The world largest solar power plants [19].
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1847",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Theoretical and Methodological Approaches to Social Sciences and Knowledge Management",title:"Theoretical and Methodological Approaches to Social Sciences and Knowledge Management",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This is a unique and groundbreaking collection of questions and answers coming from higher education institutions on diverse fields and across a wide spectrum of countries and cultures. 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In general, corrosion is defined as the degradation of a material by means of chemical reactions with the surrounding environment. Several types of corrosion occur in a variety of situations in the nuclear power plants. Some of these types are common such as rusting of steel when located in moist environment, and the other type of corrosion such as flow accelerated corrosion required special treatment due to their impact on the plant safety and reliability. FAC degradation mechanism results in thinning of large areas of piping and fittings that can lead to sudden and sometimes to catastrophic failures, as well as a huge economic loss. FAC is a process caused by the flowing water or wet steam damaging or thinning the protective oxide layer of piping components. The FAC process can be described by two mechanisms: the first mechanism is the soluble iron production (Fe2+) at the oxide/water interface, while the second mechanism is the transfer of the corrosion products to the bulk flow across the diffusion boundary layer. Although the FAC is characterize by a general reduction in the pipe wall thickness for a given piping component, it frequently occurs over a limited area within this component due to the local high area of turbulence. The rate of the metal wall loss due to FAC depends on a complex interaction of several parameters such as material composition, water chemistry, and hydrodynamic.
In general, erosion processes or mechanisms can be categorized as:
i. Shear stress erosion: In this category, the surface of a material gets destroyed in single-phase flow at high velocity, by the effects of shear stresses and the variations in the fluid velocity.
ii. Liquid impact induced erosion: This form of erosion occurs in two-phase flow by the impingement of liquid droplets entrained in flowing gases or vapours. It can cause damages to power plant condenser tubes, elbows, turbine blades, etc. The wear process can however be avoided by a combination of improvements in: plant design, drying the steam, and the use of more corrosion-resistant steels.
iii. Flashing-induced erosion: This form of erosion occurs when spontaneous vapour formation takes place due to sudden pressure changes. Locations where this type of erosion occurs are found in drain and vent lines downstream of control valves.
iv. Cavitation erosion: This type of erosion is caused by repeated growth and collapse of bubbles in a flowing fluid as a result of local pressure fluctuations. In the regions of higher pressures downstream, the sudden collapse of gas bubbles results in pressure spikes that may erode the material in their vicinity. These bubbles will however get re-absorbed along the piping system without causing any damage to the downstream straight piping component.
On the other hand, degradation mechanisms involve combined effect of chemical and mechanical processes can be summarized as:
Erosion-corrosion: In this mechanism a combination of mechanical and chemical material degradation processes take place. The combined effect of the two processes is considered more severe especially in the case when copper alloy heat exchanger tubes are exposed to high velocities.
Flow-Accelerated Corrosion: The pipe wall thinning due to this degradation mechanism in carbon steel piping is not due to the mechanical effect only, however, the wall thinning is mainly due to dissolution of normally protective magnetite film that normally forms on the internal pipe wall surface.
It has been observed that the following conditions result in FAC degradation in nuclear or fossil power plants:
Flow conditions: both single- and two-phase flow conditions, with water or water-steam mixture as the flowing liquid, at a temperature of > 95oC, and flow velocity is greater than zero.
Chemistry condition: the flowing liquid should be such that a potential difference exists between the liquid and the carbon steel pipe wall. This difference will be responsible for the dissolution of the protective oxide layer in the flowing stream. A high magnetite solubility and subsequent rapid removal of the magnetite, is facilitated by either demineralised and neutral water or slightly alkalinized water under reducing conditions.
Material: the pipe material must be carbon steel or low-alloy steel. General practice recommends that for a well-designed system, FAC will be effectively inhibited if steel components are made to contain at least 0.1% chromium.
Flow Geometry: FAC has been observed to occur downstream of flow-restricting or redirecting geometries like an orifice, sudden contraction, expansion, elbows, reducers, etc.
Failures and accidents due to FAC degradation have been reported at several nuclear power plants around the world since 1981 [1]. However, detailed analysis of the FAC related failures did not start before the severe elbow rapture downstream of a tee occurred at Surry Unit 2 power plant (USA) in 1989, which caused four fatalities and extensive plant damage and resulted in a plant shutdown. In 1999, an extensive steam leakage from the rupture of the shell side of a feed-water heater at the Point Beach power plant (USA) was reported by Yurmanov and Rakhmanov [2] (Figure 1). In 2004, a fatal pipe rupture downstream of an orifice in the condensate system due to FAC occurred in the Mihama nuclear power plant Unit 3 (Japan) [2]. More recently, the pipe failure downstream of a control valve at Iatan fossil power plant in 2007 resulted in two fatalities and a huge capital of plant loss as reported by Moore [3]. Although, a combination of lab research and attempts to correlate lab results with plant experience has been the major efforts made towards the study of FAC mechanism since the 1970’s, the lab research only focused on understanding the mechanisms, and correlating experimental results in order to reduce the lab effort and to develop usable forms for the plant engineers. Several well cited correlations used to predict the actual corrosion rates due to FAC in piping systems and incorporated in computer software such as CHECWORKS developed by Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI). Following the abovementioned accidents, most utilities around the world have been following EPRI guideline of improving the flow water chemistry to slow down the rate of damage. Also, in the event of disposition of highly susceptible or damaged areas, utilities have typically taken the following initial steps:
Replace individual worn components with other components of same material.
Replace individual worn components with other components of FAC resistant material.
Replace entire worn lines with other components of same material.
Replace entire susceptible lines or the more susceptible portions with other components of FAC resistant material.
The recent review by Ahmed [4] highlighted the significant research conducted on investigating the effect of fluid chemical properties on flow accelerated corrosion (FAC) in nuclear power plants. He concluded that the hydrodynamic effects of single and two-phase flows on FAC have not been thoroughly investigated for many piping components. In order to determine the effect of the proximity between two components on the FAC wear rate, Ahmed [4] has investigated 211 inspection data for 90o carbon steel elbows from several nuclear power plants. The effect of the velocity as well as the distance between the elbows and the upstream components was discussed. Based on the analyzed trends obtained from the inspection data, the author indicated a significant increase in the wear rate of approximately 70% that was identified to be due to the proximity.
Furthermore, the repeated inspections in nuclear power plants have shown that piping components located downstream of flow singularities, such as sudden expansion or contractions, orifices, valves, tees and elbows are most susceptible to FAC damage. This is due to the severe changes in flow direction as well as the development of secondary flow instabilities downstream of these singularities [4]. Moreover, in two-phase flows, the significant phase redistributions downstream of these singularities may aggravate the problem. Therefore, it is important to identify the main flow and geometrical parameters require in characterizing FAC damage downstream of pipe fittings. These parameters are: the geometrical configuration of the components, piping orientation, and the flow turbulence structure which will affect the surface shear stress and mass transfer coefficients.
Examples of failures due to FAC worldwide (Yurmanov and Rakhmanov [
For single phase flow, the secondary vortices and/or flow separation downstream of pipe fittings considered to be important parameters need to be analyzed and modelled while predicting the highest FAC wear rate location. For example; the secondary flows in elbows induce a pressure drop along the elbow wall that can significantly increase the wall mean and oscillatory shear stresses as discussed by Crawford et al. [5]. Also, orifices and valves promote turbulence close to the wall in the downstream pipe and thus enhance the rate of mass transfer at the wall [5]. These mechanisms have been identified as the governing factors responsible for FAC as explained by Chen et al. [6].
The hydrodynamics parameters controlling FAC in two-phase flows are considered more complex than for single-phase flows due to the complexity of two-phase distribution and the unknown interactions between the gas phase and the liquid [8]. These interactions play a major role in the mass, momentum, and energy transfer between the flow phases as explained by Hassan et al. [9]. Also, the inlet two-phase flow pattern plays an important role in the flow dynamics downstream of the orifices since the phase redistribution downstream depend on the upstream flow regime. For example, bubbles can have significant effects on the turbulent kinetic energy close to the wall, affecting the wall shear stress and pressure. Moreover, Jepson [10] showed that high velocity slugs can cause high turbulence and shear forces at the pipe wall and thus enhance the destruction of the protective inhibitor film.
