Characteristics of schools participating in the school improvement program.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1886",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Primary Care at a Glance - Hot Topics and New Insights",title:"Primary Care at a Glance",subtitle:"Hot Topics and New Insights",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'"Both among scientists and clinical practitioners, some find it easier to rely upon trivial explanations, while others never stop looking for answers". \nWith these surprising words, Augusto Murri, an Italian master in clinical medicine, reminds us that medical practice should be a continuous journey towards knowledge and the quality of care. The book brings together contributions by over 50 authors from many countries, all around the world, from Europe to Africa, from Asia to Australia, from North to South America. Different cultures are presented together, from those with advanced technologies to those of intangible spirituality, but they are all connected by five professional attributes, that in the 1978 the Institute of Medicine (IOM)1 stated as essentials of practicing good Primary Care: accessibility, comprehensiveness, coordination, continuity and accountability.\nThe content of the book is organized according to these 5 attributes, to give the reader an international overview of hot topics and new insights in Primary Care, all around the world.',isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0539-8",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6975-8",doi:"10.5772/2310",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"primary-care-at-a-glance-hot-topics-and-new-insights",numberOfPages:252,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"aa9970e335b085064f8b2b9cc44fb81d",bookSignature:"Oreste Capelli",publishedDate:"April 27th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1886.jpg",numberOfDownloads:104122,numberOfWosCitations:10,numberOfCrossrefCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:16,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:31,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 26th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 23rd 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 28th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 27th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 26th 2012",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"110047",title:"Dr.",name:"Oreste",middleName:null,surname:"Capelli",slug:"oreste-capelli",fullName:"Oreste Capelli",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110047/images/system/110047.jpg",biography:"Dr. Oreste Capelli graduated in Medicine and Surgery with honors in 1981, specialized in 1985 in Pneumology and in 1992 in Internal Medicine. In 2003 he obtained a master's degree in Evidence-Based Medicine and Research Methodology, in 2010 a three-year degree in Systemic Counseling and in 2015 the master's degree in Direction and Management of Health Services.\nHe worked as Hospital Pulmonologist from 1985 to 1990, then as a General Practitioner until 2003. From 2004 to 2019 he held various positions in Public Health, as a Clinical Methodologist and Researcher in the Organization of care pathways for Chronic Diseases. From 2012 to 2014 he was the referent for the care pathways for chronic diseases of the Emilia Romagna Region and from 2015 to 2019 he was Director of the Clinical Governance and Medical Library of the Local Health Authority of Modena.\nFrom 2017 to 2019 he was a member of the local Research Ethics Committee.\nDr. Capelli has held hundreds of seminars on the topics of EBHC, Clinical Governance, and Prescriptive Appropriateness. 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To achieve this demanding goal, new teaching practices should be developed in collaboration between universities and schools. This also means that every school should focus on their students’ individual needs—instead of implementing already existing approaches, new solutions should be created or modified to fit into local context. When adapting new teaching and learning methods, important questions arise: what is the impact of these approaches and what other factors are influencing the outcomes.
\nIn this new situation, schools continuously develop their practices, analyze the needs of teachers’, and find ways for their professional development. Hansen and Wasson [2] have pointed out that there is a need to change teachers’ professional development format—instead of traditional participation in training courses, teachers should be supported in developing and improving their existing practice through teacher inquiry. Nowadays, capacity building, inquiry-oriented practice, and data-driven decisions are considered as central themes of educational improvement [3, 4]. Concepts like practitioner research and teacher inquiry have been widely used for several decades—yet schools still face difficulties in using evidence for school improvement processes [1].
\nIn the age of big data, it is difficult to imagine any educational improvement that does not include data as a key pillar [6]. Developing evidence-driven school improvement processes through school-university collaboration is one option for helping schools work with evidence. Therefore, school-university joint programs are initiated and the Future School Program was launched in Estonia. The aim of the Future School Program is to support whole-school innovation and sustainable improvement of teaching practices by enhancing the teaching and learning culture through school-university co-creation of new methodologies and implementation of evidence-driven innovation.
\nIn this chapter, we analyze how to strengthen the evidence-driven school improvement in school-university partnership program. Following questions are discussed:
How evidence-driven school improvement is actualized in school development programs?
What are the enablers and barriers of using evidences in school development program?
Nowadays, educational innovation is not only the “business” of scholars—practitioners are actively involved and discussions about educational improvements revolve around the importance of evidence and data. Different authors use distinct terminology [7] evidence-informed education [8], evidence-informed practices [9], evidence-based practice [10], evidence-based education [11, 12], data-based decision-making [13, 14], data-informed practice [15], data-driven decision-making [16, 17], data-based decision-making [18], data use [7, 19, 20, 21] and practice-informed evidence [22]. The main idea behind these concepts seems to be concurrent; however, the use of different terms is not incidental. One of the broadest explanation has been given by Davies [23], who sees evidence-based education as a set of principles and practices, which can alter the way people think about education, the way they go about educational policy and practice, and the basis upon which they make professional judgments and deploy their expertise—but it is not the provider of readymade solutions to the demands of modern education. In the following sections, we compare and analyze how different concepts supplement each other and how the evidence-based improvement can be identified for the schools.
\nTo start with, we need to unravel the concepts of evidence as they are widely used. Evidence is a kind of information, which points to the truth or validity of a claim and is the joint starting point for all authors; opinions differ on how truth or validity is achieved. It is assumed that the main source of evidence practitioners should consider when making decisions in social science research, namely experimental research and randomized controlled trials [10, 11, 24]. The idea that research can make a major contribution to improving practice stems from the assumption that it is systematic and rigorous and provides explicit evidence, which can be assessed objectively [10]. It can be concluded that one sub-concept of evidence-based education concentrates on implementation of research results, especially implementation of these teaching techniques and methods, which have been found to have a positive effect on students’ assessment results. In the following, we distinguish this sub-concept as a research-based school development.
\nResearch-based evidence as a source for school development and teachers’ professional development has been criticized from different aspects. The disapproval of research-based evidence has been argued with the nature of research, its generalizability, and objectivity. It is recognized that professional judgments cannot be made without taking into consideration the value-based foundation of education [11]. However, research findings merely inform practitioners about what the general outcomes are of different kinds of decisions [24], and there are a variety of formal and informal sources of information that also contribute to the decision-making process [10, 24]. Schools and teachers cannot wait until the valid and reliable research results say how to implement new teaching practices.
\nEvidence-based education operates at two levels. First is to utilize existing evidence from worldwide research and literature on education and associated subjects [23]. This gives a broader base for professional knowledge-in action [15]. The second level is to establish sound evidence where existing evidence is lacking or of questionable, uncertain, or weak in nature [23]. It requires acquiring, using, critiquing, and creating the evidence base by the lived experience of observing and assessing students in particular contexts on a regular basis [15]. This type of professional knowledge relies on multiple values, tacit judgment, local knowledge, and skill; research usually cannot supply what the notion of evidence-based practice demands of it—specific and highly reliable answers to questions about what works and what does not [10]. In this case, the basis for innovating instruction is the data what the context offers. The data about the students, their background, their previous achievements, as well as teaching processes, and school organizational existence is wide and the potential of this data is unused.
\nThe definition of data is broad. The focus is on raw data that must be organized, filtered, and analyzed to become information, then combined with stakeholder understanding and expertise to become actionable knowledge. The data not only enclose student test results, but also any other form of structurally collected qualitative or quantitative data on the functioning of the school, such as outcomes, inputs, processes, and perceptions [13, 25]. In short, data are the information that is collected and represent some aspect of schools [26]. If the evidence incorporates the question and the answer, the data comprehend only the question and the potential of the answer. The evidence incorporates the interpretive and evaluative elements, which are missing from the data. In conclusion, we distinguish the second sub-concept of evidence-driven school improvement as a data informed.
\nIn addition to the data-informed and research-based dimensions of evidence, the distinction of the outcomes can be identified [7]. The expected outcomes of the evidence usage describe the goals for which the evidence is used, more specifically, the aspect of the school culture which is expected to be improved and changed according to the conclusions made from the evidence.
\nDiscussions of evidence-based or evidence-informed practice refer to teachers, their classroom activities, and interactions with students [7, 9]. The data and evidence use are implemented with the goal of improving instruction. The quality of teachers’ instruction is an important influence on student achievement, and using data for improving instruction can enhance student achievement [13].
