The advantages and disadvantages of anaerobic treatment compared to aerobic treatment [1].
\r\n\tFourth, the effects of digitalization on economic and sustainable development and the benefits of digitization for public services, including e-governance, e-payments, e-democracy, e-health, e-learning, e-payments, and so on, are also presented.
\r\n\r\n\tAt the fifth stage, we will try to highlight the imperative role of blockchain technology, artificial intelligence, and machine learning in the digitization process.
\r\n\r\n\tLast but not least, the main threats of a digital economy are presented under the form of cybercrime and “surveillance capitalism”, including the impact of financial crimes referring to card frauds, online frauds, digital frauds, digital shadow economy, black market, money laundering, etc.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"45ca4a969c50d02d2bab6894218c7ef8",bookSignature:"Prof. Monica Violeta Achim and Dr. Nawazish Mirza",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10918.jpg",keywords:"Definition, Digital Transactions, Innovative Financial Services, Cryptocurrency, E-governance, E-payments, Spiral Transformation of Knowledge, Financial Education, Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, Money Laundering Surveillance Capitalism Economy, the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR)",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 25th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 17th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 16th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 4th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 5th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"9 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"In February 2020, Ph.D. Achim won the Prize for Excellence in Scientific Research, at Babeș-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania. Since 2020, she became a member of the Romanian Ministery of Education and Research, as a representative in the panel of Economic Sciences.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Prof.Mirza obtained a Ph.D. from the University of Paris Dauphine and has over 18 years of research, teaching, and consulting experience across Western Europe, Middle East, Asia Pacific, and Australia.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"236659",title:"Prof.",name:"Monica Violeta",middleName:null,surname:"Achim",slug:"monica-violeta-achim",fullName:"Monica Violeta Achim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/236659/images/system/236659.jpg",biography:"Monica Violeta Achim is is currently full professor and doctoral supervisor in the field of Finance at the Faculty of Economic Sciences and Business Administration, Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca. She teaches the disciplines 'Diagnosis and Financial Analysis”, 'Financial analysis in banks” and 'Economic and financial crime” at the same faculty. She has many research concerns in the area of financial analysis, business performances, corporate governance, economic and financial crimes and public finance. With over 22 years of experience in academia, she has published as author and co-author, over 130 scientific articles and 25 books. Among the main targeted top journals, the following can be mentioned: The European Journal of Health Economics, Technological and Economic Development of Economy, Population Health Management, Social Indicators Research, Apply Research in Quality Life, Journal of Business Economics and Management, E+M Ekonomie and Management, Economic Research-Ekonomska Istraživanja, Sustainability, Entrepreneurship Research Journal, Singapore Economic Review. Her most recent reference work is the book Economic and financial crime. Corruption, Shadow economy and Money laundering, published as co-authored at Springer. She is also reviewer and board member for many international journals.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Babeș-Bolyai University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"420517",title:"Dr.",name:"Nawazish",middleName:null,surname:"Mirza",slug:"nawazish-mirza",fullName:"Nawazish Mirza",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000039UrYIQA0/Profile_Picture_1622035121865",biography:"Nawazish Mirza is a professor of finance at the Excelia Business School, La Rochelle, France. He obtained a Ph.D. from the University of Paris Dauphine and has over 18 years of research, teaching, and consulting experience across Western Europe, Middle East, Asia Pacific, and Australia. His research interests include financial technology, credit ratings, risk management, financial intermediation, and valuations. He has extensive professional and consulting experience in credit ratings, investment banking, and the valuation of new technologies. His recent research has been published in the Resources Policy, Journal of Environmental Management, International Review of Economics and Finance, Economic Modelling, Pacific-Basin Finance, Technology, and Social Forecasting, Finance Research Letters, among others. He is associate editor of the Journal of Economic and Administrative Sciences and Economic Research. He is guest editor of Climate Change Economics.",institutionString:"Excelia Business School",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"7",title:"Business, Management and Economics",slug:"business-management-and-economics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"418641",firstName:"Iva",lastName:"Ribic",middleName:null,title:"M.Sc.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418641/images/16830_n.png",email:"iva.r@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"49024",title:"Biological and Chemical Wastewater Treatment Processes",doi:"10.5772/61250",slug:"biological-and-chemical-wastewater-treatment-processes",body:'The chapter concerns with wastewater treatment engineering, with focus on the biological and chemical treatment processes. It aims at providing a brief and obvious description of the treatment methods, designs, schematics, and specifications. The chapter also answers an important question on how the different processes are interrelated and the correct order of these processes in relation to each other. The main objective of this work was to summarize the work of the eminent scientists in this field in order to provide a clear but concise chapter that can be used as a quick reference for environmental engineers and researchers, and to be effectively implemented in higher education teaching undergraduate and graduate students, as well as extension and outreach.
The chapter describes the biological and chemical wastewater treatment processes that include:
Bioremediation of wastewater using oxidation ponds, aeration lagoons, anaerobic lagoons, aerobic and anaerobic bioreactors, activated sludge, percolating or trickling filters, biological filters, rotating biological contactors, and biological removal of nutrients;
Mycoremediation of wastewater using bioreactors;
Phytoremediation of wastewater that includes: constructed wetlands, rhizofiltration, rhizodegradation, phytodegradation, phytoaccumulation, phytotransformation, and hyperaccumulators;
Vermifiltration and vermicomposting;
Microbial fuel cells for electricity production from wastewater;
Chemical wastewater treatment processes that include: chemical precipitation, ion exchange, neutralization, adsorption and disinfection (chlorination/dechlorination, ozone, ultraviolet radiation);
Wastewater treatment plants. The chapter elucidates and illustrates the plant sizing, plant layout, plant design, and plant location.
Wastewater, or sewage, originates from human and home wastewaters, industrial wastes, animal wastes, rain runoff, and groundwater infiltration. Generally, wastewater is the flow of used water from a neighborhood. The wastewater consists of 99.9% water by weight, where the remaining 0.1% is suspended or dissolved material. This solid material is a mixture of excrements, detergents, food leftovers, grease, oils, salts, plastics, heavy metals, sands, and grits [1, 2]. Types of wastewaters include: municipal wastewater, industrial wastewaters, mixtures of industrial/domestic wastewaters, and agricultural wastewaters. Typical agricultural industries include: dairy processing industries, meat processing factories, juice and beverage industries, slaughterhouses, vegetable processing facilities, rendering plants, and drainage water of irrigation systems.