Computational fluid dynamic (CFD) analysis is used to predict turbulent fluid flow with great accuracy for many applications. However, only the recent advances in computational power have allowed the use of CFD for mass transfer and corrosion studies. This indicated that the accurate prediction of mass transfer near the wall requires resolving the mass transfer boundary layer which may be an order of magnitude smaller than the viscous sub-layer. In order to perform the CFD calculations with good accuracy, fine near-wall grids with correct near-wall turbulence models can therefore provide mass transfer data for the corrosion species. In these cases corrosion is controlled by the mass transfer, relation between the wall mass transfer coefficient and corrosion rate can be derived as explained in details by Keating and Nesic [11]. Furthermore, in formulating the CFD codes, consideration is made to the hydrodynamic parameters affecting the mass transfer rate of the corrosion products to the bulk fluid and consequently the FAC rate. These hydrodynamic parameters are the flow velocity, pipe roughness, piping geometry, and steam quality or void fraction for two-phase flow.
The hydrodynamic effects of the working fluid on FAC have been investigated by many researchers using CFD. Bozzini [12] adopted numerical simulations for investigating wall erosion/corrosion inside a pipe bend for a four-phase flow that comprised of two immiscible liquids, gas and particulate solids. On the other hand, Chang et al. [13] suggested an evaluation scheme to estimate the load carrying capacity of thinned-wall pipes exhibiting FAC. In their study, they employed a steady-state incompressible flow CFD code to determine the pressure distributions as input conditions for a structural finite element analyses in order to calculate local stresses. More recently, Ferng [14] developed an approach that used an erosion/corrosion model and three-dimensional single and two-phase flow models to predict locations of serious FAC in power plant piping systems. Their predictions agreed very well with plant measurements.
The FAC process in carbon steel piping is described by three steps. In the first process, metal oxidation occurs at metal/oxide interface in oxygen-free water and explained by the following reactions:
The first process involves the solubility of the ferrous species through the porous oxide layer into the main water flow. This transport across the oxide layer is controlled by the concentration diffusion. The second step is described by the dissolution of magnetite at oxide/water interface as explained by the following reaction:
where:
In the third step (Eq. 4), a diffusion process takes place where the ferrous irons transfer into the bulk flowing water across the diffusion boundary layer. In this process, the species migrated from the metal/oxide interface and the species dissolved at the oxide/water interface diffuse rapidly into the flowing water. In this case, the concentration of ferrous iron in the bulk water is very low compared to the concentration at the oxide/water interface.
It can be noticed that FAC mechanism involves convective mass transfer of the ferrous ions in the water. The convective mass transfer for single phase flow is known to be dependent on the hydrodynamic parameters near the wall interface such as flow velocity, local turbulence, geometry, and surface roughness. In addition, the physical properties of the transported species or the water do not affect the local transport rate in adiabatic flow especially when temperature changes in piping system are negligible. Over a limited length of piping component, FAC rate is considered as direct function of the mass flux of ferrous ions and can be calculated from the convective mass transfer coefficient (
Several research works [15-17] showed that MTC is one of the important parameters affecting FAC and the experimental data are often expressed in terms of Sherwood (
where
where:
In Equation (6), the velocity exponent varies between 0.8 for lower Reynolds numbers and 1.0 for very high Reynolds numbers. This difference in the velocity exponent is caused by the surface roughness. This indicates that the FAC rate increases as the surface roughness increases. It should be also noted that the experimental studies and the correlations developed for MTC were carried out under low flow rates conditions compared with common operating conditions in power generation industry. Therefore, the MTC data obtained in the literature for moderate and high Reynolds numbers at power plant conditions can lead to significant errors.
In the case of piping downstream orifices, Tagg et al. [18] described the wear enhancement profile empirically in terms of the maximum Sherwood number using Reynolds number at the vena contracta section (
On the other hand, the local enhancement profile downstream of the orifice at different axial locations (z) is described empirically by Coney [19] referred to by Chexal et al. [20] as:
where
Another modelling approach for FAC prediction was carried by Remy et al., [21], to develop a criteria in order to avoid FAC damage. They model the FAC mechanism as a combination of two main mechanisms. These mechanisms are divided into two steps. In the first of which is the production of soluble ferrous ions, which is represented by a first-order reaction:
\n\t\t\twhere:
which was finally reduced to:
\n\t\t\tremoval of a surface film above a critical value of
interactions of anodic and cathodic areas, e.g. iron in Nacl or FeCl3 solutions,
coupling of reactions, where flow effects
dual control, e.g. situations in which the rate is partially controlled by activation such as copper alloys in seawater, or alternatively by two transport processes. This tends to lead to a dependency on
A comprehensive report on FAC in power plants, by EPRI [3], presents empirical models that have been used successfully to predict components that are most likely to wear, and provide reasonable estimates of pipe wall-thinning. These models are however computer-based due to the large amount of information that needs to be processed. These models are represented in the following two groups:
Berge model
The model assumed that the chemical dissolution of the magnetite at the oxide/water interface occurs in accordance with the following equation:
\n\t\t\twhere
MIT model
This model is mainly an improved version of Berge’s model considering the diffusion through the porous oxide layer and incorporating both oxide thickness (δ) and porosity (Ѳ), and also considers diffusion of iron hydroxides through the pores, to determine the FAC rate as:
For FAC under two-phase flow condition, Remy et al. [21] indicated that same correlations used for single-phase flow calculations are also applicable in two-phase flow calculations. The only difference in the analysis is the calculation of actual Reynolds number, using the actual water velocity taking into account the void fraction between the steam and water.
EPRI report [3] incorporated the idea of Remy et al. [21] on the use of single phase correlations in clculating FAC under two-phase flow conditions. Calculation begin by determining Reynolds number for the liquid phase,
Where the liquid velocity expressed as:
The flow is considered to be a single phase liquid flow when the steam quality (x) and the steam void fraction (α) are both equal to zero (0), while α = 1 implies no presence of liquid, hence
In two-phase flow the void fraction is usually not equal to steam quality because the liquid and the vapour phases are moving with different velocities, and sometimes in different directions. If homogeneous flow is assumed, the two phase’s velocities are assumed to be equal, which results in a steam quality-void fraction relationship as a function of pressure. However, due to the fact that the homogeneous flow assumption is not suitable for many industrial applications, more sophisticated models were developed by researchers to relate steam quality to void fraction. One of the most cited model is the Chexal-Lellouche void model:
where:
〈
Another model developed by Kuo-Tong et al. [23] to predict FAC damage locations on High pressure (HP) turbine exhaust steam line. Their choice of High pressure (HP) turbine exhaust steam line as a case study was based on the plant measured data of pipe thickness which indicated HP lines as a good example where serious FAC takes place under two phase flow conditions. They reported that FAC phenomenon strongly depends on the piping layout and local flow conditions. They proposed a new mathematical approach to simulate FAC wear rate. The approach includes the use of 3D two-phase flow hydrodynamic CFD model to simulate the two-phase flow behaviour in HP lines, integrated with FAC Models to investigate the impact of the local parameters on FAC damage. The improvement of their new approach over the previous work is the ability to account for the multi-dimensional characteristics applied to FAC wear rate prediction. This is consider a great advantage in predicting FAC compared to the previous codes such as CHECKWORK or CAECE program which are based on empirical correlations that are dependent on the global flow conditions in the piping lines. In developing their code, the following assumptions were adopted:
Adiabatic flow, since the piping in the type of the above-cited facilities is generally thermally insulated.
Droplet-type two-phase flow, because of the high steam quality (> 85%) usually experienced in the studied piping. Hence, the vapour phase (steam) was modelled as a continuous phase and the liquid droplet as a dispersed phase.
Simplified geometries, where valves in the piping are not considered.
