doi: 10.1109/3ICT51146.2020.9312002.\n4.\tMahmoud Darwich, Yasser Ismail, Talal Darwich, and Magdy Bayoumi “Cost-Efficient Storage for On-Demand Video Streaming on Cloud” IEEE Virtual World Forum on Internet of Things, New Orleans, 2020.\n5.\tOpeyemi Ojajuni, Yasser Ismail, and Albertha Lawson “Distributed Denial-of-Service (DDoS) Attack Detection and Mitigation for Internet of Things (IoT),” 76th Joint Meeting of BKX and NIS, Beta Kappa Chi and National Institute of Science, March 28-30, 2019 - Atlanta, GA. \n6.\tY. Ismail, M. Hammad, and W. El-Medany, "Homeland Security Video Surveillance System for Smart Cities," 2018 International Conference on Innovation and Intelligence for Informatics, Computing, and Technologies (3ICT), 2018, pp. 1-4, doi: 10.1109/3ICT.2018.8855732.\n7.\tMd Anam Mahmud, Ahmed Abdelgawad, Kumar Yelamarthi, and Yasser A. Ismail, " Signal Processing Techniques for IoT-based Structural Health Monitoring," 29th International Conference on Microelectronics (ICM), pp: 1-5, Beirut, Lebanon, 10-13 Dec. 2017. \n8.\tA. Abdelgawad, Y. Ismail, K. Yelamarthi, "Moving Target Tracking using a Mobile Robot," IEEE International Symposium on Monitoring & Surveillance Research, June 2015.\n9.\tYasser Ismail, Wael El-Medany, Hessa Al-Junaid, and Ahmed Abdelgawad “Fast Co-Processor for Real-Time Video Transmission,” Proc. of the IEEE International Conference on Electronics, Circuits, and Systems, ICECS, Abu Dhabi, UAE, pp. 945 – 949, December 8-11, 2013.\n10.\tWael El-Medany and Yasser Ismail “Mobile Learning Laboratory for Hardware Courses,” IEEE International Conference on e-Learning "Best Practices in Management, Design and Development of e-Courses: Standards of Excellence and Creativity", pp.51,54, 7-9 May 2013\n11.\tYasser Ismail and Sherif El-etriby “Fast diamond search algorithm for real-time video coding," Proc. of the IEEE Workshop ICNC, Maui, Hawaii, USA, pp. 729 – 733, 30 January 2012.\n12.\tYasser Ismail, Sherif El-etriby, and Magdy A. Bayoumi, " Frequency Domain: Efficient and High-Speed Technology For Video Transmission," Proc. of the IEEE Workshop on Signal Processing Systems (SIPS), Beirut, Lebanon, pp. 278 – 282, October 2011.\n13.\tYasser Ismail and Magdy A. Bayoumi, " Efficient high-speed lattice-CORDIC IFFT architecture for DMT transmitter," Proc. of the IEEE Workshop on Signal Processing Systems (SIPS), San Francisco, CA, USA, pp. 151 - 155, October 6-8, 2010.\n14.\tYasser Ismail, Jason McNeely, Mohsen Shaaban, and Magdy A. Bayoumi, “A Fast-Discrete Transform Architecture for Frequency Domain Motion Estimation,” IEEE Int. Conference on Image Processing (ICIP), San Francisco Bay Area, California, U.S.A, pp. 1249 – 1252, September 26-29, 2010.\n15.\tYasser Ismail, Jason McNeely, Mohsen Shaaban, Mohamed Elgamel, and Magdy A. Bayoumi, " An efficient area manipulation architecture for frequency domain encoding process,” IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems (ISCAS 2010), Paris, France, pp. 2638 – 2641, 2010.\n16.\tYasser Ismail, Mohsen Shaaban, Jason McNeely, and Magdy A. Bayoumi, “An Efficient Manipulation architecture for Real-Time Video Coding in Frequency Domain,” IEEE Int. Conference on Image Processing (ICIP), Cairo, Egypt, PP. 3281 – 3284, November 7-11, 2009.\n17.\tYasser Ismail, Jason McNeely, Mohsen Shaaban, and Magdy A. Bayoumi, “Enhanced Efficient Diamond Search Algorithm for Fast Block Motion Estimation,” IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems (ISCAS 2009), Taipei International Convention Center, Taiwan, pp. 3198 – 3201, 24 - 27 May 2009.\n18.\tJason McNeely, Yasser Ismail, Magdy A. Bayoumi, and Peiyi Zhao, “Power Analysis of The Huffman Decoding Tree,” Proc. of the IEEE Int. Conference on Image Processing (ICIP), San Diego, California, U.S.A, pp. 1416 – 1419, October 12–15, 2008.\n19.\tYasser Ismail, Jason McNeely, Mohsen Shaaban, Magdy Bayoumi, "A Generalized Fast Motion Estimation Algorithm using External and Internal Stop Search Techniques for H.264 Video Coding Standard," IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems (ISCAS 2008), Seattle, Washington, pp. 3574 – 3577, May 18-21, 2008.\n20.\tYasser Ismail, Mohamed Elgamel, and Magdy A. Bayoumi, "An Adaptive Block Size Phase Correlation Motion Estimation Using Smart Multireference Frames Selection in Frequency Domain," Proc. of IEEE Asilomar Conference on Signals, Systems, and Computers, Pacific Grove, California, pp. 239 – 242, November 4-7, 2007.\n21.\tYasser Ismail, Mohamed Elgamel, and Magdy A. Bayoumi, "adaptive techniques for a fast Frequency Domain Motion Estimation," Proc. of IEEE Workshop on Signal Processing Systems (SIPS), Shanghai, China, pp. 331-336, October 17-19, 2007.\n22.\tYasser Ismail, Mohamed Elgamel, and Magdy A. Bayoumi, "A Fast Block-Based Motion Estimation Using Early Stop Search Techniques for H.264/AVC Standard," Proc. of the 48th IEEE International Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Montreal, Canada, pp. 397 – 400, Aug 5-8, 2007.\n23.\tYasser Ismail, M. Shaaban, and M. Bayoumi, "An Adaptive Block Size Phase Correlation Motion Estimation Using Adaptive Early Search Termination Technique," IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems (ISCAS), New Orleans, pp.3423–3426, May 2007.\n24.\tJ.Luis Tecpanecatl-Xihuitl, Ruth M. Aguilar-Ponce, Yasser Ismail, and Magdy A. Bayoumi “Efficient Mutliplierless Polyphase FIR Filter based on New Distributed Arithmetic Architecture,” Proc. of IEEE Asilomar Conference on Signals, Systems, and Computers, Pacific Grove, California, pp. 958 – 962, November 4-7, 2007.\n25.\tS. Goel, Yasser Ismail, P. Devulapalli, J. McNeely, and M. Bayoumi, “An Efficient Data Reuse Motion Estimation Engine,” Proc. of IEEE Signal Processing Systems Design and Implementation, 2006, SIPS, Banff. Canada, pp.383-386, Oct. 2006.\n26.\tS. Goel, Yasser Ismail, and M. Bayoumi, "Adaptive search window size algorithm for fast motion estimation in H.264/AVC standard," Proc. of the 48th IEEE Intl. Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Ohio, pp. 1557-1560, Aug. 2005. \nCourses developed at Southern University and A&M College\n•\tELEN 435: Image processing and Computer Vision. (Credit, 3 hours) (Lecture, 3 hours). This course is intended to teach students the concepts of visual information, feature extraction, Image enhancement in the spatial domain, Image enhancement in the frequency domain, Image restoration, Color image processing, Image compression, Morphological image processing, Image segmentation, and image representation.\n•\tELEN 464: Mechatronics. (Credit, 3 hours) (Lecture, 3 Hours) – Covers computer control of electromechanical systems, automatic data acquisition. Computerized instrumentation and testing. The embedded computer might be a combination of microprocessors, microcontrollers, personal computers, and /or programmable controllers. Students are required to test to design, assemble, and test actual systems.\n•\tMEEN 4xx: Additive Manufacturing Security & Security Framework. This course is designed for the purpose of the NSF Award Id: 1912397. It will provide students with the knowledge of Additive Manufacturing applications and how to make them more secure. Virtual Reality simulations will be used to demonstrate possible risks from cyberattacks and their consequences. \nProfessional development\n•\tProposing a Computer Engineering (CE) minor program under the Electrical Engineering (EE) program at Southern University.\n•\tABET accreditation of the Electrical Engineering (EE) program at Southern University (Fall 2021): I participated in many activities and committees to successfully get the EE program accredited.\n•\tABET accreditation of the Computer Engineering (CE) program at University of Bahrain (2016): I participated in many activities and committees to successfully get the CE program accredited.\n•\tSummer Fellow in the ONR sponsored Summer Faculty Research Program at the Naval Surface Warfare Center – Carderock Division, West Bethesda, MD, USA, 20817, June 1 – August 8, 2021.\n•\tNSF Panel Reviewer: Serve as a reviewer for NSF Panels 2019 – present. \n•\tSuccessfully passed eleven (11) weeks Machine Learning online course on Coursera website. https://www.coursera.org/learn/machine-learning/home/welcome, 2021.\n•\tSession chair at the IEEE 7th World Forum on Internet of Things (WF-IoT 2021), 26 – 31 July 2021, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA. \n•\tExternal Assessment Moderator for the CE Department at University of Bahrain (UoB), December 2020.\n•\tSession chair at the IEEE 6th World Forum on Internet of Things, 5-9 April 2020, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA. \n•\tSession chair at the 63rd IEEE International Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems, 2018, 2019, and 2020. \n•\tMember in the Organizing Committee of the Gulf States Math Alliance Conference held at Southern University and A&M College, February 14-16, 2020.\n•\tTrack chair at the IEEE Green Technologies Conference, April 3-6, 2019, Lafayette, Louisiana, USA.\n•\tCertificate from Quality Matters (QM) of Independent Applying the QM Rubric (APPQMR), September 20, 2019. \n•\tSupervisor of the IEEE student chapter group at Southern University and A&M College 2018 – Current.\n•\tEditorial Board Member for Frontiers of Mechatronical Engineering FME, EnPress Publisher Editorial - USA, 2018 – current.\n•\tServe on the technical program committee for MobiApps 2016 (Mobile Applications, Vienna, Austria 2016).