Subsequent to primary treatment of wastewater, i.e., physical treatment of wastewater, it still contains large amounts of dissolved and colloidal material that must be removed before discharge. The issue is how to transform the dissolved materials or particulate matters that are too little for sedimentation into larger particles to allow the separation processes to eliminate them. This can be accomplished by secondary treatment, i.e., biological treatment. The treatment of wastewater subsequent to the removal of suspended solids by microorganisms such as algae, fungi, or bacteria under aerobic or anaerobic conditions during which organic matter in wastewater is oxidized or incorporated into cells that can be eliminated by removal process or sedimentation is termed biological treatment. Biological treatment is termed secondary treatment. Chemical treatment, or tertiary treatment, using chemical materials will react with a portion of the undesired chemicals and heavy metals, but a portion of the polluting material will remain unaffected. Additionally, the cost of chemical additives and the environmental problem of disposing large amounts of chemical sludge make this treatment process deficient [1]. Alternatively, the biological treatment must be implemented. This treatment process implements naturally occurring microorganisms to transform the dissolved organic matter into a dense biomass that can be separated from the treated wastewater by the sedimentation process. In fact, the microorganisms utilize the dissolved organic matter as food for themselves, where the generated sludge will be far less for chemical treatment. In practice, therefore, secondary treatment tends to be a biological process with chemical treatment implemented for the removal of toxic compounds.
The goals of treating the wastewaters are:
Transforming the materials available in the wastewater into secure end products that are able to be safely disposed off into domestic water devoid of any negative environmental effects;
Protecting public health;
Ensuring that wastewaters are efficiently handled on a trustworthy basis without annoyance or offense;
Recycling and recovering the valuable components available in wastewaters;
Affording feasible treatment processes and disposal techniques;
Complying with the legislations, acts and legal standards, and approval conditions of discharge and disposal.
The secondary treatment can be defined as “treatment of wastewater by a process involving biological treatment with a secondary sedimentation”. In other words, the secondary treatment is a biological process. The settled wastewater is introduced into a specially designed bioreactor where under aerobic or anaerobic conditions the organic matter is utilized by microorganisms such as bacteria (aerobically or anaerobically), algae, and fungi (aerobically). The bioreactor affords appropriate bioenvironmental conditions for the microorganisms to reproduce and use the dissolved organic matter as energy for themselves. Provided that oxygen and food, in the form of settled wastewater, are supplied to the microorganisms, the biological oxidation process of dissolved organic matter will be maintained. The biological process is mostly carried out bacteria that form the basic trophic level (the level of an organism is the position it occupies in a food chain) of the food chain inside the bioreactor. The bioconversion of dissolved organic matter into thick bacterial biomass can fundamentally purify the wastewater. Subsequently, it is crucial to separate the microbial biomass from the treated wastewater though sedimentation. This secondary sedimentation is basically similar to primary sedimentation except that the sludge contains bacterial cells rather than fecal solids. The biological removal of organic matter from settled wastewater is conducted by microorganisms, mainly heterotrophic bacteria but also occasionally fungi. The microorganisms are able to decompose the organic matter through two different biological processes: biological oxidation and biosynthesis [1]. The biological oxidation forms some end-products, such as minerals, that remain in the solution and are discharged with the effluent (Eq. 1). The biosynthesis transforms the colloidal and dissolved organic matter into new cells that form in turn the dense biomass that can be then removed by sedimentation (Eq. 2). Figure 1 summarizes these processes. On the other hand, algal photosynthesis plays an important role in some cases (Figure 2).
The following terms are the most used in biological treatment processes [2]:
DO: Dissolved Oxygen (mg L-1)
BOD: Biochemical Oxygen Demand (mg L-1)
BOD5: BOD (mg L-1), incubation at 15°C for 5 days
COD: Chemical Oxygen Demand (mg L-1)
CBOD: Carbonaceous BOD (mg L-1)
NBOD: Nitrogenous (mg L-1)
SOD: Sediment Oxygen Demand (mg L-1)
TBOD: Total BOD (mg L-1)
Biological synthesis and oxidation [
Photosynthesis and oxidation [
In early wastewater treatment technologies, chemical treatment has preceded biological treatment. Recently, the biological treatment precedes chemical treatment in the treatment process. Chemical treatment is now considered as a tertiary treatment that can be more broadly defined as “treatment of wastewater by a process involving chemical treatment”. The mostly implemented chemical treatment processes are: chemical precipitation, neutralization, adsorption, disinfection (chlorine, ozone, ultraviolet light), and ion exchange.
The biological growth can be described according to the Monod equation:
Where,
Generally, the bacterial growth can be explained by the following simplified figure:
Several bioenvironmental factors affect the activity of bacteria and the rate of biochemical reactions. The most important factors are: temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, nutrient concentration, and toxic materials. All these factors can be controlled within a biological treatment system and/or a bioreactor in order to ensure that the microbial growth is maintained under optimum bioenvironmental conditions. The majority of biological treatment systems operate in the mesophilic temperature range, where the optimal temperature ranges from 20°C to 40°C. Aeration tanks and percolating filters operate at the temperature of the wastewater that ranges from 12°C to 25°C; although in percolating filters, the air temperature and the ventilation rate may have a significant effect on heat loss. The higher temperatures increase the biological activity and metabolism, which result in increasing the substrate removal rate. However, the increased metabolism at the higher temperatures may lead to problems of oxygen limitations.
The bacterial kinetics can be shown in Figures 3 and 4. The microbial growth curve that shows bacterial density and specific growth rate at the different growth phases is shown in Figure 3. The microbial growth curves that compare the total biomass and the variable biomass are shown in Figure 4.
Microbial growth curve [
Microbial growth curves [
The principles of biological treatment of wastewater were stated by [3]. The following is a summary of the principles:
The biological systems are very sensitive for extreme variations in hydraulic loads. Diurnal variations of greater than 250% are problematic because they will create biomass loss in the clarifiers.
The growth rate of microorganisms is highly dependent on temperature. A 10°C reduction in wastewater temperature dramatically decreases the biological reaction rates to half.
BOD is efficiently treated in the range of 60 to 500 mg L-1. Wastewaters in excess of 500 mg L-1 BODs have been treated successfully if sufficient dilution is applied in the treatment process, or if an anaerobic process was implemented as a pretreatment process.
The biological treatment is effective in removing up to 95% of the BOD. Large tanks are required in order to eliminate the entire BOD, which is not feasible.
The biological treatment systems are unable to handle “shock loads” efficiently. Equalization is necessary if the variation in strength of the wastewater is more than 150% or if that wastewater at its peak concentration is in excess of 1,000 mg L-1 BOD.
The carbon:nitrogen:phosphorus (C:N:P) ratio of wastewater is usually ideal. The C:N:P ratio of industrial wastewaters should range from 100:20:1 to 100:5:1 for a most advantageous biological process.
If the C:N:P ratio of the wastewater is strong in an element in comparison to the other elements, then poor treatment will result. This is especially true if the wastewater is very strong in carbon. The wastewater should also be neither very weak nor very strong in an element; although very weak is acceptable, it is difficult to treat.
Oils and solids cannot be handled in a biological treatment system because they negatively affect the treatment process. These wastes should be pretreated to remove solids and oils.
Toxic and biological-resistant materials require special consideration and may require pretreatment before being introduced into a biological treatment system.
Although the capacity of the wastewater to utilize oxygen is unlimited, the capacity of any aeration system is limited in terms of oxygen transfer.