\nData and evidence can also be used to inform decision-making in school management and leadership levels. This process is often called data-based or data-driven decision-making [13, 16]. Data-driven decision-making is the purposeful process of selecting, gathering, and analyzing relevant data to define school problems, develop alternatives, estimate outcomes of the alternatives, and choose the preferred alternative [16]. Data do not objectively guide decisions on their own—but people do. To do so, they select particular pieces of data to negotiate arguments about the nature of problems as well as the potential solutions [14]. The use of data is not only a matter of new competencies and skills, it is more about the new culture to arise. Good things do not happen thanks to data—it should be supported by data-informed leaders. Leaders should take the responsibility to evaluate what types of data are useful and for what purposes [17]. Organizational practices have an important role in affecting the way that people in organizations think and work, so it is possible to shift patterns of practice by creating organizational supports and incentives that give greater prominence to the consideration of research findings and their implications [8]. In such a case, the data and evidence can be used for school development purposes and it refers to schools using data to improve themselves; for instance, student satisfaction surveys and exam results can be used to evaluate the extent to which the school is achieving its goals [13]. The processes of decision-making and interpretation happen in parallel; this way, there is potentially a higher coherence among the data, the decision, contextual factors, as well as the risk of misinterpretation or biased interpretation.
\nIn conclusion, we have identified two dimensions of the concept of evidence-driven school improvement (Figure 1). One of the dimensions is the input dimension, which refers to different inputs of the evidence: the evidence can be data informed or research based. The data-informed evidence can appear from assessment results, characteristics of teaching staff, national or school surveys, etc. The research-based evidence can be the result of some experimental study or qualitative study on teachers’ behavioral patterns. The second dimension characterizes the output of evidence: whether the evidence is influencing decisions made for school development, incorporating the organizational aspects like the structures, communication, or decisions made for the improvement of instruction by the teacher, usually in the interaction with the student and used educational method.
\nDimensions of evidence-driven school improvement and some examples.
Studies of data use have analyzed the factors influencing evidence-driven school improvement, and based on the synthesis of recent studies [13], it can be concluded that these factors are organizational characteristics, user characteristics, and data characteristics. Organizational factors include the shared vision and clear norms for data usage, encouragement by the school leader, possible expert support, time, and conditions provided for collaboration between teachers. Data use depends on the user characteristics of teachers. In order to use data, teachers need to have the knowledge and skills needed to analyze and interpret different forms of data; they need to understand the quality criteria for data use and data-use concepts; and they need skills to diagnose student-learning needs and adjust instruction accordingly. Data characteristics are identified as access to student relevant data, and the usability and high quality of data. It is important to note that these factors can be enablers or barriers depending on the goal of the data use. The study [13] shows that data use for school development is influenced by organizational and data characteristics, but data use for improving teaching and learning is influenced by organizational and user characteristics.
\nAdditionally, the evidence-driven school improvement implemented in school-university partnerships is influenced by the character of the relationship. The partnership can be as two types of relationships between schools and universities: one type of partnership can be labeled as transactional and refers to a relationship, which is driven by individual purposes—in this case, the organizations remain unchanged; the second type is transformational partnership, where the parties come together to pursue a common purpose and create the possibility of growth and change through mutual interaction as they apply their resources to address complex problems [27]. Studies [7, 17, 25, 28] investigating strategies of school-university partnerships for supporting evidence-driven school improvement have identified four key domains: (1) human support, (2) leadership, (3) technology support, and (4) designed routes.
\nOne possibility to offer human support is to use coaches. In order for coaching on data use to be effective, teachers needed to believe that the coach possesses strong interpersonal skills, content, and pedagogical knowledge that would be useful for them to learn. Facilitation of coaches includes assessing teachers’ needs, modeling how to interpret and act upon data, and observing teachers while they attempt to engage in the data-use process. Another possibility is to support professional development, but from previous studies, it is evident that the structured training in how to use data is not common in schools. A third approach to human support is networking with a university: either the researcher guides the process of data analysis and brings a theoretical framework to the practice or relies primarily on workshops and ongoing consultancy.
\nSchools make efforts to have technology support: data systems that organize and analyze interim assessment data, and data warehouses with current and historical student data. It is acknowledged that the trainings for school teams on data use are rare and focus primarily on technological support and how to access the data management system. Technological support needs to be combined with other strategies.
\nSchool leadership—principals are key players in facilitating data use among teachers, they play an important role in allocating resources and time to enable teachers to use data effectively. Their espoused beliefs about data use are critical as well, so they help set the tone for data use among in school teams. For the school leader, it is important to have a whole school perspective on the improvement initiated. If the instructional and organizational improvements are not aligned, it is confusing and unmotivating for the teachers to participate. It is important to communicate for the teachers why the evidence is being collected in classroom level and how it helps to monitor the big picture of the improvement and data are not used to blame-and-shame teachers. The evidence-driven school improvement cannot be implemented without data-literate and research-wise school leader, so the crucial target to support strategies is the leaders in schools.
\nSchools are required to follow norms and designed routes—specific data-driven decision-making practices—when developing their school improvement plans or for teachers to follow when using data to guide instruction. One of the primary ways that is used to build teachers’ capacity to use data is providing structured time for collaboration. This includes adoption of data-discussion protocols in order to ensure that discussions about data occurred and that actions were taken on the basis of these conversations.
\nFactors that influence the successful implementation of a school development program with the aim to support evidence-driven school improvement have been studied. Schools are more successful, if the entire school team participates in the program, the school staff is stable and the school leader provides their teachers with sufficient time and materials. It is concluded that school leaders and trainers should pay attention to developing clear guidelines and agreements on the execution of evidence-driven school improvement activities [18].
\nThe research context is formed around the school improvement program established at the Tallinn University. The program aims to support the evidence-driven improvement in Estonian schools for improving teaching and learning culture. Five schools applied (Table 1), based on their interest, to join the program in 2018/2019. Each school team consisted of 5–6 members, whereas 1–2 of them where members of the management and each school formulated their own student-centered goal for the improvement they aimed to achieve.
\nCharacteristics of schools participating in the school improvement program.
In the first phase of the program, each school prepared an action plan for improvement. Before creating the action plan, an analysis of the state of the school, built on existing evidence, had to be carried out. Some of the schools used data collected at the national level (satisfaction surveys, students’ study results, and existing research studies) to understand the current situation, defining the problem, and formulating the action plan. When analyzing the evidence, three school teams changed their initial goals because they did not find clear evidence about the problem they thought the school had or they identified another problem based on the evidence. During program activities, schools had to monitor and reflect on their own activities to understand their improvement processes. Each team agreed upon their own approach and tools for monitoring and data collection, which were discussed with their university coach. In addition to the regular monitoring, each school had to design their own action research plan, carry out the study in a classroom setting, analyze the collected data, and come up with suggestions on how the data will be used in the next decision-making steps.
\nThe program consisted of elements of human support, support for leadership, and designed joint activities. The school team—where the school leader was a compulsory member—participated in monthly seminars, where the next steps of the program were explained through theoretical underpinnings and practical suggestions. The seminars were used in the program, because the studies have shown that supporting professional development is essential in raising data-literacy skills of educational practitioners [25]. The networking aspect of the seminars is also effective to support for schools. Between seminars, the school team was supported by their university assigned coach. The coach is recognized as one of the key elements in offering human support [25]. Each step was scaffolded with the special task designed according to principles of change management and evidence-driven improvement. Data use can be improved by data-use routines, ensuring that it is a recurrent and patterned interaction that guides how people engage with each other and data [7].
\nWe followed the case-study approach, which has been acknowledged as an appropriate method in educational studies about evidence use [28]. Case studies do not aim to produce generalizable theories, but aim to provide practical wisdom, which is “about understanding and behavior in specific situations” [29]. That was also the aim of our study—to better understand the collaborative practices supporting schools in implementing evidence-driven school improvement.
\nData were collected throughout the program and after the completion of the program. A variety of data gathering techniques that are summarized in Table 2 were used.
\nOverview of data collection.
Data were analyzed based on the framework from theoretical underpinnings, where different dimensions of evidence use for school improvement were defined (Table 3). Instructional-level decision-making refers to the teachers’ decisions to improve their own teaching, assessment, feedback, etc. Organizational-level decisions refer to the decisions made by school management or school improvement team to improve school-level processes, practices, curriculum design, etc.
\nProfiles of the cases based on dimensions of evidence-driven school improvement.
Evidence-driven practices of the five cases were classified according to nine possible profiles of evidence-driven school improvement. These profiles were created according to criteria defined from the dimensions of evidence-driven school improvement. The criteria were the following:
Whether the school collected (a) data-informed evidence, (b) research-based evidence, or (c) both. We classified the school as using data-informed evidence when the data were collected by the school or made available for the schools by other stakeholders, and analysis was done by the school team based on their own research and improvement interest. We classified the school as using research-based evidence when the data have been collected, analyzed, and published by researchers, and the results are used by schools in their improvement process.
Whether the school analyzed the results with the goal (a) to improve school management, (b) to improve instruction in the classroom, or (c) both. The school was classified to use evidence on management level when the school team made decisions about communication, professional development, work organization, procedures, etc. We classified the evidence as used for the instructional improvement if the conclusions and recommendations were targeted toward teachers and their activities.
