Mannan producer organisms
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5987",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Goat Science",title:"Goat Science",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Goat science covers quite a wide range and varieties of topics, from genetics and breeding, via nutrition, production systems, reproduction, milk and meat production, animal health and parasitism, etc., up to the effects of goat products on human health. In this book, several parts of them are presented within 18 different chapters. Molecular genetics and genetic improvement of goats are the new approaches of goat development. Several factors affect the passage rate of digesta in goats, but for diet properties, goats are similar to other ruminants. Iodine deficiency in goats could be dangerous. Assisted reproduction techniques have similar importance in goats like in other ruminants. Milk and meat production traits of goats are almost equally important and have significant positive impacts on human health. Many factors affect the health of goats, heat stress being of increasing importance. Production systems could modify all of the abovementioned characteristics of goats.",isbn:"978-1-78923-203-5",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-202-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-263-8",doi:"10.5772/66562",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"goat-science",numberOfPages:412,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"35f3a7d6f517410f6581d265f17ee7c9",bookSignature:"Sándor Kukovics",publishedDate:"June 20th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5987.jpg",numberOfDownloads:38870,numberOfWosCitations:36,numberOfCrossrefCitations:48,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:5,numberOfDimensionsCitations:101,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:6,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:185,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 17th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 8th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 18th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 18th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 18th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"25894",title:"Dr.",name:"Sándor",middleName:null,surname:"Kukovics",slug:"sandor-kukovics",fullName:"Sándor Kukovics",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYNmDQAW/Profile_Picture_2022-07-21T11:17:33.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Sándor Kukovics spent 40 years in Research Institute for Animal Breeding and Nutrition (Herceghalom, Hungary) being responsible for small ruminants sector, edited 35 books, published more than 1,500 articles, having licences for 4 products. Besides research work, he has been taking part in undergraduate and further education from various universities. Since 1996 he has acted as the President of the Hungarian Sheep and Goat Dairying Public Utility Association. He is also the Executive Manager of Sheep and Goat Products’ Board and Inter-professional Organisation since 2010. \r\nBetween 2015 and 2019, he served as the Vice President of the EU COPA-COGECA Working Party on Sheep and Goats, and he has been a member of the Board of Directors of the International Goat Association since 2016. As an expert, he has been taking part in the activities of several special groups in the EU working with small ruminants since 2004. He is also the main organiser of the 13th International Conference on Goats in 2022.",institutionString:"Hungarian Sheep and Goat Dairying Public Utility Association, Hungary",position:null,outsideEditionCount:null,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"297",title:"Animal Science",slug:"animal-science"}],chapters:[{id:"58046",title:"Molecular Genetics and Genome Biology of Goats",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72414",slug:"molecular-genetics-and-genome-biology-of-goats",totalDownloads:1934,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Information on goat genome has led to a better understanding of the genetics of goats, its response to infection and the underlying immune response mechanism. Natural product-based therapeutic can therefore be utilized to target genes important for goat immunity. In this chapter, we have summarized the effect of diet and dietary supplements as immune modulators in goats. These modulators affect the expression of genes and secreted proteins associated with innate and adaptive immune response and homeostasis. Probiotics, mushroom extracts, plant polyphenol extracts, Sericea lespedeza (SL) and cowpea diet affect key molecular pathways including Toll-like receptor (TLR) pathway, Wnt signaling pathway and cytokine-mediated signaling pathway. Results from various studies reviewed in this chapter suggest that utilization of dietary immunomodulators has beneficial effects on goat health and production.",signatures:"Kingsley Ekwemalor, Sarah Adjei-Fremah, Emmanuel Asiamah and\nMulumebet Worku",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58046",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58046",authors:[{id:"218786",title:"Dr.",name:'Mulumebet "Millie"',surname:"Worku",slug:'mulumebet-"millie"-worku',fullName:'Mulumebet "Millie" Worku'},{id:"218788",title:"Dr.",name:"Sarah",surname:"Adjei-Fremah",slug:"sarah-adjei-fremah",fullName:"Sarah Adjei-Fremah"},{id:"218789",title:"Dr.",name:"Kingsley",surname:"Ekwemalor",slug:"kingsley-ekwemalor",fullName:"Kingsley Ekwemalor"},{id:"218791",title:"Mr.",name:"Emmanuel",surname:"Asiamah",slug:"emmanuel-asiamah",fullName:"Emmanuel Asiamah"}],corrections:null},{id:"56318",title:"The Development and Genetic Improvement of South African Goats",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70065",slug:"the-development-and-genetic-improvement-of-south-african-goats",totalDownloads:3460,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"South Africa has a thriving goat industry, consisting of fiber, meat and dairy‐producing goat breeds. These animals play an important role in terms of food security, socioeconomic welfare and cultural well‐being. The South African goat industry is differentiated into a formal, commercial market with niche products such as mohair, chevon and goat’s cheeses versus the informal, mainly meat‐producing sector serving communal and smallholder farmers. Exotic and locally improved breeds, i.e., Angora, Saanen and Boer goats mainly serve the commercial industries, whereas the unimproved veld goat populations are well adapted in the resource‐poor environments. Genetic improvement has historically been limited to the commercial breeds, but poor participation in animal recording and improvement schemes have resulted in slow genetic progress, with the exception of the Angora goat. Molecular research has opened up new possibilities for genetic characterization, preservation and utilization of the unique genetic resources retained by these animals.",signatures:"Carina Visser and Este van Marle‐Köster",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56318",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56318",authors:[{id:"202489",title:"Dr.",name:"Carina",surname:"Visser",slug:"carina-visser",fullName:"Carina Visser"},{id:"206221",title:"Prof.",name:"Este",surname:"Van Marle Koster",slug:"este-van-marle-koster",fullName:"Este Van Marle Koster"}],corrections:null},{id:"56672",title:"Rate of Passage of Digesta in Ruminants; Are Goats Different?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69745",slug:"rate-of-passage-of-digesta-in-ruminants-are-goats-different-",totalDownloads:2032,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:11,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Fluid passage rates through the rumen influence digestion of soluble food nutrients, amount of short-chain fatty acids absorbed in the rumen and that pass out of the rumen, the amount of by-pass protein of dietary origin and the amount of microbial protein available to the host as a protein source, making modelling of passage imperative. Current research on passage rate should seek to incorporate various factors that affect rumen fill, and solid and liquid passage rates to develop intake and passage rate prediction models. The aim of this paper was to discuss factors that affect rates of passage of digesta and rumen digesta load. Ambient temperature, animal physiological status and reproductive status, fermentation and diet quality are major factors affecting digesta passage rates. The animal physiology also influences digesta passage rate. Computation of animal production level to account for all the physiological processes that affect passage rate is vital. Discrepancies on how ambient temperature and particle density (buoyancy) affect the passage rate of digesta in the rumen may cause uncertainty in calibration of temperature and buoyancy in prediction models. Corrected for diet properties, goats have similar passage rates to other ruminants.",signatures:"Mehluli Moyo and Ignatius V. Nsahlai",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56672",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56672",authors:[{id:"201527",title:"Prof.",name:"Ignatius V.",surname:"Nsahlai",slug:"ignatius-v.-nsahlai",fullName:"Ignatius V. Nsahlai"},{id:"203798",title:"Mr.",name:"Mehluli",surname:"Moyo",slug:"mehluli-moyo",fullName:"Mehluli Moyo"}],corrections:null},{id:"58519",title:"Iodine Deficiency in Goats",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72728",slug:"iodine-deficiency-in-goats",totalDownloads:1685,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Iodine deficiency is a common problem among humans and livestock throughout the world. Prevalence is very high in goats due to less access to soils and browsing habits of goats. It is primarily due to deficiency of iodine in soil, feed, fodder, and water or secondarily due to the presence of goitrogens in diet of animals. Clinical deficiency is characterized by cardinal signs of goiter, whereas subclinical deficiency is difficult to diagnose because clinical signs are not evident. Clinical signs are more prevalent in kids as compared to adults. Diagnosis is on the basis of clinical sign of goiter and estimation of thyroid hormones, the plasma organic iodine level. Milk and urine iodine levels are good indicators of iodine deficiency. Deficiency can be prevented by daily supplementation of iodine and avoiding diets high in goitrogens.",signatures:"Rajinder Kumar Bhardwaj",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58519",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58519",authors:[{id:"219529",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajinder",surname:"Bhardwaj",slug:"rajinder-bhardwaj",fullName:"Rajinder Bhardwaj"}],corrections:null},{id:"56612",title:"Reproduction in Goats",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70003",slug:"reproduction-in-goats",totalDownloads:2933,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Reproductive activity of the goat begins when the females reach puberty, which happens at 5 months of age. The ovarian or estrous cycle is the period between two consecutive estrus. It is also the time that lasts the development of the follicle in the ovary, until rupture occurs and ovulation takes place, which coincides with the appearance of estrus. This chapter will describe the physiological and endocrinological bases of estrus in the goat. Likewise, factors affecting the presence of estrus and ovulation will be described. At another point, synchronization of estrus and ovulation, factors affecting the presence of estrus and external symptoms of estrus, will be described. To achieve synchronization of estrus or induction of ovulation within or outside the breeding season, it may be necessary to manage light hours, male effect, and/or use of hormones. The importance of artificial insemination is described, as well as the current situation of this technique worldwide. Currently, the techniques of artificial insemination in goats have been limited worldwide, due to the lack of resources of producers and trained technicians. The techniques of artificial insemination with estrous synchronization programs and ovulation with current research results will be described.",signatures:"Fernando Sánchez Dávila, Alejandro Sergio del Bosque González\nand Hugo Bernal Barragán",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56612",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56612",authors:[{id:"201830",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",surname:"Davila",slug:"fernando-davila",fullName:"Fernando Davila"},{id:"206127",title:"Dr.",name:"Alejandro Sergio",surname:"Del Bosque-Gonzalez",slug:"alejandro-sergio-del-bosque-gonzalez",fullName:"Alejandro Sergio Del Bosque-Gonzalez"},{id:"206128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hugo",surname:"Bernal-Barragán",slug:"hugo-bernal-barragan",fullName:"Hugo Bernal-Barragán"}],corrections:null},{id:"56458",title:"Recent Advances in Research on the Hormone INSL3 in Male Goats",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70079",slug:"recent-advances-in-research-on-the-hormone-insl3-in-male-goats",totalDownloads:1262,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Insulin‐like factor 3 (INSL3), previously called relaxin‐like factor (RLF), is essential for testis descent during fetal development and has been implicated in the testicular and sperm functions in adult males. However, similar functions in ruminants remain largely unknown. This chapter will cover recent advancement in our understanding of INSL3 in goats. First, testicular Leydig cells were the sole source of INSL3, with INSL3 expression increasing during development. Second, INSL3 was constitutively secreted as a B–C–A single‐chain structure with full biological activity. Third, secreted INSL3 was transported into the seminiferous compartments, where its receptor RXFP2 was expressed on germ cells, thus suggesting that the intratesticular INSL3 hormone‐receptor system operates in germ cells. Fourth, functional RXFP2 enabling INSL3 to bind was also identified in the spermatozoa and suggested the existence of the extratesticular INSL3 hormone‐receptor system in the spermatozoa. Interestingly, percentages of INSL3‐binding spermatozoa were significantly reduced in the semen of