\n•\tInvited to serve as a lead guest editor for a special issue in mobile information systems – Hindawi publishing corporation September 2016.\n•\tMember of Bahrain Society of academics 2014 – 2016. \n•\tSession chair at ICECS 2013, Abu Dhabi – UAE.\n•\tAn active member in the IEEE student chapter at the University of Louisiana (2006-2009).\n•\tMember of the Organizing Committee of ISCAS 2007 symposium, New Orleans, LA.\nSynergistic Activities \n\n•\tSchool and College Service:\no\tServe as a commencement Assistant University Marshal for the College of Sciences and Engineering (CSE) 2018 - Current\no\tElectrical Engineering Department committee member (member)\no\tThe Electrical Engineering Department assessment committee (member) Spring-2018\no\tThe IEEE Student Advisory Committee (member) Spring-2018\no\tThe Electrical Engineering Department Recruiting/Outreach Committee (Chair) Spring-2018\no\tThe Engineers Week Committee (Chair) Spring-2018\no\tThe Electrical Engineering Department Arduino Club (Chair) Fall-2018 - Current\n•\tJournal Reviewer:\no\tJournal of Real-Time Image Processing (JRTIP), Springer\no\tIEEE Transaction on Circuit and System for Video Technology (TCSVT)\no\tIEEE Transactions on Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) Systems \no\tIEEE Transactions on Image Processing\no\tInternational Journal of Computing and Digital Systems (IJCDS)\no\tInternational Journal of Technology Diffusion (IJTD)\n•\tTechnical Conference Reviewer:\no\tSCS: University of Bahrain "Smart Cities Symposium" 22-23 April 2018\no\tISCAS: IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems\no\tICASSP: IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing\no\tICIP: IEEE International Conference on Image Processing\no\tSIPS: IEEE Workshop on Signal Processing Systems\no\tGCCCE: IEEE-GCC Conference and Exhibition\no\tICECS: IEEE International Conference on Electronics, Circuits, and Systems\no\tMWSCAS: IEEE International Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems\n•\tConference Organizer\no\tThe IEEE 6th World Forum on the Internet of Things (IoT) - WF-IoT 2020, New Orleans, USA, June 2nd – June 16th, Chair of Edge and Fog Computing session.\no\tThe 63rd IEEE International Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems, August 9 -12, 2020, , MA, USA \no\tThe Gulf States Math Alliance Conference held at Southern University and A&M College, February 14-16, 2020\no\t62nd IEEE International Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Dallas, TX, USA, Aug. 4-7, 2019, Chair of Control Systems, Mechatronics, and Robotics session. \no\tThe IEEE Green Technologies Conference, 3-6 April, Lafayette, LA, 2019\no\tThe 9th International Conference on Ambient Systems, Networks and Technologies (ANT 2018), Porto, Portugal May 8-11, 2018\no\tM.Sc./Ph.D. students forum Chair: IEEE International Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Windsor, ON, Canada August 5th-8th, 2018\no\tServe on the technical program committee for DPNoC\'17 (International Workshop on Design and Performance of Networks on Chip 2017). August 15-18, 2016, Montreal, Quebec, Canada\no\tOrganizing Committee for IEEE ICECS 2013, Abu Dhabi, UAE\no\t Organizing Committee for IEEE ISCAS 2007, New Orleans, LA, USA\n•\tCollaborators & Other Affiliations\no\tAshok Srivastava, Louisiana State University, USA\no\tJesmin Khan, Tuskegee University, USA\no\tMagdy Bayoum, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, USA\no\tAhmed Abdelgawad, Central Michigan University, USA\no\tJason McNeely, University of Alaska Fairbanks, USA\no\tAhmed Khattab, Cairo University, Egypt\no\tWael El-Medany, Bahrain University, Bahrain\no\tMahmoud Darwich, Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania, USA',institutionString:"Southern University and Agricultural and Mechanical College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Southern University and Agricultural and Mechanical College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"9",title:"Computer and Information Science",slug:"computer-and-information-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"453624",firstName:"Martina",lastName:"Scerbe",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/453624/images/20399_n.jpg",email:"martina.s@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7602",title:"Internet of Things (IoT) for Automated and Smart Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"55ad7d0965cba5aebe448cb43766c45e",slug:"internet-of-things-iot-for-automated-and-smart-applications",bookSignature:"Yasser Ismail",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7602.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"255636",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasser",surname:"Ismail",slug:"yasser-ismail",fullName:"Yasser Ismail"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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Specifically the process of diffusion, where blood is made to flow in a counter current to the direction of dialysis fluid and ultrafiltration, where fluid is pressured across a semi permeable membrane using a convective force.
A large quantity of high purity dialysis water is required to safely perform a dialysis treatment. A single 4-hour dialysis treatment can require up to 150L of dialysis quality “ultra pure” water. Producing this high quality water is a multi step filtration process requiring several levels of processing before it is of a sufficient quality to be presented to the dialyser membrane and the patient’s blood. Depending on the quality of the source water, the production of this 150L of dialysis quality water, can require the processing of up to 1000L of drinking quality water. This results in between 60 – 90% of source water being rejected to waste.
Ideally pure water used for dialysis should contain no contaminants eg. particles, trace elements, chemicals, organic matter, bacteria or bacterial fragments. Since this water is in direct contact with the blood stream any impurities in the dialysis water has the potential to pass to the patient. Published accepted standards of water quality do exist and specify the minimum concentrations of contaminants that are allowed, bearing in mind that absolute purity is impossible and is often limited by testing thresholds.
Several contamination incidents, some fatal have been described in the literature where patients have inadvertently been exposed to contaminants due to a breakdown in the water purification process. Historical examples include fatal haemolysis from chlorine exposure, bone disease and dementia from aluminium exposure and fatal bacterial contamination resulting in liver failure [1-3]. There is also evidence that bacteria and bacterial fragments especially gram-negative lipopolysaccharide can induce an inflammatory state contributing to erythropoietin resistance, hypotension and a poor nutritional status [4].
Ultrapure water has more stringent microbiological criteria than standard dialysis water and has become the standard in most dialysis units. This is particularly relevant when considering the increasing use of on-line haemodiafiltration, which necessitates large volumes of ultrapure replacement fluid to be infused directly into the patient bloodstream, without the traditional barrier protection of the dialyser membrane. In addition the use of high flux dialyser membranes, theoretically may also allow bacterial fragments to cross into the blood compartment hence further necessitating the need for stringent water standards. Use of ultrapure water is associated with improvement in inflammatory and nutritional markers as well as anaemia and can be produced safely [4-6].
In the home setting much training, education and preparation is necessary prior to a patient safely performing dialysis at home and in turn this is also important with regards to water quality. Patient factors such as dexterity, visual acuity, hygiene, desire to be independent and ability to follow protocols are important. Importantly in the home setting, patients must correctly perform their own chlorine testing, equipment maintenance and WRO disinfection.
This chapter will discuss the various components of the water purification process required for haemodialysis both in the home and in dialysis units. We will also discuss the components of water quality testing and international standards. Finally, with the increasing constraints on water supply, there is a growing awareness of the need for, so called ‘green dialysis units’, where water conservation practices are utilised.
The quality of the feedwater must be appreciated when setting up a purification system for dialysis, either in a home or an in-centre setting. On a basic level, the lower the concentrations of contaminants the less elaborate the purification system. For instance, the size, number and types of filters necessary for a water purification installation in an inner city suburb with good quality piped water would be different from those for a rural setting with borehole water. Even within the same city and despite similar purification steps there is a considerable difference in the organic and inorganic substances in municipal water due to the difference in the origin of the water. This can be due to geology in the area of the source water (e.g. high iron or clay content), and local industry or farming practice (e.g. pesticide use or heavy metal contamination) in the area.