Their final hydrodynamic CFD models include two-fluid 3D continuity and momentum equations. Closure relations such as the mixture
In a similar two-phase flow analysis applied to the extraction piping system connecting the low-pressure turbine (LPTB) and feed water heater (FWH) at boiling water reactors (BWR), Yuh et al. [24] developed a code to predict FAC wear in BWR piping system. Their mathematical approach is very similar to the work done by Kuo-Tong et al. [23], with the exception to the addition of corrosion model used. They obtained the local distributions of fluid parameters including two-phase flow velocities, void fractions, turbulent properties, and pressure. These results were further used to establish the relation for droplet kinetic energy that represents the FAC damage. The comparison of between their model and the plant measured data show qualitatively a good agreement.
Once the relationship between mass transfer and FAC wear rate is established, the computational model for MTC downstream of an orifice can be formulated. Fully developed turbulent pipe flow is assumed in order to determine MTC profiles downstream of the orifice. ANSI specifications of orifice were used to construct the geometrical model. Since the experimental condition in the present study is carried out for straight pipe section fabricated from hydrocal (CaSO4.½H2O) downstream of an orifice to simulate faster effect of mass transfer rates. The Solution is obtained for Renormalization Group (RNG)
The velocity field of the incompressible viscous flow is obtained using the one dimensional Reynolds averaged governing equations as follows:
Continuity equation:
Momentum equation:
Species mass transport equation for a steady process with no chemical reaction is:
where:
In Equation (11), the Boussinesq eddy viscosity assumption [25] is used for modeling the Reynold’s stress. The eddy viscosity model relation is expressed as:
where
The turbulence kinetic energy (
Therefore, the equation for turbulence kinetic energy can be also expressed as follows:
and the equation for the turbulence kinetic energy dissipation expressed as:
In Equations (16) and (17) the generation of kinetic energy of turbulence term (
where the effective viscosity (
The calculation of the local MTC is obtained similar to El-Gammal et al. [26] as:
where
where
The concentration of hydrocal species in the bulk of water
where
In order to evaluate the FAC wear rate downstream orifice, the conservation equations are integrated over each control volume in the flow field which extended upstream downstream of the orifice. Reynolds Average Navier-Stokes equations were solved using the K-Ɛ (RNG) differential viscosity turbulence model to account for low-Reynolds-number (LRN) effects. The solution convergence is greatly improved by using fine near-wall grids. Also, the computational mesh was refined where high velocity and species concentration gradients were expected. Due to the high Schmidt numbers encountered in mass transfer problems, Nesic et al. [27] suggested that the maximum value of Y+ should not exceed 0.1.The Reynolds average mass transport equation was also solved for determining the concentration field of the dissolved wall species.
For the present case study, numerical simulations were performed at Reynolds number,
Numerical results for the flow downstream orifice
the flow domain. It can be seen that the flow accelerates as it approaches the orifice then separates at the sharp edges of the orifice, forming large vortices downstream. These vortices sustain the reduction in the flow cross-sectional area further downstream up to the minimum area known as the vena contracta, after which the flow decelerates towards the flow reattachment point. This is the cause of the high velocity central region observed just downstream the orifice which changes to lower velocity region as the flow develops further downstream. Fig. (2b) shows the profiles of the mean horizontal velocity for the three geometries at different axial locations. The ordinate
Another important flow parameter that can be related to the FAC is the skin friction coefficient
Skin friction coefficient along the pipe wall downstream the orifice for different orifice diameters
0.5 and 0.25 respectively. The skin friction coefficient then decreases steeply and reaches a minimum value at
The contours of normalized turbulent kinetic energy (
a) – Contours of normalized turbulent kinetic energy downstream the orifice, for d/D = 0.5 and
The predicted
Mass transfer coefficient distributions downstream the orifice (Re = 20,000)
FAC rate downstream the orifice is shown in Fig. (7) for different
a: Sherwood number distributions downstream the orifice, for different orifice diameters, and
FAC wear rate downstream the orifice, for different orifice diameters, and Re = 20,000
Ultrasonic techniques (UT) measurements are commonly used to determine the wall thinning measurement in nearly all power plants and to provide more accurate data for measuring the remaining wall thickness in piping system. The UT inspection data were obtained at grid intersection points marked on the piping component. The data are usually stored in a data logger and transferred to a PC for further processing using appropriate software. The wall thickness data were obtained at different grid point on the piping as shown in Fig. (8). For each pipe downstream an orifice, the difference between the measured wall thickness and the nominal pipe wall thickness is calculated and considered to be the wear at this axial location along the pipe. Sometimes, scanning within grids and recording the minimum found within each grid square is an acceptable alternative to the above method. However, it should also be noted that scanning within grids and the minimum wall thickness recorded can affect the accuracy of the data if point-to-point comparison between two consecutive inspections times. The inspection data are used to determine whether the component has experienced wear and to identify the location of maximum wall thinning as well as to evaluate the wear rate and indentify wear pattern in piping component.
In the present case study, 132 inspection data collected from 5 nuclear power plants and 3 fossil power plants for piping downstream an orifice were analyzed. The data of very high and low values of wear are compared to adjacent inspection readings in order to remove data outliers. Once the data set for each inspection location is verified, the wear is identified at each band along the pipe axis. The measured wear data at different location from the orifice were presented for different piping systems as shown in Fig. (9). It can be concluded that the effect of geometry found to strongly affect the FAC wear rate downstream of the orifice. The maximum value of the wear found to be located within 5D downstream of the orifice which agrees very well with the inspection data collected from different power plants. Also, the hydrodynamic profiles such as
Inspection grids downstream of the orifice
From the above case study of the flow downstream an orifice, it can be concluded that the size and the geometry of a piping component directly influence the flow velocity and hence the local mass transfer rate. In addition, components with geometries that promote increase in the velocity and turbulence tend to experience higher FAC rate such as elbow, tee, reducers and valves, etc. The effect of turbulence on the FAC rate is represented by the geometry enhancement factor as described by Chexal et al. [20]. Moreover, a component that has another component located close upstream experience more turbulence that further increases the FAC rate. One would expect that such components tend to experience more severe FAC as discussed by Kastner et al. [28] and Poulson [29]. In fact, the piping geometry at the point of rupture at Surry 2, where the elbow located downstream of a T-fittings, is a strong evidence of the proximity effect.
Measured wear rate downstream orifces at different power plants
In summary, a significant amount of research has been conducted on investigating the effect of fluid chemical properties on FAC in nuclear power plants, online monitoring for strategic FAC locations, and FAC control based on chemical fluid decomposition. However, the hydrodynamic effects of single- and two-phase flows on FAC have not been thoroughly investigated, and are currently not well understood. The present case study aims to evaluate the effect of components located in proximity to another component upstream on the pipe wall-thinning rate due to FAC using real inspection data from different degraded elbows in several power plants. Also, to inspire future discussions among the scientific community to revisit the effect of component geometry on FAC wear rate in order establish new codes/correlations that meet actual industrial findings. In order to accomplish this goal, ultrasonic (UT) inspection data for 90o carbon steel elbows for different systems across different nuclear power stations are analyzed in order to quantify the effect of the proximity between components on the FAC wear rate. The effect of the flow velocity as well as the distance between the elbows and the upstream components is also discussed in the present analysis.
The increase in the wear rate due to the proximity is calculated for 90o elbows located within 1D of the upstream Components. Ahmed [4] evaluated several UT data of back-to-back elbows for deferent nuclear power stations as shown in Figure (10). The results are clearly showing an increase in the wear rate due the proximity of the elbow with the upstream components as the majority of the data are consistently above zero. The increase in the wear rate is approximately equal to 70% in average. The distribution of the data occurrence is plotted in Figure (11) to represent the percentage of components to the total used inspections that have the same wear rate. If a linear wear over the operating time is assumed, one can determine the remaining life of component located in the proximity from another component will results in reduction in component life by more than half life. Although the results show a large scatter of the data with a standard deviation of 50%, the proximity is believed to have a significant effect on the wear rate.