Bioremediation is a treatment process that involves the implementation of microorganisms to remove pollutants from a contaminated setting. Bioremediation can be defined as “treatment that implements natural organisms to decompose hazardous materials into less toxic or nontoxic materials”. Some examples of bioremediation-related technologies are phytoremediation, bioaugmentation, rhizofiltration, and biostimulation. The microorganisms implemented to carry out the bioremediation are called bioremediators. However, some pollutants are not easily removed or decomposed by bioremediation. For example, heavy metals such as lead and cadmium are not eagerly captured by bioremediators. Example of bioremediation: fish bone char has been shown to bioremediate small amounts of cadmium, copper, and zinc.
The bioremediation of wastewater can be achieved by autotrophs or heterotrophs. A heterotroph is an organism that is unable to fix carbon and utilizes organic carbon for its growth. Heterotrophs are divided based on their source of energy. If the heterotroph utilizes light as its source of energy, then it is considered a photoheterotroph. If the heterotroph utilizes organic and/or inorganic compounds as energy sources, it is then considered a chemoheterotroph. Autotrophs, such as plants and algae, that are able to utilize energy from sunlight are called photoautotrophs. Autotrophs that utilize inorganic compounds to produce organic compounds such as carbohydrates, fats, and proteins from inorganic carbon dioxide are called lithoautotrophs. These reduced carbon compounds can be utilized as energy sources by autotrophs and provide the energy in food consumed by heterotrophs. Over 95% of all organisms are heterotrophic.
Aeration has been used to remove trace organic volatile compounds (VOCs) in water. It has also been employed to transfer a substance, such as oxygen, from air or a gas phase into water in a process called “gas adsorption” or “oxidation”, i.e., to oxidize iron and/or manganese. Aeration also provides the escape of dissolved gases, such as CO2 and H2S. Air stripping has been also utilized effectively to remove NH3 from wastewater and to remove volatile tastes and other such substances in water [2]. Samer [4] and Samer et al. [5] mentioned that aerobic treatment with biowastes is effective in reducing harmful gaseous emissions as greenhouse gases (CH4 and N2O) and ammonia.
Oxidation ponds (Figure 5) are aerobic systems where the oxygen required by the heterotrophic bacteria (a heterotroph is an organism that cannot fix carbon and uses organic carbon for growth) is provided not only by transfer from the atmosphere but also by photosynthetic algae. The algae are restricted to the euphotic zone (sunlight zone), which is often only a few centimeters deep. Ponds are constructed to a depth of between 1.2 and 1.8 m to ensure maximum penetration of sunlight, and appear dark green in color due to dense algal development. Samer [6] and Samer et al. [7] illustrated the structures and constructions of the aerobic treatment tanks and the used building materials.
Aerobic system/oxidation pond [
In oxidation ponds, the algae use the inorganic compounds (N, P, CO2) released by aerobic bacteria for growth using sunlight for energy. They release oxygen into the solution that in turn is utilized by the bacteria, completing the symbiotic cycle. There are two distinct zones in facultative ponds: the upper aerobic zone where bacterial (facultative) activity occurs and a lower anaerobic zone where solids settle out of suspension to form a sludge that is degraded anaerobically.
Aeration lagoons are profound (3–4 m) compared to oxidation ponds, where oxygen is provided by aerators but not by the photosynthetic activity of algae as in the oxidation ponds. The aerators keep the microbial biomass suspended and provide sufficient dissolved oxygen that allows maximal aerobic activity. On the other hand, bubble aeration is commonly used where the bubbles are generated by compressed air pumped through plastic tubing laid through the base of the lagoon. A predominately bacterial biomass develops and, whereas there is neither sedimentation nor sludge return, this procedure counts on adequate mixed liquor formed in the tank/lagoon. Therefore, the aeration lagoons are suitable for strong but degradable wastewater such as wastewaters of food industries. The hydraulic retention time (HRT) ranges from 3 to 8 days based on treatment level, strength, and temperature of the influent. Generally, HRT of about 5 days at 20°C achieves 85% removal of BOD in household wastewater. However, if the temperature falls by 10°C, then the BOD removal will decrease to 65% [1].
The anaerobic treatments are implemented to treat wastewaters rich in biodegradable organic matter (BOD >500 mg L-1) and for further treatment of sedimentation sludges. Strong organic wastewaters containing large amounts of biodegradable materials are discharged mainly by agricultural and food processing industries. These wastewaters are difficult to be treated aerobically due to the troubles and expenses of fulfillment of the elevated oxygen demand to preserve the aerobic conditions [1]. In contrast, anaerobic degradation occurs in the absence of oxygen. Although the anaerobic treatment is time-consuming, it has a multitude of advantages in treating strong organic wastewaters. These advantages include elevated levels of purification, aptitude to handle high organic loads, generating small amounts of sludges that are usually very stable, and production of methane (inert combustible gas) as end-product.
Anaerobic digestion is a complex multistep process in terms of chemistry and microbiology. Organic materials are degraded into basic constituents, finally to methane gas under the absence of an electron acceptor such as oxygen [8]. The basic metabolic pathway of anaerobic digestion is shown in Figures 6 and 7. To achieve this pathway, the presence of very different and closely dependent microbial population is required.
Steps of the anaerobic digestion process [
Major steps in anaerobic decomposition [
Suitable wastewaters include livestock manure, food processing effluents, petroleum wastes (if the toxicity is controlled), and canning and dyestuff wastes where soluble organic matters are implemented in the treatment. Most anaerobic processes (solids fermentation) occur in two predetermined temperature ranges: mesophilic or thermophilic. The temperature ranges are 30–38oC and 38–50oC, respectively [3]. In contrast to aerobic systems, absolute stabilization of organic matter is not achievable under anaerobic conditions. Therefore, subsequent aerobic treatment of the anaerobic effluents is usually essential. The final waste matter discharged by the anaerobic treatment includes solubilized organic matter that is acquiescent to aerobic treatment demonstrating the possibility of installing collective anaerobic and aerobic units in series [1].
Samer [9] elucidated and illustrated the structures and constructions of the anaerobic digesters and the used building materials. Samer [10] developed an expert system for planning and designing biogas plants. Figures 8 to 13 show different types of anaerobic digesters. While Figures 14 and 15 show some industrial applications. Table 1 shows the advantages and disadvantages of anaerobic treatment compared to aerobic treatment.