Rainwater collection tanks are commonly in use in many rural and remote Australian areas. However, this water can also have both microbiological and inorganic contaminants present, due to the roofing materials used and wildlife that have access to the roof (e.g. birds and possums). In one study of 27 households in Brisbane using rainwater tanks, 63% of tank water samples tested positive for E Coli and 78% tested positive for enterococci. [7]
Municipal water is primarily sourced from 2 areas, surface water and groundwater. Groundwater includes wells, aquifers and springs. They have less organic materials but higher inorganic ions eg. metals. Surface water, incudes lakes, ponds and rivers and have more organic matter, microbes and contaminants (eg pesticide, sewerage)
There are several processes involved in converting source water to drinking water standard. These include:
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tWells, springs | \n\t\t\tLakes, ponds, rivers | \n\t\t\tRooftop | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tHigh | \n\t\t\tNormal | \n\t\t\tVariable (dependent of roof construction) | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tLess | \n\t\t\tHigh | \n\t\t\tPresent, variable | \n\t\t
Types of source water
Several instances in the literature highlight the unfortunate morbidity experienced by patients due to a failure to recognize the importance of knowing the source and nature of feed water used for dialysis. One such incident occurred in Brazil in 1996 where 26 patients died from acute liver failure following failure to recognize that the water supply was not being chlorinated. This led to poisoning by bacterial cyanotoxins, which are highly hepatotoxic. [8]
Improving water quality to a standard required for safe haemodialysis utilises a step wise, water filtration process. Each component is specially designed to remove certain contaminants and is arranged in a manner so as to protect and increase the efficiency of the downstream components (Figure 1). For example, carbon filters efficiently remove chlorine, which is not removed by water reverse osmosis (WRO) and can damage WRO membranes, thereby reducing their efficiency.
Schematic representation of a typical dialysis water treatment circuit
In centre dialysis units supplying multiple dialysis machines, which are used up to thrice a day, require large amounts of dialysis water and hence more involved filtration systems. However, even though home haemodialysis setups supply only one machine, they also are used in different feedwater settings, which may require minor changes in the type and size of filters (Figure 2).
Schematic of home water treatment setup
Water contains particulate matter, which may include sand, clay, silt, or colloidal matter. This particle load can be quantified by calculating the silt density index, which measures the time taken for a 0.45μm filter to experience a reduction in flow. These filters function to exclude particles on the basis of size and prevent fouling of the RO membrane (Figure 3). They are located both pre and post carbon filters. In addition the post carbon filter also traps any carbon flecks that may pass out of the carbon tanks.
Micron particle filters (bag filters)
For
Dissolved salts within in the water contribute to the hardness of water, which can cause ‘hard deposits’ and can foul the downstream WRO filter. Softeners function to reduce this hardness by removing the salts, commonly calcium and magnesium, by passing water through a resin, exchanging them for sodium (Figure 4). The ISO guidelines recommend a softener be used where feed water has hardness in excess of 10 GPG (grains/gallon) [9]. The softener is ‘regenerated’ by backwashing it with a high salt solution from the brine tank, effectively stripping the resin of bound calcium and magnesium salts. This can be set to a required time or volume schedule. Typically the softener is replaced every 3 – 5 yrs. Multimedia filters are composed of multiple layers of media, typically coal, sand and garnet, which are of differing sizes. As water passes through the filter, particles up to 10μm, suspended in the water are removed. Some units do not use multi-media filter, opting rather for the micron filters, which are cheaper and easier to replace.
Softeners and mechanism of action.
Large amounts of particulate matter and salts have the potential to affect the efficiency of the carbon and WRO filters. In
Activated carbon is a highly porous carbon material that is created by adding heat and steam to carbon containing products such as coal and wood. The carbon is then acid washed to clean and increase its porosity. The primary purpose of the carbon filter is to remove chlorine and its related compounds, including chloramines and halogenated organic material, like trihalomethanes (Figure 5). With regular use the carbon becomes spent with no further binding available along its large surface area.
Chloramines are derived from chlorine and ammonium and is added to drinking water, as a disinfectant as it is more stable, does not dissipate as rapidly as free chlorine and reduces the formation of chlorinated organic compounds such as trihalomethanes [10] (see section on water testing). It is important to note that the RO filter does not remove chlorine. Activated carbon is the best method of removing chloramines and is achieved by physical adsorption and chemical catalysis to its parent compounds. The adsorptive capacity of the carbon filter is determined by the contact time of the carbon with water, known as empty bed contact time (EBCT) and the Iodine number of the carbon. The iodine number of a carbon is calculated by its ability to absorb iodine per gram of carbon. The EBCT is directly proportional to the volume of carbon in the carbon tank and inversely proportional to the flow and can be exactly calculated using a formula. The larger the carbon tanks, the higher the EBCT provided the flow rate is constant.
The tanks are connected in series with the first tank providing most of the chlorine removal; hence it is usually referred to as the ‘worker’ tank and the second called the ‘polisher’. With regular use, the absorptive sites on the carbon particles become exhausted and their efficiency declines. Conditions within the carbon tanks, especially the polisher, are ideal for bacterial proliferation in that it is chlorine deplete and contains organic matter. To increase the efficiency and prolong its lifespan, the carbons are backwashed ie ‘fluffing the carbons’. This is usually performed weekly and the tanks are changed every 12 months.
Both in the home and in-centre setting, patients and staff, respectively, test the dialysis water daily prior to treatment. If chlorine is detected, dialysis is not initiated and an immediate carbon change is effected. Our center, also tests for trihalomethanes (THMs) (
Activated carbon particle
The ultra violet (UV) light emitters function to deactivate microorganisms. Exposure to UV results in damage to the nucleic acids of the cell. The ISO recommends that a minimum radiant energy dose should be 16 milliwatt-s/cm2 and that unit replacement and maintenance should occur annually [11-13].
Deionisers work on the principle of ion exchange to remove organic or inorganic ions from the water. Typically a mixed bed, anion and cation exchange resin would be used. These have largely been replaced by the use of reverse osmosis technology.
Water reverse osmosis (WRO) units operate by pumping water, at pressure, across a semi permeable membrane, using a cross flow, membrane filtration system (Figure 6). Here a single stream of water is presented to the membrane, at which point it can either pass across the membrane as pure permeate or be “rejected” by the membrane and flow to waste. The WRO will remove metals (e.g. manganese, iron and fluoride), as well as organic molecules (e.g. bacteria). Effective and efficient operation of the WRO is proportional to the quality of feedwater; hence making the pre-treatment process obligatory to maximise the longevity of the membrane.
There are various WROs available on the market, differing in membrane type (e.g. cellulose, synthetic, composite) and membrane configuration. Typically, a polyamide, thin film composite in a spiral configuration is used in haemodialysis.. Water pH ideally should be between 5 and 8.5. A higher pH will cause the carbon filters chloramine absorption to be less effective and also reduce the efficiency of the RO membrane.
Used RO membrane from a home dialysis WRO machine
The WRO unit has an internal conductivity sensor and uses this to monitor the efficiency of the WRO membrane by measuring the conductivity both pre-and post-filtration and then calculating a percentage efficiency. Post membrane water usually has a conductivity of between 2 – 10 μSm/cm. The machine has programmable alarm limits, which can be adjusted by the technicians. Although our unit routinely sets the initial alarm at 50μSm/cm, our technicians usually intervene if the post RO water conductivity exceeds 20μSm/cm. The machine is programmed to shut down if this exceeds 150μSm/cm. Measurements of RO conductivity efficiency is only a guide and not an absolute measure of suitability for dialysis, which can only be ascertained by performing a detailed water analysis.
In the home setting, portable WROs are disinfected, by the user, either using heat, weekly or chemically, twice a week. Chemical disinfection is performed using agents, such as Dialox® solution (peracetic acid 0.35%, hydrogen peroxide 6.6%). Some units use a weekly or even fortnightly disinfection schedule. The use of chemicals reduces the longevity of the RO membrane. Newer WRO’s use only heat to disinfect by heating water up to 90°C. This has the advantage of not needing to store and transport chemicals and also prevents the rare but real danger of mistakenly using the dialysis machine bleach in the WRO. Using heat disinfection WRO’s also offers the unique advantage of integrated disinfection. Here the heated solution is not limited to the WRO but extends simultaneously to the HD machine, thus disinfecting the piping in between and resulting in fewer breaches in water quality. In the in-centre setting, the loop delivery piping connecting the WRO and the dialysis machines, is heat disinfected daily, using water heated to 85°C with the WRO membranes being disinfected weekly.
As the WRO is used over time, several different processes start to affect its efficiency. These 3 processes include:
fouling – the entrapment of particles in the membrane,
scaling – deposition of eg calcium salts and
membrane degradation.
Hence, WROs do need to be serviced regularly. This involves calibrating the conductivity sensors, checking the pump flows, descaling, checking for leaks and sterilising the machine (see Figure 8). In the home setting, the machines first undergo a high pH, sodium hydroxide, flush followed by a low pH acidic solution (e.g. a citrate based solution.) Specific practices will be dependent on whether or not softeners have been used, the quality of the feed water and manufacturer specific guidelines for servicing. The WRO membranes are usually replaced every 3 – 5 years.
The ISO recommends daily monitoring of the WRO unit’s instrumentation panel. This usually includes, a constant readout of the product water conductivity and percentage efficiency [9]. The purpose is to monitor and log trends and confirm that the machine is operating within the manufacturer’s specifications. It also recommends repeating a laboratory water analysis when significant seasonal changes in water quality are suspected or if rejection rates change by more than 10%.