Effect of proximity on FAC wear rate
Data occurrence
The other set of UT data is collected for 90o elbows located at different distances (L) from the upstream component are presented. The ratio (L/D) is used to represent the non-dimensional upstream distance with respect to the pipe diameter. As discussed before, a component that has another component located close upstream is expected to experience more turbulence which increases the FAC rate. On the other hand, it is expected that the effect of the turbulence produced from the upstream component becomes much less as the distance from the upstream component increases as shown in Fig. (12). It should be noted that the extent of the proximity effect as shown in Figure (6) is 0 to 5 piping diameters as the a average increase in the wear rate is equal to 70 % (with a standard deviation of 50%) which approximately the same as for elbows within 1D from the upstream components. As the distance between the two components increases the change in the wear rate decreases to reach a minimum value in the fully developed region.
A general trend between the increase in the wear rate and the non-dimensional upstream distance (L/D) is obtained using the average values in the wear rates at different (L/D). The additional effect of the component located upstream close to another component is previously correlated by Kastner et al. (1990) as:
The average values of FAC wear rate in Fig. (12) are compared to the empirical equation proposed by Kastner et al. [28] and found to be in good agreement with the present data shown in Fig. (13). However, the correlation tends to over predict the data as the distance between the components approaches zero which can be attributed to the accuracy of the proposed correlation and the UT measurements uncertainty.
Effect of the upstream distance on the wear rate
Comparing data with Kastner et al. [
As discussed before, components with geometries that promote increase in the flow velocity and turbulence tend to experience higher FAC rate such as elbow, tee, reducers downstream of orifices and valves, etc. Therefore, the turbulence production is expected to be dependent on the component geometry. Consequently, the type of the upstream component could be also considered as a contributing factor and should be considered while performing the flow and mass transfer analysis.
The effect of geometry found to strongly affect the FAC wear rate. For example, the maximum value of the wear found to be located within 5D downstream of the orifice. Also, the analyzed trends obtained from the plants inspection data show significant increase in the wear rate due to the component proximity. The CFD simulation of the hydrodynamic parameters such as
The support provided by the Deanship of Scientific Research (DSR) at King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals (KFUPM) for funding this research work through project No. IN090038, is gratefully acknowledged. The author also thanks Mr. Mufatiu Bello for carrying out the data analysis of the orifice case study.
Also, the author would like to thank Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd. (AECL), and the CANDU Owner Group (COG) for their support and permission to publish the data on plant close-proximity effect presented in this chapter. The data have been also presented by the author and analyzed in the Annals of Nuclear Energy (37 (2010) 598–605)
The concept of energy transition is defined as a transformation of fossil-based energy resources to non-carbonated during the upcoming years [1]. Hence, supplying energy through renewable resources that can be naturally replenished on a human timescale is being of great importance. This form of energy is named renewable energy and is mostly sustainable and environmentally friendly. Renewable energy can be easily converted into different types of energy (e.g., electricity, heat)
Accordingly, in 2015, the international community set the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) as a part of the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development [2]. The goals include pledges to eliminate poverty, starvation, etc. Of all the goals set by the international community, some goals such as to supply clean energy, to protect the climate, and so on were energy-related. It is mentioned that the seventh goal (known as SDG7) attempts to provide services for clean, affordable, and modern energy all over the world and increase the portion of renewable energy among the other types by 2030. Also, since all countries in the world are prone to suffer from climate change, SDG13 tries to increase the immunity by either enhancing the resilience of different countries or educating people and raising awareness.
The main source of energy to move the atmosphere is the sun. This energy is radiated in the form of electromagnetic waves with a wavelength between 0.2 and 4 μm (see Figure 1). The smallest measurable amount of an electromagnetic field is called a photon. The modernized definition of photon is derived from research (which were based on those carried out by the German physicist Max Planck) done by Albert Einstein from 1900s to 1920s. In 1926, the term “photon” was popularized by Gilbert Lewis in his letter written to the Nature magazine.
The Earth’s radiation budget [
The power that is received from the sun in the form of solar electromagnetic radiation per unit area over a given time period is named solar irradiance and is measured in W/m2 in SI units. Irradiance can be measured in space or at the Earth’s surface after it has partially been absorbed by the atmosphere as well as scattered. On the Earth’s surface, the amount of irradiance is a function of the tilt of the measuring surface, the height of the sun above the horizon, and also the atmospheric conditions. Figure 2 depicts the irradiance of the sun at the Earth’s surface in both a direct normal irradiation (DNI) and a global horizontal irradiation (GHI).
(a) The world’s map of the direct normal solar irradiation (DNI) at the Earth’s surface and (b) the world’s map of the global horizontal irradiation (GHI) at the Earth’s surface according to Global Solar Atlas 2.0 [
The light and heat that are radiated from the sun are often named solar energy and are one of the most significant sources of renewable energy. Solar energy can be harnessed through some technologies that are categorized into two main classes namely active solar technologies such as photovoltaic systems and passive solar technologies that include a wide variety of techniques such as orienting a building to the sun.
The history of photovoltaics (PV) dates back to 1800s when Alexandre Edmond Becquerel observed PV effect. This was followed by testing the first solar cell with the efficiency of less than 1% in 1883. It was then in the first two decades of the twentieth century when Albert Einstein published his paper on photoelectric effect that resulted in his first and only Noble Prize in 1921. A decade later, in 1931, the first pure semiconductor was developed. At first, in 1950s, solar cells were utilized for space applications. In 1957, solar cells with around 8% of efficiency were developed, a record that was soon broken by Hoffman Electronics to a high of 10 and 14% in 1959 and 1960, respectively. Soon after, the first amorphous silicon PV cell was developed and the global PV capacity rose to 500 kW. This amount grew even further and reached a high of 21.3 MW in 1983. In about 20 years, in 2002, 175-kW high-concentrating PV plant was installed in Arizona, United States. Four years later, the world witnessed a new record of 40% efficiency for PV technology. With the increase in the global PV capacity to 100 GW in 2012, the manufacturing costs reduced significantly to $1.25 per watt. In 2016, the first solar-powered plane flew around the world [5]. Figure 3 depicts the PV power potential in the world.
The world’s map of photovoltaic power potential [
Solar photovoltaic generation has broken the record of 156 GWh (23%) in 2020 to reach 821 GWh, which proved the second largest growth of all renewable technologies in 2020, slightly behind wind and ahead of hydropower. In China, the United States, and Vietnam, an unprecedented surge (a record of 134 GW) in PV capacity additions took place. Solar PV is undeniably becoming the lowest cost option for electricity generation all around the world and is expected to attract a vast amount of investment in the coming years [6].
Furthermore, solar energy is predicted to play a key role in the future global energy system owing to the scale of the solar resource. The installed solar photovoltaic (PV) throughout the world exceeded 1 TW at the beginning of 2022. This brought the world into the era of TW-scale PV [7]. This will definitely be fortified by the rapid expansion of PV industry as well as everyday cost decreases. The world envisions a future with nearly 10 TW of PV by 2030 and 30–70 TW by 2050, which can provide a majority of global energy [8].
The term “solar cell” was previously mentioned in the history of photovoltaics. In fact, solar cell is attributed to any device that directly converts the energy of light into electrical energy through the photovoltaic effect. The vast majority of solar cells are fabricated from silicon with rising efficiency and decreasing cost as the materials range from amorphous (non-crystalline) to polycrystalline and monocrystalline (single crystal) silicon forms. Solar cells, in comparison with batteries or fuel cells, do not utilize chemical reactions or require fuel to produce electricity, and, compared with electric generators, they do not have any moving parts [9].
As previously mentioned, solar cells are usually categorized into four main classes including the following:
(1) Monocrystalline solar cells that are also known as single crystalline cells and are very easy to identify due to their dark black color. They are made from a very pure form of silicon that has made them become the most efficient material for the process of sunlight conversion into electricity, (2) polycrystalline cells (multi-silicon cells) that were the first solar cells to be developed in the industry in the beginning of 1980s, (3) amorphous solar cells that, as the word “amorphous” meaning “shapeless” suggests, are not structured or crystallized on a molecular level and were commonly used for small-scale applications, and (4) thin film solar cells that are manufactured by placing several thin layers of photovoltaic on top of each other to create the module [10].