subfertile bulls compared to that of fertile bulls, suggesting the potential of this system to diagnose fertility in breeding sires. These fascinating findings will give a new perspective in physiological and/or therapeutic actions of INSL3 on male reproductive processes in domestic ruminants, including goats.",signatures:"Tetsuya Kohsaka, Siqin , Itaru Minagawa and Hiroshi Sasada",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56458",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56458",authors:[{id:"201806",title:"Dr.",name:"Tetsuya",surname:"Kohsaka",slug:"tetsuya-kohsaka",fullName:"Tetsuya Kohsaka"},{id:"203040",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Si",surname:"Qin",slug:"si-qin",fullName:"Si Qin"},{id:"203041",title:"Dr.",name:"Itaru",surname:"Minagawa",slug:"itaru-minagawa",fullName:"Itaru Minagawa"},{id:"203043",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",surname:"Sasada",slug:"hiroshi-sasada",fullName:"Hiroshi Sasada"}],corrections:null},{id:"59289",title:"Estrus Synchronization and Artificial Insemination in Goats",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74236",slug:"estrus-synchronization-and-artificial-insemination-in-goats",totalDownloads:2720,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Goats are small ruminants found worldwide. They provide humans with meat, milk and skin. In many rural communities, goats serve as a store of economic value and are used in cultural celebration. The world population in rapidly growing and is predicted to reach 9.6 billion by 2050. Human population explosion will exert immense pressure on the availability of food resources. Goats provide an excellent source of food to feed the world growing population. In order to increase goat population, advanced reproductive biotechnologies must be employed. These methods include and it not limited to estrus synchronization artificial insemination. Estrus synchronization is achieved by manipulation of the estrous cycle using exogenous hormones such as progestagens, gonadotrophins, and prostaglandins. Artificial insemination can be described as all the processes involved in semen collection from a male, evaluation, processing, and eventual deposition in the vaginal of a suitable female to cause conception. Adequate knowledge about male and female reproductive anatomy and physiology is critical to the application and success of reproductive biotechnology in goat reproduction.",signatures:"Bobwealth Oakina Omontese",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59289",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59289",authors:[{id:"220648",title:"Dr.",name:"Bobwealth",surname:"Omontese",slug:"bobwealth-omontese",fullName:"Bobwealth Omontese"}],corrections:null},{id:"56478",title:"Proteomic Analysis of Goat Milk",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70082",slug:"proteomic-analysis-of-goat-milk",totalDownloads:1548,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The advancement of electrophoresis and chromatography, along with technological developments in mass spectrometry, has widened the potential application of proteomics to study milk from smaller ruminants. The aim of this chapter is to provide an in-depth overview of the development and progress of proteomics applications in goat milk. After examining various proteomic approaches that are currently applied to this field, we narrow our focus on proteomic investigations of mastitis in goat milk. A summary of protein modulation in goat milk during experimentally-induced endotoxin mastitis is discussed. Because the molecular function of proteins is disrupted during disease due to changes in post-translational modifications, we also review the phosphorylation of caseins, which are the predominant phosphoproteins in milk, and discuss the implications of casein modifications during mastitis. These results offer new insights into the changes of protein expression in goat milk during infection.",signatures:"Zohra Olumee-Shabon and Jamie L. Boehmer",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56478",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56478",authors:[{id:"203645",title:"Dr.",name:"Zohra",surname:"Olumee-Shabon",slug:"zohra-olumee-shabon",fullName:"Zohra Olumee-Shabon"},{id:"208683",title:"Dr.",name:"Jamie",surname:"Boehmer",slug:"jamie-boehmer",fullName:"Jamie Boehmer"}],corrections:null},{id:"57795",title:"Development of an In Vitro Goat Mammary Gland Model: Establishment, Characterization, and Applications of Primary Goat Mammary Cell Cultures",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71853",slug:"development-of-an-in-vitro-goat-mammary-gland-model-establishment-characterization-and-applications-",totalDownloads:1412,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Alternatives to animal experiments, based on in vitro methodologies, have been suggested and adopted in the last decades in order to completely substitute or to reduce animal numbers in in vivo assays. In this chapter we describe methods for establishment, maintenance, and characterization of primary goat mammary epithelial cell cultures (pgMECs) and possible applications for which the derived primary cell model can be used instead of in vivo experiments. The established cell lines were grown in vitro for several passages and remained hormone and immune responsive and capable of milk protein synthesis. Knowledge on goat mammary cells and their manipulation is applicable to different fields of research; for example, it could be used in basic research to study mammary development and lactation biology, in agriculture to enhance lactation yield and persistency or to produce milk with special characteristics, in biopharma to express recombinant proteins in goat milk, or in biomedicine to study lactation, mammary development, and pathology, including neoplasia. The established cells represent an adequate surrogate for mammary gland; were successfully used to study mammary gland immunity, lactation, and mammary stem/progenitor cells; and have a potential to be used for other purposes.",signatures:"Jernej Ogorevc, Minja Zorc and Peter Dovč",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57795",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57795",authors:[{id:"186261",title:"Prof.",name:"Peter",surname:"Dovč",slug:"peter-dovc",fullName:"Peter Dovč"},{id:"219428",title:"Dr.",name:"Jernej",surname:"Ogorevc",slug:"jernej-ogorevc",fullName:"Jernej Ogorevc"},{id:"221746",title:"Dr.",name:"Minja",surname:"Zorc",slug:"minja-zorc",fullName:"Minja Zorc"}],corrections:null},{id:"56697",title:"Nutritional and Health Profile of Goat Products: Focus on Health Benefits of Goat Milk",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70321",slug:"nutritional-and-health-profile-of-goat-products-focus-on-health-benefits-of-goat-milk",totalDownloads:3561,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Goat (Capra hircus) is one of the main sources of milk and meat products for human consumption. Goat milk differs from cow and human milk in both composition and nutritional properties. Goat milk and other goat-derived products contain several bioactive compounds that might be useful in patients suffering from a variety of chronic diseases. Several peptides, fats, and oligosaccharides present in goat’s milk can be potentially useful in cardiovascular disease, metabolic disorders, neurological degeneration, or in promoting intestinal health. They have also shown chemopreventive properties in cancer. In addition, the oligosaccharides present in goat’s milk have immunomodulatory properties, prevent adhesion of pathogenic bacteria, and have prebiotic, probifidogenic effects. Due to its potential health benefits, goat milk is particularly recommended for infants, older adults, and convalescing people. This chapter gives an overview of the biological activities of goat products and the effects of peptides, fats, and oligosaccharides present in goat milk on pathogenic bacteria, as well as their ability to regulate immunological, gastrointestinal, hormonal, and neurological responses in humans.",signatures:"Maria João Reis Lima, Edite Teixeira-Lemos, Jorge Oliveira, Luís P.\nTeixeira-Lemos, António M.C. Monteiro and José M. Costa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56697",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56697",authors:[{id:"190314",title:"Prof.",name:"António",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"antonio-monteiro",fullName:"António Monteiro"},{id:"203680",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria João",surname:"Lima",slug:"maria-joao-lima",fullName:"Maria João Lima"},{id:"203681",title:"Prof.",name:"Edite",surname:"Teixeira-Lemos",slug:"edite-teixeira-lemos",fullName:"Edite Teixeira-Lemos"},{id:"203682",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",surname:"Oliveira",slug:"jorge-oliveira",fullName:"Jorge Oliveira"},{id:"203683",title:"MSc.",name:"José Manuel",surname:"Costa",slug:"jose-manuel-costa",fullName:"José Manuel Costa"}],corrections:null},{id:"56556",title:"Bioactive Compounds in Goat Milk and Cheese: The Role of Feeding System and Breed",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70083",slug:"bioactive-compounds-in-goat-milk-and-cheese-the-role-of-feeding-system-and-breed",totalDownloads:2026,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter provides an introductory overview of some bioactive compounds in goat milk, presenting a selection of key results from literature. The aim of the chapter is to review the effects of the feeding system and of the breed on goat milk and cheese fine quality in order to identify management options aimed at improving the nutraceutical characteristics of milk and dairy products. We will discuss a series of case studies focused on the assessment of the effects of feeding system and breed and their interaction on specific health-promoting bioactive compounds: (i) fatty acid (FA) profile, (ii) antioxidant compounds and (iii) oligosaccharides (OS). Experimental data will be discussed highlighting the potential role of local Mediterranean breeds for the production of functional dairy products.",signatures:"Salvatore Claps, Roberta Rossi, Adriana Di Trana, Maria Antonietta\ndi Napoli, Daniela Giorgio and Lucia Sepe",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56556",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56556",authors:[{id:"203678",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",surname:"Claps",slug:"salvatore-claps",fullName:"Salvatore Claps"},{id:"204425",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberta",surname:"Rossi",slug:"roberta-rossi",fullName:"Roberta Rossi"},{id:"204426",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriana",surname:"Di Trana",slug:"adriana-di-trana",fullName:"Adriana Di Trana"},{id:"204427",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Antonietta",surname:"Di Napoli",slug:"maria-antonietta-di-napoli",fullName:"Maria Antonietta Di Napoli"},{id:"204428",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniela",surname:"Giorgio",slug:"daniela-giorgio",fullName:"Daniela Giorgio"},{id:"204429",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucia",surname:"Sepe",slug:"lucia-sepe",fullName:"Lucia Sepe"}],corrections:null},{id:"57876",title:"Carcass and Meat Quality in Goat",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72095",slug:"carcass-and-meat-quality-in-goat",totalDownloads:2212,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Goat is a worldwide spread species with different specialities and aptitudes, among the meat production. Its consumption varies widely depending on the region of the world considered. However, a common factor is the presence of few studies in comparison with ovine, especially those that characterize the quality of its products (related to carcass and meat). Generation, availability, and diffusion of characteristics of the species and its production, generated from scientific studies, could help breeders and society on their education and raising global awareness of its importance, conservation, and productive possibilities. Goat has its own specific characteristics related to quality with a presumed good acceptability of its products by consumers. On the current chapter, the effects of the main factors that modify carcass and meat quality in goat are compiled. Both, intrinsic factors (breed or breed type, age, weight at slaughter or gender) and some extrinsic factors (as production system, type of suckling, and aging) are discussed.",signatures:"Ana Guerrero, María del Mar Campo, José Luis Olleta and Carlos\nSañudo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57876",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57876",authors:[{id:"219572",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",surname:"Guerrero",slug:"ana-guerrero",fullName:"Ana Guerrero"},{id:"225349",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Sañudo",slug:"carlos-sanudo",fullName:"Carlos Sañudo"},{id:"225350",title:"Dr.",name:"María Del Mar",surname:"Campo",slug:"maria-del-mar-campo",fullName:"María Del Mar Campo"},{id:"228171",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",surname:"Olleta",slug:"jose-luis-olleta",fullName:"Jose Luis Olleta"}],corrections:null},{id:"59287",title:"Parasitism in Goats: Husbandry Management, Range Management, Gut Immunity and Therapeutics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74203",slug:"parasitism-in-goats-husbandry-management-range-management-gut-immunity-and-therapeutics",totalDownloads:1590,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Goats play a vital role in the economy of common man. It acts as pivotal point in the uplift of socio-economic status of females. The goats are such delicate and fragile animals that encounter a lot of infectious and non-infectious diseases including viruses, bacteria and gastrointestinal parasites (GIP). The goat being a range animal is selective feeder. It needs a lot of managemental practices which safeguards its health. This chapter focuses on management, impact of gastrointestinal parasites, role of intestinal immunity, various breeds reared in Pakistan, role of plant based phytochemicals to treat against GIT parasites and various models to predict the status of health in animals.",signatures:"Muhammad Mazhar Ayaz, Muhammad Mudaseer Nazir, Noreen\nSamad, Muhammad