Portable WRO with casing removed
Ultra filters, also known as endotoxin retentive filters, are cartridge type filters that are installed onto the dialysis machine (Figure 9). They are composed of a polysulfone material used to achieve “ultra pure” water by removing bacteria and endotoxin. This is by a process of adsorption and exclusion by particle size. Flow through the filter cartridge can be either in a “dead end” or “cross flow” configuration. In ‘cross flow’ mode, water flows parallel to the membrane surface with impurities “washed away” in the reject stream. In ‘dead end’ mode, water flows perpendicular to the membrane surface.
Example of an ultrafilter showing dialysate flow
These filters are usually operated in dead end mode as a cost saving measure. Any “fouling” of the membrane is limited by regular flushing to a drain valve. In addition, these filters are included in the dialysis machine disinfection cycle further limiting bacterial contamination. Prior to each treatment, the dialysis machine conducts a pressure integrity check (
Patients on haemodiafiltration (HDF) require a high quality “substitution fluid’ to be infused directly in to the circulation. Hence, a second ultrafilter is used, which greatly minimises the possibility of contamination.
Only qualified plumbers registered with the local water board and with prior experience in water systems are used to plumb new installations. The main components are the filters and the piping in between. Plumbing installations including those for haemodialysis must comply with the
This prevents treated water, containing disinfectants, from back flowing into municipal water supply. The device cannot be tested and so are changed routinely every two years according to the manufacturer’s specification.
The 2009 ISO guidelines recommend that piping should not contribute any chemicals eg copper, lead, zinc or chemicals. [9]. Common practice is the use of PVC (polyvinyl chloride) piping as it is non corrodible, is able to withstand high temperatures achieved during disinfection and has a smooth inner surface to prevent biofilm.
Much controversy surrounds the potential leaching of plasticizer compounds from the dialysis tubing, including the dialyser membrane and their effects on health. Two compounds in particular, Bisphenol A and phthalate diesters are known to act as ‘oestrogenic disrupting chemicals’ which have been shown in rodent models, to cause liver, pancreatic, thyroid and developmental abnormalities [28, 29]. Their role in human disease remains unclear. Copper piping is used only for reject water and not for the piping that supplies the WRO and the dialysis machine, as copper can leach from the piping and result in copper toxicity to the patient [14]. Brass fittings may be minimally used for certain fixtures due to the risk of leaks and blowout with plastic couplings. Particular care needs to be taken to prevent use of and contamination from adhesives, epoxy resins or bonding cements.
There are two grades of wastewater created from the water filtration process. The first is reject water from the WRO, which has not come into contact with the patient and second, post dialysis effluent, which is produced during the actual dialysis process. Safe disposal of dialysis effluent water poses two issues.
There is a high percentage of reject water (approximately 65 – 90%) created by the WRO. This water, created from drinking standard feed water, has already passed through, in most cases, particle
However recirculating reject water or using the water saving feature, will increase the feed water concentration of contaminants, which will reduce the efficiency of the WRO membrane and likely reduce its lifespan. The average water conductivity in an urban area is usually <500mSm/cm and it is sensible in such areas to trial a higher water recirculation percentage eg 30%-50%. Areas where feed water quality is poor with high conductivity > 1000mSm/cm should probably not use the water saving feature to better protect the RO membrane. Ultimately, the cost and safety concerns involved in balancing water saving against membrane longevity and water quality need to be monitored. Without trialing the water saving feature, it is impossible to know where this balance lies.
These are small, under-counter-size WRO units. In remote areas where patients are supplied by borehole water, the feedwater can have high amounts of particulate matter, dissolved salts and metals (e.g. arsenic). A cheap pre-filtering system is required to return water to near drinking water standard to protect the more expensive downstream components of the filtration system. Water from rainwater and borehole supplied tanks requires a pump that provides pressures between 300 – 500Kpa as these filters operate on line pressure. The filter typically has a 3 stage system that involves a carbon prefilter cartridge leading into a RO cartridge. Typically the cartridges are changed every 6 months, although this is variable depending on the feedwater quality. When the reject rate of water starts to increase (i.e. less water per minute of treated water is produced), then the cartridges are changed sooner. Typically patients will notice that the storage tank takes longer to fill alerting them that an earlier change is necessary.
Holding tanks with booster pumps and back flow preventor
As blood is passed through a dialysis circuit, heat is radiated to the cooler ambient temperature and then is brought into contact with dialysis water. The temperature of this water may have significant seasonal or diurnal variation. Dialysis machines are capable of heating but not cooling dialysis water to the required temperature. Feed water less than 10 degrees Celsius and greater than 30 degrees would require temperature adjustment. Feed water temperature also affects the integrity of the RO and particle filters, which have a maximum operating temperature set by the manufacturer, usually less than 35 degrees Celsius. In most units the temperature of dialysis water is typically 35ºC. A high dialysate temperature can result in haemolysis [19]. If feed water temperature is outside the recommended range then water temperature will need to be adjusted. This is usually not required in more temperate climates.
When feedwater originates from rainwater or borehole, it is stored in a tank. A booster pump is necessary to pump water to the filtration system (Figure 11). Some homes especially older ones may have low mains water pressure. This may be due to low supply pressure from the municipality, corrosion or faulty pressure restrictors. If not correctable then such homes may also require a booster pump. This must be sufficient to meet the minimum pressure requirements of the RO filter, which is typically between 1 to 8 bars.
In some circumstances high iron content in the feedwater may necessitate an independent iron removal system. A dedicated iron filter (e.g. BIRM® Clack Corporation, Wisconsin 53598-0500 USA) is available. The ISO does not specify a level for iron in dialysis water but does recognise that it may foul downstream filters [9].
The water purification system is a multiple layer system designed to progressively purify water at each step. The resulting dialysis water needs to meet minimum criteria for chemical and microbiological characteristics. These criteria form the basis of the definition for standard quality and ultrapure quality dialysis water. There are several available guidelines specifying the minimum allowable standards for water quality. (eg U.S. Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation (AAMI) and the European best practice guidelines (EBPG). The ISO (international organisation for standardisation) is an international collaboration of national standard bodies (ISO member bodies). Minimum water testing parameters from the ISO are summarised below. The ISO recommends at least annual testing for chemical contaminants and quarterly testing for microbiological contaminants (Table 2) [9]. Ultimately a schedule of water testing must achieve two goals. Firstly, testing must ensure that a high quality of dialysis water is being delivered at the end of the filtration process. Perturbations in feed water quality and breakthrough in upstream filters do not usually result in fouling of the dialysis water, as there is a fair degree of redundancy built into each filter. Hence, even if, for example, a post-WRO sample reveals an elevated bacterial load, a well maintained further downstream ultrafilter should still prevent this exposure to the patient. Secondly, testing at different points in the circuit enables troubleshooting and localization of the problem area. As in the example above, the problem would be proximal to the WRO testing port and hence the carbon filters would be backwashed and the RO disinfected. A suggested schedule for water testing frequency in the home environment in outlined below.
There are 4 main points of water testing. (see table 3 and Figure 2). Water samples are best sent to an experienced testing facility for all water analyses.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
ISO recommendations for water quality in dialysis water [20]
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Schedule for water testing
Example of a standard water analysis report
Colour based chlorine test strips
Standard quality dialysis water has minimum microbiological and contaminant concentrations, defined by the ISO [9). (see table 3).
Microbiological analysis involves testing for bacteria and endotoxins. Endotoxins are the lipopolysaccharide layer of the gram-negative bacterial cell walls. However it is worth noting that bacterial culture and endotoxin testing do not exclude all possibility of bacterial contamination. For example, they do not detect gram-positive cell wall components e.g. peptidoglycan, or bacterial fragments, unculturable organisms or dead bacteria [26], all of which may still elicit an inflammatory response when introduced into the blood stream. The clinical relevance of this is unknown.
Various factors can affect the ability of bacteria to be cultured. These include the type of culture medium, length of incubation and temperature, all of which are specified in the ISO guideline [9). The method of collection is also standardized by the ISO. Sampling ports are cleaned with alcohol, connectors soaked in ethanol to prevent contamination and water is allowed to run for the first 30 seconds. The [9) guidelines also recommend that samples be assayed within 4 hours of collection. The guideline recommends that this time can be extended by refrigeration, up to 24rs. However this is not easily achievable especially considering the remote location of many of the home dialysis patients.
Potential organisms that contaminate the water circuit are accustomed to a nutrient poor environment hence necessitating special consideration. These include using a nutrient poor culture medium (e.g. Reasoners agar [R2A]), the use of membrane filtration for low colony count detection, an incubation temperature of between 17 and 23 degrees Celsius and an incubation period of 7 days [27]. The concentration of contaminants at which action should be instituted is set at 50% of the maximum allowable level; that is intervention is required when 50% of the allowed maximum is reached.
Endotoxin testing is performed using the Limulus amoebocyte lysate (LAL) assay. Here serum (amebocytes) removed from the horseshoe crab (limulus) is exposed to endotoxin. This activates a proteolytic cascade in the crab serum resulting in the formation of a gel like substance. An artificial substrate added to the lysate is also proteolytically cleaved and the liberated protein can be measured by its ability to absorb light, which is the basis of the chromogenic test kits. The test can also be quantified by its ability to form a clot or produce turbidity. It is important to note that the LAL assay does not detect endotoxin < 8000 Da.