Most commonly used anaerobic reactor types: (A) Completely mixed anaerobic digester, (B) UASB reactor, (C) AFB or EGSB reactor, and (D) Upflow AF [
Single-stage conventional anaerobic digester [
Dual-stage high rate digester [
Schematic representation of digester types. Flow-through (A–B) and contact systems (C–F) [
The upper scheme shows a two-stage anaerobic sludge digester, while the lower scheme shows the conventional sludge digestion plant [
Primary digestion tank with screw mixing pump and external heater [
Wastewater treatment plant for corn processing industry [
Mass balance study for a wastewater treatment plant of the baker’s yeast industry [
By definition, the anaerobic treatment is conducted without oxygen. It is different from an anoxic process, which is a reduced environment in contrast to an environment without oxygen. Both processes are anoxic, but anaerobic is an environment beyond anoxic where the oxidation reduction potential (ORP) values are highly negative. In the anaerobic process, nitrate is reduced to ammonia and nitrogen gas, and sulfate (SO32-) is reduced to hydrogen sulfide (H2S). Phosphate is also reduced because it is often transformed through the ADP–ATP chain [3].
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
The advantages and disadvantages of anaerobic treatment compared to aerobic treatment [1].
An anaerobic lagoon is a deep lagoon, fundamentally without dissolved oxygen, that enforces anaerobic conditions. The anaerobic process occurs in deep ground ponds, and such basins are implemented for anaerobic pretreatment. The anaerobic lagoons are not aerated, heated, or mixed. The depth of an anaerobic lagoon should be typically deeper than 2.5 m, where deeper lagoons are more efficient. Such depths diminish the amount of oxygen diffused from the surface, allowing anaerobic conditions to prevail (U.S. EPA, 2002). Figures 16 to 18 show different types of anaerobic lagoons.
Anaerobic lagoon for strong wastewater treatment, such as meat processing wastewater [
Schematic of volume fractions in anaerobic lagoon design [
Anaerobic wastewater treatment lagoon [
A bioreactor can be defined as “engineered or manufactured apparatus or system that controls the embraced or encompassed bioenvironment”. Precisely, the bioreactor is a vessel in which a biochemical process is conducted, where it involves microorganisms (e.g., bacteria, algae, fungi) or biochemical substances (e.g., enzymes) derived from such microorganisms. The treatment can be conducted under either aerobic or anaerobic conditions. The bioreactors are commonly made of stainless steel, usually cylindrical in shape and range in size from liters to cubic meters. The bioreactors are classified as batch, plug, or continuous flow reactors (e.g., continuous stirred-tank bioreactor).
Mycoremediation is a type of bioremediation where fungi are implemented to break down the contaminants. The term “mycoremediation” refers particularly to the implementation of fungal “mycelia” in bioremediation. The principal role of fungi in the ecological system is the breakdown of pollutants, which is performed by the mycelium. The mycelium, the vegetative part of a fungus, secretes enzymes and acids that biodegrade lignin and cellulose that are the main components of vegetative fibers. Lignin and cellulose are organic compounds composed of long chains of carbon and hydrogen, and therefore they are structurally similar to several organic pollutants. One key issue is specifying the right fungus to break down a determined pollutant. Similarly, mycofiltration is a process that uses fungal mycelia to filter toxic compounds from wastewater. In an experiment, wastewater contaminated with diesel oil was inoculated with mycelia of oyster mushrooms. One month later, more than 93% of many of the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) had been reduced to non-toxic components in the mycelial-inoculated samples. The natural microbial community participates with the fungi to break down contaminants, eventually into CO2 and H2O. Wood-degrading fungi are particularly effective in breaking down aromatic pollutants (toxic components of petroleum), as well as chlorinated compounds (certain persistent pesticides). Figures 19 to 22 show different types and designs of bioreactors.
A bioreactor for fungal degradation: trickle bed bioreactor [
A bioreactor for fungal degradation: rotating disc bioreactor [
Fluidized bed bioreactor [
Typical design of fluidized bed reactor system [
The activated sludge process is based on a mixture of thick bacterial population suspended in the wastewater under aerobic conditions. With unlimited nutrients and oxygen, high rates of bacterial growth and respiration can be attained, which results in the consumption of the available organic matter to either oxidized end-products (e.g., CO2, NO3-, SO42-, and PO43-) or biosynthesis of new microorganisms. The activated sludge process is based on five interdependent elements, which are: bioreactor, activated sludge, aeration and mixing system, sedimentation tank, and returned sludge [1]. The biological process using activated sludge is a commonly used method for the treatment of wastewater, where the running costs are inexpensive (Figure 23). However, a huge quantity of surplus sludge is produced in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) which is an enormous burden in both economical and environmental aspects. The excess sludge contains a lot of moisture and is not easy to treat. The byproducts of WWTPs are dewatered, dried, and finally burnt into ashes. Some are used in farm lands as compost fertilizer [15]. However, it is suggested that the dried byproducts of WWTPs are fed into the pyrolysis process rather than the burning process.
The sludge volume index (SVI) is an estimation that specifies the tendency of aerated solids, i.e., activated sludge solids, to become dense or concentrated through the thickening process. SVI can be computed as follows: (a) allowing a mixed liquor sample from the aeration tank to sediment in 30 min; (b) determining the concentration of the suspended solids for a sample of the same mixed liquor; (c) SVI is then computed as ratio of the measured wet volume (mL/L) of the settled sludge to the dry weight concentration of MLSS in g/L (Source: Office of Water Programs, Sacramento State, USA).
During the treatment of wastewater in aeration tanks through the activated sludge process (Table 2) there are suspended solids, where the concentration of the suspended solids is termed as mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS), which is measured in milligrams per liter (mg L-1). Mixed liquor is a mixture of raw wastewater and activated sludge in an aeration tank. MLSS consists mainly of microorganisms and non-biodegradable suspended solids. MLSS is the effective and active portion of the activated sludge process that ensures that there is adequate quantity of viable biomass available to degrade the supplied quantity of organic pollutants at any time. This is termed as Food to Microorganism Ratio (F/M Ratio) or food to mass ratio. If this ratio is kept at the suitable level, then the biomass will be able to consume high quantities of the food, which reduces the loss of residual food in the discharge. In other words, the more the biomass consumes food the lower the BOD will be in the treated effluent. It is important that MLSS eliminates BOD in order to purify the wastewater for further usage and hygiene. Raw sewage is introduced into the wastewater treatment process with a concentration of several hundred mg L-1 of BOD. The concentration of BOD in wastewater is reduced to less than 2 mg L-1 after being treated with MLSS and other treatment methods, which is considered to be safe water to use.
Activated sludge [
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
BOD-Sludge Loading | \n\t\t\t0.40 | \n\t\t\tmg L-1\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
BOD-Volume Loading | \n\t\t\t0.20 | \n\t\t\tmg L-1\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
MLSS | \n\t\t\t2000 | \n\t\t\tmg L-1\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
COD of Influent | \n\t\t\t300 | \n\t\t\tmg L-1\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Amount of Influent | \n\t\t\t4.48 | \n\t\t\tL d-1\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Aeration Rate | \n\t\t\t3.00 | \n\t\t\tL min-1\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Conventional activated sludge [15].
The biological treatment process is the most commonly implemented method for the treatment of domestic sewage. This method implements bacterial populations that possess superior sedimentation characteristics. The living microorganisms break down the organic matter in the wastewater and consequently purify the wastewater from biological waste [15].