Another important concept in this area is named “the spectral response.” A solar cell’s spectral response to light of a single wavelength is its response at that specific wavelength multiplied by the intensity of the light. If the actual irradiance and device spectral response profiles are symmetrical around the center wavelength, then the currents generated from light on each side of the center are equal, and their sum is equivalent to the current that the device would generate if illuminated by a single-wavelength source of the same intensity (see Figure 4) [12].
The solar spectral irradiance at air mass 0 (AM0) and global air mass 1.5 (AM1.5G) and the cutoff wavelength of semiconductor materials for common solar cell applications [
On the other hand, efficiency is the most commonly used parameter to compare the performance of one solar cell to another. It is defined as the ratio of the output energy from a solar cell to the input energy from the sun. Moreover, the efficiency also depends on the spectrum and intensity of the sunlight and the temperature of the solar cell. Therefore, conditions under which efficiency is measured must be carefully controlled in order to properly compare the performance of one device to another. Terrestrial solar cells are measured under AM1.5 conditions and at an ambient temperature of 25°C. Whereas for space uses, solar cells are measured under AM0 conditions. A comprehensive report on the past, and recent and projected solar cell efficiency results is provided in Figure 5 [13].
Solar cell efficiencies throughout the history [
Solar cells are arranged into large groupings, which are called solar arrays. These arrays, composed of thousands of solar cells, can be considered as central electric power stations which convert sunlight into electrical energy to be distributed to industrial, commercial, and residential consumption. On the other hand, in a smaller scale, the configuration is commonly referred to as solar modules, which are mostly installed by homeowners on their rooftops to replace their conventional electric supply. Solar modules are also used to provide electric power in many remote areas where conventional electric power sources are either unavailable or prohibitively expensive to install. Solar cells also provide power for most space installs, from communications and weather satellites to space stations owing to the fact that they do not have any moving parts; therefore, there is no need for maintenance or any fuels that would require replenishment. Solar cells (as will be discussed further ahead) have also been used in consumer products, such as electronic toys, calculators, and radios [9]. However, in a large-scale version, in solar PV plants (see Figure 6), thermal energy from the sun is utilized and further transformed into electrical energy using photovoltaic modules installed in an optimal configuration. The thermal energy is abundant, easy to access, and cheap. Another type of solar power plant (which does not seem to be as common as the previous type) is the concentrated solar power plant, which contains plenty of mirrors or lenses that are carefully placed in an organized way to concentrate on collected heat to one specific position, which is further utilized to supply power for a steam turbine that generates electricity [15].
An PV power plant located in Hungary [
According to Feldman et al. [16], from 2010 to 2020, the addition to global PV capacity grew from 17 to 139 GWDC in a way that the global PV installations reached 760 GWDC at the end of 2020. In 2020, approximately 100 MW of concentrated solar power was added in China. At the end of that year, 57% of cumulative PV installations were in Asia, 22% were in Europe, and 15% were in the Americas. The United States is now the country with the second largest cumulative installed PV capacity.
Also, China, the United States, Japan, Germany, and India were the leading five markets in cumulative PV installations at the end of 2020. However, Vietnam, with more than 11 GW of installations in 2020, took India away from the top five for annual deployment.
According to IEA estimation, in 2020, PV was the main source of 3.7% of global electricity generation. Although the United States was a leading PV market, it was below the average and other leading markets concerning PV generation as a percentage of total country electricity generation, with 3.4%.
From Q1 2020 to Q1 2021, installations in China, the United States, and Germany increased from 35 to 45%, and specifically those in India rose 89% although analysts argued that India’s large increase was due to developers finishing delayed 2020 projects. Despite the growth in installations, it was not necessarily indicative of 2021 as a whole. A significant portion of deployment often comes toward the end of the year. Significant supply constraints, increased costs, and resurgent waves of the pandemic (particularly in India) might suppress installations, see Figure 7.
Current and projected installations throughout the world [
Analysts also predict continued growth in annual global PV installations, with a median estimate of 209 GWDC in 2022 and 231 GWDC in 2023. China, Europe, the United States, and India are anticipated to involve in about two-thirds of global PV installations over this period. Analysts note that these projections come despite many projects in 2022 risking delay or cancelation because of increasing material and shipping costs, see Figure 8 [11]. Table 1 lists the top 14 PV power plants around the world.
Installation growth from 2020 to 2021 [
The world largest solar power plants [19].
Photovoltaic technology has many applications to improve human life. To date, many applications of this technology have been utilized in industry as well as by ordinary users (see Figure 9). However, the advances in this technology do not certainly end with its current applications, and therefore, it sees many bright horizons ahead. Numerous examples of new applications of photovoltaic technology are as follows.
Various examples of novel applications of photovoltaic technology are as the follows: (a) BAPV [
BAPV is the classic arrangement of photovoltaic systems and solar cells mounted on the roofs or building surfaces. Although it is probable to be aesthetically problematic, this is to avoid any sort of shading as much as possible. Moreover, in this application, the installer is required to utilize several pieces of equipment such as those needed for the mounting system.
In comparison with BAPV, BIPV is an innovative design in which solar cell and in general the photovoltaic system are integrated with the construction itself, either the façade (e.g., walls, windows) or the roofs as skylights, shingles, etc. [32]. Therefore, it is targeted to be practiced as a phase of aesthetics with any utilitarian views.
LSC PV devices consist of transparent optical light guides typically made of a polymer or glass containing luminophores with one or more photovoltaic (PV) solar cells mounted on one or more edges and sometimes rear of the light guide [33, 34]. The sunlight is then intercepted by small photovoltaic cells and sequently converted into electricity. The main advantage of LSC is that it is capable of producing electricity even in low-light conditions and can be incorporated into architectural structures particularly as transparent elements. LSC’s outstanding versatility is undeniable since it can be integrated either with houses and buildings as a colored window, a leaf roof, a smart window, etc., or with urban facilities as a noise barrier, a parking shed, etc.
Recently, Aghaei et al. have developed attractive mosaic LSC PV devices made by miniaturizing cubical light guides and mounting bifacial solar cells to the edges of neighboring light guides, as well as optionally attaching monofacial PV to the bottom sides. These mosaic LSC PV devices could be applied to make solar energy ubiquitous to the urban setting where it requires making visually appealing devices that can function in the challenging lighting conditions found in cities. Thus, by developing such colorful, visually appealing mosaic LSC PV devices, one can accelerate the general acceptance of solar energy in the built environment, even with the modest efficiency devices [35].
Although photovoltaic technology is mostly utilized in grid-connected applications, a new application could be the integration of photovoltaic into battery electric vehicles, creating a VIPV. Photovoltaic can help recharging the vehicle battery, without being connected to a charging station. VIPV can make transport more sustainable and seems to be cost-efficient. Accompanied with a systematic appropriate installation, it can also appear in solar cars, buses, spacecrafts, boats, UAVs (unmanned aerial vehicles), trains, hybrid airships, AUVs (autonomous undersea vehicles), bikes, etc.
Another impactful application of solar cells is to be installed especially on top of street or roadway lights as a power supply. The installment is usually accompanied with an oversized battery not only to power the system at nights or in low-light conditions but also to enable an autonomous performance in aforementioned conditions up to even five days [36]. Furthermore, the autonomy helps the system to remain needless to be constantly connected to the grid so that the whole system will be able to work properly for a specific period of time even off-grid.
Slightly different from VIPVs, charging stations are usually roof-mounted and much simpler in terms of power electronic devices. These stations, therefore, are lighter in weight and smaller in the area they occupy. As a result, the stations are often cheaper and easier to be maintained for a long time.
A tremendous amount of sunlight scatters regularly all over the ground, which can be harvested with the aid of specifically designed machines, vehicles, and equipment. An example of these vehicles is a bike ridden along a solar-cell-covered path and is known as a PV bike path. The bike is designed in a way that the wheels are in a high level of friction with the path [37]. This might be the point of entry into the maximization of land utilization along with power generation.