Evidence-driven practices as part of the school improvement were tightly embedded into the different phases of program activities. Next, the schools’ practices to actualize the evidence-driven school improvement, the challenges, and enablers of the process will be analyzed and discussed. The aim was to understand the following: to what extent schools used evidence collected from wider research, whether they collected or analyzed data based on their own research interests, and was the results used in organizational-level or instructional(teacher-student)-level decision-making processes.
\nBased on teams’ reflections, interviews and analysis of the documents schools were profiled as follows (Table 4): usage of data-informed evidence, research-based evidence, or both to make decisions in the instructional level or organizational level or both.
\nThe schools evidence-driven profiles.
The aim for school 1 was to improve the teachers’ collaboration and through that improve the students’ learning experience, for that a new initiative was established as “collaboration day.” Based on the reflections and document analysis, the school team focused mainly on collecting data from teachers and students to understand the usability and effectiveness of the collaboration format—questionnaire for the teachers and students after each collaboration day, students’ self-analysis, and observation sheets. Evidence regarding well-established methods and theoretical underpinnings were less emphasized by this school in their improvement process. The main outcome for the school team was that the intervention supported teachers’ collaboration and integration of subjects:
\nThe majority of the decisions based on the collected and analyzed data were done in management level: improving the format of the collaboration days, identifying the needs for teacher training, sharing practices, and supporting documentation of the integration projects.
\nSchool 4 focused on students’ engagement in extracurricular activities. Interventions were carried out in teacher-student level and students’ engagement was analyzed with observation sheets. Students’ motivation was analyzed and teachers’ feedback was collected with self-analysis:
\nTheories and studies regarding students’ learning motivation to support engagement were used as evidence to plan the interventions and data collection:
\nDecisions were made mainly in the management level: observation process and techniques need to be improved:
\nMore focus on supporting teachers’ sharing of experiences and good practices was put.
\nThe aim of the school 2 was to implement different learning strategies to support the development of students’ learning to learn skills. For monitoring the process, several data collection techniques were used: teachers’ empowerment survey, survey about teachers’ understanding of learning to learn skills, and teachers’ interviews about different strategies. Students’ self-analysis about the learning process was carried out; students learning skills and reading strategies were tested. Evidence from national-level satisfaction surveys was used when planning the activities and later analyzed:
\nApproved training programs about reading and meaningful learning were used when designing interventions in collaboration with the university team. To support the collaborative culture, a teachers’ professional learning community was initiated and research on teachers’ professional community was used to support teachers’ collaborative learning. Teachers in this group were also studied:
\nDecisions were made in management level (training and management support for teachers’ to implement the new strategies to support students’ learning to learn skills) and in instructional processes (new strategies will be implemented and students’ self-analysis process more systematically enhanced).
\nSchool 3 aimed to raise the students’ motivation to learn through more systematic integration of the lessons and outside of the classroom activities. Self-determination theory was used as a research ground in different activities:
\nTo analyze the effectiveness of the interventions, data were collected with the students’ survey after each intervention (based on self-determination theory) and teachers’ feedback. Evidence from the national-level students’ satisfaction survey was used for planning interventions. Decisions regarding the future activities were made in students’ level: focusing on explaining the goals of different learning activities to enhance the meaningfulness, enhancing students’ skills to give feedback:
\nIn management-level lesson, observations based on self-determination theory were developed.
\nThe aim of the school 5 was to implement the meaningful learning experience for the seventh grade students through integrating more real-life situations to classroom activities. For data collection, an instrument was created to analyze to what extent students understand what they learn and how it supports their professional growth. Also, all the students were tested with scientific tests:
\nStudents and teachers gave weekly feedback, and teachers analyzed the students’ evaluation sheets:
\nAlso oral feedback was collected from teachers and students for more in-depth analysis of the new experiences. Some evidence about the studies on integration of subjects was also used. To some extent, research results were also read by the team:
\nDecisions were made mainly on management level: improving evaluation sheets, reformulating learning outcomes to make them easier for the students to understand. In the instructional level, teachers will focus more in the future to create shared understanding with the students about what learning outcomes mean and what students are actually expected to learn:
\nAlso the plan to create individual learning paths for the students is in the focus for the future activities.
\nOur analysis indicates that all five schools participating in our program focused on collecting data and finding research evidence on the management level and three schools worked with evidence in the instructional processes. Four schools out of five focused on improving students’ learning experience; one school focused on teachers’ collaboration, but still with the aim to implement integration projects to improve teaching practices in the classroom level. It can be also concluded that all schools used data as part of their own studies to understand the effectiveness of the interventions, but the usage of the research evidence did not happen systematically in all of the cases. Schools collected data from both students and teachers; the instruments were mainly prepared by the schools themselves. In a few cases, additional data were collected with research instruments proposed by the university (testing the skills of the students for instance). Decisions made based on the data and research results were mainly focused on management level: improving everyday processes, data collection techniques, formalizing methodologies, and better supporting teachers’ collaboration. Some important decisions were also made on the student level: enhancing feedback skills, goal-setting of learning activities, enrichment of classroom activities, etc.
\nSchildkamp and colleagues [5, 13] have proposed several factors influencing data use by school teams; they distinguish data use for accountability, school development, and instruction. In our research, we mainly focused on data use for school improvement and classroom-level instruction. Deriving from Schildkamp et al. [5, 13], we analyze the enablers and barriers of data use from the perspective of organizational, user and data characteristics.
\nOrganizational characteristics include the shared vision, which includes a joint understanding about the nature of good teaching, student learning, and ways to evaluate the student learning. As our program focused on school improvement, building shared understanding about the change and ways to monitor the process were crucial. Schildkamp et al. [13] emphasize that effective data use also requires collaboration—teachers should share and discuss their students’ results and their own functioning with students, parents, and teachers. In our case, all of the schools focused on improving teachers’ collaboration and different solutions were found to find time to share experiences as part of the program activities. However, school 2—which created a teachers’ professional learning community where the collected data were analyzed and results discussed—stood out among others for its evidence-driven school improvement practices. In our study, it was learnt that for the schools, it was difficult to design and conduct empirical studies (in action-research form) on their own (It is a very complex process for the school to develop research-based inquiry.) This was emphasized by the school that collaborated more tightly with the university experts to carry out research activities. On the other hand, same schools used more systematically research-based evidence in their improvement process than schools who used less university support in their activities. Therefore, the collaboration between the school team and university became very important in our study. Research data were used, but schools needed help in this regard, because it was challenging for the schools to understand what research data they could use and for what purposes and how to adapt the research-based solutions for their school settings. In our program, it was the role of the coaches to found experts, refer to the relevant studies, share validated tests and observation sheets to adapt, collect research data, etc. This relates well with Schildkamp et al. [13] user characteristics as well—data literacy of the teachers is something that needs promotion. It is not easy for the teachers to have the inquiry mindset, skills to collect data, interpret, and act based on the data. Mandinach [21] has concluded that pedagogical data literacy is the ability to transform information into actionable instructional knowledge and practices by collecting, analyzing, and interpreting all types of data to help specify educational steps by combining an understanding of data with standards, disciplinary knowledge and practices, curricular knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge, and an understanding of how children learn. Once teachers are prepared to work with the data, data characteristics—quick and convenient access to accurate data—also become very important. In our study, data-collection instruments were mainly prepared in collaboration with the university coaches and experts or by school teams themselves. It can be concluded that planning the data collection in collaboration with the university is something that schools can apply during the program activities. However, analyzing data quickly for feedforward purposes is something that needs further planning. For instance, school 4 who developed paper-based observation sheet learned that such documentation format does not support instant decision-making for classroom-level instruction. And school 1 changed their paper-based surveys to electronic surveys in the middle of the program for more efficient data analysis purposes.
\nOur study indicated that in school-university partnerships, schools are able to acquire easier the mindset of evidence-driven improvement based on data collection, analysis by school team, or evidence from theoretical and methodological underpinnings. However, there are some aspects that need to be considered.