According to [1], the main components of all activated sludge systems are:
The bioreactor: it can be a lagoon, tank, or ditch. The main characteristic of a bioreactor is that it contains sufficiently aerated and mixed contents. The bioreactor is also known as the aeration tank.
Activated sludge: it is the bacterial biomass inside the bioreactor that consists mostly of bacteria and other flora and microfauna. The sludge is a flocculent suspension of these microorganisms and is usually termed as the mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS) that ranges between 2,000 and 5,000 mg L-1.
Aeration and mixing system: the aeration and mixing of the activated sludge and the raw influent are necessary. While these processes can be accomplished separately, they are usually conducted using a single system of either surface aeration or diffused air.
Sedimentation tank: clarification or settlement of the activated sludge discharged from the aeration tank is essential. This separates the bacterial biomass from the treated wastewater.
Returned sludge: the settled activated sludge in the sedimentation tank is returned to the bioreactor to maintain the microbial population at a required concentration to guarantee persistence of treatment process.
Several parameters should be considered while operating activated sludge plants. The most important parameters are: (1) biomass control, (2) plant loading, (3) sludge settleability, and (4) sludge activity. The main operational variable is the aeration, where its major functions are: (1) ensuring a sufficient and continuous supply of dissolved oxygen (DO) for the bacterial population, (2) keeping the bacteria and the biomass suspended, and (3) mixing the influent wastewater with the biomass and removing from the solution the excessive CO2 resulting from oxidation of organic matter [1].
There are several types of activated sludge processes, e.g., conventional activated sludge plant (Figure 24), complete mix plant (Figure 25), contact stabilization plant (Figure 26), and step aeration plant (Figure 27). Figure 28 shows the food pyramid that represents the feeding relationships within the activated sludge process.
Conventional activated sludge plant [
Complete mix plant [
Contact stabilization plant [
Step aeration plant [
Food pyramid illustrating the feeding relationships within the activated sludge process [
The main systems of operation of biological filters are: (a) single filtration, (b) recirculation, (c) ADF, and (d) two-stage filtration with high-rate primary biotower (Figure 29). There are several types of biological filters, for example, submerged aerated filters that are widely known as biological aerated filters (BAFs) and are the commonly implemented design (Figure 30), and the percolating (trickling) filters (Figure 31). The BAFs implement either the sunken granular media with upward (Figure 30a) or download (Figure 30b) flows, or floating granular media with upward flow (Figure 30c), which is the most common design of BAFs. In order to compare the biological filters and the activated sludge systems (Figures 31 and 32), the comparison is based on the oxidation that can be accomplished by three processes:
Spreading the wastewater into a thin film of liquid with a large surface area, consequently the required oxygen can be supplied by gaseous diffusion, which is the case of the percolating filters.
Aerating the wastewater by pumping air in the form of bubbles or stirring forcefully, which is the case of the activated sludge process.
Implementing algae to produce oxygen by photosynthesis, which is the case of the stabilization ponds.
The main systems of operation of biological filters [
Biological aerated filters [
Relationship between the natural bacterial populations in rivers and the development of (A) trickling (percolating) filter and (B) activated sludge system [
Comparison of the food chain pyramids for biological filters and activated sludge systems [
The rotating biological contactors (RBC) system (Figure 33) can be implemented to amend and improve the available treatment processes as the secondary or tertiary treatment processes. The RBC is successfully implemented in all three steps of the biological treatment, which are BOD5 removal, nitrification, and denitrification. The process is a fixed-biofilm of either aerobic or anaerobic biological treatment system for removal of nitrogenous and carbonaceous compounds from wastewater (Figure 34). The RBC installations (Figure 35) were designed for removal of BOD5 or ammonia nitrogen (NH3-N), or both, from wastewater [1, 2].
Schematic diagram of air-drive RBC [
The RBC consists of media, shaft, drive, bearings, and cover (Figure 34). The RBC hardware consists of a large diameter and closely spaced circular plastic media that is mounted on a horizontal shaft supported by bearings and is slowly rotated by an electric motor. The plastic media are made of corrugated polystyrene or polyethylene material with different designs, dimensions, and densities. The model designs are based on increasing surface area and firmness, allowing a winding wastewater flow path and stimulating air turbulence [1, 2].
Mechanism of attached growth media in an RBC system [
RBC system [
It is widely agreed that microorganisms utilize acetate and fatty acids to accumulate polyphosphates as poly-β-hydroxybutyrate, which is an acid polymer. The precise mechanism is based on the production and regeneration of adenosine diphosphate (ADP) within the bacteria, and it involves the adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Phosphate removal requires true anaerobic conditions, which occur only when there is no other oxygen donor [3]. Figure 36 shows a phosphate removal process. This process needs long narrow tanks for maintenance of plug flow.
Phosphate removal process [
The nitrification and denitrification processes are responsible for N2O production (Figure 37). Figure 38 shows a nitrification/denitrification system for biological removal of nitrogen.
Schematic illustration of nitrification and denitrification processes that are responsible for N2O release [
Nitrification/denitrification system for biological removal of nitrogen [
Phytoremediation is a treatment process that solves environmental problems by implementing plants that abate environmental pollution without excavating the pollutants and disposing them elsewhere. Phytoremediation is the abatement of pollutant concentrations in contaminated soils or water using plants that are able to accumulate, degrade, or eliminate heavy metals, pesticides, solvents, explosives, crude oils and its derivatives, and a multitude of other contaminants and pollutants from water and soils. Figures 39 through 44 show the designs of constructed wetlands where the phytoremediation takes place.
Cross-sectional view of a typical subsurface flow constructed wetland [
Components of a horizontal flow reed bed: (1) drainage zone consisting of large rocks, (2) drainage tube of treated effluent, (3) root zone, (4) impermeable liner, (5) soil or gravel, (6) wastewater distribution system, and (7) reeds [
Free water surface system [
Sub-surface flow system [
Components of a free water surface constructed wetland [
Components of a vegetated submerged bed system [
The incorporation of heavy metals, such as mercury, into the food chain may be a deteriorating matter. Phytoremediation is useful in these situations, where natural plants or transgenic plants are able to phytodegrade and phytoaccumulate these toxic contaminants in their above-ground parts, which will be then harvested for extraction. The heavy metals in the harvested biomass can be further concentrated by incineration and recycled for industrial implementation. Rhizofiltration is a sort of phytoremediation that involves filtering wastewater through a mass of roots to remove toxic substances or excess nutrients. Phytoaccumulation or phytoextraction implements plants or algae to remove pollutants and contaminants from wastewater into plant biomass that can be harvested. Organisms that accumulate over than usual amounts of pollutants from soils are termed hyperaccumulators, where a multitude of tables that show the different hyperaccumulators are available and should be referred to. In the case of organic pollutants, such as pesticides, explosives, solvents, industrial chemicals, and other xenobiotic substances, certain plants render these substances non-toxic by their metabolism and this process is called phytotransformation. In other cases, microorganisms that live in symbiosis with plant roots are able to metabolize these pollutants in wastewater. Figure 45 shows the tissues where the rhizofiltration, phytodegradation, and phytoaccumulation take place.