Zero-energy buildings (ZEBs) generally refer to a category of buildings with very high energy performance, characterized by a very low or approximately zero annual energy requirement. The required amount of energy is entirely or significantly covered by renewable energy, including energy from renewable sources produced on-site or nearby [38]. This renewable energy can be comprised of PV systems being used to supply electric energy demand, etc.
Air conditioning has always been an important issue either in industrial, commercial, or residual consumption. The use of PV systems in this area can produce a noticeable reduction in energy costs and bring about economic benefits. Also, using a PV-powered air conditioner has proved to conserve nearly 67 and 77% of the grid energy in summer during the day and at night, respectively [39].
Owing to the great flexibility of PV technology, PV windrails are a novel combination of both wind and solar energy. The device is mostly installed on the rooftop of a building to obtain the maximum speed of the blowing wind. The wind then heads toward a channel to generate electricity using turbine generators.
PV trees are one of the most intriguing applications, which can be achieved from PV systems. The problem of land shortage or even the urban aesthetics can cause the system to be lifted and mounted on top of steel stems, which physically resembles a tree with PV modules as the leaves on top. The system can bring numerous advantages from simply charging small handy gadgets to supplying the power needed for street lights and electric vehicles. The future of PV trees seems to be extremely promising.
Pavements have covered 30–40% of the urban surface [40] and are considered as enormous potential for PV installments and energy generation through solar PV modules. Surprisingly, studies have shown that even the temperature on the surface of walkable PV pavements or cycling tracks is proved to be lower than that on conventional pavements.
A novel idea in PV systems installation is to integrate the natural landscape with solar PV modules. The idea is developed in a way that bifacial PV modules can be utilized vertically to avoid using flat spacious surfaces, rooftops, etc., and therefore taking advantage of more installation space to increase the amount of power generated by the system.
Integrated with several products, solar photovoltaic energy can be exploited to yield grid-independent, battery saving, and wasteless devices. Many calculators and watches have been utilizing solar energy for ages to supply power. Moreover, the area of usage can be (and even is in some cases) expanded to lamps, chargers, scales, etc., even though the design is definitely under development and progression for further utilizations [41].
In areas suffering from land limitation, the concept of floating photovoltaic systems and utilizing the area on the surface of water can be highly advantageous. The system is even capable of being integrated with hydropower electricity transmission system to end up a higher efficiency [30].
Another novel idea that can be achieved through the flexibility of PV technology is to use the spacious area underwater to locate the PV arrays and to take advantage of the natural cooling system. One appropriate space is a swimming pool where the modules can be installed both on the edges and on the pool floor.
The term “Agri-voltaic system” refers to a combined production of photovoltaic power and agricultural products on the same area of land. Solar modules and crops share light and radiation so that modules that are located above part of the crops generate shade and create a kind of microclimate over the mentioned area. Therefore, the result will be more fresh products, less water requirement for the plants, and lower losses due to evaporation [42].
To wrap up, the world has long been transitioning from fossil fuels to renewables. Not only does this help preserve the environment, but it also brings about other benefits under the sustainable development goals (SDGs) by the international community, including the fight against poverty and hunger. Moreover, photovoltaic technology has been facilitating people’s lives for many years. Over 183 GW of photovoltaic systems was installed worldwide, which is nearly 40 GW more than 2020. Many countries, including China, the United States, and India, have paid special attention to photovoltaic technology to meet their electrical and thermal needs, both in industry and in the field of home consumption. As of 2020, cumulative installed solar power capacity in China that leads the whole world in this field had reached almost 253 GW. Also, as mentioned, with the increase in progress in the photovoltaic industry and also the daily increasing reduction of prices in this field, the solar resources will reach the level of Terawatt-scale in the coming years. Moreover, areas of photovoltaic use are transitioning from conventional to more advanced areas such as PV pavements, BIPV, agri-voltaic systems. Undoubtedly, due to the increasing advances in photovoltaic technology, its use in the future will be much wider and more common than today.
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Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. 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The performance of these filters will be compared exploitation the applied mathematics parameter Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PSNR).",book:{id:"6144",slug:"high-resolution-neuroimaging-basic-physical-principles-and-clinical-applications",title:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging",fullTitle:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging - Basic Physical Principles and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Hanafy M. Ali",authors:[{id:"213318",title:"Dr.",name:"Hanafy",middleName:"M.",surname:"Ali",slug:"hanafy-ali",fullName:"Hanafy Ali"}]},{id:"46296",doi:"10.5772/57398",title:"Physiological Role of Amyloid Beta in Neural Cells: The Cellular Trophic Activity",slug:"physiological-role-of-amyloid-beta-in-neural-cells-the-cellular-trophic-activity",totalDownloads:5943,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:32,abstract:null,book:{id:"3846",slug:"neurochemistry",title:"Neurochemistry",fullTitle:"Neurochemistry"},signatures:"M. del C. Cárdenas-Aguayo, M. del C. Silva-Lucero, M. Cortes-Ortiz,\nB. Jiménez-Ramos, L. 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Luna-Muñoz and M.A.\nMeraz-Ríos",authors:[{id:"42225",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Luna-Muñoz",slug:"jose-luna-munoz",fullName:"Jose Luna-Muñoz"},{id:"114746",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Meraz-Ríos",slug:"marco-meraz-rios",fullName:"Marco Meraz-Ríos"},{id:"169616",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria del Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Cardenas-Aguayo",slug:"maria-del-carmen-cardenas-aguayo",fullName:"Maria del Carmen Cardenas-Aguayo"},{id:"169857",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria del Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Silva-Lucero",slug:"maria-del-carmen-silva-lucero",fullName:"Maria del Carmen Silva-Lucero"},{id:"169858",title:"Dr.",name:"Maribel",middleName:null,surname:"Cortes-Ortiz",slug:"maribel-cortes-ortiz",fullName:"Maribel Cortes-Ortiz"},{id:"169859",title:"Dr.",name:"Berenice",middleName:null,surname:"Jimenez-Ramos",slug:"berenice-jimenez-ramos",fullName:"Berenice Jimenez-Ramos"},{id:"169860",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Gomez-Virgilio",slug:"laura-gomez-virgilio",fullName:"Laura Gomez-Virgilio"},{id:"169861",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerardo",middleName:null,surname:"Ramirez-Rodriguez",slug:"gerardo-ramirez-rodriguez",fullName:"Gerardo Ramirez-Rodriguez"},{id:"169862",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Vera-Arroyo",slug:"eduardo-vera-arroyo",fullName:"Eduardo Vera-Arroyo"},{id:"169863",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosana Sofia",middleName:null,surname:"Fiorentino-Perez",slug:"rosana-sofia-fiorentino-perez",fullName:"Rosana Sofia Fiorentino-Perez"},{id:"169864",title:"Dr.",name:"Ubaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia",slug:"ubaldo-garcia",fullName:"Ubaldo Garcia"}]},{id:"41589",doi:"10.5772/50323",title:"The Role of the Amygdala in Anxiety Disorders",slug:"the-role-of-the-amygdala-in-anxiety-disorders",totalDownloads:9753,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"2599",slug:"the-amygdala-a-discrete-multitasking-manager",title:"The Amygdala",fullTitle:"The Amygdala - A Discrete Multitasking Manager"},signatures:"Gina L. Forster, Andrew M. Novick, Jamie L. Scholl and Michael J. Watt",authors:[{id:"145620",title:"Dr.",name:"Gina",middleName:null,surname:"Forster",slug:"gina-forster",fullName:"Gina Forster"},{id:"146553",title:"BSc.