Zubair, Muhammad Hanif, Mubashir Aziz,\nAhsan Sattar Sheikh, Atif Akbar, Abdul Waheed, Aqal Zaman and\nNasir Mahmood",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59287",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59287",authors:[{id:"149704",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Zubair",slug:"muhammad-zubair",fullName:"Muhammad Zubair"},{id:"201822",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdul",surname:"Waheed",slug:"abdul-waheed",fullName:"Abdul Waheed"},{id:"212828",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Hanif",slug:"muhammad-hanif",fullName:"Muhammad Hanif"},{id:"218716",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Mazhar",surname:"Ayaz",slug:"muhammad-mazhar-ayaz",fullName:"Muhammad Mazhar Ayaz"},{id:"218719",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Mudaseer",surname:"Nazir",slug:"muhammad-mudaseer-nazir",fullName:"Muhammad Mudaseer Nazir"},{id:"221470",title:"Dr.",name:"Noreen",surname:"Samad",slug:"noreen-samad",fullName:"Noreen Samad"},{id:"221471",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahsan Sattar",surname:"Sheikh",slug:"ahsan-sattar-sheikh",fullName:"Ahsan Sattar Sheikh"},{id:"221472",title:"Dr.",name:"Mubashir",surname:"Aziz",slug:"mubashir-aziz",fullName:"Mubashir Aziz"},{id:"224338",title:"Dr.",name:"Atif",surname:"Akbar",slug:"atif-akbar",fullName:"Atif Akbar"},{id:"224340",title:"Dr.",name:"Aqal",surname:"Zaman",slug:"aqal-zaman",fullName:"Aqal Zaman"},{id:"224342",title:"Dr.",name:"Nasir",surname:"Mahmood",slug:"nasir-mahmood",fullName:"Nasir Mahmood"}],corrections:null},{id:"58329",title:"Complementary Medicine with High Dilutions Strengthen Conventional Therapies and Health",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72415",slug:"complementary-medicine-with-high-dilutions-strengthen-conventional-therapies-and-health",totalDownloads:1146,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Breeders that have any concern to conventional therapies with sheeps and goats may be interested in complementary medicine with high dilutions. There are plenty of advantages in favor of adding these tools options to the animals care. Connections with breeders, animals, veterinarians and consumers trends are considered. The chapter discusses the context related to the opportunities the current state of art of high dilution medicines offers and the challenges that are faced by the mainstream current worldwide solutions. Six therapeutic styles are identified as useful for these small ruminants. Some of them need specialized professional support and some do not because they are already ready for acquisition and use. References of how work evolves in systems and how to find them are provided. The findings clearly state that the introduction of complementary high diluted medicines offers advantages to the current demands.",signatures:"Silvio Leite Monteiro da Silva",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58329",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58329",authors:[{id:"219698",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvio",surname:"Leite Monteiro Da Silva",slug:"silvio-leite-monteiro-da-silva",fullName:"Silvio Leite Monteiro Da Silva"}],corrections:null},{id:"56442",title:"Characterisation of Goats’ Response to Heat Stress: Tools to Improve Heat Tolerance",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70080",slug:"characterisation-of-goats-response-to-heat-stress-tools-to-improve-heat-tolerance",totalDownloads:1692,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter aims to review present knowledge about the effects of heat stress on goats, summarising what is known about its measurement, its impact on the performances of the animals, mainly milk traits, the physiological and genetic bases of the animals’ response and the improvement of resilience through selection. A short historic review of the climatic indexes used to measure heat stress, with special emphasis on the temperature humidity indexes, and the main consequences on milk yield and composition are followed by a description of the results of experiments carried out to study the physiological and metabolic consequences of heat stress. The results of the quantitative analyses of the genetic bases of heat stress using norm of reaction models and of the application of omic techniques, particularly transcriptomic and genomic, to understand the complexity of the genetic background of animal’s reaction to thermal stress, constitute the next points. The chapter ends treating the possible ways and difficulties of applying selection to increase resilience to heat stress.",signatures:"Juan M. Serradilla, María J. Carabaño, Manuel Ramón, Antonio\nMolina, Clara Diaz and Alberto Menéndez‐Buxadera",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56442",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56442",authors:[{id:"83708",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan Manuel",surname:"Serradilla",slug:"juan-manuel-serradilla",fullName:"Juan Manuel Serradilla"},{id:"203508",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",surname:"Molina",slug:"antonio-molina",fullName:"Antonio Molina"},{id:"203510",title:"Prof.",name:"María J.",surname:"Carabaño",slug:"maria-j.-carabano",fullName:"María J. Carabaño"},{id:"203511",title:"Dr.",name:"Clara",surname:"Díaz",slug:"clara-diaz",fullName:"Clara Díaz"},{id:"203514",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",surname:"Menéndez-Buxadera",slug:"alberto-menendez-buxadera",fullName:"Alberto Menéndez-Buxadera"},{id:"203516",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",surname:"Ramón",slug:"manuel-ramon",fullName:"Manuel Ramón"}],corrections:null},{id:"56453",title:"Goat System Productions: Advantages and Disadvantages to the Animal, Environment and Farmer",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70002",slug:"goat-system-productions-advantages-and-disadvantages-to-the-animal-environment-and-farmer",totalDownloads:4388,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:20,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Goats have always been considered very useful animals. Goats success is related to its excellent adaptability to the difficult mountain conditions, extreme weather and low value feed acceptance, versatile habits and high production considering their size. These are some reasons because goats are among the first animals to be domesticated. In terms of evolution, goats could be separated by their dispersion area in three large groups: the European, the Asian, and the African. Global goat populations, mainly in Africa and in Asia, have increased for centuries but very strongly in the past decades, well above the world population growth. They are also used for forest grazing, an integrated and alternative production system, very useful to control weed growth reducing fire risk. Despite some exceptions, no large‐scale effort to professionalize this industry has been made so far. There are consumers for goat dairy products and there is enough global production, but misses a professional network between both. Regarding goat meat, the world leadership also stays in Africa and Asia, namely in China, and there is a new phenomenon, the spreading of goat meat tradition through Europe due to migrants from Africa and other places with strong goat meat consumption.",signatures:"António Monteiro, José Manuel Costa and Maria João Lima",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56453",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56453",authors:[{id:"190314",title:"Prof.",name:"António",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"antonio-monteiro",fullName:"António Monteiro"},{id:"203680",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria João",surname:"Lima",slug:"maria-joao-lima",fullName:"Maria João Lima"},{id:"203683",title:"MSc.",name:"José Manuel",surname:"Costa",slug:"jose-manuel-costa",fullName:"José Manuel Costa"}],corrections:null},{id:"55995",title:"Goat Farming and Breeding in Jordan",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69015",slug:"goat-farming-and-breeding-in-jordan",totalDownloads:1715,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Goats are multifunctional species and play an important role in the livelihoods and food security of farmers particularly in rural areas. Goats are well‐adapted animals to the various ecological zones in the tropics and dry zones of developing countries such as Jordan. In the country, goat farming is a major component of the agricultural system. This chapter provides an overview of the present status and prospects of Jordan’s goat production sector, changes in goat populations, and includes an evaluation of constraints and their impacts on goat production in the region. It discusses the general trends occurring in goat raising, diversity, and characterization of the prevailing production systems. The chapter also focuses on the major breeds of goats and the differences and unique characteristics of each goat breed. Additionally, this chapter covers a considerable contribution of goats in terms of meat, milk, and culture to the socioeconomics of householders and its role in poverty and hunger alleviation in Jordan. Moreover, this chapter also discusses basic goats’ productive and reproductive performance. Management calendar for goat production in Jordan is reviewed. Finally, the chapter covers goat health, diseases, and approaches or management practices for prevention and control of goat diseases.",signatures:"Ja’far Mansur Khalaf Al-Khaza’leh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55995",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55995",authors:[{id:"201965",title:"Dr.",name:"Ja'Far",surname:"Al-Khaza'Leh",slug:"ja'far-al-khaza'leh",fullName:"Ja'Far Al-Khaza'Leh"}],corrections:null},{id:"56358",title:"The Goat Dairy Sector in Lebanon",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70077",slug:"the-goat-dairy-sector-in-lebanon",totalDownloads:1558,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Goat farming in Lebanon is an ancestral heritage that may disappear by the overflowing of new technologies; its protection is necessary for the preservation of patrimonial traditions that support our regions. Although goat milk is very nutritious and is considered as an acceptable food in several parts of the country, its production and handling remain a major problem limiting its consumption. In the Mediterranean region, and particularly in Lebanon, goat’s milk is becoming increasingly important especially because of the popularity of its products (Darfiyeh, Aricheh, Serdale, Shankleesh, Labneh and Kishk). There is a growing interest in the consumption of the aforementioned typical goat products, which is partly due to the uniqueness of such foods. Their market is expanding; therefore, there is an increasing interest in maintaining the authenticity of these typical products. Considering the limited data available and the latest developments, the purpose of the present chapter is to (1) analyse the current situation of the goat dairy sector in Lebanon, (2) shed the light on the particular manufacturing practices and ripening tools used to yield a variety of artisanal products, and (3) review the attempts of valorisation of milk from goats.",signatures:"Mireille Serhan and Jessy Mattar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56358",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56358",authors:[{id:"202497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mireille",surname:"Serhan",slug:"mireille-serhan",fullName:"Mireille Serhan"},{id:"202498",title:"Dr.",name:"Jessy",surname:"Matar",slug:"jessy-matar",fullName:"Jessy Matar"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7019",title:"Goats (Capra)",subtitle:"From Ancient to Modern",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fae6861d044e520db52992966f28b361",slug:"goats-capra-from-ancient-to-modern",bookSignature:"Sándor Kukovics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7019.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"25894",title:"Dr.",name:"Sándor",surname:"Kukovics",slug:"sandor-kukovics",fullName:"Sándor Kukovics"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6384",title:"Animal Husbandry and Nutrition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"45e3ab6f834a3efc7836eb8b3c8e3427",slug:"animal-husbandry-and-nutrition",bookSignature:"Banu Yücel and Turgay Taşkin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6384.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"191429",title:"Prof.",name:"Banu",surname:"Yucel",slug:"banu-yucel",fullName:"Banu Yucel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9356",title:"European Local Pig Breeds - Diversity and Performance",subtitle:"A study of project TREASURE",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"182fe65256f9a0bbc25b0b7576412b0e",slug:"european-local-pig-breeds-diversity-and-performance-a-study-of-project-treasure",bookSignature:"Marjeta Candek-Potokar and Rosa M. Nieto Linan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9356.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"23161",title:"Dr.",name:"Marjeta",surname:"Čandek-Potokar",slug:"marjeta-candek-potokar",fullName:"Marjeta Čandek-Potokar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"3",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Authored by"}},{type:"book",id:"6206",title:"Ruminants",subtitle:"The Husbandry, Economic and Health Aspects",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2f4344b633afc742eb0cfc50413c928b",slug:"ruminants-the-husbandry-economic-and-health-aspects",bookSignature:"Muhammad Abubakar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6206.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"112070",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Abubakar",slug:"muhammad-abubakar",fullName:"Muhammad Abubakar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6993",title:"Bovine Science",subtitle:"A Key to Sustainable Development",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fe7bdc1a2e1aa960e1f51dae7c705002",slug:"bovine-science-a-key-to-sustainable-development",bookSignature:"Sadashiv S. O. and Sharangouda J. Patil",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6993.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"176334",title:"Dr.",name:"Sadashiv",surname:"S. O.",slug:"sadashiv-s.