\nA coach has been suggested as one possibility to offer human support, which was also applied in the current program, and it can happen in school-university partnerships where the university coach guides the process. Facilitation by coaches includes assessing teachers’ needs, modeling how to interpret and act upon data and observing teachers while they attempt to engage in the data-use process. It is recommended to design trainings for the school team with the following learning outcomes: learning the capabilities of the data system, understanding and using a cycle of instructional improvement, avoiding common data analysis mistakes, data transparency and safety, fostering a culture of data use, interpreting data in context, and using data to modify instruction. From the perspective of human support in the school-university partnership, our experience highlights the importance of the university coach. The school teams recognized the coaches help with practical questions and choices. This opens the discussion on the role of the coach in the school-university partnership. The university coach is often conceptualized in the literature as a data coach [7] or researcher [30] who pays attention primarily on evidence use. It may be too narrow of an approach if the final aim is to find and co-create innovative teaching and leading practices for school improvement. Yet, in our case, the profiles of the schools evidence-driven school improvement show that finding and selecting appropriate research-based evidence needs strengthening in the school improvement program. Also the main focus of the coaches was on bringing in theoretical frameworks, fostering a culture of evidence use and understanding the cycle of inquiry. The data analysis mistakes or accuracy was less emphasized by the schools. However, it was mentioned by one of the schools that they actually would like to get feedback if their inquiry design, data collection, and analysis are adequate.
\nWhen technology training exists, it often focuses primarily on technological support and how to access the data management system. Studies show that schools pay efforts to have data systems that organize and analyze interim assessment data and data warehouses with current and historical student data. Our study indicated that elements to scaffold teachers to conduct teacher-led inquiry in the technology-enriched classroom as suggested by Hansen and Wasson [2] can be better supported. In our program, the data were collected rather traditionally—tests, surveys and questionnaires, mainly, and paper-based observation sheets. Focusing more on process-oriented data collection—with a variety of tools and efficient ways for classroom observations—timely access to students’ learning results might influence the use of data for improving the classroom instruction. The growing use of technology as part of teachers’ practice opens up the possibility for a change from researcher-centered studies to teacher-centered approaches to inquiry [2].
\nSchool principals are key players in facilitating data use among teachers—they play an important role in allocating resources and time to enable teachers to use evidence effectively. Their espoused beliefs about data use are critical, as they help to set the tone for data use in school teams. School leaders also have access to a variety of data, performance indicators, and study results; making these available for the teachers is important to enhance the data culture in the organization. However, we recognized that during the program, schools mostly used the data they gathered by themselves and the use of data gathered by or for the national or municipality level was used rarely. This raises the question of the capabilities to interpret such data by the school team, and capabilities to support and coach this interpretation by the university coaches. Moreover, our coaches could recognize some hesitations and doubts for using such data by the school teams because of the meaningfulness of the data gathered in this manner. We recognize the effective use of national data as an improvement area for the school development program.
\nThe schools are required to follow specific data-driven decision-making practices when developing their school improvement plans or for teachers to follow when using data to guide instruction. Providing structured time for collaboration is one of the primary ways that schools try to build teachers’ capacity to use data. This includes adoption of data-discussion protocols in order to ensure that discussions about data occurred and that actions were taken on the basis of these conversations. Our program focused on understanding how can we better support schools in working with the data; in the next iteration of the program, we can more systematically focus on supporting the development of practices to create norms and routes for more systematic evidence-driven school improvement.
\nOur study demonstrated that in school-university partnership, when schools are scaffolded, evidence-driven practices are more widely adopted by the schools as part of the school improvement process. However, we also learned that the need for teachers to obtain complex data skills is becoming more and more important. Understanding about the inquiry process is just one angle of the challenge; also the understanding of how to read, interpret, critically evaluate, and act based on data is as important. In this iteration, the program did not systematically emphasize designing practices for collecting evidence from data and from the research, which could be better supported in the future. Also, we learned that schools understand quite well how to improve the practices in the school level based on collected evidence. Synergy between instructional-level data collection and decision-making, and organizational-level improvement can, however, be enhanced. In the future, it is important to analyze the impact of using classroom data in novel pedagogical and assessment approaches, and for teacher’s professional development to determine if it changes the students’ learning.
\nOur study also informs us how to improve initial teacher education and school principals’ preparation in Estonia. The main practical implication is rooted in the dimensions of evidence-driven school improvement. Currently, in initial teacher education, students are expected to carry out action research project during their internship period. Individually they learn how to collect data in the teaching process. They do not experience how their collected data from classroom interventions could feed the school improvement process and what is the relation between classroom-level evidence with school-level evidence. It can be concluded that it needs strengthening the dimension of evidence for school improvement in the initial teacher training. Additionally, current initial teacher training tends to prepare future teachers to collect action research data rather traditionally through surveys and interviews, but the usage of the learning analytics solutions as part of the inquiry could enable to monitor the practices more efficiently. Simultaneously, in principals’ training program, topics like evidence-driven school improvement and schools’ self-evaluation are rather theoretical. However, school principals need skills how to collect, analyze, interpret, and integrate data about instructional interventions conducted by teachers to plan improvements in school-level processes.
\nThis research has received funding from the European Social Fund program “Development of Competence center for educational innovations in Tallinn University” and European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under grant no. 669074 (CEITER).
\nWhen trying to simulate deformation rates during creep, one can basically follow two different approaches: (i) phenomenologically based—and or (ii) physically inspired models. In phenomenological models, the deformation (rate) is usually stated as analytical function with system parameters such as temperature and stress as input [1, 2, 3, 4]. These kinds of models are easily and quickly employed; however, the approaches carry some disadvantages as well: (1) they give little or no insight into the actual underlying physical processes governing the creep rate, and (2) the model parameters cannot be usually determined independently from the creep experiment the model is actually aiming to predict. For these reasons, we choose to focus on a physically based model instead [5], which is a reviewed, corrected, and extended version of the seminal work of Ghoniem [6]. In addition to avoiding the mentioned drawbacks of phenomenological approaches, our physical model has the advantage of including a variety of microstructural elements such as dislocations and subgrain boundaries (SGBs), and their interactions. This allows for getting a deeper understanding of the creep process and opens the opportunity of rating individual material badges by taking their as-received microstructure as starting condition for a creep simulation. Finally, we end up with an assembly of rate equations for the microstructural elements along with some side equations modeling the physical processes. In summary, the model gives us insights into the specific reasons why a material badge features good or bad creep behavior, as long as its microstructure can be considered homogeneous. The model also has the potential to rate the impact of individual microstructural phenomena.
Our model includes the microstructure by mean values of specific microstructural elements (e.g. dislocation density, grain boundary precipitates, etc.) instead of a spatially resolved features. This allows for a simpler construction of a “representative volume element,” which speeds up computation and is more easily compared to microstructural investigations.
In our work, we focus on martensitic 9–12% Cr steels. We select the material P91 to demonstrate the validity of the model due to its widespread use and industrial significance. Nevertheless, the concept can be adapted to other material groups by including their specific microstructural elements and their interactions.
Please note that all symbols used in the equations are explained in Table 6 at the end of the chapter.
The aim of our creep model is to predict the creep rate and microstructural evolution, based on the initial microstructure and the system parameters stress and temperature. A very simple, yet useful approximation of the creep rate
Frank—read sources (generation of mobile dislocations
Emission from static dislocations
Immobilization of mobile dislocations
Recovery by climb processes for mobile (d1) and static dislocations (d2)
Spontaneous annihilation of mobile (e1) and static dislocations (e2)
Subgrain boundaries produced from static dislocations
Subgrain growth minus Zener—pinning of boundary precipitates
Microstructural interactions within a subgrain. See text for individual interactions. “X” signifies annihilation of dislocations and arrows mark transformations.
These interactions (a–g) are also integrated into the rate equations for the microstructural evolution of mobile dislocations
Eq. | |
---|---|
Creep strain rate (modified Orowan equation, see text): | (1) |
Mobile dislocation density rate [5]: | |
(2) | |
Static dislocation density rate [6]: | |
(3) | |
Boundary dislocation density rate [6]: | |
(4) | |
Subgrain growth rate (h: nucleation of subgrains) [5]: | |
(5) | |
Effective subgrain growth pressure (only precipitates at boundaries) [6]: | |
(6) | |
Subgrain boundary mobility – case 1, if | |
(7) | |
Subgrain boundary mobility – case 2, if | |
(8) | |
Mean dislocation spacing within the subgrain boundary [6]: | |
(9) | |
Effective dislocation velocity (only precipitates in grain interior) [5]: | |
(10) | |
Dislocation glide velocity [9]: | |
(11) | |
Corrected applied stress [5]: | |
(12) | |
Dislocation climb velocity [6]: | |
(13) | |
Dislocation climb velocity-lattice diffusion share [5]: | |
(14) | |
Parameter for elastic interactions between dislocations/defects [6]: | |
(15) | |
Dislocation climb velocity-pipe diffusion share [5]: | |
(16) | |
Distance of core-vacancy diffusion before evaporation into lattice [10]: | |
(17) | |
Internal stress [11] | |
(18) | |
Damage parameter for cavities, see text: | |
(19) | |
Particle coarsening: | |
(20) | |
Reduction of number density of particles due to coarsening: | |
(21) |
Creep model equations and their primary literature sources.
In addition to the “rate equations” of the microstructural evolution of the material, Table 1 also assembles the framework of the underlying physical phenomena. Within this paragraph, we only give a brief overview. Detailed discussions can be found in the cited sources.