Home dialysis has resulted in a multitude of benefits for patients. Most importantly with convenience, independence and improvement in biochemical and likely mortality figures. The availability of electricity and running water should not disparage patient’s eligibility for dialysis. In Australia the possibility of solar powered dialysis has been shown to be a feasible option, if not completely then to significantly offset the power costs of dialysis [17]. Similarly the lack of running water should also not be a limiting factor. Illustrated below is an example of how home dialysis became a possibility for a patient living on a farm over 200km from the nearest major city.
An Example of a rural home water treatment setup: (A) The borehole is approximately 2 km from the patient’s residence and is determined by the geology of the area. (B) An intermediate pumping station operated using air pressure. (C) Storage tanks are continually replenished from the bore to ensure an uninterrupted water supply. (D) A basic pre filtration cartridge filter (located in the silver casing) and two micron filters pre treat the water (E) A second pump located approximately 100m from the patients residence (F) A second set of micron filters and carbon tanks. This is located underneath the patients home and feeds directly to dialysis machine inside the bedroom.
Floods are often devastating natural disasters that result in extensive disruption of transport, communication and power supply networks, as well as industrial, farming, business and personal property damage. Table 4 summarises some of the important implications for haemodialysis patients. Experience from previous natural disasters has highlighted the importance of dialysis units having a practiced disaster management plan to manage these situations. During the 2005 Hurricane Katrina disaster, 94 dialysis centres closed for at least one week affecting close to 6000 patients [30, 31]. The national kidney foundation provides a useful guide for disaster planning for people with chronic kidney disease. It includes useful information for patients such as fluid and dietary advice, including salt, potassium and water restriction, medical record management, dialysis rationing and medication supply [32].
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
Increased particulate matter from surface run off | \n\t\t\tIncrease capacity and schedule of micron filter change | \n\t\t
Increased pesticides/herbicides/organic contaminants | \n\t\t\tConsider increasing EBCT, increasing capacity and schedule of carbon change | \n\t\t
Increased chlorine load from municipality | \n\t\t\tAs above and ensure regular chlorine testing | \n\t\t
Increased ionic/dissolved solute load | \n\t\t\tMonitor WRO conductivity and reject rates. Consider increasing disinfection schedule | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tLiaise with local water authority and ensure appropriate capacity reservoir tanks | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tBackup generators | \n\t\t
Problems associated with flooding
EBCT: Empty bed contact time
Water is clearly a precious resource. Unfortunately large volumes of reject water are created for the provision of dialysis. (See
High volumes of ultrapure water are required for safe and effective haemodialysis. A sequential and progressive water purification system ensures that this is delivered safely to the patient. With proper maintenance and monitoring of these systems many of the incidents of the past can be avoided. With the increased uptake of home dialysis therapies the need for similarly robust systems is necessary. Home dialysis differs in that home patients have longer dialysis hours and are exposed to more water. Water systems are also used in different areas with differing feed water quality and machines are left unused for periods of up to 48 hours. These factors increase the risk of exposure to chemical and microbial contaminants.
Important factors that need to be considered in the management of a dialysis water treatment system, both in the home and in-centre include: the quality of the feed water, including the abundance of its supply, reliable electricity, an adequate capacity to dispose of water and a validated water-testing program. A good working relationship and communication with the local council is important; particularly in providing prior warning regarding planned maintenance, expected fluctuations in feed water quality and assistance with water subsidy schemes. In the home setting, the patient, the ultimate end user, needs to be well trained not only to perform their dialysis properly but also regarding maintenance and testing of the water system. Failure to regularly backwash carbons, test for chlorine, change particle filters or perform scheduled disinfections will ultimately lead to failure of the water treatment system. However, the needs for maintenance routines has to be balanced against patient fatigue and ultimately poor compliance. Complex protocols and frequent changes should be avoided and any episodes of technique failure should be regarded as an indication to reinforce proper protocol.
A comprehensive water analysis is the only quantitative measure of water purity. Frequent testing would theoretically be more likely detect a breakthrough contaminant, however important considerations include cost of testing and false positives especially as a consequence of collection contamination. In addition there is a remarkable degree of redundancy built into the system. Upstream failure in the proximal part of the filtration system is extremely unlikely to breach both the RO and the ultra filters. Different institutions may vary the extent of their water treatment system, with additional or larger filters; use of deionisation, multimedia filters or duplicate ultra filters and automated systems. Ultimately this increases the cost of operation with diminishing returns in improvement of water quality.
Finally, we must retain the ability to adapt our methods and reflect on our practice. Changes in the environment, water quality standards, technology and patient needs will continue to evolve and will call in to question traditional practice, such as exhaustive and costly testing and prophylactic maintenance. Ultimately, patient safety and optimising treatment efficacy will remain a priority.
WRO: Water reverse osmosis unit
HDF: Haemodiafiltration
HD: Haemodialysis
EU: Endotoxin units
RW: Reject water
Janine Jefferies, Sally Carpenter, John Poulton.
Aquaculture is the fastest-growing, food-producing, profitable, and one of the major employment generating sectors in coastal areas and is expected to quintuple in the coming 50 years [1]. The giant freshwater prawn,
Invertebrates lack adaptive immunity; therefore, they completely depend on innate immune systems for host defense. Melanization, which is a major innate defense system in invertebrates, is controlled by the enzyme phenoloxidase (PO) [10, 11, 12]. The active PO is a bifunctional enzyme that catalyzes the
The immune response in crustaceans mainly depends on nonspecific immunity, involving the cellular immunity of hemocytes [20] and humoral immunity through phenoloxidase [8] and agglutination [9]. In insects and crustaceans, phenoloxidase usually exists as a nonactive zymogen, prophenoloxidase (proPO), whose activation to the PO form is tightly regulated via an enzymatic cascade because the melanization reaction generates toxic compounds such as quinone species. This cascade is triggered by the presence of several microbial cell wall components such as β-1,3-glucan, lipopolysaccharides, and peptidoglycan [10]. There is a detectable or high amount of PO activity in crustacean plasma [8, 21, 22] that could be derived from proPO released from hemocytes [22] or from hemocyanin [8, 23, 24] for melanization activity, which remains unclear.
The present study attempted to characterize plasma PO activity in terms of substrate specificity, optimum ionic strength, pH, temperature, and incubation time to determine the biochemical and physiological conditions that support enzyme activity. Furthermore, to understand the substrate affinity of the plasma PO enzyme activity, the kinetics of the enzyme’s rate of reaction was determined in the Lineweaver-Burk plot. There is evidence to show that the kinetics of the crustaceans phenoloxidases vary among the different components of the hemolymph as well as species [25, 26, 27, 28]. Hence, an attempt has been made to optimize the conditions for determining PO activity of plasma including Km and Vmax value of freshwater prawn
Adult intermoult of the giant freshwater prawns,
Hemolymph (100 μl) was collected by cardiac puncture using a 23G needle attached to a clean, sterile plastic syringe containing 1.9 ml of ice cold iso-osmotic buffer, TBS-I (Tris 50 mM, NaCl 210 mM, KCl 5 mM, MgCl2 2.5 mM, pH 7.5) mixed and centrifuged in a pre-chilled polypropylene tube (161 x g, 8 min, 4°C) to obtain 1.5 ml of the supernatant as plasma. The exclusion of hemocytes was verified in the collected plasma by observation under phase-contrast microscope. About 50 prawns (each determination, N = 50) were required for collection of 100 μl acellular plasma, following Sivakumar et al. [8].
We tested the oxidative activity of 0.1 ml plasma was tested by incubating with 1.9 ml of different phenolic substrate solutions (5 mM tyrosine, tyramine, L-DOPA, DL-DOPA, dopamine, catechol, hydroquinone, and pyrogallol) for 20 min at 25°C. The color developed was measured spectrophotometrically (Shimadzu UV-160A spectrophotometer, Kyoto, Japan) at 300–700 nm against a reagent blank in which suitable substrates were substituted for plasma.
To 0.1 ml of plasma was mixed 1.9 ml of L-DOPA at different concentrations (1–10 mM) and incubated for 20 min at 25°C. The color developed was measured spectrophotometrically at 470 nm against a reagent blank (L-DOPA).
The effect of buffer ionic strength on oxidation of L–DOPA by plasma was assessed by incubating 0.1 ml plasma with 1.9 ml of 2.5 mM L–DOPA prepared in different ionic strength (5–100 mM) at 25°C. After 20 min, the optical density of each of these reaction mixtures was determined spectrophotometrically at 470 nm against a reagent blank (L-DOPA).
The ability of plasma to oxidize L-DOPA at different
Effect of different temperature was tested by incubating 0.1 ml of plasma with 1.9 ml of substrate (2.5 mM L-DOPA) solutions prepared in 10 mM Tris–HCl (pH 7.5) buffer at a different temperature ranging from 10 to 90°C for 20 min. The color developed was measured spectrophotometrically at 470 nm against a reagent blank (L-DOPA).
To 0.1 ml of plasma was mixed 1.9 ml of 2.5 mM L-DOPA (10 mM Tris–HCl; pH 7.5) and incubated for different time intervals (5–30 min) at 25°C. The color developed was measured spectrophotometrically at 470 nm against a reagent blank (L-DOPA).