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Novick",slug:"andrew-novick",fullName:"Andrew Novick"},{id:"146554",title:"MSc.",name:"Jamie",middleName:null,surname:"Scholl",slug:"jamie-scholl",fullName:"Jamie Scholl"},{id:"146555",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Watt",slug:"michael-watt",fullName:"Michael Watt"}]},{id:"26258",doi:"10.5772/28300",title:"Excitotoxicity and Oxidative Stress in Acute Ischemic Stroke",slug:"excitotoxicity-and-oxidative-stress-in-acute-ischemic-stroke",totalDownloads:7206,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:27,abstract:null,book:{id:"931",slug:"acute-ischemic-stroke",title:"Acute Ischemic Stroke",fullTitle:"Acute Ischemic Stroke"},signatures:"Ramón Rama Bretón and Julio César García Rodríguez",authors:[{id:"73430",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramon",middleName:null,surname:"Rama",slug:"ramon-rama",fullName:"Ramon Rama"},{id:"124643",title:"Prof.",name:"Julio Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"García",slug:"julio-cesar-garcia",fullName:"Julio Cesar García"}]},{id:"62072",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78695",title:"Brain-Computer Interface and Motor Imagery Training: The Role of Visual Feedback and Embodiment",slug:"brain-computer-interface-and-motor-imagery-training-the-role-of-visual-feedback-and-embodiment",totalDownloads:1473,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"Controlling a brain-computer interface (BCI) is a difficult task that requires extensive training. Particularly in the case of motor imagery BCIs, users may need several training sessions before they learn how to generate desired brain activity and reach an acceptable performance. A typical training protocol for such BCIs includes execution of a motor imagery task by the user, followed by presentation of an extending bar or a moving object on a computer screen. In this chapter, we discuss the importance of a visual feedback that resembles human actions, the effect of human factors such as confidence and motivation, and the role of embodiment in the learning process of a motor imagery task. Our results from a series of experiments in which users BCI-operated a humanlike android robot confirm that realistic visual feedback can induce a sense of embodiment, which promotes a significant learning of the motor imagery task in a short amount of time. We review the impact of humanlike visual feedback in optimized modulation of brain activity by the BCI users.",book:{id:"6610",slug:"evolving-bci-therapy-engaging-brain-state-dynamics",title:"Evolving BCI Therapy",fullTitle:"Evolving BCI Therapy - Engaging Brain State Dynamics"},signatures:"Maryam Alimardani, Shuichi Nishio and Hiroshi Ishiguro",authors:[{id:"11981",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Ishiguro",slug:"hiroshi-ishiguro",fullName:"Hiroshi Ishiguro"},{id:"231131",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Alimardani",slug:"maryam-alimardani",fullName:"Maryam Alimardani"},{id:"231134",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuichi",middleName:null,surname:"Nishio",slug:"shuichi-nishio",fullName:"Shuichi Nishio"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"29764",title:"Underlying Causes of Paresthesia",slug:"underlying-causes-of-paresthesia",totalDownloads:193348,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"1069",slug:"paresthesia",title:"Paresthesia",fullTitle:"Paresthesia"},signatures:"Mahdi Sharif-Alhoseini, Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar and Alexander R. Vaccaro",authors:[{id:"91165",title:"Prof.",name:"Vafa",middleName:null,surname:"Rahimi-Movaghar",slug:"vafa-rahimi-movaghar",fullName:"Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar"}]},{id:"63258",title:"Anatomy and Function of the Hypothalamus",slug:"anatomy-and-function-of-the-hypothalamus",totalDownloads:4632,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"The hypothalamus is a small but important area of the brain formed by various nucleus and nervous fibers. Through its neuronal connections, it is involved in many complex functions of the organism such as vegetative system control, homeostasis of the organism, thermoregulation, and also in adjusting the emotional behavior. The hypothalamus is involved in different daily activities like eating or drinking, in the control of the body’s temperature and energy maintenance, and in the process of memorizing. It also modulates the endocrine system through its connections with the pituitary gland. Precise anatomical description along with a correct characterization of the component structures is essential for understanding its functions.",book:{id:"6331",slug:"hypothalamus-in-health-and-diseases",title:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases",fullTitle:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases"},signatures:"Miana Gabriela Pop, Carmen Crivii and Iulian Opincariu",authors:null},{id:"57103",title:"GABA and Glutamate: Their Transmitter Role in the CNS and Pancreatic Islets",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-their-transmitter-role-in-the-cns-and-pancreatic-islets",totalDownloads:3565,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are the major neurotransmitters in the mammalian brain. Inhibitory GABA and excitatory glutamate work together to control many processes, including the brain’s overall level of excitation. The contributions of GABA and glutamate in extra-neuronal signaling are by far less widely recognized. In this chapter, we first discuss the role of both neurotransmitters during development, emphasizing the importance of the shift from excitatory to inhibitory GABAergic neurotransmission. The second part summarizes the biosynthesis and role of GABA and glutamate in neurotransmission in the mature brain, and major neurological disorders associated with glutamate and GABA receptors and GABA release mechanisms. The final part focuses on extra-neuronal glutamatergic and GABAergic signaling in pancreatic islets of Langerhans, and possible associations with type 1 diabetes mellitus.",book:{id:"6237",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-new-developments-in-neurotransmission-research",title:"GABA And Glutamate",fullTitle:"GABA And Glutamate - New Developments In Neurotransmission Research"},signatures:"Christiane S. Hampe, Hiroshi Mitoma and Mario Manto",authors:[{id:"210220",title:"Prof.",name:"Christiane",middleName:null,surname:"Hampe",slug:"christiane-hampe",fullName:"Christiane Hampe"},{id:"210485",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Manto",slug:"mario-manto",fullName:"Mario Manto"},{id:"210486",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Mitoma",slug:"hiroshi-mitoma",fullName:"Hiroshi Mitoma"}]},{id:"35802",title:"Cross-Cultural/Linguistic Differences in the Prevalence of Developmental Dyslexia and the Hypothesis of Granularity and Transparency",slug:"cross-cultural-linguistic-differences-in-the-prevalence-of-developmental-dyslexia-and-the-hypothesis",totalDownloads:3622,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"673",slug:"dyslexia-a-comprehensive-and-international-approach",title:"Dyslexia",fullTitle:"Dyslexia - A Comprehensive and International Approach"},signatures:"Taeko N. Wydell",authors:[{id:"87489",title:"Prof.",name:"Taeko",middleName:"N.",surname:"Wydell",slug:"taeko-wydell",fullName:"Taeko Wydell"}]},{id:"58597",title:"Testosterone and Erectile Function: A Review of Evidence from Basic Research",slug:"testosterone-and-erectile-function-a-review-of-evidence-from-basic-research",totalDownloads:1370,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Androgens are essential for male physical activity and normal erectile function. Hence, age-related testosterone deficiency, known as late-onset hypogonadism (LOH), is considered a risk factor for erectile dysfunction (ED). This chapter summarizes relevant basic research reports examining the effects of testosterone on erectile function. Testosterone affects several organs and is especially active on the erectile tissue. The mechanism of testosterone deficiency effects on erectile function and the results of testosterone replacement therapy (TRT) have been well studied. Testosterone affects nitric oxide (NO) production and phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE-5) expression in the corpus cavernosum through molecular pathways, preserves smooth muscle contractility by regulating both contraction and relaxation, and maintains the structure of the corpus cavernosum. Interestingly, testosterone deficiency has relationship to neurological diseases, which leads to ED. Testosterone replacement therapy is widely used to treat patients with testosterone deficiency; however, this treatment might also induce some problems. Basic research suggests that PDE-5 inhibitors, L-citrulline, and/or resveratrol therapy might be effective therapeutic options for testosterone deficiency-induced ED. Future research should confirm these findings through more specific experiments using molecular tools and may shed more light on endocrine-related ED and its possible treatments.",book:{id:"5994",slug:"sex-hormones-in-neurodegenerative-processes-and-diseases",title:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases",fullTitle:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases"},signatures:"Tomoya Kataoka and Kazunori Kimura",authors:[{id:"219042",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tomoya",middleName:null,surname:"Kataoka",slug:"tomoya-kataoka",fullName:"Tomoya Kataoka"},{id:"229066",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazunori",middleName:null,surname:"Kimura",slug:"kazunori-kimura",fullName:"Kazunori Kimura"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"18",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82953",title:"Early Visual Areas are Activated during Object Recognition in Emerging Images",slug:"early-visual-areas-are-activated-during-object-recognition-in-emerging-images",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105756",abstract:"Human observers can reliably segment visual input and recognise objects. However, the underlying processes happen so quickly that they normally cannot be captured with fMRI. We used Emerging Images (EI), which contains a hidden object and extends the process of recognition, to investigate the involvement of early visual areas (V1, V2 and V3) and lateral occipital complex (LOC) in object recognition. The early