The effective subgrain growth pressure
The input parameters needed to simulate creep over a range of stresses can be divided into three groups/types:
General material data from the material group;
Microstructural data in as-received condition of the material badge of interest;
Parameters which have to be adapted to one single master-creep-curve.
Group (i) is applicable to a wider range of materials and has already been collected in [5]. Table 2 gives an overview on the findings.
Input | Value | Details | Source |
---|---|---|---|
2.866 × 10−10 m | Fe-bcc | [12] | |
0.02 | 9Cr-1Mo steel at 650°C | [11] | |
2.48 × 10−10 m | Fe-bcc | [13] | |
0.3 | 9Cr-1Mo steel at 650°C | [11] | |
5b | Edge dislocations | [11] | |
2 × 10−19 m2/s | Fe in Fe-1.5Mo at 650°C | [14] | |
4.75 × 10−19 m2/s | P91 | [5] | |
2 × 10−4 | Ferritic steels | [6] | |
61.9 GPa | 9–12% Cr steels at 650°C | [15] | |
1.38065 × 10−23 J/K | Fundamental constant | [16] | |
2.1 | P91 | [5] | |
3 | Crystals | [11] | |
1.177 × 10−29 m | Volume/atom | [5] | |
4.01 × 10−19 J | HT-9 at 550°C | [6] | |
3°=0.0524 rad | 9–12% Cr steels | [17] | |
35 | P91 at 650°C | [5] | |
0.317 | 9–12% Cr steels at 650°C | [15] | |
1.26 × 10−19 J | P91 at 650°C | [5] | |
0.034 | 9–12% Cr steels | [18] |
Input parameters for the material group. Input parameters type (i).
Group (ii) is the parameter for a specific material badge. This group accounts for the different creep behavior stemming from specific processing routines, e.g. chemical composition and heat treatment. Result from the processing routine is the as-received microstructure, which also acts as an input for our simulation. In our case, we directly measured the subgrain size
Input | Value | Note | Source |
---|---|---|---|
4.0 × 10−7 m | EBSD | [5] | |
5.9 × 1014 m−2 | EBSD | [5] | |
4.5 × 1014 m−2 | TEM | [19] | |
4.5 × 1013 m−2 | Estimate 1/10 of | [11] | |
1.49 × 10−7 m | At boundaries | [5] | |
4.17 × 10−8 m | Grain interior | [5] | |
7.55 × 10−8 m | Grain interior | [5] | |
4.43 × 10−8 m | Grain interior | [5] | |
9.52 × 1018 m−3 | At boundaries | [5] | |
1.09 × 1020 m−3 | Grain interior | [5] | |
4.04 × 1018 m−3 | Grain interior | [5] | |
8.85 × 1018 m−3 | Grain interior | [5] | |
6.90 × 10−28 s−1 | At boundaries | [5] | |
2.21·10−30 s−1 | Grain interior | [5] | |
0 s−1 | Grain interior | [5] | |
1.19 × 10−29 s−1 | Grain interior | [5] |
Microstructure-specific input data for the as-received state. Input parameters type (ii).
After these parameters have been set, only the variables
We conducted/performed an instrumented creep test at 650°C and a nominal stress of 70 MPa which led to a rupture time of 8740 h [5]. The simulated creep curve has been validated against the experimental results and the missing parameters
Parameter | Value |
---|---|
3.725 m/s | |
0.035 | |
0.07 |
Parameters found by fitting against one creep curve. Input parameters type (iii).
Since the creep model already contains the impact of stress and temperature explicitly within its network of equations, the found input parameters are stress- and temperature-independent. We can thus use the same input for other stresses to produce time-to-rupture (TTR) diagrams. To do so, we have left all input parameters unchanged as indicated in Tables 2–4 and generated creep simulations in the stress range of 50–120 MPa. The next section comprises the result of the simulated master creep curve including the calculated microstructural evolution, as well as the changes of the creep behavior with altering stresses, leading to the construction of the TTR diagram.
First simulated result is the master-creep curve at 650°C and 70 MPa, indicating the creep deformation and deformation rate. Figures 2 and 3 demonstrate the agreement between the simulated and the experimental result of the creep deformation: the simulated creep curve is very close to the experiment including primary, secondary, and tertiary creep stage, and also the final fracture of the sample. The experimental minimum of the creep strain rate is about 2.5 × 10−6 h−1 in the range between 1.000 and 3.000 h, whereas the simulated result is 3.0 × 10−6 h−1 at 900 h, suggesting good agreement as well.
Experimental and simulated master-creep curve at 650°C, 70 MPa.
Experimental and simulated creep-strain rates at 650°C, 70 MPa.
Regarding the microstructural evolution, the simulation predicts a quick recovery of the mobile dislocation density
Simulated microstructural evolution at 650°C, 70 MPa.
In summary, the simulation results of the test case of the master-creep experiment are good enough to apply the model to multiple stresses. We carried out creep simulation in the stress range of 50–120 MPa in steps of 10 MPa, with a resulting creep curve and accompanying microstructural evolution in each simulation. One side result, the rupture time
Simulated microstructural evolution at 650°C, 70 MPa.
Please note that the creep curves appear to look different from Figure 2 because the logarithmic time-scale is used in order to simultaneously show all results. Each of the creep curves feature primary, secondary, and tertiary creep regimes. Figure 6 now finally shows the constructed TTR stemming from the simulated creep data and compares them against the standard literature data from European Creep Collaborative Committee (ECCC) [23], ASME [24], and NIMS [25].
Simulated TTR diagram compared against standard literature data.
The agreement is excellent, and the simulated curve lies right between the data from the three standard literature sources for creep rupture data of P91. Once again, it is important to mention that all model input data (except for the system stress) were identical for all creep simulations. This detail is very important, because the simulation allows for a predictive extrapolation from a single-creep experiment carried out for 8.740 h to up to six times longer creep times. As it appears, the simulation also allows for extrapolating to shorter running times by a factor of about 40 in our case. We thus motivate to use and test our model for even shorter reference experiments in order to extrapolate for long running times.
It has been long established [26] and is now well accepted [27, 28] that failure during creep loading results mainly due to intergranular rupture. Cavities nucleate predominantly at grain boundaries, grow during creep exposure, and coalesce to form microcracks. In tertiary creep, these cracks are so numerous that they significantly weaken the microstructure, and the remaining available cross section is put under more stress which further promotes damage and accelerates the strain rate.
In some cases, the remaining creep life can be directly correlated with the degree of cavitation [29, 30].
It is not well established by what mechanism cavities nucleate [31]; however, the linear relationship between cavity nucleation rate, first observed by Needham et al [32], still holds true to this day [33]. Grain boundary sliding, as necessitated to maintain contact between the grains when they elongate during diffusional creep, is one proposed mechanism [34]. This sliding generates cavities at ledges that are pulled apart at the grain boundary.
We propose a model based on the physics of diffusion and fluctuational theory, known as classical nucleation theory (CNT). CNT was formulated at the beginning of the twentieth-century by the works of Volmer and Weber [35], Becker and Döring [36], Frenkel [37], and Zeldovich [38]. It has been prominent and successful in modeling the nucleation of new phases, precipitates, and similar phenomena.
Balluffi [39] was the first to explain the nucleation of holes (cavities) by vacancy supersaturation. However, Raj and Ashby [40] were the first to consider the mechanical stress as the driving force for nucleation, a theory which was further developed by Hirth and Nix [41] and Riedel [28] and forms the basis for our nucleation model.
While CNT generally speaks of nuclei, which may form new phases, we specify these as clusters of vacancies which may form cavities.
The free energy change on formation of such a cluster in the bulk encompasses the pressure-volume work done by the external stress,
Plotting this relation over the cluster radius, as shown in Figure 7, we see that the free energy reaches a maximum at a certain cluster size,
Free energy change vs. radius for a spherical cluster of vacancies.
From Eq. (22), we derive the critical radius and critical (maximum) free energy as follows:
Clusters below the critical size are naturally/always present in the microstructure due to thermal fluctuations [35, 43]. Their concentration is determined by the number of possible nucleation sites,
Some vacancies, which exist throughout the microstructure and are more prevalent at higher temperatures, may find themselves on the surface of a critical cluster and only one atomic jump away from joining it. The number of these vacancies jumping toward the critical cluster per unit time is described by the vacancy attachment rate,
The Zeldovich factor is explained by its namesake [38] and other literature [28, 44] to reduce the nucleation rate, since steady-state nucleation artificially removes supercritical clusters and because slightly supercritical clusters are still more likely to dissolve rather than grow. It is defined in Eq. (27) with
While the nucleation rate is only directly proportional to most of the physical parameters in Eq. (25), the Arrhenius term dominates. Small changes in the height of the nucleation barrier lead to large variations in the equilibrium number of critical cavities available for nucleation and therefore the final nucleation rate. Smaller critical clusters are more likely to nucleate, such as in the case for clusters formed on grain boundaries as shown in Figure 8. The dihedral angle,
Cluster formed between two grains.