To measure the kinetic parameters of plasma PO enzyme, different concentrations of L-DOPA (1.0–10.0 mM) were mixed with 0.1 ml of plasma and incubated for 15 min and absorbance was read at 470 nm. Michaelis–Menten constant was estimated by plotting substrate concentrations [S] and rate of PO activity [V]. Lineweaver-Burk plot was plotted as reciprocal of substrate concentration [1/S] and rate of PO activity [1/V]. The resultant plot is given a line that intercepted X-axis to give −1/Km value and intercepted the Y-axis to give 1/Vmax. The slope Km/Vmax was determined, and the resultant plot was rechecked using Eq. Y = mx + c.
To 50 ml of plasma was centrifuged and dialyzed (MW exclusion limit <14,000 kDa and > 12,000 kDa) extensively against TBS-II (Tris 10 mM, NaCl 200 mM, CaCl2 10 mM; pH 7.5). Then the dialyzed plasma was ultracentrifugation at 200,000 xg for 180 min at 4°C (Beckman LE-80; Beckman Coulter, Brea, CA, USA). After ultracentrifugation, the supernatant was decanted and the pellet, which is made of hemocyanin, was collected and dissolved in TBS-II and used freshly for further purification.
To purify the
The protein content in the plasma and purified
The protein profiles of plasma and purified
The molecular masses of the purified
We tested the oxidative activity of 40 μl purified
The PO activity of plasma (0.1 ml) or purified
In this experiment, 0.1 ml of plasma or 40 μl of purified
The data were expressed as mean ± SD of triplicate experiments from five determinations. Statistical analyses were done using SPSS software (version 20; SPSS, New York, USA). The variation between experimental and control was evaluated by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and significance was assessed at 0.01 probability (**
The plasma separated from the hemolymph of the freshwater prawn
PO activity of plasma with different phenolic substrates (5 mM) in Tris buffer (Tris–HCl 50 mM, pH 7.5) incubated at 25°C for 20 min and absorbance at 300–700 nm. The PO activity in optical density obtained at absorbancy maxima of respective substrates. Data represents mean of triplicate repeats of five determinations (mean ± SD) in the same way in all further experiments.
The plasma PO activity was tested with different concentrations of L-DOPA (1.0–10.0 mM), and the PO activity was found to be higher with L-DOPA at a concentration of 2.5 mM than that of 1 mM or higher concentrations (5.0, 7.5, and 10.0 mM) as shown in Figure 2. This experiment clearly suggested that the optimum concentration for testing PO activity in plasma was 2.5 mM of L-DOPA.
Effect of different concentrations of substrate (L-DOPA) by plasma phenoloxidase activity of freshwater prawn
The PO activity of plasma was tested with Tris–HCl buffer (pH 7.5) of different ionic strengths (5–100 mM), and the highest PO activity was found with 10 mM Tris–HCl buffer when compared with other ionic strengths tested as shown in Figure 3. This result recommended that the optimum concentration for testing PO activity in plasma was 10 mM of Tris–HCl buffer.
Effect of ionic strength of Tris–HCl buffer on oxidation of L-DOPA (2.5 mM) by plasma phenoloxidase activity of freshwater prawn
The PO activity of plasma was assessed by oxidation of L-DOPA at various pH values ranging from 6.0 to 9.0, pH above 7.5 showed the brown color formation of dopachrome. The PO activity was decreased at pH 6.0–7.0 and 8.0–9.0; thus, pH 7.5 was taken as the optimum pH for the study of plasma PO activity (Figure 4).
Effect of pH on oxidation of L-DOPA (2.5 mM), Tris–HCl buffer (10 mM) by plasma phenoloxidase activity of freshwater prawn
The PO activity of plasma was demonstrated by performing oxidation of 2.5 mM L-DOPA in the presence of 10 mM Tris–HCl at a pH 7.5. The reaction mixture was incubated for 20 min at different temperatures ranging from 10 to 90°C. The PO activity was stable and attained a peak at 25°C, which was taken as an optimum temperature for PO activity. At temperature below or above 25°C, a decline in PO activity was observed (Figure 5).
Effect of temperature on oxidation of L-DOPA (2.5 mM), Tris–HCl buffer (10 mM), pH 7.5 by plasma phenoloxidase activity of freshwater prawn
The PO activity of plasma was evaluated by performing oxidation of 2.5 mM L-DOPA in the presence of 10 mM Tris–HCl at a pH 7.5 and temperature 25°C at various incubation periods ranging from 5 to 30 min. The maximum PO activity was at 15 min, which was determined as the optimum incubation time (Figure 6).
Effect of incubation time on oxidation of L-DOPA (2.5 mM), Tris–HCl buffer (10 mM, pH 7.5) by plasma phenoloxidase activity of freshwater prawn
The kinetic characteristics of plasma PO activity were determined from the rate of the reaction, which was calculated from the oxidation of L-DOPA at different concentrations (1.0–10.0 mM) in 15 min. The Michaelis–Menten constant Km was calculated to be 0.75, and maximum velocity (Vmax) was found to be 0.58 as shown in Figure 7A. Application of Km and Vmax yielded Lineweaver-Burk plot with a line slope of 1.2, which on extrapolation intercepted at −1.3 that was plotted as −1/Km and on Y-axis 1/Vmax was derived at 1.7 on X-axis (Figure 7B).
(A) Kinetic properties of PO activity in plasma of
The hemocyanin was loaded on the Sephadex G-100 column for gel filtration chromatographic separation, and the purified
(A) Gel filtration chromatographic profile of hemocyanin sample was applied on to the pre-equilibrated column of Sephadex G-100. The elution was performed at a flow rate 15 ml.h−1. The fractions were continuously monitored for absorbance at 280 nm. (B) Electrophoretic analysis (PAGE—7%) of purified
The purified
PO activity of purified
Pretreatment of plasma or purified
(A) Phenoloxidase activity in plasma and (B) purified
In summary, for the plasma or purified
The hemocyanin showed phenoloxidase (PO) activity in
Biochemical studies were undertaken to describe the optimum condition of the plasma PO activity. The enzyme reaction was observed with different concentrations of L-DOPA. There was a steady increase in the enzyme activity from 1 mM to 2.5 mM concentration of L-DOPA after which an increase in substrate concentration did not enhance the enzyme activity proving substrate inhibition as the cause of the decline in enzyme activity. The previous reported substrate-specific phenoloxidase activity of hemocytes derived from
Since PO is an enzyme, its activity depends on the steady state of the active sites, which are necessary for substrate binding and subsequent activity. The optimum ionic interactions were studied by taking the plasma in different ionic strength of Tris–HCl buffer, and PO activity was determined. The optimum ionic strength of 10 mM Tris–HCl that showed highest PO activity was used as a buffer for the study. To continue on ionic interactions, the optimum pH of the buffer required for plasma PO activity was also determined. The optimum pH was observed at pH 7.5 (brown color formation of dopachrome), which was same as that of purified
Temperature is an important factor that can either enhance enzyme activity or decline it. As the enzyme is a protein catalyst, a steady state of an active site binding to substrate depends on the intactness of the active site, which can be disrupted by temperature. In the present study, the optimum temperature of plasma PO activity in
However, in different crustaceans, several authors found maximum activities of PO activity in a temperature range of 40–45°C [27, 35, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41] while reported maxima at 30°C and 55°C for shrimp
The enzyme kinetics of the plasma PO activity was determined using Michaelis–Menten curve by plotting various concentrations of L-DOPA (1–10 mM), and the rate of reaction was determined in 15 min (1/V). The initial rate of reaction increased up to a maximum reaction velocity after which it stabilized and then declined. The Km value determined for substrate enzyme affinity was 0.75 mM, and this suggested a strong affinity between the enzyme and L-DOPA and the Vmax was calculated as 0.58. Lineweaver-Burk plot showed a slope of 1.2 with a correlation coefficient of R2 = 0.996. This indicated that the enzyme had active sites to maintain a steady increase in the rate of reaction. The kinetic and biochemical characteristics of the plasma PO activity demonstrate a distinct PO activity among the crustaceans [27, 45].
Our study also included the determination of PO activity concerning substrate affinity and inhibition using the optimized conditions as determined in plasma for hemocyanin (325 kDa) separated from the hemolymph of
Comparative inhibition studies with the PTU and tropolone were made to confirm the PO activity in the plasma and purified
In the present study, we conclude that the immunological function of phenoloxidase observed in plasma and
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Not applicable.
I confirm that the manuscript, or its contents in some other form, has not been published previously by any of the authors and/or is not under consideration for publication in another journal at the time of submission.