Rhizofiltration, phytodegradation, and phytoaccumulation [
Vermiculture, or worm farming, is the implementation of some species of earthworm, such as
The potential use of earthworms to break down and manage sewage sludge began in the late 1970s [20] and was termed vermicomposting. The introduction of earthworms to the filtration systems, termed vermifiltration systems, was advocated by José Toha in 1992 [21]. Vermifilter is widely used to treat wastewater, and appeared to have high treatment efficiency, including synchronous stabilization of wastewater and sludge [22, 23, 24]. Vermifiltration is a feasible treatment method to reduce and stabilize liquid-state sewage sludge under optimal conditions [24, 25, 26]. Vermicomposting involves the joint action of earthworms and microorganisms [24, 27, 28], and significantly enhances the breakdown of sludge. Earthworms operate as mechanical blenders and by comminuting the organic matter they modify its physical and chemical composition, steadily decreasing the C:N ratio, increasing the surface area exposed to microorganisms, and making it much more suitable for bacterial activity and further breakdown. Throughout the passageway is the earthworm gut, they move fragments and bacteria-rich excrements, consequently homogenizing the organic matter [29]. An intensified bacterial diversity was found in vermifilter, compared with conventional biofilter without earthworms [25]. The principle of using earthworms to treat sewage sludge is based on the perception that there is a net loss of biomass and energy when the food chain is extended [25]. Compared to other technologies of liquid-state sludge stabilization, such as anaerobic digestion and aerobic digestion [30], vermifiltration is a low-cost and an ecologically sound technique, and more suitable for sewage sludge treatment of small or developing-countries\' WWTPs [23, 24, 25, 26, 31]. Figure 46 illustrates schematic diagram of a vermifilter, where the earthworms are in the filter bed.
Schematic diagram of a vermifilter [
An important application is in livestock manure treatment as shown in Figure 47, where manure is flushed out from the livestock building to a raw effluent tank then the raw effluent is screened to separate the solid waste from manure. The screened effluent is then introduced to the vermifilter to produce the vermicompost. The vermifiltered effluent is then stored in a sedimentation tank. Afterwards, the vermifiltered effluent is introduced to constructed wetlands where the phytoremediation process takes place. The purified water can be then used to flush the water from the livestock building.
Schematic diagram of a manure treatment system containing vermifiltration and phytoremediation processes (Amended and redrawn from Morand et al. [
The microbial fuel cells (MFCs) allow bacteria to grow on the anode by oxidizing the organic matter that result in releasing electrons. The cathode is sparked with air to provide dissolved oxygen for the reaction of electrons, protons, and oxygen on the cathode, which result in completing the electrical circuit and producing electrical energy (Figure 48).
Schematic diagram of the essential components of an MFC [
The dissolved inorganic components can be removed by adding an acid or alkali, by changing the temperature, or by precipitation as a solid. The precipitate can be removed by sedimentation, flotation, or other solid removal processes [1]. Although chemical precipitation (coagulation, flocculation) is still implemented, it is highly recommended to substitute the chemical precipitation process by phytoremediation (see previous section), where the trend is to ramp up the implementation of bioremediation and phytoremediation to reduce the use of chemicals, which is in line with the “Green Development”.
Neutralization is controlling the pH of the wastewater whether it is acidic or alkaline to keep the pH around 7. The lack of sufficient alkalinity will require the addition of a base (Table 3) to adjust the pH to the acceptable range. Lime (CaO), calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2), sodium hydroxide (NaOH), and sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), also known as soda ash, are the most common chemicals used to adjust the pH [34]. The lack of sufficient acidity will require the addition of an acid to adjust the pH to the acceptable range. Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and carbonic acid (H2CO3) are the most common chemicals used to adjust the pH.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Neutralization: Case of acidic wastewater [34].
Note: a stoichiometric reaction will yield a pH of 7.0
Adsorption is a physical process where soluble molecules (adsorbate) are removed by attachment to the surface of a solid substrate (adsorbent). Adsorbents should have an extremely high specific surface area. Examples of adsorbents include activated alumina, clay colloids, hydroxides, resins, and activated carbon. The surface of the adsorbent should be free of adsorbate. Therefore, the adsorbent should be activated before use. A wide range of organic materials can be removed by adsorption, including detergents and toxic compounds. The most widely used adsorbent is activated carbon, which can be produced by pyrolytic carbonization of biomass [1]. Figure 49 illustrates the difference between absorption and adsorption. Activated carbon is the most implemented adsorbent and is a sort of carbon processed to be riddled with small, low-volume pores that enlarge the surface area available for adsorption. Owing to its high level of microporosity, 1 g of activated carbon has a surface area larger than 500 m2, which was determined by gas adsorption. Figure 50 shows a bed carbon adsorption unit. Note that the carbon can be regenerated by thermal oxidation or steam oxidation and reused. The adsorption capacity, one of the most important characteristics of an adsorbent, can be calculated as follows:
The factors that affect adsorption are [3]:
Particle diameter: the adsorption is inversely proportional to the particle size of the adsorbent, and directly proportional to surface area.
Adsorbate concentration: the adsorption is directly proportional to adsorbate concentration.
Temperature: the adsorption is directly proportional to temperature.
Molecular weight: generally, the adsorption is inversely proportional to molecular weight depending upon the compound weight and configuration of pores diffusion control.
pH: the adsorption is inversely proportional to pH due to surface charge.
Individual properties of adsorbate and adsorbent are difficult to compare.
Iodine number: is the mass of iodine (g) that is consumed by 100 g of a substance.
A comparison between absorption and adsorption.
A bed carbon adsorption unit [
The disinfection of wastewater is the last treatment step of the tertiary treatment process. Disinfection is a chemical treatment process conducted by treating the effluent with the selected disinfectant to exterminate or at least inactivate the pathogens. The rationales behind effluent disinfection are to protect public health by exterminating or inactivating the pathogens such as microbes, viruses, and protozoan, and to meet the wastewater discharge standards. The purpose of disinfection is the protection of the microbial wastewater quality. The ideal disinfectant should have bacterial toxicity, is inexpensive, not dangerous to handle, and should have reliable means of detecting the presence of a residual. The chemical disinfection agents include chlorine, ozone, ultraviolet radiation, chlorine dioxide, and bromine [3].
Chlorine is one of the oldest disinfection agents used, which is one of the safest and most reliable. It has extremely good properties, which conform to the aspects of the ideal disinfectant. Effective chlorine disinfection depends upon its chemical form in wastewater. The influencing factors are pH, temperature, and organic content in the wastewater [3]. When chlorine gas is dissolved in wastewater, it rapidly hydrolyzes to hydrochloric acid (HCl) and hypochlorous acid (HOCl) as shown in the following chemical equation:
Free ammonia combines with the HOCl form of chlorine to form chloramines in a three-step reaction, as follows:
Figure 51 illustrates the chlorination curve, where the formation of chloramines occurs at the breakpoint. The free chlorine residual first rises then falls until the reaction with ammonia has been completed. As additional chlorine is applied and ammonia is consumed, the chlorine residual rises again.