-o.",fullName:"Sadashiv S. O."}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9081",title:"Equine Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ac415ef2f5450fa80fdb9cf6cf32cd2d",slug:"equine-science",bookSignature:"Catrin Rutland and Albert Rizvanov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9081.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8468",title:"Sheep Farming",subtitle:"An Approach to Feed, Growth and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"838f08594850bc04aa14ec873ed1b96f",slug:"sheep-farming-an-approach-to-feed-growth-and-health",bookSignature:"António Monteiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8468.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"190314",title:"Prof.",name:"António",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"antonio-monteiro",fullName:"António Monteiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8524",title:"Lactation in Farm Animals",subtitle:"Biology, Physiological Basis, Nutritional Requirements, and Modelization",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2aa2a9a0ec13040bbf0455e34625504e",slug:"lactation-in-farm-animals-biology-physiological-basis-nutritional-requirements-and-modelization",bookSignature:"Naceur M'Hamdi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8524.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"73376",title:"Dr.",name:"Naceur",surname:"M'Hamdi",slug:"naceur-m'hamdi",fullName:"Naceur M'Hamdi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10830",title:"Animal Feed Science and Nutrition",subtitle:"Production, Health and Environment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"79944fc8fbbaa329aed6fde388154832",slug:"animal-feed-science-and-nutrition-production-health-and-environment",bookSignature:"Amlan Kumar Patra",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10830.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"310962",title:"Dr.",name:"Amlan",surname:"Patra",slug:"amlan-patra",fullName:"Amlan Patra"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11008",title:"Sheep Farming",subtitle:"Herds Husbandry, Management System, Reproduction and Improvement of Animal 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Encoder",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/74512.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74512",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74512",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/74512",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/74512",chapter:{id:"70013",slug:"many-core-algorithm-of-the-embedded-zerotree-wavelet-encoder",signatures:"Jesús Antonio Alvarez-Cedillo, Teodoro Alvarez-Sanchez, Mario Aguilar-Fernandez and Jacobo Sandoval-Gutierrez",dateSubmitted:"May 18th 2019",dateReviewed:"August 22nd 2019",datePrePublished:"December 7th 2019",datePublished:"March 11th 2020",book:{id:"7623",title:"Coding Theory",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Coding Theory",slug:"coding-theory",publishedDate:"March 11th 2020",bookSignature:"Sudhakar Radhakrishnan and Muhammad Sarfraz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7623.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited 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Sandoval-Gutierrez",slug:"jacobo-sandoval-gutierrez",email:"jacobosandoval@hotmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"305587",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Aguilar-Fernandez",fullName:"Mario Aguilar-Fernandez",slug:"mario-aguilar-fernandez",email:"maguilarf@ipn.mx",position:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},chapter:{id:"70013",slug:"many-core-algorithm-of-the-embedded-zerotree-wavelet-encoder",signatures:"Jesús Antonio Alvarez-Cedillo, Teodoro Alvarez-Sanchez, Mario Aguilar-Fernandez and Jacobo Sandoval-Gutierrez",dateSubmitted:"May 18th 2019",dateReviewed:"August 22nd 2019",datePrePublished:"December 7th 2019",datePublished:"March 11th 2020",book:{id:"7623",title:"Coding Theory",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Coding Theory",slug:"coding-theory",publishedDate:"March 11th 2020",bookSignature:"Sudhakar Radhakrishnan and Muhammad Sarfraz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7623.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"26327",title:"Dr.",name:"Sudhakar",middleName:null,surname:"Radhakrishnan",slug:"sudhakar-radhakrishnan",fullName:"Sudhakar Radhakrishnan"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"118717",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jesús Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Álvarez-Cedillo",fullName:"Jesús Antonio Álvarez-Cedillo",slug:"jesus-antonio-alvarez-cedillo",email:"jaalvarez@ipn.mx",position:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"305584",title:"Dr.",name:"Teodoro",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sanchez",fullName:"Teodoro Alvarez-Sanchez",slug:"teodoro-alvarez-sanchez",email:"talvares@citedi.mx",position:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico 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\r\n\tSchiff base (imine -N=CH-) is one of a popular group of organic compounds prepared from primary amines and aldehyde. Not only as organic compounds but also as ligands for metal complexes, a number of studies have been carried out so far. In this context, this book aims to record a wider range of interdisciplinary content on Schiff base compounds, with an emphasis on the latest advances. This book will aim to compile research results, commentary, reviews, etc., that have dealt with preparation, spectroscopy, crystallography, (asymmetric) synthetic roles, physical properties (magnets, optics, and so on), computational chemistry, and/or theoretical chemistry and their discussions. The book will also intend to focus on Schiff base and its strong connection from organic chemistry to biochemistry or polymer materials chemistry.
",isbn:"978-1-80355-679-6",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-678-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-680-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"ce51efbe2cae97ca3199350ef6c498ec",bookSignature:"Dr. Takashiro Akitsu",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12078.jpg",keywords:"Schiff Base, Imine, Azomethine, Synthesis, Characterization, Crystal Structure, Chirality, Liquid Crystals, Polymers or Biopolymers, Metal Complex, Salen-Type Ligand, Computational Chemistry",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 20th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 21st 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 19th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 8th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 6th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A professor from the University of Science, Japan, has published 220 articles and book chapters. Dr. Akitsu studied at the Institute for Protein Research (metalloproteins), Keio University (photo and magnetic functional organic/inorganic hybrid compounds), and Stanford University (physical and bioinorganic chemistry) before moving to Tokyo University of Science.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"147861",title:"Dr.",name:"Takashiro",middleName:null,surname:"Akitsu",slug:"takashiro-akitsu",fullName:"Takashiro Akitsu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/147861/images/system/147861.jpg",biography:"Takashiro Akitsu, Ph.D., is now a professor in the Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science Division II, Tokyo University of Science, Japan. Studying crystal and electronic structures of chiral copper complexes, he graduated from Osaka University and obtained his Ph.D. in Physical and Inorganic Chemistry in 2000. Dr. Akitsu studied at the Institute for Protein Research (metalloproteins), Keio University (photo and magnetic functional organic/inorganic hybrid compounds), and Stanford University (physical and bioinorganic chemistry) before moving to Tokyo University of Science. He has published 220 articles and book chapters. He has also served as an editorial board member and peer reviewer for many journals and was involved in the organizing committees for several international conferences.",institutionString:"Tokyo University of Science",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"Tokyo University of Science",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"8",title:"Chemistry",slug:"chemistry"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"429342",firstName:"Zrinka",lastName:"Tomicic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/429342/images/20008_n.jpg",email:"zrinka@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7549",title:"Basic Concepts Viewed from Frontier in Inorganic Coordination Chemistry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7bbd9beaeefecb9ec112a0a09432d241",slug:"basic-concepts-viewed-from-frontier-in-inorganic-coordination-chemistry",bookSignature:"Takashiro Akitsu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7549.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"147861",title:"Dr.",name:"Takashiro",surname:"Akitsu",slug:"takashiro-akitsu",fullName:"Takashiro Akitsu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5891",title:"Descriptive Inorganic Chemistry Researches of Metal Compounds",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7201c7d0481358aa6aabe036eb9ff095",slug:"descriptive-inorganic-chemistry-researches-of-metal-compounds",bookSignature:"Takashiro Akitsu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5891.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"147861",title:"Dr.",name:"Takashiro",surname:"Akitsu",slug:"takashiro-akitsu",fullName:"Takashiro Akitsu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6190",title:"Symmetry (Group Theory) and Mathematical Treatment in Chemistry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3e429d96a01f4a95d3918d671f776dfc",slug:"symmetry-group-theory-and-mathematical-treatment-in-chemistry",bookSignature:"Takashiro Akitsu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6190.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"147861",title:"Dr.",name:"Takashiro",surname:"Akitsu",slug:"takashiro-akitsu",fullName:"Takashiro Akitsu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8346",title:"Chirality from Molecular Electronic States",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c8c9c50832625da3dc4cee759352246",slug:"chirality-from-molecular-electronic-states",bookSignature:"Takashiro Akitsu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8346.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"147861",title:"Dr.",name:"Takashiro",surname:"Akitsu",slug:"takashiro-akitsu",fullName:"Takashiro Akitsu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8370",title:"Crystallography",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d9e4456913ce86a573bc759d78238203",slug:"crystallography",bookSignature:"Takashiro Akitsu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8370.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"147861",title:"Dr.",name:"Takashiro",surname:"Akitsu",slug:"takashiro-akitsu",fullName:"Takashiro Akitsu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10507",title:"Current Topics in Chirality",subtitle:"From Chemistry to Biology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"692993cd6e2996714124df690df7c2e9",slug:"current-topics-in-chirality-from-chemistry-to-biology",bookSignature:"Takashiro Akitsu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10507.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"147861",title:"Dr.",name:"Takashiro",surname:"Akitsu",slug:"takashiro-akitsu",fullName:"Takashiro Akitsu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"46789",title:"Mannan as a Promising Bioactive Material for Drug Nanocarrier Systems",doi:"10.5772/58413",slug:"mannan-as-a-promising-bioactive-material-for-drug-nanocarrier-systems",body:'Polysaccharides are natural, non-toxic and biodegradable polymers that cover the surface of most cells and play important roles in various biological mechanisms such as immune response, adhesion, infection and signal transduction. Investigations on the alternative treatments applied by different cultures throughout the history revealed the fact that the utilized plants and fungi were rich in bioactive polysaccharides with proven immunomodulatory activity and health promoting effects in the treatment of inflammatory diseases and cancer. Hence considerable research has been directed on elucidating the biological activity mechanism of these polysaccharides by structure-function analysis [1].
Hemicelluloses are structural polysaccharides which are the second most abundant heteropolymers present in nature accounting for one third of total components available in the plants (Figure 1) [2]. Mannans and xylans are the two most important hemicelluloses and hence a lot of research is mainly focused on their value-added applications and hydrolysis [3]. Mannan is a biodegradable and bioactive polysaccharide that has been a focus of interest by various sectors due to its valuable properties. The film forming capacity and biodegradability of mannans make them an interesting alternative to the petroleum-based materials. Mannan-based films and coatings were shown to exhibit low oxygen and grease permeability and, in some cases, relatively high tensile strength [4]. There are also interesting reports on the successful use of mannan as a bioactive material in health related applications.
Mannans are linear polymers of 1,4-linked mannose residues and contain less than 5% of galactose [5]. In nature, mannan is present in four different forms, each having a β-1,4-linked backbone containing mannose (linear mannan) or a combination of glucose and mannose residues (glucomannan) and occasional side chains of α-1,6-linked galactose residues (galactomannan / galactoglucomannan). The mannose and glucose residues in the backbone are sometimes acetylated at C-2 or C-3 (3,5).
Polysaccharide composition of plants
In plants, mannans have a structural role by binding cellulose, but also they serve a storage function as a reserve carbohydrate in endosperm walls and vacuoles of seeds and vacuoles in vegetative tissues [5]. Recently, mannan has also been proposed as a signaling molecule in plant growth and development [6].