Coomassie brilliant blue
3,4-dihydroxy-DL-phenylalanine
L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine
Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis
Phenoloxidase
prophenoloxidase
Phenylthiourea
Sodium dodecyl sulfate–polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis
Tris-buffered saline
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Conventional methods for the removal of metal ions such as chemical precipitation and membrane filtration are extremely expensive when treating large amounts of water, inefficient at low concentrations of metal (incomplete metal removal) and generate large quantities of sludge and other toxic products that require careful disposal. Biosorption and bioaccumulation are ecofriendly alternatives. These alternative methods have advantages over conventional methods. Abundant natural materials like microbial biomass, agro-wastes, and industrial byproducts have been suggested as potential biosorbents for heavy metal removal due to the presence of metal-binding functional groups. Biosorption is influenced by various process parameters such as pH, temperature, initial concentration of the metal ions, biosorbent dose, and speed of agitation. Also, the biomass can be modified by physical and chemical treatment before use. 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The recent developments and the future scope for biosorption as a wastewater treatment option are discussed.",book:{id:"6137",slug:"biosorption",title:"Biosorption",fullTitle:"Biosorption"},signatures:"Sri Lakshmi Ramya Krishna Kanamarlapudi, Vinay Kumar\nChintalpudi and Sudhamani Muddada",authors:[{id:"238433",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sudhamani",middleName:null,surname:"Muddada",slug:"sudhamani-muddada",fullName:"Sudhamani Muddada"},{id:"244937",title:"Mrs.",name:"S L Ramyakrishna",middleName:null,surname:"Kanamarlapudi",slug:"s-l-ramyakrishna-kanamarlapudi",fullName:"S L Ramyakrishna Kanamarlapudi"},{id:"244938",title:"Mr.",name:"Vinay Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Chintalpudi",slug:"vinay-kumar-chintalpudi",fullName:"Vinay Kumar Chintalpudi"}]},{id:"53211",doi:"10.5772/66416",title:"Biofloc Technology (BFT): A Tool for Water Quality Management in Aquaculture",slug:"biofloc-technology-bft-a-tool-for-water-quality-management-in-aquaculture",totalDownloads:16966,totalCrossrefCites:65,totalDimensionsCites:148,abstract:"Biofloc technology (BFT) is considered the new “blue revolution” in aquaculture. Such technique is based on in situ microorganism production which plays three major roles: (i) maintenance of water quality, by the uptake of nitrogen compounds generating in situ microbial protein; (ii) nutrition, increasing culture feasibility by reducing feed conversion ratio (FCR) and a decrease of feed costs; and (iii) competition with pathogens. The aggregates (bioflocs) are a rich protein-lipid natural source of food available in situ 24 hours per day due to a complex interaction between organic matter, physical substrate, and large range of microorganisms. This natural productivity plays an important role recycling nutrients and maintaining the water quality. The present chapter will discuss some insights of the role of microorganisms in BFT, main water quality parameters, the importance of the correct carbon-to-nitrogen ratio in the culture media, its calculations, and different types, as well as metagenomics of microorganisms and future perspectives.",book:{id:"5355",slug:"water-quality",title:"Water Quality",fullTitle:"Water Quality"},signatures:"Maurício Gustavo Coelho Emerenciano, Luis Rafael Martínez-\nCórdova, Marcel Martínez-Porchas and Anselmo Miranda-Baeza",authors:[{id:"146126",title:"Dr.",name:"Maurício Gustavo Coelho",middleName:null,surname:"Emerenciano",slug:"mauricio-gustavo-coelho-emerenciano",fullName:"Maurício Gustavo Coelho Emerenciano"},{id:"186970",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcel",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Porchas",slug:"marcel-martinez-porchas",fullName:"Marcel Martínez-Porchas"},{id:"186971",title:"Prof.",name:"Anselmo",middleName:null,surname:"Miranda-Baeza",slug:"anselmo-miranda-baeza",fullName:"Anselmo Miranda-Baeza"},{id:"195101",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis Rafael",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Córdoba",slug:"luis-rafael-martinez-cordoba",fullName:"Luis Rafael Martínez-Córdoba"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"69568",title:"Water Quality Parameters",slug:"water-quality-parameters",totalDownloads:10165,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:36,abstract:"Since the industrial revolution in the late eighteenth century, the world has discovered new sources of pollution nearly every day. So, air and water can potentially become polluted everywhere. Little is known about changes in pollution rates. The increase in water-related diseases provides a real assessment of the degree of pollution in the environment. This chapter summarizes water quality parameters from an ecological perspective not only for humans but also for other living things. According to its quality, water can be classified into four types. Those four water quality types are discussed through an extensive review of their important common attributes including physical, chemical, and biological parameters. These water quality parameters are reviewed in terms of definition, sources, impacts, effects, and measuring methods.",book:{id:"7718",slug:"water-quality-science-assessments-and-policy",title:"Water Quality",fullTitle:"Water Quality - Science, Assessments and Policy"},signatures:"Nayla Hassan Omer",authors:null},{id:"58138",title:"Water Pollution: Effects, Prevention, and Climatic Impact",slug:"water-pollution-effects-prevention-and-climatic-impact",totalDownloads:21554,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:38,abstract:"The stress on our water environment as a result of increased industrialization, which aids urbanization, is becoming very high thus reducing the availability of clean water. Polluted water is of great concern to the aquatic organism, plants, humans, and climate and indeed alters the ecosystem. The preservation of our water environment, which is embedded in sustainable development, must be well driven by all sectors. While effective wastewater treatment has the tendency of salvaging the water environment, integration of environmental policies into the actor firms core objectives coupled with continuous periodical enlightenment on the present and future consequences of environmental/water pollution will greatly assist in conserving the water environment.",book:{id:"6157",slug:"water-challenges-of-an-urbanizing-world",title:"Water Challenges of an Urbanizing World",fullTitle:"Water Challenges of an Urbanizing World"},signatures:"Inyinbor Adejumoke A., Adebesin Babatunde O., Oluyori Abimbola\nP., Adelani-Akande Tabitha A., Dada Adewumi O. and Oreofe Toyin\nA.",authors:[{id:"101570",title:"MSc.",name:"Babatunde Olufemi",middleName:null,surname:"Adebesin",slug:"babatunde-olufemi-adebesin",fullName:"Babatunde Olufemi Adebesin"},{id:"187738",title:"Dr.",name:"Adejumoke",middleName:"Abosede",surname:"Inyinbor",slug:"adejumoke-inyinbor",fullName:"Adejumoke Inyinbor"},{id:"188818",title:"Dr.",name:"Abimbola",middleName:null,surname:"Oluyori",slug:"abimbola-oluyori",fullName:"Abimbola Oluyori"},{id:"188819",title:"Mrs.",name:"Tabitha",middleName:null,surname:"Adelani-Akande",slug:"tabitha-adelani-akande",fullName:"Tabitha Adelani-Akande"},{id:"208501",title:"Dr.",name:"Adewumi",middleName:null,surname:"Dada",slug:"adewumi-dada",fullName:"Adewumi Dada"},{id:"208502",title:"Ms.",name:"Toyin",middleName:null,surname:"Oreofe",slug:"toyin-oreofe",fullName:"Toyin Oreofe"}]},{id:"45422",title:"Urban Waterfront Regenerations",slug:"urban-waterfront-regenerations",totalDownloads:14203,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:null,book:{id:"3560",slug:"advances-in-landscape-architecture",title:"Advances in Landscape Architecture",fullTitle:"Advances in Landscape Architecture"},signatures:"Umut Pekin Timur",authors:[{id:"165480",title:"Dr.",name:"Umut",middleName:null,surname:"Pekin Timur",slug:"umut-pekin-timur",fullName:"Umut Pekin Timur"}]},{id:"24941",title:"Tsunami in Makran Region and Its Effect on the Persian Gulf",slug:"tsunami-in-makran-region-and-its-effect-on-the-persian-gulf",totalDownloads:7575,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"406",slug:"tsunami-a-growing-disaster",title:"Tsunami",fullTitle:"Tsunami - A Growing Disaster"},signatures:"Mohammad Mokhtari",authors:[{id:"52451",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Mokhtari",slug:"mohammad-mokhtari",fullName:"Mohammad Mokhtari"}]},{id:"66307",title:"Bio-hydrogen and Methane Production from Lignocellulosic Materials",slug:"bio-hydrogen-and-methane-production-from-lignocellulosic-materials",totalDownloads:2953,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"This chapter covers the information on bio-hydrogen and methane production from lignocellulosic materials. Pretreatment methods of lignocellulosic materials and the factors affecting bio-hydrogen production, both dark- and photo-fermentation, and methane production are addressed. Last but not least, the processes for bio-hydrogen and methane production from lignocellulosic materials are discussed.",book:{id:"7608",slug:"biomass-for-bioenergy-recent-trends-and-future-challenges",title:"Biomass for Bioenergy",fullTitle:"Biomass for Bioenergy - Recent Trends and Future Challenges"},signatures:"Apilak Salakkam, Pensri Plangklang, Sureewan Sittijunda, Mallika Boonmee Kongkeitkajorn, Siriporn Lunprom and Alissara Reungsang",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"12",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82465",title:"Agroforestry: An Approach for Sustainability and Climate Mitigation",slug:"agroforestry-an-approach-for-sustainability-and-climate-mitigation",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105406",abstract:"Agroforestry Systems (AFS), or the association of trees with crops (or animals), is a strategy for land management and use that allows production within the sustainable development: (a) environmentally (production environmentally harmonic); (b) technically (integrating existing resources on the farm); (c) economically (increase in production), and (d) socially (equality of duties and opportunities, quality of life of the family group). As an intentional integration of trees or shrubs with crop and animal production, this practice makes environmental, economic, and social benefits to farmers. Given that there is a set of definitions, rather than a single definition of Agroforestry (AF) and AFS, it is justified to explore the historical evolution and the minimum coincidences of criteria to define them and apply them in the recovery of degraded areas. Knowing how to classify AFS allows us to indicate which type or group of AFS is suitable for a particular area with its characteristics. The greatest benefit that AFS can bring to degraded or sloping areas lies in their ability to combine soil conservation with productive functions. In other words, AF is arborizing agriculture and animal production to obtain more benefits including climate change adaptation and mitigation by ecosystem services.",book:{id:"11663",title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg"},signatures:"Ricardo