Chlorination curve [
Dechlorination is a very important process, where activated carbon, sulfur compounds, hydrogen sulfide, and ammonia can be implemented to minimize the residual chlorine in a disinfected effluent prior to discharge. Activated carbon and sulfur compounds are the most widely used [3]. The commonly used sulfur compounds are sulfur dioxide (SO2), sodium metabisulfite (NaS2O5), sodium bisulfate (NaHSO3), and sodium sulfite (Na2SO3). The dechlorination reactions with the abovementioned compounds are described in the following equations:
Ozone (O3) is a very strong oxidant typically used in wastewater treatment. Ozone is able to oxidize a multitude of organic and inorganic compounds in wastewater. These reactions cause an ozone demand in the treated wastewater, which should be fulfilled throughout wastewater ozonation prior to developing an assessable residual. Ozone should be generated at the point of application for use in wastewater treatment as ozone is an unstable molecule [3]. Figure 52 illustrates the corona discharge method for making ozone. Ozone is generally formed by combining an oxygen atom with an oxygen molecule (O2) as follows:
Schematic drawing of corona discharge method for making ozone [
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is a microbial disinfectant that leaves no residual. It requires clear, un-turbid, and non-colored water for its implementation. The commercial UV disinfection systems use low- to medium-powered UV lamps with a wavelength of 354 nm [3]. The UV dosage can be calculated as follows:
where,
The advantages of UV radiation are: (1) directly effective against the DNA of many microorganisms, (2) not reactive with other forms of carbonaceous demand, and (3) provides superior bactericidal kill values while not leaving any residues. The advantage is often the disadvantage, because power fluctuations, variations in hydraulic flow rates, and color or turbidity can cause the treatment to be ineffective [3]. Additionally, cell recovery and re-growth of the damaged organisms because of the inactivation of their predators and competitors has come to light.
Ion exchange (IX) is a reversible reaction in which a charged ion in a solution is exchanged with a similarly charged ion which is electrostatically attached to an immobile solid particle. The most common implementation of ion exchange method in wastewater treatment is for softening, where polyvalent cations (e.g., calcium and magnesium) are exchanged with sodium [36]. Practically, wastewater is introduced into a bed of resin. The resin is manufactured by converting a polymerization of organic compounds into a porous matrix. Typically, sodium is exchanged with cations in the solution [34]. The bed is shut down when it becomes saturated with the exchanged ions, where it should be regenerated by passing a concentrated solution of sodium back through the bed. Figure 53 shows the schematic illustration of organic cation-exchange bead. Figure 54 shows a typical ion exchange resin column. Table 4 shows the ion preference and affinity for some selected compounds.
Schematic illustration of organic cation-exchange bead [
Typical ion exchange resin column [
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Ion preference and affinity for some selected compounds [3].
This section shows some examples of WWTPs as shown in Figure 55 (a, b, and c) and Figure 56. On the other hand, there are some computer programs for planning and designing WWTPs (Figures 57, 58, and 59).
WWTP showing: (a) layout of the plant, (b) wastewater process flow diagrams, and (c) sludge process flow diagram.
Summary of the main process options commonly employed at both domestic and industrial WWTPs. Not all of these unit processes may be selected, but the order of their use remains the same [
Screenshot of the STEADY program [
WEST software typical plant configuration [
WEST configuration for multitank system [
According to this study, it can be conclude that:
The trend is to ramp up the implementation of bioremediation, phytoremediation, and mycoremediation to reduce the use of chemicals, which is in line with the “Green Development”.
The recent developments elucidate that subsequent to the physical treatment processes (the primary treatment) the biological treatment processes come in turn as secondary treatment and precede the chemical treatment processes, which constitute the tertiary treatment.
Microbial fuel cells, phytoremediation, and mycoremediation are the focus of the future development in this field.
In modern active phased array radar, the active antenna array is generally composed of dozens to tens of thousands of active transmit/receive (T/R) modules. However, the feeding of T/R modules (receiving echo signal and transmitting excitation power) is usually realized by a multi-port feeding network. The calculation of noise power and the measurement method of system noise figure of active antenna array including multi-port feed network are essential work for radar system designers and receiver designers. Understanding the analysis and calculation of noise power and noise figure of multi-port network is the basis for design specification such as system dynamic range, so how to correctly analyze and calculate noise power and noise figure of active antenna array is an important factor in radar system design. Next, the analysis and calculation of noise power for multi-port network and the calculation and measurement method of system noise figure in active phased array radar will be described in detail.
For a two-port linear network as shown in Figure 1, suppose that
Noise characteristics of a two-port network.
where
The white noise power PN0 is [2]:
where
Assuming that the noise temperature of the input port is
The noise power PNa of a two-port linear network caused by equivalent noise temperature is:
The noise figure NF is expressed by noise power as:
The output noise power PNo of the two-port linear network is:
Note that
We first analyze the noise characteristics of the passive two-port linear network as shown in Figure 2. In the figure,
Passive two-port linear network.
Let:
Then:
The noise power generated by PNi at the network output is:
The equivalent noise temperature of the passive two-port lossy network converted to the input of the two-port network is:
The noise power generated by the passive two-port lossy network at the output is:
Therefore, the total noise power generated by the passive two-port lossy network at the output is
Next, we will analyze the noise characteristics of the multi-port linear passive network as shown in Figure 3. It is assumed that the multi-port linear passive network has
Multi-port linear passive network.
Let the noise temperature of the
Then the noise power generated by the
Then the total noise power generated by the
The equivalent noise temperature of the multi-port lossy passive network converted to each input is of the same formula (10), and then the noise power generated by the lossy network at the output is:
The total noise power generated at the output of the multi-port linear passive network is:
If
By comparing Eq. (12) with Eq. (18), we can find that when
If the two-port active network and the two-port passive network are cascaded, as shown in Figure 4, what is the noise characteristic of the cascaded two-port network? For the convenience of analysis, we make the noise figure of the two-port active network to be NF1, the gain
Cascade of two-port active network and two-port passive network.
The equivalent noise temperature of the two-port active network converted to its input is [3]:
The equivalent noise temperature of a two-port passive network converted to its input is of the same formula (10). The noise power at the output of the two-port active network is thus:
The noise power PNa at the output of the two-port active network produces the following noise power at the output of the passive network:
The noise power generated by the two-port passive network itself at the output is shown in Eq. (11), so the total noise power at the output of the two-port synthetic network is:
The total noise figure of the synthetic network after the two-port active network and the two-port passive network are cascaded is:
Cascade
Cascade of n two-port active networks and multi-port passive networks.