Mannan is a biodegradable and bioactive polysaccharide that has been a focus of interest by various sectors due to its valuable properties. The film forming capacity and biodegradability of mannans make them an interesting alternative to the petroleum-based materials. Mannan-based films and coatings were shown to exhibit low oxygen and grease permeability and, in some cases, relatively high tensile strength [4]. There are also interesting reports on the successful use of mannan as a bioactive material in health related applications. Mannan conjugated to vaccine preparations are already in the clinic [7,8]. Tang et al. [9] utilized a mannan-based system to target DNA vaccines to antigen presenting cells and demonstrated that it could induce far stronger immune responses in mice compared to naked DNA immunization. By further studies, they could explain the molecular basis of the observed immune enhancing attributes of mannan-based DNA vaccination [9]. Successful use of carboxylic mannan-coated iron oxide nanoparticles in targeting immune cells for
In this chapter, after a brief description of mannan, its production by algae, fungi, bacteria and other eukaryotic microorganisms will be mentioned with special focus on microbial resources. Then, use of mannan as a bioactive material in nanocarrier systems for drug delivery applications will be covered in detail by giving examples from literature and industry. The final section of the chapter will involve conclusions and future prospects on microbial mannan production and its potential uses in nanotechnology.
Mannan is one of the important member of the hemicellulose family and can be divided to four subfamilies: linear mannan, glucomannan, galactomannan, and galactoglucomanan [14]. Mannan is present in different forms, each having a β-1,4-linked backbone containing mannose (linear mannan) or a combination of glucose and mannose residues (glucomannan) and occasional side chains of α-1,6-linked galactose residues (galactomannan / galactoglucomannan) (Figure 2). In the backbone, mannose and glucose units can also be acetylated at C-2 or C-3 (3,5) .
Four different forms of mannan
Glucomannan is mainly a straight-chain polymer, with a small amount of branching. The component sugars are β-(1,4)-linked D-mannose and D-glucose with a reported ratio of 1.6:1 [15], or 1.4:1 [16]. Softwoods and hardwoods consist of glucomannan with a glucose/mannose ratio of 1:3 and 1:1.5–2, respectively [17-20]. There is a significant similarity between conformation of glucomannan chains and those of cellulose A two-fold screw axis was observed because of the extended chains. Due to axial position of the hydroxyl group at C-2 of mannose, the interaction between C-6 and O-2 atoms of contiguous residues is prevented, and the chains are loosened, weakening the packing and organization [17]. Different structures were reported for glucomannans isolated from different sources. For example, (1
Galactoglucomannan consists of a backbone of randomly distributed (1
The acetylated galactoglucomannan is mainly found in hemicellulose of softwoods. They can be either galactose rich or galactose poor with 10-15% and 5-8% of the dry woods respectively [36-38]. Acetylation at C-2 and C-3 positionsin the ratio of 2.2:1 was reported for galactoglucomannan backbone from native Norway spruce wood [36]. Formation of strong hydrogen bonds due to large content of D-galactose side-chains prevents the macromolecules from aligning themselves and hence galactoglucomannan is soluble in water [39].
Mannan is the predominant hemicellulosic polysaccharide in softwoods from gymnosperms, but is the minor hemicellulose in hardwood from angiosperms [35]. Unsubstituted beta-1,4-mannan, composed of a main chain of beta mannopyranose residues, is an important structural component of some marine algae [40] and terrestrial plants such as ivory nut [41] and coffee bean [42].
A variety of plants store energy in the form of mannans in their endosperm tissue, including members of the Palmae, Liliaceae, Iridaceae, and Leguminosae families [43,44]. Glucomannans also are used for energy storage in corms of plants within the genus Amorphophallus. In addition to carbohydrate storage and structure, mannans serve a variety of other functions. In fern roots, mannans are deposited as constituents of cell wall appositions as a defense mechanism to limit microbial ingress [45]. Besides plants, algae are also a viable resource for mannan polysaccharides. In particular, the Dasycladalean alga Acetabularia acetabulum, also known as ‘mannan weed’, has long been known to contain mannan-rich walls [46]. Moreover, mannans are a common feature of fungal walls and a recent review points to the importance of cell surface mannans of pathogenic Candida species since they were found to participate in the adhesion to the epithelial cells, recognition by innate immune receptors and development of pathogenicity. Hence, clarification of the precise chemical structure of Candida mannan was reported as indispensable for understanding the mechanism of pathogenicity, and for development of new antifungal drugs and immunotherapeutic procedures [47]. Also, some yeast species stand out for their capability for excreting mannan to the fermentation medium. Yeast Rhodotorula acheniorum MC bioreactor cultures have been reported to produce 6.2 g/L mannan when grown for 96 hours in sucrose containing media [48]. Moreover, psychrophilic Antarctic yeast Sporobolomyces salmonicolor AL1 reached maximum glucomannan yield of 5.64 g/L in medium containing sucrose after a 5 days of fermentation [49]. Mannan synthesized by R. acheniorum MC, as well as the glucomannan, synthesized from strain
Although mannan production is established by numerious algal, fungi and other eukaryotic microorganisms, they are not normally products of bacteria [52]. There are only very few reported examples on extracellular mannan production by bacteria. Gram negative phytopathogenic bacterium
Table 1. illustrates mannan producer organisms.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Plant | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tGalactomannan | \n\t\t\t[29] | \n\t\t
Plant | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tMannan | \n\t\t\t[57] | \n\t\t
Plant | \n\t\t\tseeds of the family of | \n\t\t\tGalactomannan | \n\t\t\t[28,29] | \n\t\t
Plant | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tGalactomannan | \n\t\t\t[33] | \n\t\t
Plant | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tGalactomannan | \n\t\t\t[29] | \n\t\t
Plant | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tGlucomannan | \n\t\t\t[58] | \n\t\t
Plant | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tGalactomannan | \n\t\t\t[33] | \n\t\t
Plant | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tGalactomannan | \n\t\t\t[29] | \n\t\t
Plant | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tGalactomannan | \n\t\t\t[33] | \n\t\t
Plant | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tGalactomannan | \n\t\t\t[29] | \n\t\t
Plant | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tGalactomannan | \n\t\t\t[59] | \n\t\t
Plant | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tGalactomannan | \n\t\t\t[33] | \n\t\t
Plant | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tGalactomannan | \n\t\t\t[29] | \n\t\t
Plant | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tGalactoglucomannan | \n\t\t\t[60] | \n\t\t
Plant | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tGalactoglucomannan | \n\t\t\t[61] | \n\t\t
Plant | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tGalactoglucomannan | \n\t\t\t[62] | \n\t\t
Yeast | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tPhosphorylated mannan | \n\t\t\t[63] | \n\t\t
Yeast | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tMannan | \n\t\t\t[48] | \n\t\t
Yeast | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tGlucomannan | \n\t\t\t[64] | \n\t\t
Yeast | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tMannan | \n\t\t\t[65] | \n\t\t
Yeast | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tMannan | \n\t\t\t[66] | \n\t\t
Yeast | \n\t\t\tBrewers dried yeast | \n\t\t\tMannan | \n\t\t\t[67] | \n\t\t
Yeast | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tGlucomannan | \n\t\t\t[68] | \n\t\t
Algae | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tMannan | \n\t\t\t[69] | \n\t\t
Algae | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tMannan | \n\t\t\t[46] | \n\t\t
Algea | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tMannan | \n\t\t\t[70] | \n\t\t
Fungus | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tGalactoglucomannan | \n\t\t\t[71] | \n\t\t
Fungus | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tGalactoglucomannan | \n\t\t\t[72] | \n\t\t
Bacteria | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tMannan | \n\t\t\t[56] | \n\t\t
Bacteria | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tMannopyronose | \n\t\t\t[53] | \n\t\t
Bacteria | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tMannan | \n\t\t\t[55] | \n\t\t
Bacteria | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tMannan | \n\t\t\t[73] | \n\t\t
Bacteria | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tMannan | \n\t\t\t[74] | \n\t\t
Mannan producer organisms
Mannans are synthesized from activated nucleotide sugars such as GDP-mannose, GDP-glucose, and UDP-galactose [75]. Enzymes necessary for the nucleotide sugar conversion from sucrose to GDP-mannose and UDP-galactose have been reported in planta. However, the enzyme for the formation of GDP-glucose has not been identified [76]. Golgi-localized glycosyltransferases (GTs) utilize the activated nucleotide sugars and synthesize the polymer by facilitating the formation of the specific linkage between the monomers [77,78].
The cellulose synthase-like family A (CSLA) genes are considered the best candidates to encode enzymes that polymerize the backbones of β-linked noncellulosic polysaccharides [79,80]. Experimental evidence to support this hypothesis for the CslA family came first from Dhugga et al. [81]. In this research, the first β-mannan synthase (ManS), a member of the cellulose synthase-like family A (CSLA) from GT family 2, was identified in guar seeds (CtManS in Cyamopsis tetragonoloba, a AtCSLA9 ortholog) including the demonstration of its in vitro ManS activity [82]. One year later, three Arabidopsis CSLA genes were expressed in Drosophila Schneider 2 (S2) cells and demonstrated that the resulting CSLA proteins were capable of producing mannans when supplied with GDP-Man and glucomannans when provided with a mixture of GDP-Man and GDP-Glc [75]. CSLA genes appear to be present in all land plants, and ancestral genes with characteristics similar to CSLA sequences have been identified in a number of green algal genomes, in which they are thought to represent a homolog of the progenitor gene from which CSLA genes evolved [76]. In developing Trigonella foenum-graecum (Fenugreek) endosperm, a deep sequencing approach was used to identify genes involved in galactomannan biosynthesis [83]. This research reported a CSLA family protein involved in mannan backbone synthesis and a preference towards GDP-mannose as a donor substrate was observed from the activity assays with the heterologously expressed protein. Heterologously expressed CSLA proteins from a variety of species show mannan or glucomannan synthase activity in vitro [6,75,81,83]. Analysis of Arabidopsis CSLA mutants and over-expressing plants further confirmed that CSLA proteins function as glucomannan synthases
In tissues of
Edwards et al. identified a mannan:galactosyltransferase (GalT) in
Many properties of polysaccharides such as biocompatibility, solubility, potential for modification, and innate bioactivity provide great potential for their use in drug delivery systems (Figure 3).
Properties of polysaccharides for potential use in drug delivery systems
Despite many synthetic polymers, polysaccharides have very low or no toxicity levels [97-100]. For example, dextrans are biopolymers composed of glucose with α-1,6 linkages, with possible branching from α-1,2, α-1,3, and α-1,4 linkages, that exhibit low toxicity and high biocompatibility, that makes them biocompatible hydrogels for controlled prolonged therapeutic release [101] and microspheres with no inflammatory response following subcutaneous injection into rats [102]. Since polysaccharides are naturally present in the body, most of them are degraded enzymatically. Through enzyme catalysis, polysaccharides can be broken down to their monomer or oligomer building blocks and recycled for use as storage, structural support, or even cell signaling applications [103]. As a result, mechanism of release for therapeutics associated with polysaccharide-based carrier systems is provided by enzymatic degradation [104].
The functional groups of polysaccharides such as hydroxyl and amine groups yield high aqueous solubility. However, this solubility can often be adjusted via monomer modification. For example,
Due to the presence of various derivable groups on molecular chains, polysaccharides can be easily modified chemically and biochemically, resulting in many kinds of polysaccharide derivatives. These modifications can change the character of the polysaccharides. For instance, hydroxyl group oxidation enhances biodegradability, while sulfonation generates a heparin-like polysaccharide with increased blood compatibility [106]. Quaternization of the primary amines with various alkyl groups can be used to enhance solubility and alter bioactivity [107-109].
Many polysaccharides possess innate bioactivity, particularly mucoadhesive, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory properties. Positively charged polysaccharides are capable of binding to the negatively charged mucosal layers through charge interactions [110-112]. For neutral or negatively charged polysaccharides, hydrogen bonding provides an alternative mechanism for mucoadhesion [113]. Nanoparticle carriers made of bioadhesive polysaccharides could prolong the residence time and therefore increase the absorbance of loaded drugs [114]. Several polysaccharides are also antimicrobial in nature, such as chitosan [115]. Other polysaccharides are known to reduce inflammation. Anti-inflammatory activity is thought to be due to binding with immune-related acute phase and complement proteins [111,116] and polysaccharides are known to interact with a variety of proteins.