O. Russo"},{id:"82754",title:"Impact of Revegetation on Ecological Restoration of a Constructed Soil in a Coal Mining in Southern Brazil",slug:"impact-of-revegetation-on-ecological-restoration-of-a-constructed-soil-in-a-coal-mining-in-southern-",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105895",abstract:"The main problems in the constructed soils are the generation of acid mine drainage promoted by the presence of coal debris in the overburden layer and the compaction of the topsoil promoted by the machine traffic when the material used in the overburden cover is more clayey. This book chapter aimed to show an overview of the impact of more than a decade of revegetation with different perennial grasses on the chemical, physical, and biological quality of constructed soil after coal mining. The study was carried out in a coal mining area, located in southern Brazil. The soil was constructed in early 2003 and the perennial grasses, Hemarthria altissima; Paspalum notatum cv. Pensacola; Cynodon dactylon cv Tifton; and Urochloa brizantha; were implanted in November/December 2003. In 11.5, 17.6 and 18 years of revegetation soil samples were collected and the chemical, physical, and biological attributes were determined. Our results show that liming is an important practice in the restoration of these strongly anthropized soils because this positively impacts the plants’ development, facilitating the roots system expansion. Biological attributes such as soil fauna and the microorganism’s population are the attributes that possibly takes longer to establish itself in these areas.",book:{id:"11663",title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg"},signatures:"Lizete Stumpf, Maria Bertaso De Garcia Fernandez, Pablo Miguel, Luiz Fernando Spinelli Pinto, Ryan Noremberg Schubert, Luís Carlos Iuñes de Oliveira Filho, Tania Hipolito Montiel, Lucas Da Silva Barbosa, Jeferson Diego Leidemer and Thábata Barbosa Duarte"},{id:"82936",title:"Soil Degradation Processes Linked to Long-Term Forest-Type Damage",slug:"soil-degradation-processes-linked-to-long-term-forest-type-damage",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106390",abstract:"Forest degradation impairs ability of the whole landscape adaptation to environmental change. The impacts of forest degradation on landscape are caused by a self-organization decline. At the present time, the self-organization decline was largely due to nitrogen deposition and deforestation which exacerbated impacts of climate change. Nevertheless, forest degradation processes are either reversible or irreversible. Irreversible forest degradation begins with soil damage. In this paper, we present processes of forest soil degradation in relation to vulnerability of regulation adaptability on global environmental change. The regulatory forest capabilities were indicated through soil organic matter sequestration dynamics. We devided the degradation processes into quantitative and qualitative damages of physical or chemical soil properties. Quantitative soil degradation includes irreversible loss of an earth’s body after claim, erosion or desertification, while qualitative degradation consists of predominantly reversible consequences after soil disintegration, leaching, acidification, salinization and intoxication. As a result of deforestation, the forest soil vulnerability is spreading through quantitative degradation replacing hitherto predominantly qualitative changes under continuous vegetation cover. Increasing needs to natural resources using and accompanying waste pollution destroy soil self-organization through biodiversity loss, simplification in functional links among living forms and substance losses from ecosystem. We concluded that subsequent irreversible changes in ecosystem self-organization cause a change of biome potential natural vegetation and the land usability decrease.",book:{id:"11457",title:"Forest Degradation Under Global Change",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11457.jpg"},signatures:"Pavel Samec, Aleš Kučera and Gabriela Tomášová"},{id:"82828",title:"Vegetation and Avifauna Distribution in the Serengeti National Park",slug:"vegetation-and-avifauna-distribution-in-the-serengeti-national-park",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106165",abstract:"In order to examine the bird species changes within different vegetation structures, the variations were compared between Commiphora-dominated vegetations with those of Vachellia tortilis and Vachellia robusta-dominated vegetations, and also compared the birds of grassland with those of Vachellia drepanolobium and Vachellia seyal-dominated vegetations. This study was conducted between February 2010 and April 2012. A total of 40 plots of 100 m × 100 m were established. Nonparametric Mann-Whitney U-test was used to examine differences in bird species between vegetations. Species richness estimates were obtained using the Species Diversity and Richness. A total of 171 bird species representing 103 genera, 12 orders, and 54 families were recorded. We found differences in bird species distribution whereby V. tortilis has higher bird species richness (102 species), abundance, and diversity when compared with Commiphora with 66 species and V. robusta with 59 species. These results suggest that variations in bird species abundance, diversity, and distribution could be attributed to differences in the structural diversity of vegetation. Therefore it is important to maintain different types of vegetation by keeping the frequency of fire to a minimum and prescribed fire should be employed and encouraged to control wildfire and so maintain a diversity of vegetation and birds community.",book:{id:"11663",title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg"},signatures:"Ally K. Nkwabi and Pius Y. Kavana"},{id:"82808",title:"Climate Change and Anthropogenic Impacts on the Ecosystem of the Transgressive Mud Coastal Region of Bight of Benin, Nigeria",slug:"climate-change-and-anthropogenic-impacts-on-the-ecosystem-of-the-transgressive-mud-coastal-region-of",totalDownloads:8,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105760",abstract:"The transgressive mud coastal area of Bight of Benin is a muddy coastal complex that lies east of the Barrier/lagoon coast and stretches to the Benin River in the northwestern flank of the Niger Delta Nigeria. It constitutes a fragile buffer zone between the tranquil waters of the swamps and the menacing waves of the Atlantic Ocean. Extensive breaching of this narrow coastal plain results in massive incursion of the sea into the inland swamps with serious implications for national security and the economy. Climate change impacts from the results of meteorological information of the regions shows a gradual degradation in the past 30 years. Temperature, rainfall and humidity increase annually depict climate change, resulting from uncontrolled exploitation of natural resources is rapidly pushing the region towards ecological disasters. The ecosystem is very unique being the only transgressive mud coastal area of the Gulf of Guinea. The chapter describes the geomorphology, tidal hydrology, relief/drainage, topography, climate/meteorology, vegetation, economic characteristics, anthropogenic activities and their impacts on the ecosystem.",book:{id:"11663",title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg"},signatures:"Patrick O. Ayeku"},{id:"82697",title:"Analyzing the Evolution of Land-Use Changes Related to Vegetation, in the Galicia Region, Spain: From 1990 to 2018",slug:"analyzing-the-evolution-of-land-use-changes-related-to-vegetation-in-the-galicia-region-spain-from-1",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106015",abstract:"Considering the complex dynamics, patterns, and particularities that the Galicia region present—e.g., the fragility, shown to achieve sustainable development and growth—a study that analyzes the Land-Use related to the vegetation of this region is seen as pivotal to identifying barriers and opportunities for long-term sustainable development. Using GIS (Geographic Information Systems), the present chapter enables us to identify the dynamics and patterns of the evolution of the Land-Use Changes related to vegetation in the Galicia Region from 1990 to 2018 (years 1990, 2000, 2012, and 2018 using CORINE (Coordination of Information on the Environment) data). This study permits us to reinforce that the Land-Use Changes related to vegetation in the Galicia Region have undergone multiple changes—marked by increasing and decreasing periods. Also, can be considered a surveying baseline for the comparative analysis of similar works for different Land-Use Changes related to vegetation trends in Europe or worldwide. Land-Use Changes related to vegetation studies are reliable tools to evaluate the human activities and footprint of proposed strategies and policies in a territory. This chapter also enables us to understand that the main actors should design development policies to protect, preserve and conserve these incomparable landscapes, environments, ecosystems, and the region as a whole.",book:{id:"11663",title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg"},signatures:"Sérgio Lousada and José Manuel Naranjo Gómez"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:77},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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\r\n\tThis topic aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the latest trends in Oral Health based on recent scientific evidence. Subjects will include an overview of oral diseases and infections, systemic diseases affecting the oral cavity, prevention, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, as well as current clinical recommendations for the management of oral, dental, and periodontal diseases.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/1.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11397,editor:{id:"173955",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Marinho",slug:"sandra-marinho",fullName:"Sandra Marinho",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGYMQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-06-01T13:22:41.png",biography:"Dr. Sandra A. Marinho is an Associate Professor and Brazilian researcher at the State University of Paraíba (Universidade Estadual da Paraíba- UEPB), Campus VIII, located in Araruna, state of Paraíba since 2011. She holds a degree in Dentistry from the Federal University of Alfenas (UNIFAL), while her specialization and professional improvement in Stomatology took place at Hospital Heliopolis (São Paulo, SP). Her qualifications are: a specialist in Dental Imaging and Radiology, Master in Dentistry (Periodontics) from the University of São Paulo (FORP-USP, Ribeirão Preto, SP), and Doctor (Ph.D.) in Dentistry (Stomatology Clinic) from Hospital São Lucas of the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul (HSL-PUCRS, Porto Alegre, RS). She held a postdoctoral internship at the Federal University from Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys (UFVJM, Diamantina, MG). She is currently a member of the Brazilian Society for Dental Research (SBPqO) and the Brazilian Society of Stomatology and Pathology (SOBEP). 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We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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