As before, we assume that the active power loss of the multi-port passive network is
The noise power of the
The noise power generated by the
The total noise power at the output of the synthesis network is obtained from Eqs. (16) and (26):
We can calculate the total noise figure NF of the synthetic network as follows:
where
If the gain and noise figure of the two-port active network are the same, i.e.,
The previous analysis is to analyze the noise characteristics of
If the gain and noise figure of the two-port active network are the same (
Following the previous analysis, when the
As mentioned in Section 4, the noise power of the passive network at the output port of the synthetic network is:
Then the total noise power at that output port of the synthetic network is:
The noise figure NF of the synthetic network is:
when
An active phased array radar is composed of 64 identical T/R modules and a 64:1 multi-port passive in-phase power synthesis network. Its structure is similar to that of Figure 5. In the engineering design, the design specification of the gain and noise figure of all T/R modules are the same, so we use the same noise figure NF1 and gain
Using Eq. (29), NF1 is expressed by the total noise figure NF of the synthesis network and substituted into the simplified equation above to obtain:
Assuming that the baseband signal bandwidth of the receiver is 4 MHz, the noise figure of the T/R module is 2 dB, the gain is 25 dB, and the active power loss of the 64:1 power synthesis network is 5 dB, the total output noise power of the synthesis network can be calculated by using Eq. (36) as follows:
In order to facilitate calculation in engineering application, we use T/R module noise figure NF1 to replace the total noise figure NF of the synthesis network and use Eq. (37) to calculate the total output noise power of the synthesis network, then:
We compare the calculation results of the above two different methods and find that the difference between them is only 0.02 dB. Therefore, as long as the gain of the active network is much larger than the active power loss of the passive network in engineering application, the error caused by using the noise figure of the active network instead of the noise figure of the synthesis network to calculate the total output noise power of the synthesis network can be ignored, which is enough to meet the requirements of engineering design.
Next, we will calculate the dynamic range of the output signal of the synthesis network.
We assume that the input signal power received by each T/R module of the array is −105 dBm and the phases of the input signals are the same, then the output signal power of the synthesis network is:
The input dynamic range of signal power relative noise power (regardless of noise introduced by antenna) is:
After the signal is synthesized by the network, the output dynamics of the signal power relative noise power is as follows:
Note that when calculating the input and output noise power above, the bandwidth of both must be the same; both are 4 MHz.
Through the calculation of the above practical examples, we can draw a conclusion that when calculating the dynamic range of the network output signals synthesized by the active network and the multi-port passive in-phase network, we must remember that the total noise power output by the network is not added, only the in-phase signals can be added, and the dynamic range of the signal to noise will increase after passing through the synthesized network.
In the active phased array radar, we design a T/R module, which consists of four identical receiving channels. Finally, the four receiving channels are output through a 4:1 power synthesis network. How to measure the noise figure of the T/R module in practical engineering application? Our common noise figure instruments, such as HP8970B and Agilent N8975A, have only one noise source. At first, engineers measured the noise figure of each receiving channel to be about 8 dB under the condition of normal operation of the four channels. This measurement data is quite different from the actual design specification, and there are obvious problems. Later, when measuring the noise figure of one receiving channel, we turned off the other three receiving channels and measured the noise figure of each channel in turn. At this time, the noise figure of each channel was measured to be about 2 dB, and the result basically met the design requirements.
It is not difficult for us to understand the above phenomena by using the previous analysis and derivation results. Obviously, it can be seen from Eq. (29) that the noise figure of the synthetic network is basically close to that of a single active channel (when
Noise figure in single-channel operation/dB | 2.28 | 2.20 | 2.26 | 2.24 |
Noise figure in four-channel operation/dB | 8.20 | 8.12 | 8.16 | 8.15 |
Noise figure of multi-port active synthesis network under different test conditions.
In engineering applications, we use the existing noise figure test instruments and adopt the above method to measure the noise figure of the multi-port active synthesis network. We must remember that there is a condition that the gain of a single active channel is much larger than the loss of the passive synthesis network (including the distribution loss at this time); otherwise the measurement result will be greatly different from the theoretical value. We can also average the measured values of each channel to characterize the noise figure of the whole synthetic network. For example, the active channel gain
In this chapter, the mathematical expressions of the total output noise power and noise figure of the multi-port network in many common cases are given. Using these formulas, designers can calculate the dynamic range of the active phased array radar receiving system and can also use the calculation formula of noise figure to formulate the testing scheme of the active phased array radar noise figure [4, 5].
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
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\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
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\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
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The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
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\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 24th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:31,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:43,paginationItems:[{id:"82374",title:"The Potential of the Purinergic System as a Therapeutic Target of Natural Compounds in Cutaneous Melanoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105457",signatures:"Gilnei Bruno da Silva, Daiane Manica, Marcelo Moreno and Margarete Dulce Bagatini",slug:"the-potential-of-the-purinergic-system-as-a-therapeutic-target-of-natural-compounds-in-cutaneous-mel",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82103",title:"The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Its Regulation in the Progression of Neurological and Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105543",signatures:"Mary Dover, Michael Kishek, Miranda Eddins, Naneeta Desar, Ketema Paul and Milan Fiala",slug:"the-role-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-its-regulation-in-the-progression-of-neurological-and-i",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"82212",title:"Protein Prenylation and Their Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104700",signatures:"Khemchand R. 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Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science\nand Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National\nUniversity of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013.\nShe relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the\nNational Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to\nOctober 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of\nFood Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is\ncurrently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology –\nKandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. Her research interests include microalgal biotechnology with an emphasis on microalgae-based products.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7953",title:"Bioluminescence",subtitle:"Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7953.jpg",slug:"bioluminescence-analytical-applications-and-basic-biology",publishedDate:"September 25th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hirobumi Suzuki",hash:"3a8efa00b71abea11bf01973dc589979",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Bioluminescence - Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",editors:[{id:"185746",title:"Dr.",name:"Hirobumi",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"hirobumi-suzuki",fullName:"Hirobumi Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185746/images/system/185746.png",biography:"Dr. Hirobumi Suzuki received his Ph.D. in 1997 from Tokyo Metropolitan University, Japan, where he studied firefly phylogeny and the evolution of mating systems. He is especially interested in the genetic differentiation pattern and speciation process that correlate to the flashing pattern and mating behavior of some fireflies in Japan. He then worked for Olympus Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer of optics and imaging products, where he was involved in the development of luminescence technology and produced a bioluminescence microscope that is currently being used for gene expression analysis in chronobiology, neurobiology, and developmental biology. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"93",type:"subseries",title:"Inclusivity and Social Equity",keywords:"Social contract, SDG, Human rights, Inclusiveness, Equity, Democracy, Personal learning, Collaboration, Glocalization",scope:"
\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",keywords:"Anthropic effects, Overexploitation, Biodiversity loss, Degradation, Inadequate Management, SDGs adequate practices"},{id:"38",title:"Pollution",scope:"\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment"},{id:"41",title:"Water Science",scope:"