Nanocarriers are nanoparticle drug delivery systems that are used to deliver drugs or biomolecules. Nanocarriers are sub-micro particle structures smaller than 100 nm in at least one dimension and cover nanospheres, nanocapsules, nanomicelles, nanoliposomes, and nanodrugs, etc. Nanoparticle drug delivery systems have noticeable advantages. Due to the ultra-tiny volume of nanoparticle they can pass through the smallest capillary vessels and avoid rapid clearance by phagocytes, that lead to greatly prolonged duration in blood stream. Due to small dimensions, nanocarriers are able to cross the blood-brain-barrier (BBB) and operate on cellular level. They can easily penetrate cells and tissue gap to arrive at target organs such as spleen, spinal cord, liver, lung, and lymph. Because of the biodegradability, pH, ion and/or temperature sensibility of materials, they could show controlled release properties. They can improve the utility of drugs and reduce toxic side effects; etc. As drug delivery system, nanocarriers can entrap drugs or biomolecules into their interior structures and/or absorb drugs or biomolecules onto their exterior surfaces. Presently, nanoparticles have been widely used to deliver drugs, polypeptides, proteins, vaccines, nucleic acids, genes and so on.
In recent years, a large number of studies have been conducted on polysaccharides and their derivatives for their potential application as nanoparticle drug delivery systems [114,117-120] and among them, mannan is a very promising bioactive material for drug nanocarrier systems since an amphiphilic form of mannan can spontaneously incorporate proteins and other agents, potentially providing a new nanostructure drug delivery system.
Glucomannans have a variety of applications, including food industry used as an emulsifier and thickener and medicine as a preventative of chronic disease and weight control agent [21]. Likewise, galactomannans also found many applications in food industrial as a thickener and food additive due to their rheological properties [121]. Moreover, galactomannans are widely used as versatile materials in industries such as textiles, paper, pharmaceutics, cosmetics, petroleum, drilling and explosives [93,122].
Galactomannans have also significant potential in medical applications such as innate immune system stimulation. On the other hand, the mannooligosaccharides (MOS) derived from these polysaccharides have also prebiotic activity for selective growth of Bifidobacterium spp., and Lactobacillus spp. [123]. They have also been described to present anticoagulation and fibrinolytic activity [124] and the MOS may prevent adherence of toxic bacteria to the intestinal wall, mediated by lectins, thus presenting anti-infectious potential [123,125,126].
In the research of Apostolopoulos
In another study, the factors important to gene delivery and DNA vaccination that could contribute to the improved immunogenicity of oxidized mannan poly-L-lysine (OMPLL)–DNA and reduced mannan poly-L-lysine (RMPLL)–DNA immunization were investigated [9]. It was shown that OMPLL and RMPLL were able to complex with DNA to form particles that were taken up by charge dependent binding and endocytic pathways. High possibility of delivery of DNA was observed since the particles formed were able to protect DNA from DNase I digestion. More significantly, direct effect of OMPLL and RMPLL was observed on the antigen presentation of dentritic cells (DCs).
In 2010, Guo et al. reported that marine bacterium
In 2011, Ferreira et al. prepared nanogel made of mannan [11]. The properties of the resulting nanogel were characterized and cytocompatibility was tested by using two cell lines, namely, mouse embryo fibroblasts 3T3 and mouse macrophage-like J774. The results of study revealed that the mannose receptor binds ligands at the cell surface and these receptor-ligand complexes were internalized via the endocytic pathway. Internalization of the nanogel caused cytotoxicity since the non-phagocytic cell line was not affected and internalization was confirmed with J774. The high nanogel toxicity observed with the macrophage cell line indicated that the cell line J774 was not suitable for studies with mannan-C16 nanogel and primary cultures of macrophages that do not exhibit cytotoxicity should be used instead.
In 2012, the mannan nanogel cytocompatibility was tested in mouse embryo fibroblast cell line 3T3 and mouse bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDM). [12]. The essential focus of the study was to assess nanomaterial cytocompatibility and to analyze the internalization by macrophages. The results of this study indicated that the mannan nanogel was biocompatible to mouse embryo fibroblast 3T3 cells and mouse BMDM. Essentially, no cytotoxic effect was observed with mannan nanogel up to about 0.4 mg/mL in
Sato et al. [127] examined the adhesion inhibitory effect of mannan coating on acrylic denture surfaces against
Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) have been used as a contrast agent in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or as a carrier platform in the applications of drug [133-135] and gene delivery [137,138]. It was previously reported that mannan-coated SPION (mannan-SPION) could be specifically targeted to macrophages by the interaction with mannose receptors on antigen-presenting cells (APCs) [139]. Vu-Quang et al., [10] investigated the physicochemical properties, the
The effective conjugation of iron oxide nanoparticles with various biomolecules has been used for novel therapeutic-and drug delivery purposes [139-142]. Ultrasmall superparamagnetic iron oxide (USPIO) targets biomarkers of atherosclerotic plaques and improvements of USPIO make possible to obtain better plaque images at lower doses. Mannose units of mannan polysaccharides are recognized by mannose receptors on immune macrophages and they lack of significant toxicity. As a result, in the study of Tsuchiya [143], MRI-and histologic analyses were performed to compare the uptake by the rabbit atherosclerotic wall of four types of SPIO particles, i.e. SPIO, mannan-coated SPIO (M-SPIO), ultrasmall SPIO (USPIO), and mannan-coated USPIO (M-USPIO). Resuts of study reveal that mannan-coated iron particles had a greater affinity for active atherosclerotic plaques than non mannan-coated iron particles. Intracellular iron uptake was also higher in cells treated with M-USPIO than USPIO.
Glucomannans have diverse applications in biomedical and pharmaceutical areas due to the advantages of the polysaccharide such as weigt loss in obesity, decreased carbohydrate absorption in diabetes type 2, antitumor activity against sarcoma in cancer, decreased LDL levels in cholesterol, recognition of mannose receptors in targeting, antiseptic coating and sustained release profiles, increase of stability, improvement of the interaction between polmers, enhancement protein association of pharmaceutical forms of glucomannan. Glucomannan has been investigated as a pharmaceutical excipient in tablets, films, beads and hydrogels, due to its gelling, solubility and biodegradable properties [143-146].
Electrostatic interaction between the negative carboxylic groups of carboxymethylated-GM and the positive amino groups of chitosan was used for the preparation of nanoparticles made of carboxymethylated-GM and chitosan [147]. These nanoparticles were within size range of 50–1200 nm and exhibited a positive charge. Additionally, these nanoparticles elicited an ability to entrap and release bovine serum albumin (BSA) [147,148] The objection of use of GM in these nanoparticles was to increase their stability and their controlled release properties. Sande et al. reported that the introduction of GM into the nanoparticles lead to a facilitated interaction with the intestinal epithelium both
In the report of Zhang et al., use of konjac glucomannan (KGM) in oral colon targeting drug delivery system (OCDDS) was reviewed [151]. Based on the previous studies of KGM, it could be considered as a significant natural polysaccharide in OCDDS. It was known that KGM gel systems were able to maintain integrity and control the release of theophylline and diltiazem for 8 hours [152]. KGM hydrolysate was reported to have prebiotic potential for beneficial gut microbiota [153,154]. KGM is a water soluble polysaccharide because of hydrogen bonding in its structure [155,156]. The stronger the hydrogen bonding between their molecules, the harder for it to dissolve in water. Water solubility can be either advantageous or disadvangeous according to its application. Due to the high water adsorption rate, deficiency of free water in gastrointestinal tract occurs and leads to diarrhea when KGM was used in the applications such as pharmaceutical excipients or drugs. On the other hand, when prepared as styptic sponge, which used to stop bleeding, the higher the water adsorption rate of it, the better the hemostasis effect may be. Modifications of KGM lead to alteration in the water adsorption of it. Moreover, KGM have gel-forming and film-forming properties [157].
In the previous studies, it was reported that KGM can be specifically degraded by colon β-mannanase [158], an enzyme generated by human colon bacteria [159]. On the other hand, based on the toxicity tests Ancui et al. reported KGM as a stable and safety material for medicinal purposes [160].
Invention of a novel hydrogel systems designed for colon-targeting drug delivery was reported in 2004 [158]. This hydrogel was composed of KGM, copolymerized with acrylic acid, and crosslinked by the aromatic azo agent bis(methacryloylamino)-azobenzene. Chen, Liu and Zhuo, copolymerized KGM and acrylic acid (AA) with N, N-methylene-bis-(acrylamide) (MBAAm) to form a novel hydrogel system [161]. Studies on swelling behaviors and degradation showed that the gel is pH-sensitive and could be degraded by Cellulase E0240 containing β-mannanase. Further researches demonstrated that the IPN hydrogel composed of KGM and poly(acrylic acid) (PAA) and cross-linked by N, N-methylene-bis-(acrylamide) (MBAAm) was still pH-sensitive and a potential carrier for colon-targeting drug delivery. Xu et al., prepared oxidized konjac glucomannan (OKG) for OCDDS which was pH-sensitive and could be used without the destruction of drugs in gastric acid [162]. Furthermore, Korkiatithaweechai et al., prepared controlled release of diclofenac sodium (DFNa) film from CTS (chitosan)-OKG [163]. This study suggested that the proportion of OKG in the formulation may affect the release profile and the formulation may be used for further study as a long term intestine controlled release drug model (at least 3 days), including as colon targeting drug carrier.
Guar gum derived from the seeds of
Locust bean gum also known as Carob bean gum consists mainly of a neutral galactomannan polymer made up of 1,4-linked D-mannopyranosyl units and every fourth or fifth chain unit is substituted on C6 with a D-galactopyranosyl unit. Locust bean gum is a neutral polymer and its viscosity and solubility are therefore little affected by pH changes within the range of 3-11 [166]. Locust bean gum was used to produce matrix tablets with and without the cross-linker, glutaraldehyde [101]. A commercially available tablet system (TIMERx®) developed by Penwest Pharmaceuticals Company consisting of locust bean gum and xanthan gum showed both
Guar gum hydrates and swells in cold water [168]. This gelling cause to retardation of the drug release from the tablets [169,170]. Guar gum is being used to deliver drug to the colon due to its drug release retarding property and susceptibility to microbial degradation in the large intestine [171,172]. Guar gum based matrix tablets of dexamethasone and other antinflammatory agents were prepared and used in colon targeting [173]. Whereas negligible drug release was observed in simulated gastric and intestinal fluids, significant increase in drug release was reported in simulated colonic fluid.