Nucleation is further boosted by the quicker diffusion of vacancies along the grain boundaries and the effect of converting the multiaxial stress state to an average stress on the grain boundary [46]. Also, real defects, such as dislocations, interacting with the grain boundary supply additional vacancies which can effectively increase the driving force by several gigapascals [47]. These effects predict cavity nucleation almost exclusively at grain boundaries and do not require extreme threshold stresses for nucleation, which is an enduring criticism of classical nucleation of cavities [48].
Finally, a theory based on generalized broken bonds (GNBBs) [49] is used to calculate the free surface energy from the energy of vacancy formation and a correction is applied [50] when dealing with nanosized critical clusters.
Diffusional cavity growth is less controversial and commonly assumed to follow the rate of radial growth in Eq. (29) by Hull and Rimmer [51]. Its resemblance to the Svoboda, Fischer, Fratzl, Kozeschnik (SFFK) model [20] used in precipitate growth simulations further strengthens its prestige:
The sintering stress,
The equations for nucleation and growth are integrated into a Kampmann-Wagner framework [52] at a constant temperature and external stress state. At regularly spaced time intervals, a class of newly formed cavities with a population derived from Eq. (25) is formed, each with a radius slightly (20%) above the critical radius from Eq. (23). During the intervals, the respective radii of all classes grow according to Eq. (29). As the available nucleation sites are used, the nucleation rate diminishes. The simulation ends when all nucleation sites are consumed and there is no more uncavitated grain boundary area. The number of nucleation sites at grain boundaries is calculated [53] from average grain diameters, assuming all grains to be tetrakaidekahedral (Table 5).
Var. | Description | Unit | Source |
---|---|---|---|
Free surface energy | J m−2 | [49] | |
External stress | Pa | Experiment | |
Number of nucleation sites | — | Experiment and [53] | |
Temperature | K | Experiment | |
Driving force of defects | Pa | [47] | |
Grain boundary energy | J m−2 | [54] | |
Vacancy formation energy | J mol−1 | [55] | |
Diffusion coefficient | m2 s−1 | [56] | |
Interatomic spacing | m | [57] | |
Grain diameter | m | Experiment |
Model parameters and physical constants.
Figures 9 and 10 compare simulated results of nucleated cavities with experimental results obtained from secondary electron microscopy and density measurements. Case studies comparing our model to experimental investigations have been published [42, 58].
Comparison between simulated (red) and measured (blue) histograms of cavities in Nickel-based alloy 625 after 5500 h at 700°C and 183 MPa.
Comparison between simulated (red) and measured (blue) histograms of cavities in P23 steel after 9000 h at 600°C and 90 MPa.
We have introduced a complex physically based creep model and demonstrated its capabilities in the case of the martensitic steel P91. The model is capable of simulating the creep deformation as well as the microstructural evolution during creep. As soon as some final parameters have been set, based on a single-creep experiment, those parameters can be used for simulating the creep behavior over a wide range of stresses allowing for extrapolating the creep behavior. Current results suggest an extrapolation of the creep lifetime by a factor of at least 6 over a reference experiment. Furthermore, we have introduced a physically based model for the formation of creep pores due to vacancy diffusion, which is also showing very good agreement with experiments.
Var. | Description | Unit |
---|---|---|
Parameter for glide velocity | [m/s] | |
Size of unit cell | [m] | |
Material-specific constant | [–] | |
Dislocation interaction factor | [–] | |
Burgers vector ½ <111> for bcc | [m] | |
Parameter for density of sources | [–] | |
Weighting factor for statics in the internal stress | [–] | |
Dislocation annihilation length | [m] | |
Cavitation damage parameter | [–] | |
Lattice diffusion coefficient | [m2/s] | |
Pipe diffusion coefficient | [m2/s] | |
Creep strain | [–] | |
Transfer coefficient for defects into jogs | [–] | |
Shear modulus | [Pa] | |
Free surface energy | [J m−2] | |
Specific grain boundary energy | [J m−2] | |
Mean dislocation spacing within the subgrain wall | [m] | |
Boltzmann constant | [J/K] | |
Holt constant | [–] | |
Precipitate coarsening parameter of precipitate class i | [s−1] | |
Parameter for elastic interactions between dislocation/defects | [m] | |
Diffusion path of core-vacancy before evaporation into lattice | [m] | |
Taylor factor | [–] | |
Subgrain boundary mobility | [m/Pa s] | |
Precipitate number density of class i | [m−3] | |
Number of nucleation sites | – | |
Poisson’s ratio | [–] | |
Effective subgrain growth pressure | [Pa] | |
Activation energy for dislocation glide | [J] | |
Vacancy formation energy | [J mol−1] | |
Precipitate radius of particle class i | [m] | |
Subgrain radius | [m] | |
Boundary dislocation density | [m−2] | |
Mobile dislocation density | [m−2] | |
Static dislocation density | [m−2] | |
Total dislocation density | [m−2] | |
Applied initial stress | [Pa] | |
Corrected applied stress | [Pa] | |
Internal stress | [Pa] | |
Driving force of defects | [Pa] | |
Time | [s] | |
Rupture time | [s] | |
Temperature | [K] | |
Mean misorientation of subgrains | [rad] | |
Climb velocity | [m/s] | |
Lattice diffusion share of | [m/s] | |
Pipe diffusion share of | [m/s] | |
Effective velocity of mobile dislocations | [m/s] | |
Glide velocity | [m/s] | |
Apparent activation volume for thermally activated glide | [m3] | |
Activation energy difference between pipe and lattice diffusion | [J] | |
Atomic volume (unit cell size divided by two atoms in bcc) | [m3] | |
Fraction of statics annihilating when transforming to boundaries | [–] |
List of symbols and variables used within the creep model.
The authors gratefully acknowledge funding from Austrian Science Fund (FWF) within project “Software development on dislocation creep in alloys” (P-31374).
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\n\nOpenness - We communicate honestly and transparently. We are open to constructive criticism and committed to learning from it.
\n\nDisruptiveness - We are eager for discovery, for new ideas and for progression. We approach our work with creativity and determination, with a clear vision that drives us forward. We look beyond today and strive for a better tomorrow.
\n\nIntechOpen is a dynamic, vibrant company, where exceptional people are achieving great things. We offer a creative, dedicated, committed, and passionate environment but never lose sight of the fact that science and discovery is exciting and rewarding. We constantly strive to ensure that members of our community can work, travel, meet world-renowned researchers and grow their own career and develop their own experiences.
\n\nIf this sounds like a place that you would like to work, whether you are at the beginning of your career or are an experienced professional, we invite you to drop us a line and tell us why you could be the right person for IntechOpen.