visual areas were located with a retinotopy scan and the LOC with a localiser. The participants (N=8) then viewed an EI, followed by the hidden object’s silhouette (disambiguation), and then, the EI was repeated. BOLD responses before and after disambiguation were compared. The retinotopy parameters were used to back-project the BOLD response onto the visual field, creating spatially detailed maps of the activity change. V1 and V2 (but not V3) showed stronger response after disambiguation, while there was no difference in the LOC. The back-projections revealed no distinct pattern or changes in activity on object location, indicating that the activity in V1 and V2 is not specific for voxels corresponding to the object location. We found no difference before and after disambiguation in the LOC, which may be repetition suppression counteracting the effect of recognition.",book:{id:"11374",title:"Sensory Nervous System - Computational Neuroimaging Investigations of Topographical Organization in Human Sensory Cortex",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11374.jpg"},signatures:"Marleen Bakker, Hinke N. Halbertsma, Nicolás Gravel, Remco Renken, Frans W. Cornelissen and Barbara Nordhjem"},{id:"82931",title:"Neuroinflammation in Traumatic Brain Injury",slug:"neuroinflammation-in-traumatic-brain-injury",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105178",abstract:"Neuroinflammation following traumatic brain injury (TBI) is an important cause of secondary brain injury that perpetuates the duration and scope of disease after initial impact. This chapter discusses the pathophysiology of acute and chronic neuroinflammation, providing insight into factors that influence the acute clinical course and later functional outcomes. Secondary injury due to neuroinflammation is described by mechanisms of action such as ischemia, neuroexcitotoxicity, oxidative stress, and glymphatic and lymphatic dysfunction. Neurodegenerative sequelae of inflammation, including chronic traumatic encephalopathy, which are important to understand for clinical practice, are detailed by disease type. Prominent research topics of TBI animal models and biomarkers of traumatic neuroinflammation are outlined to provide insight into the advances in TBI research. We then discuss current clinical treatments in TBI and their implications in preventing inflammation. To complete the chapter, recent research models, novel biomarkers, and future research directions aimed at mitigating TBI will be described and will highlight novel therapeutic targets. Understanding the pathophysiology and contributors of neuroinflammation after TBI will aid in future development of prophylaxis strategies, as well as more tailored management and treatment algorithms. This topic chapter is important to both clinicians and basic and translational scientists, with the goal of improving patient outcomes in this common disease.",book:{id:"11367",title:"Traumatic Brain Injury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11367.jpg"},signatures:"Grace Y. Kuo, Fawaz Philip Tarzi, Stan Louie and Roy A. Poblete"},{id:"82876",title:"Oxygen Tissue Levels as an Effectively Modifiable Factor in Alzheimer’s Disease Improvement",slug:"oxygen-tissue-levels-as-an-effectively-modifiable-factor-in-alzheimer-s-disease-improvement",totalDownloads:9,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106331",abstract:"Despite the advance in biochemistry, there are two substantial errors that have remained for at least two centuries. One is that oxygen from the atmosphere passes through the lungs and reaches the bloodstream, which distributes it throughout the body. Another major mistake is the belief that such oxygen is used by the cell to obtain energy, by combining it with glucose. Since the late nineteenth century, it began to be published that the gas exchange in the lungs cannot be explained by diffusion. Even Christian Bohr suggested that it looked like a cellular secretion. But despite experimental evidence to the contrary and based only on theoretical models, the dogma that our body takes the oxygen it contains inside from the air around it has been perpetuated to this day. The oxygen levels contained in the human body are high, close to 99%, and the atmosphere only contains between 19 and 21%. The hypothesis that there is a supposed oxygen concentrating mechanism has not been experimentally proven to date, after almost two centuries. The mistaken belief, even among neurologists, that our body takes oxygen from the atmosphere is widespread, even though there is no experimental basis to support it, just theoretical models. Our finding that the human body can take oxygen from the water it contains, not from the air around it, like plants, comes to mark a before and after in biology in general, and the CNS is no exception. Therefore, establishing the true origin of the oxygen present within our body and brain will allow us to better understand the physio pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases.",book:{id:"11637",title:"Neuropsychology of Dementia",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11637.jpg"},signatures:"Arturo Solís Herrera"},{id:"82859",title:"Impact of Hypoxia on Astrocyte Induced Pathogenesis",slug:"impact-of-hypoxia-on-astrocyte-induced-pathogenesis",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106263",abstract:"Astrocytes are the most abundant cells of the central nervous system. These cells are of diverse types based on their function and structure. Astrocyte activation is linked mainly with microbial infections, but long-term activation can lead to neurological impairment. Astrocytes play a significant role in neuro-inflammation by activating pro-inflammatory pathways. Activation of interleukins and cytokines causes neuroinflammation resulting in many neurodegenerative disorders such as stroke, growth of tumours, and Alzheimer’s. Inflammation of the brain hinders neural circulation and compromises blood flow by affecting the blood–brain barrier. So the oxygen concentration is lowered, causing brain hypoxia. Hypoxia leads to the activation of nuclear factor kappa B (NFkB) and hypoxia-inducible factors (HIF), which aggravates the inflammatory state of the brain. Hypoxia evoked changes in the blood–brain barrier, further complicating astrocyte-induced pathogenesis.",book:{id:"10744",title:"Astrocytes in Brain Communication and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10744.jpg"},signatures:"Farwa Munir, Nida Islam, Muhammad Hassan Nasir, Zainab Anis, Shahar Bano, Shahzaib Naeem, Atif Amin Baig and Zaineb Sohail"},{id:"82839",title:"Neurophysiology of Emotions",slug:"neurophysiology-of-emotions",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106043",abstract:"Emotions are automatic and primary patterns of purposeful cognitive-behavioral organizations. They have three main functions: coordination, signaling, and information. First, emotions coordinate organs and tissues, thus predisposing the body to peculiar responses. Scholars have not reached a consensus on the plausibility of emotion-specific response patterns yet. Despite the limitations, data support the hypothesis of specific response patterns for distinct subtypes of emotions. Second, emotional episodes signal the current state of the individual. Humans display their state with verbal behaviors, nonverbal actions (e.g., facial movements), and neurovegetative signals. Third, emotions inform the brain for interpretative and evaluative purposes. Emotional experiences include mental representations of arousal, relations, and situations. Every emotional episode begins with exposure to stimuli with distinctive features (i.e., elicitor). These inputs can arise from learning, expressions, empathy, and be inherited, or rely on limited aspects of the environment (i.e., sign stimuli). The existence of the latter ones in humans is unclear; however, emotions influence several processes, such as perception, attention, learning, memory, decision-making, attitudes, and mental schemes. Overall, the literature suggests the nonlinearity of the emotional process. Each section outlines the neurophysiological basis of elements of emotion.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Maurizio Oggiano"},{id:"82172",title:"Neuroimaging in Common Neurological Diseases Treated by Anticoagulants",slug:"neuroimaging-in-common-neurological-diseases-treated-by-anticoagulants",totalDownloads:7,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105128",abstract:"Stroke imaging/Cerebral Venous sinus thrombosis/Arterial dissecting disease in Head and Neck regions/Neurocomplication of anticoagulation therapy. Nowsday, anticoagulant drugs are common drugs used in daily practice for patients in neurology clinic. Anticoagulant treatment used for treated symptomatic patients as well as for prophylaxis therapy in asymptomatic patients. The purpose of this chapter based on the review of essential neuroimaging in the most common neurological conditions that benefit from treatment with anticoagulant drugs such as ischemic stroke, cerebral venous sinus thrombosis, and arterial dissecting disease of head and neck arteries and will be enclosed with neuroimaging in case of neurocomplication by anticoagulant therapy.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Pipat Chiewvit"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:12},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:33,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"3",type:"subseries",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Antibiotics, Biofilm, Antibiotic Resistance, Host-microbiota Relationship, Treatment, Diagnostic Tools",scope:"