Colonic drug delivery system based on pectin (polygalactronic acid) and galactomannan coating was reported by Lee et al. [174] and Pai et al. [175]. These two polysaccharides, pectin and galactomannan, were used as coating material of a conventional tablet or capsule. The coating of pectin/galactomannan mixture was shown to be strong, elastic and insoluble in simulated gastric and intestinal fluids such that it would protect drug from being released in the upper GI tract. Researches revealed that in the colon, bacterial degradability was preserved. Moreover, extended film resistance to hydration, subsequent solubilization, film degradation rate by enzymes and drug release rate were found to depend on the varying ratio of pectin to galactomannan. Higher galactomannan percentage caused to decreased bacterial degradation in the colon and prolonged duration of negligible drug release in the upper GI tract. Compared with the combination of pectin and ethyl cellulose [176] or amylose and ethyl cellulose [177], combination of pectin and galactomannan was advantageous due to faster
Matrix tablet of indomethacin with guar gum was prepared and the suitability of guar gum as a carrier in colonic drug delivery was investigated in another study [178]. The results indicated the specificity of these matrices for enzymes triggered the drug release in the colon. In another
Rubinstein and Gliko-Kabir investigated a biodegradable property of guar gum cross-linked with borax [180]. The time required for degradation of these crosslinked guar gum and borax showed that release of drug would be in proximal colon. The same group analysed phosphated cross-linked guar gum hydrogels for their potential as colon drug carriers
Alginate is a non-toxic polysaccharide that have properties such as pH sensitivity. This pH sensitivity is favorable for intestinal delivery of protein drugs. However, drug leaching during hydrogel preparation and rapid dissolution of alginate at higher pH are major limitations since when it enters the intestine, these limitations cause to very low entrapment efficiency and burst release of entrapped protein drug. To overcome these limitations, George and Abraham used another natural polysaccharide, guar gum which is included in the alginate matrix along with a cross linking agent to ensure maximum encapsulation efficiency and controlled drug release [182].
In the study of Coviello et al. [101], two galactomannans, guar gum and Locust bean gum, have been investigated for their possible use as matrices for modified drug delivery. They were crosslinked with glutaraldehyde (Ga) and then used for the preparation of tablets. This preparations increased the rate of release of small guest molecules due to the fact that the chemical reaction with Ga introduced meshes with a size larger than those present in the simply entangled systems.
In the study of Voepel et al. [183], hydrogels based on acetylated galactoglucomannan (AcGGM) were synthesized and examined for their properties in drug-release systems using two model substances of different molecular weight, size, and polarity (caffeine and vitasyn blue). AcGGM was synthetically modified to yield a polysaccharide with either neutral or ionic pendant groups. These precursors were formulated to produce either a neutral, covalent hydrogel or a physically cross linked hydrogel. Neutral and ionic hydrogels based on HEMA-Im– modified AcGGM (M-AcGGM) and maleic anhydride modified M-AcGGM (CM-AcGGM) were studied in view of their chemical, physical and drug release properties. In the case of the neutral hydrogels, half of the total drug release (50 wt % release) was reported to occur between 13 and 35 min and 50 to 90 min for caffeine and vitasyn blue, respectively. The majority of the caffeine (80 wt %) was released between 40 and 120 min, on the other hand, the majority of vitasyn blue was released between 125 and 250 min. When maleic anhydride was added to the M-AcGGM, ionic poly(CM-AcGGMco-HEMA) hydrogels could be achieved. Slower release of caffeine was found in these hydrogels, especially at acidic conditions because of the pH responsitivity obtained through the introduced carboxylic functionalities.
Roos et al. synthesized hydrogels from
Bioadhesive poly(D,L-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) nanoparticles were reported as promising drug delivery systems [185], and surface modification of nanocarriers was provided by application of mannan-based PE-grafted ligands (MAN-PEs) [186]. Kong et al. investigated MAN-PE-modified bioadhesive PLGA nanoparticles as active targeting gene delivery system using plasmid enhanced green fluorescent protein (
In the study of Wu et al., mannan-PEG-PE (MN-PEG-PE) modified bioadhesive PLGA nanoparticles were obtained as a targeted gene delivery system [188]. Mannan was the target part that bind to the mannose receptor (MR) in the macrophage, and PEG-PE was the spacer linked into the surface of NPs. The results of this study confirmed that mannose-mediated targeting could successfully deliver genes into MR expressing cells. Improved transfection efficiency was observed in the case of mannose containing targeting ligands, such as in DNA loaded PLGA NPs. The results supported the active targeting ability of mannan containing PEG-PE modified bioadhesive PLGA nanoparticles, and the resulting vectors would be very useful in gene delivery both
In the study of Kaur, sustained and targeted release nanoparticles of didanosine were formulated using gelatin as polymer and mannan-coating to further enhance its macrophage uptake and its distribution in organs that act as major reservoirs of HIV [189]. Coating of nanoparticles with mannan further retarded the drug release (42.5 ± 1.7% over 24 h) and increased the cellular uptake of nanoparticles (N-C3-M) as was evident by higher staining intensity and complete lysis within 2 h of incubation. The better cellular uptake of mannan-coated nanoparticles might be due to the presence of mannosyl receptor predominantly on the macrophage cell surface, which was used by the cells for endocytosis and phagocytosis [190,191]. The results showed higher accumulation of didanosine in brain when administered through mannan-coated nanoparticles. Didanosine is a hydrophilic drug and its ability to cross the blood brain barrier was very low; however, mannan-coated nanoparticles provided enhanced delivery of didanosine to brain. Hence, mannan-coated gelatin nanoparticles resulted in a significantly higher concentration of didanosine in spleen, lymph nodes and brain.
Overview of literature clearly shows the high potential of mannan-based biomaterials in health related applications. In these studies though, the monomer composition and structure of mannan polysaccharide plays the key role for a successful design. It is well known that the composition of polysaccharides is highly influenced by the environmental conditions and strictly depends on the availability of the activated sugar monomers. Currently, main sources for mannan are plants, algae and fungi where production may take months and greatly depends on geographical or seasonal conditions. On the other hand, microbial sources could be a feasible alternative for the sustainable and economical production of mannan at industrial scale. Microbial fermentation would not only enable the use of low-cost resources for the economical production, but also provide control over the chemical structure, monomer composition and physicochemical and rheological properties of the final product. There are only few reports on microbial mannan production and from these, thermophiles stand out with their high production rates due to their high metabolic activity. Moreover, such simple systems enable the effective application of systems-based approaches to obtain tailor-made polymers.
Finally, mannan is a very promising bioactive material for drug nanocarrier systems since its amphiphilic structure can incorporate diverse biomolecules, potentially providing novel nanostructure drug delivery systems. Hence, development of high mannan producer cell factories would overcome the problems associated with the sustainable production of this important biomaterial.
Extensive research in the chemical synthetic approaches has led to a huge increment in the poorly water-soluble drug’s development [1]. In the present scenario, statistical reports suggest that there are approximately 70% of poor water-soluble new chemical entities (NCEs) [2]. These newly developed drugs possess lipophilic characteristic and are challenging to deliver through the oral route. They have poor oral bioavailability, show variation in intra- as well as intersubject pharmacokinetics, have poor dose proportionality, and have erratic absorption [3]. Researchers have made many strategies to overcome the limitation of poor solubility and bioavailability. Different delivery system formulation development and chemical and/or physical modification of drug moiety can be used to solve the poor solubility issue of drugs. Though there are many drug delivery system approaches, lipid-based drug delivery system has gained much interest in lipophilic drug delivery. It includes macroemulsion, nanoemulsion, niosomes, self-emulsifying formulation, liposomes, solid-lipid nanoparticle, etc. Among all these formulation approaches, emulsion-based preparation can be considered an industrially feasible approach to overcome the limitation of poor bioavailability [4]. Nanoemulsion is capable of improving the topical drug absorption thereby increasing the bioavailability and permeability of lipophilic drug; thus, it can be a good alternative option for drug delivery [5]. Nanoemulsion is further incorporated into gel matrix to prepare nanoemulgel which has even better permeation and stability. So far, there is no review article reported on the promising future of nanoemulgel applications as a delivery system in the treatment of various diseases. This article is a complete package of nanoemulgel comprising information of potent selected formulation component, formulation procedure, advantages over other delivery system, and widespread possible application of nanoemulgel in the treatment therapy. In this article, we have mentioned only reported applications, and there are many to still go in the upcoming future.
Though oral route offers better patient compliance, it has various limitations like gastric irritation, unavoidable side effects, systemic toxicity, and hepatic first-pass metabolism [6]. To avoid all these issues, a nonirritating, non-painful, and a noninvasive topical drug delivery system can be a suitable alternative. It has several advantages over oral route such as targeted site-specific delivery of drug with least systemic toxicity, no gastric irritation, first-pass metabolism bypass, and improved bioavailability of a drug [7, 8]. Apart from many advantages, traditional topical formulations, namely lotions, creams, and ointments suffer from sticky nature, stability issue, low spreadability, etc. which affect the patient’s compliance. Whereas, modern transdermal preparations like transparent gel, nanogel, and (micro/nano) emulgel not only have shown improved patient compliance but also improves the formulation efficacy, stability, and safety. Several studies have reported that topical drug delivery system improves the bioavailability of the drug [9, 10]. Bioavailability of lacidipine given through transdermal route was found to be increased by 3.5-fold than the oral route. It may be due to the avoidance of the first-pass metabolism of the drug [9]. In another study conducted by Bhaskar and team, it was found that the topical nanoemulsion of flurbiprofen exhibits 4.4 times more bioavailability than oral delivery [10]. Thus, the bioavailability of a lipophilic drug can be enhanced by the topical drug delivery system. Topical delivery not only reduces the drug metabolism but also improves the permeation across the skin by maintaining longer steady-state delivery of the drug [9].
Delivery of a lipophilic drug is a big obstacle for the conventional transdermal delivery system due to low therapeutic potential and poor skin permeability capability. Researches propose that nanoscale-sized transdermal preparation can increase the drug permeability by disrupting the skin bilayer of lipid [11] and extending the drug retention time at the site of action [12, 13]. Nanoemulsion can be a promising carrier delivery of hydrophobic drug, since it has greater thermodynamic stability and higher capability of drug solubilization over emulsion and other dispersion systems. It also has longer shelf life and requires a small amount of external energy for manufacturing [14]. Nanoemulsion is a dispersed system which consists of nanoscale-sized (20–200 nm diameter) droplets solvent composed of an oil phase and water phase and stabilized by the suitable surfactant. Drug is entrapped in the core which is surrounded by emulsifier layer as shown in Figure 1. Generally, permeation enhancers are not required when nanoemulsion is used as a carrier for delivery of the lipophilic drug [15]. It has less tendency of phase separation than other ordinary emulsions which makes it more stable [16]. Different studies have reported better permeation of drug into the skin through nanoemulsion delivery system than conventional ointment [17], cream [18], gel [19], and emulsion [20]. Depending on the type of nanoemulsion, viz. oil-in-water or water-in-oil, it can solubilize both hydrophobic and hydrophilic drug in its structure [21].
Structure of nanoemulsion.
In spite of lots of advantages, nanoemulsion suffers from low spreadability, low viscosity, and poor skin retention issue [22]. Due to these, the clinical application of topical nanoemulsion is restrained [23]. Researchers converted nanoemulsion into nanoemulgel by incorporating it into the gel matrix and solved this problem.
Nanoemulgel is the fusion of two systems: nanoemulsion system and hydrogel system. Both the systems have some limitations, such as nanoemulsion that suffers low spreadability and poor retention, whereas hydrogels are incapable of incorporating lipophilic molecule [24, 25]. Nanoemulgel has different types of polymeric materials, surfactants, and fatty substances of natural, synthetic, and semisynthetic nature with a droplet size range from 5 to 500 nm [26]. Nanoemulgel has the capability to overcome the limitation of both the systems. The lipophilic drug is dissolved in the oil phase of nanoemulsion which is then added to hydrogel base to form nanoemulgel [27] which enables the incorporation of lipophilic drug into a hydrogel, simultaneously improving the viscosity of nanoemulsion. In transdermal drug delivery, nanoemulgel acts as a reservoir of the drug. The drug is first to release from the inner phase to the outer phase and from there into the skin surface. When applied on skin, oily droplets were released from the gel matrix of nanoemulgel, which then penetrate deep into the skin via stratum corneum, and there they directly deliver the drug moiety [23]. The mechanism of drug release depends on the crosslink density as well as the composition of a network of polymer chains [28].