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Global warming and increasing greenhouse gas emission result in the increased intensity and frequency of extreme weather events. Temperature stress is a major environmental stress that limits the sugarcane growth, productivity and metabolism worldwide. Numerous biochemical reactions are involved in plant development, and these biochemical reactions are very sensitive to temperature stress. Now a day, temperature stress is a major concern for sugarcane production and approaches for high yield of sugarcane under temperature stress are important agriculture goals. Sugarcane plant adapts a number of acclimation and avoidance mechanism against different environmental stress. Plant survival under different stresses depends on ability to generate and transmit the signal and biochemical and physiological changes. In future, climate change is an important consequence for sugarcane production in the world because of its relative low adaptive capacity, poor forecasting system and high vulnerable to natural hazard. In this review we briefly describe climate change effects on sugarcane, sugar production in several countries especially in Pakistan, future challenges for sugar production under changing climatic scenario and propose strategies for mitigation negative impacts of climate change.",book:{id:"8298",slug:"climate-change-and-agriculture",title:"Climate Change and Agriculture",fullTitle:"Climate Change and Agriculture"},signatures:"Sadam Hussain, Abdul Khaliq, Umer Mehmood, Tauqeer Qadir, Muhammad Saqib, Muhammad Amjed Iqbal and Saddam Hussain",authors:[{id:"247858",title:"Dr.",name:"Saddam",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"saddam-hussain",fullName:"Saddam Hussain"},{id:"270794",title:"Mr.",name:"Sadam",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"sadam-hussain",fullName:"Sadam Hussain"},{id:"270796",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul",middleName:null,surname:"Khaliq",slug:"abdul-khaliq",fullName:"Abdul Khaliq"},{id:"270797",title:"Mr.",name:"Umer",middleName:null,surname:"Mehmood",slug:"umer-mehmood",fullName:"Umer Mehmood"},{id:"270798",title:"Mr.",name:"Tauqeer",middleName:null,surname:"Qadir",slug:"tauqeer-qadir",fullName:"Tauqeer Qadir"},{id:"270800",title:"Mr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Saqib",slug:"muhammad-saqib",fullName:"Muhammad Saqib"},{id:"270801",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Amjed",middleName:null,surname:"Iqbal",slug:"muhammad-amjed-iqbal",fullName:"Muhammad Amjed Iqbal"}]},{id:"67629",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83553",title:"Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation in Agricultural Sector: The Case of Local Responses in Punjab, Pakistan",slug:"climate-change-impacts-and-adaptation-in-agricultural-sector-the-case-of-local-responses-in-punjab-p",totalDownloads:1588,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"This study contributes to explore local responses to deal with the impacts of climate change on agriculture sector by looking the case of Punjab, Pakistan. Pakistan’s agriculture is facing severe challenges due to the negative consequences of climate change. In this study, we investigate (a) What are the different initiatives taken at planned and autonomous level in Punjab province? (b) What are the drivers behind these initiatives? (c) How these initiatives are being transferred within farmer’s community in Punjab and outside Punjab? and (d) What are the challenges for these farmers in adaptation to climate change and governance hurdles in the province? The government has launched massive level awareness campaign in the province. Other important initiatives are institutional capacity enhancement, promotion of climate change research, establishment of linkage with academics, enhancement of capacity building, and involvement of farmers’ community in climate adaptation for agriculture sectors. The autonomous adaptation initiatives include changing planting dates, changing crops types, changing fertilizers, and planting shade trees. Planned level adaptation is primarily driven by coordination among the respective departments, engagement with academics, and availability of financial resources. Autonomous initiatives of the province are mainly driven by the previous experiences of farmers, sustainability in agriculture production, and knowledge sharing.",book:{id:"8298",slug:"climate-change-and-agriculture",title:"Climate Change and Agriculture",fullTitle:"Climate Change and Agriculture"},signatures:"Muhammad Mumtaz, Jose Antonio Puppim de Oliveira and Saleem H. Ali",authors:[{id:"272942",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Mumtaz",slug:"muhammad-mumtaz",fullName:"Muhammad Mumtaz"},{id:"276007",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose A.",middleName:null,surname:"Puppim De Oliveira",slug:"jose-a.-puppim-de-oliveira",fullName:"Jose A. Puppim De Oliveira"},{id:"276379",title:"Prof.",name:"Saleem",middleName:null,surname:"H. Ali",slug:"saleem-h.-ali",fullName:"Saleem H. Ali"}]},{id:"65015",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83344",title:"Climate Stability and the Origin of Agriculture",slug:"climate-stability-and-the-origin-of-agriculture",totalDownloads:1262,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Although modern man had developed long before the migration from Africa began ∼ 55,000 years ago, no agricultural societies developed until about ∼ 10,000 years ago. But in the next 5000 years, agricultures developed in several unrelated regions of the world. It was not a chance occurrence that new agricultures independently appeared in the same 5000 years. The question is what inhibited agriculture worldwide for 44,000 years and what changed ∼ 10,000 years ago? We suggest that a major factor influencing the development of agricultural societies was climate stability. From the experience of several independent cultures, we estimate that the development of agriculture needed about 2000 years of climate free from significant climate variations on time scales of a few centuries.",book:{id:"8298",slug:"climate-change-and-agriculture",title:"Climate Change and Agriculture",fullTitle:"Climate Change and Agriculture"},signatures:"Joan Feynman and Alexander Ruzmaikin",authors:[{id:"276576",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Ruzmaikin",slug:"alexander-ruzmaikin",fullName:"Alexander Ruzmaikin"},{id:"279919",title:"Dr.",name:"Joan",middleName:null,surname:"Feynman",slug:"joan-feynman",fullName:"Joan Feynman"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"63979",title:"Sugarcane Production under Changing Climate: Effects of Environmental Vulnerabilities on Sugarcane Diseases, Insects and Weeds",slug:"sugarcane-production-under-changing-climate-effects-of-environmental-vulnerabilities-on-sugarcane-di",totalDownloads:2252,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Sugarcane is an important crop for bioenergy and sugar, contributing to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of Pakistan. Global warming and increasing greenhouse gas emission result in the increased intensity and frequency of extreme weather events. Temperature stress is a major environmental stress that limits the sugarcane growth, productivity and metabolism worldwide. Numerous biochemical reactions are involved in plant development, and these biochemical reactions are very sensitive to temperature stress. Now a day, temperature stress is a major concern for sugarcane production and approaches for high yield of sugarcane under temperature stress are important agriculture goals. Sugarcane plant adapts a number of acclimation and avoidance mechanism against different environmental stress. Plant survival under different stresses depends on ability to generate and transmit the signal and biochemical and physiological changes. In future, climate change is an important consequence for sugarcane production in the world because of its relative low adaptive capacity, poor forecasting system and high vulnerable to natural hazard. In this review we briefly describe climate change effects on sugarcane, sugar production in several countries especially in Pakistan, future challenges for sugar production under changing climatic scenario and propose strategies for mitigation negative impacts of climate change.",book:{id:"8298",slug:"climate-change-and-agriculture",title:"Climate Change and Agriculture",fullTitle:"Climate Change and Agriculture"},signatures:"Sadam Hussain, Abdul Khaliq, Umer Mehmood, Tauqeer Qadir, Muhammad Saqib, Muhammad Amjed Iqbal and Saddam Hussain",authors:[{id:"247858",title:"Dr.",name:"Saddam",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"saddam-hussain",fullName:"Saddam Hussain"},{id:"270794",title:"Mr.",name:"Sadam",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"sadam-hussain",fullName:"Sadam Hussain"},{id:"270796",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul",middleName:null,surname:"Khaliq",slug:"abdul-khaliq",fullName:"Abdul Khaliq"},{id:"270797",title:"Mr.",name:"Umer",middleName:null,surname:"Mehmood",slug:"umer-mehmood",fullName:"Umer Mehmood"},{id:"270798",title:"Mr.",name:"Tauqeer",middleName:null,surname:"Qadir",slug:"tauqeer-qadir",fullName:"Tauqeer Qadir"},{id:"270800",title:"Mr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Saqib",slug:"muhammad-saqib",fullName:"Muhammad Saqib"},{id:"270801",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Amjed",middleName:null,surname:"Iqbal",slug:"muhammad-amjed-iqbal",fullName:"Muhammad Amjed Iqbal"}]},{id:"67629",title:"Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation in Agricultural Sector: The Case of Local Responses in Punjab, Pakistan",slug:"climate-change-impacts-and-adaptation-in-agricultural-sector-the-case-of-local-responses-in-punjab-p",totalDownloads:1588,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"This study contributes to explore local responses to deal with the impacts of climate change on agriculture sector by looking the case of Punjab, Pakistan. Pakistan’s agriculture is facing severe challenges due to the negative consequences of climate change. In this study, we investigate (a) What are the different initiatives taken at planned and autonomous level in Punjab province? (b) What are the drivers behind these initiatives? (c) How these initiatives are being transferred within farmer’s community in Punjab and outside Punjab? and (d) What are the challenges for these farmers in adaptation to climate change and governance hurdles in the province? The government has launched massive level awareness campaign in the province. Other important initiatives are institutional capacity enhancement, promotion of climate change research, establishment of linkage with academics, enhancement of capacity building, and involvement of farmers’ community in climate adaptation for agriculture sectors. The autonomous adaptation initiatives include changing planting dates, changing crops types, changing fertilizers, and planting shade trees. Planned level adaptation is primarily driven by coordination among the respective departments, engagement with academics, and availability of financial resources. Autonomous initiatives of the province are mainly driven by the previous experiences of farmers, sustainability in agriculture production, and knowledge sharing.",book:{id:"8298",slug:"climate-change-and-agriculture",title:"Climate Change and Agriculture",fullTitle:"Climate Change and Agriculture"},signatures:"Muhammad Mumtaz, Jose Antonio Puppim de Oliveira and Saleem H. Ali",authors:[{id:"272942",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Mumtaz",slug:"muhammad-mumtaz",fullName:"Muhammad Mumtaz"},{id:"276007",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose A.",middleName:null,surname:"Puppim De Oliveira",slug:"jose-a.-puppim-de-oliveira",fullName:"Jose A. Puppim De Oliveira"},{id:"276379",title:"Prof.",name:"Saleem",middleName:null,surname:"H. Ali",slug:"saleem-h.-ali",fullName:"Saleem H. Ali"}]},{id:"67625",title:"Environment, Agriculture, and Land Use Pattern",slug:"environment-agriculture-and-land-use-pattern",totalDownloads:1236,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"This study aimed at the environment, agriculture, and land use pattern and in the arid region of Pakistan. Physiography and location of the study area with respect to coastal region are the key factors that control the climate. There are a number of factors that have their influence on the cropping pattern in the area apart from climate. They include the type of soils, availability of irrigation water, government policies, socioeconomic condition, advance technologies, market value, human demand, etc. The soil of irrigated plain in lower Punjab and Sind is more suitable for the agriculture than other parts, where the water is insufficient for cultivation.",book:{id:"8298",slug:"climate-change-and-agriculture",title:"Climate Change and Agriculture",fullTitle:"Climate Change and Agriculture"},signatures:"Saifullah Khan, Mehmood Ul Hassan and Aslam Khan",authors:[{id:"217378",title:"Dr.",name:"Saifullah",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"saifullah-khan",fullName:"Saifullah Khan"}]},{id:"68075",title:"Salinity Stress in Arid and Semi-Arid Climates: Effects and Management in Field Crops",slug:"salinity-stress-in-arid-and-semi-arid-climates-effects-and-management-in-field-crops",totalDownloads:1957,totalCrossrefCites:28,totalDimensionsCites:44,abstract:"Salinity stress is one of the most vital abiotic stresses which results in significant damages of agricultural production, particularly in arid and semi-arid areas of the world. Salinity causes by high accumulation of soluble salt, especially NaCl in soil and water. Salinity hampers the growth and survival of many field crops such as rice, wheat, maize, cotton, sugarcane, and sorghum. It affects the plant growth by three ways such as osmotic stress linked with an increase of phytotoxic ions, ionic stress e in the cytosol, and oxidative stress facilitated by reactive oxygen species (ROS). These stresses caused by salinity hinder the water uptake, causes ion imbalance, ROS production, and hormonal imbalance, and results in the decline of photosynthesis activities reduce the plant growth and final yield. However, the sensitivity of field crops depends on the nature of cultivar and growth stages. There are many strategies to cope with salinity stress which are the development of salinity tolerant crop cultivators by using genetic and molecular techniques such as QTLs and CRISPR CAS9 technique, nutrients management strategies, use of hormones regulators (AVG, 1-MCP, D-31). This chapter will give a brief idea to the scientist to understand the effects of salinity on field crops and their management strategies.",book:{id:"8298",slug:"climate-change-and-agriculture",title:"Climate Change and Agriculture",fullTitle:"Climate Change and Agriculture"},signatures:"Sajid Hussain, Muhammad Shaukat, Muhammad Ashraf, Chunquan Zhu, Qianyu Jin and Junhua Zhang",authors:[{id:"251798",title:"Dr.",name:"Sajid",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"sajid-hussain",fullName:"Sajid Hussain"},{id:"306452",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaukat",slug:"muhammad-shaukat",fullName:"Muhammad Shaukat"},{id:"306454",title:"Prof.",name:"Qianyu",middleName:null,surname:"Jin",slug:"qianyu-jin",fullName:"Qianyu Jin"},{id:"306455",title:"Dr.",name:"Junhua",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"junhua-zhang",fullName:"Junhua Zhang"},{id:"307063",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ashraf",slug:"muhammad-ashraf",fullName:"Muhammad Ashraf"},{id:"307064",title:"Dr.",name:"Chunquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhu",slug:"chunquan-zhu",fullName:"Chunquan Zhu"}]},{id:"67512",title:"Climate Smart Interventions of Small-Holder Farming Systems",slug:"climate-smart-interventions-of-small-holder-farming-systems",totalDownloads:1846,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Agriculture is very vulnerable to temperature and drought in semi-arid and arid regions. Farming communities are especially vulnerable to the potential impact of climate change on crop and livestock. For Pakistan, a potential increase of 2.8°C for the maximum day temperature and 2.2°C decrease in night temperature by the mid-century has been reported. The goal of this chapter is to introduce climate-smart interventions as mitigation and adaptation strategies coupled with crop diversification through the introduction of climate resilient crops in existing cropping systems. Firstly, it describes the impacts of climate change in context to current food security situation in Pakistan and, secondly, potential climate smart interventions to combat changes in the country. Crop models, their application for developing adaptations, modeling technique and its integration with breeding, remote sensing and its application, policy interventions and resource smart interventions in context to changing climate are imperative means to favor the farming community in future farming. Introducing climate resilient crops can be rescued and recognized in dry and hot areas of Pakistan using climate smart interventions and resource use efficiency may be determined with the aid of computer and decision support IT tools in resource inefficient areas.",book:{id:"8298",slug:"climate-change-and-agriculture",title:"Climate Change and Agriculture",fullTitle:"Climate Change and Agriculture"},signatures:"Asmat Ullah, Ishfaq Ahmad, Habib-ur-Rehman, Umer Saeed, Ashfaq Ahmad, Abid Mahmood and Gerrit Hoogenboom",authors:[{id:"273439",title:"Dr.",name:"Asmat",middleName:null,surname:"Ullah",slug:"asmat-ullah",fullName:"Asmat Ullah"},{id:"273441",title:"Prof.",name:"Ashfaq",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"ashfaq-ahmad",fullName:"Ashfaq Ahmad"},{id:"274896",title:"Dr.",name:"Ishfaq",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"ishfaq-ahmad",fullName:"Ishfaq Ahmad"},{id:"285550",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Habib Ur",middleName:null,surname:"Rahaman",slug:"muhammad-habib-ur-rahaman",fullName:"Muhammad Habib Ur Rahaman"},{id:"285642",title:"Dr.",name:"Umer",middleName:null,surname:"Saeed",slug:"umer-saeed",fullName:"Umer Saeed"},{id:"285643",title:"Dr.",name:"Abid",middleName:null,surname:"Mehmood",slug:"abid-mehmood",fullName:"Abid Mehmood"},{id:"285644",title:"Prof.",name:"Gerrit",middleName:null,surname:"Hoogenboom",slug:"gerrit-hoogenboom",fullName:"Gerrit Hoogenboom"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"844",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"205604",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomas",middleName:null,surname:"Jarzembowski",slug:"tomas-jarzembowski",fullName:"Tomas Jarzembowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKriQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-06-16T11:01:31.jpg",biography:"Tomasz Jarzembowski was born in 1968 in Gdansk, Poland. He obtained his Ph.D. degree in 2000 from the Medical University of Gdańsk (UG). After specialization in clinical microbiology in 2003, he started studying biofilm formation and antibiotic resistance at the single-cell level. In 2015, he obtained his D.Sc. degree. His later study in cooperation with experts in nephrology and immunology resulted in the designation of the new diagnostic method of UTI, patented in 2017. He is currently working at the Department of Microbiology, Medical University of Gdańsk (GUMed), Poland. Since many years, he is a member of steering committee of Gdańsk branch of Polish Society of Microbiologists, a member of ESCMID. He is also a reviewer and a member of editorial boards of a number of international journals.",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorTwo:{id:"484980",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarzyna",middleName:null,surname:"Garbacz",slug:"katarzyna-garbacz",fullName:"Katarzyna Garbacz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003St8TAQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-07-07T09:45:16.jpg",biography:"Katarzyna Maria Garbacz, MD, is an Associate Professor at the Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland and she is head of the Department of Oral Microbiology of the Medical University of Gdańsk. She has published more than 50 scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals. She has been a project leader funded by the National Science Centre of Poland. Prof. Garbacz is a microbiologist working on applied and fundamental questions in microbial epidemiology and pathogenesis. Her research interest is in antibiotic resistance, host-pathogen interaction, and therapeutics development for staphylococcal pathogens, mainly Staphylococcus aureus, which causes hospital-acquired infections. Currently, her research is mostly focused on the study of oral pathogens, particularly Staphylococcus spp.",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. 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Kasenga",hash:"91cde4582ead884cb0f355a19b67cd56",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Malaria",editors:[{id:"86725",title:"Dr.",name:"Fyson",middleName:"Hanania",surname:"Kasenga",slug:"fyson-kasenga",fullName:"Fyson Kasenga",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/86725/images/system/86725.jpg",institutionString:"Malawi Adventist University",institution:{name:"Malawi Adventist University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malawi"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",hash:"61c627da05b2ace83056d11357bdf361",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",editors:[{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7064",title:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7064.jpg",slug:"current-perspectives-in-human-papillomavirus",publishedDate:"May 2nd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",hash:"d92a4085627bab25ddc7942fbf44cf05",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:303,paginationItems:[{id:"280338",title:"Dr.",name:"Yutaka",middleName:null,surname:"Tsutsumi",slug:"yutaka-tsutsumi",fullName:"Yutaka Tsutsumi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280338/images/7961_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fujita Health University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/116250/images/system/116250.jpg",biography:"Professor Nima Rezaei obtained an MD from Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran. He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). 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