Nanoemulgel is a fusion of two separate systems, viz. the nanoemulsion and a gel system. Nanoemulsion acting as a vehicle for drug delivery can be either water-in-oil or oil-in-water type. In both cases, it consists of an oil phase, aqueous phase, surfactant, and sometime cosurfactant. Overview of commonly used major components of nanoemulgel formulation has been apprehended in this section (Figure 2).
Potent formulation component of nanoemulgel.
Oil is an important component of the nanoemulgel formulation that should be selected appropriately based on the solubility, stability, permeability, and viscosity of the formulation. Vegetable oils/edible oils are not frequently used in nanoemulgel formulation, since they had shown poor emulsification properties and drug solubility [29, 30, 31]. Thus, chemically modified oils such as mono or diglyceride or medium-chain triglycerides are commonly used as an oil phase in the nanoemulgel formulation for lipophilic drug delivery [15]. A medium-chain triglyceride, Labrafac, has been used by Syamala and his group to prepare butenafine nanoemulgel [32]. Capryol 90 is another example used as an oil phase in the preparation of nanoemulsion, which has shown better stability of the nanoemulsion formulation of leflunomide and paclitaxel [3, 33].
On the other hand, scientists are focusing on utilizing the supplementary benefit of natural oil in therapeutic effect. Antimicrobial activity of tea tree oil was combined with an antifungal agent itraconazole for a synergistic effect of nanoemulgel preparation against vaginal candidiasis [34]. Another nanoemulgel of curcumin has been reported by Jeengar and team with emu oil. Emu oil obtained from emu bird has analgesic, antipruritic, anesthetic, antioxidants, and anti-inflammatory properties, and it has shown the improvement in permeability of drug in the treatment of joint synovial [35]. Various oils used by different researchers in nanoemulgel preparation are listed in Table 1.
Oil | Surfactant | Cosurfactant | Gelling agents | Reference | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Caprylic acid, isopropyl myristate, and tea tree oil | Tween 20 | PEG 400 | Carbopol 940 | [36] | |
Emu oil | Cremophor RH40 | Labrafil M2125CS | Carbopol | [35] | |
Linseed oil, isopropyl myristate and triacetin | Tween 80 | Ethanol + PEG 400 + propylene glycol | Carbopol 940 | [37] | |
Labrafac™ LipophileWL1349 | Tween 80 | PEG 400 | Carbopol | [38] | |
Oleic acid | Tween 80 | Transcutol P | Guar gum | [24] | |
Isosteryl isostearate | Labrasol | Plurol isostearique | Carbopol 940 | [39] | |
Capryol 90 | Tween 20 | Carbitol | Carbopol 934 | [15] | |
Labrafac | Cremophore RH40 | Ethanol | Carbopol | [32] | |
Oleic acid | Tween 80 | Transcutol P | Carbopol 940 | [40] | |
Oleic acid | Tween 80 | Ethanol | Carbopol 934 | [41] | |
Sefsol-218 | Tween 80 | Transcutol-P | Carbopol | [42] | |
Olive oil and miglyol | Polysorbate 80 | Transcutol | Propylene glycol | [43] | |
Liquid paraffin | Polysorbate 80 | Glycerin | Carbopol 940 | [44] | |
Labrafac and triacetin | Tween 80 | Diethylene glycol monorthyl ether | Carbopol 934 | [45] | |
Oleic acid and IPM | Tween 20 | Carbitol | Carbopol 934 | [46] | |
Labrafil | Acrysol | Carbitol | Carbopol | [47] |
Various components used in different nanoemulgel formulations.
Surfactant reduces the interfacial tension between the mixtures of two immiscible liquids and changes the dispersion entropy, thus stabilizing thermodynamically unstable emulsion system. Selection of appropriate surfactant for nanoemulgel is based on the safety, stability, high drug loading capacity as well as good emulsification properties [31]. Also, the surfactant should be selected based on the solubility with oil like Tween 20 that was used on the basis of solubility of Capryol 90 and oleic acid [15, 40].
Cosurfactant may combine with surfactant and help in the emulsification process by disrupting the interfacial film. It may also help in solubilization of oil [15]. Depending on the physicochemical properties, most frequently used cosurfactants in nanoemulsion and nanoemulgel preparation are propylene glycol, PEG 400, ethanol, transcutol P, carbitol, etc. [35, 40]. Studies suggest that with the increase in the concentration of cosurfactant, the area of nanoemulsion in phase diagram decreases [48, 49].
Aqueous solvents act as the aqueous phase in emulsion preparation. Worldwide widely used aqueous solvents are ethanol and water.
Carbapol 934, Carbapol 940, and hydroxy propyl methyl cellulose (HPMC) are widely used gelling agent for nanoemulgel. They increased the thickness of the formulation and may interact with the surfactant to modify the viscosity of the formulation [41]. It is added to the nanoemulsion preparation to change the physical state of nanoemulsion formulation from liquid to gel, thus solving the problem of low spreadability, low viscosity, and poor skin retention issue of nanoemulsion.
To protect the formulation from microbial attack and increase the shelf life of formulation, preservatives are added in the preparation. Most commonly used preservatives are methylparaben, benzoic acid, propylparaben, benzalkonium chloride, etc. Antioxidants like butylate hydroxyl toluene, butylate hydroxyl anisole, and ascorbyl palmitate are used to prevent oxidative degradation of formulation components and to prevent loss of moisture, glycerin and propylene glycol are used as humectants [50]. Hence, the stability of the nanoemulsion and nanoemulgel preparation increased.
Two steps are involved in the manufacturing of nanoemulgel. The first step is nanoemulsion formulation which is then incorporated into a gelling agent in the second step to form nanoemulgel. Figure 3 schematically represents the procedure of preparation of nanoemulgel.
Procedure of nanoemulgel preparation.
Methods used for the preparation of nanoemulsion can be high-energy emulsification methods or low-energy emulsification methods [49, 51]. In high-energy emulsification methods, external energy is applied which rupture the oil phase to form nanosized droplets in the aqueous phase. It includes ultrasonic emulsification and high-pressure homogenization. Solvent displacement method, phase inversion composition method, and phase inversion temperature method are low-energy emulsification in which low energy is required for prepared nanoemulsion [21].
The selected surfactant is dissolved in either the aqueous phase or the oil phase. Based on the solubility, the drug is then added and solubilized in the oil phase or aqueous phase followed by heating. Then one phase is gradually added into another with continuous stirring till the temperature of the mixture reaches to room temperature.
The appropriate gelling agent is dissolved in distilled water with continuous stirring to prepare gel base. The pH of prepared gel is adjusted, then the nanoemulsion system is incorporated slowly into the prepared gel at a particular ratio with continuous stirring to get nanoemulgel preparation.
Nanoemulgel preparations have various advantages over other topical as well as conventional preparation. Some of the advantages are listed as follows (Figure 4).
Advantages of nanoemulgel preparation.
The lipophilic drug moieties base show improper drug release mechanism in the gel due to its insolubility in aqueous base. Fusion of the hydrogel system with emulsion system enables the incorporation of lipophilic drug into the aqueous base, thus improving the release mechanism of the drug. Lipophilic drug is dissolved in the oil phase of emulsion which is then incorporated into hydrogel system [52].
Better loading capacity has been observed by nanoemulgel as compared to than other novel drug delivery systems. Due to its nanoscale size, it has a larger surface area and better entrapment efficiency which enable it to load more amount of drugs in its network-like system [52].
Nanoemulgel system is more stable than other transdermal drug delivery system, because it decreases the interfacial as well as the surface tension of the formulation, which make it superior from a conventional transdermal delivery system [53].
Nanoemulgel acts as a drug reservoir and has shown prolong residence time leading to sustain release of the drug. Thus, it is beneficial for the drugs having shorter half-life [52].
Nanoemulgel formulation gives higher Tmax and peak plasma concentration of lipophilic drugs than the conventional gel as well as oral formulation. Thereby, nanoemulgel preparation improves the bioavailability of lipophilic drug many folds than the other lipophilic drug formulations [53].
Major issue with the transdermal preparation is the sticky nature and low spreading coefficient which require rubbing mechanism. Nanoemulgel being nonsticky and easily spreadable preparation results in better patient compliance than other transdermal preparations [28].
Nanoemulgel has shown significant enhancement in the permeability of the drug through skin than other formulation since from nanoemulgel preparation, the drug can permeate the skin layer through both paracellular and transcellular route, whereas, in nanoemulsion, only transcellular permeation route is seen [53]. Comparison of cumulative drug permeability through the skin from different formulation is represented in Figure 5 [24].
Comparative representation of cumulative cyclosporine permeated through the skin of albino rat from different formulations. Regenerated from [
Nanoemulgel bypasses the first-pass metabolism, thus solving one of the major problems of drug, that is, the oral side effect. It does not cause skin irritation or any toxicity on the application [53].
A significant number of the nanoemulgel formulation of drugs has been carried out and reported by various researchers to show its application as a more potent and effective drug delivery system. Some of the studies have shown outstanding result over the conventional oral drug delivery system, suggesting a promising future of nanoemulgel application.
Thymol nanoemulgel formulation for acne vulgaris, a common chronic skin disease, was prepared by Ahmad and team. The preparation showed better efficacy [36].
It is the skin condition in which skin cells build up and form itchy, dry patches, and scales. A nanoemulgel formulation of leflunomide by Pund and team showed considerably higher anti-psoriatic and anti-melanoma activity in human keratinocyte cell line due to improved permeability of drug. Amount of drug deposited in the skin after 12 hours by nanoemulgel was found to be sixfold more than ordinary gel [33]. In another study by Somagoni and team, nanoemulgel showed 3.22- and 2.01-fold more reduction of ear swelling than drug solution and marketed product, respectively, in psoriatic-like model [43].
High skin permeability of nanoemulgel has made it a better alternative for the faster treatment of fungal infection. Syamala has reported that it took only 12 days to Butenafine nanoemulgel to cure fungus-infected rat skin, whereas cream took 16 days [32]. Nanoemulgel has also shown a notable increase in antifungal activity of the drug. Higher area of inhibition zone was observed with Ketoconazole nanoemulgel than drug solution when incubated for 48 hours [38]. Nanoemulgel of Amphotericin B can overcome formulation limitation of Amphotericin B making it a better alternative to painful intravenous administration. It could be used as a stable, effective, and safe carrier for sustained and enhanced localized delivery of Amphotericin B against fungal infection [42].
Nanoemulgel is a better alternative for poor water-soluble anti-inflammatory drugs, and it also bypasses the related oral side effects of drugs like gastrointestinal irritation, renal, and cardiovascular problems, etc. Many researchers have reported remarkably higher activity of anti-inflammatory drugs in nanoemulgel formulation than other drug carrier system [35, 40, 54, 55, 56, 57]. Nanoemulgel of ketoprofen, an extensively utilized non steroidal anti inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) for rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis treatment, was developed by Arora and team. Along with enhancing the skin permeability and solubility of ketoprofen, it also bypasses the problems related to chronic oral delivery of ketoprofen. Comparison of the optimized formulation with the marketed product and drug solution showed 1.5- and 2-fold higher permeability, respectively [40].
Another common drug used in osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis is piroxicam. It is also used in the treatment of the musculoskeletal and joint disorder. It also possesses the problem of poor solubility along with undesirable side effect on stomach and kidney. Dhawan and team reported that piroxicam nanoemulgel can be used as a feasible alternative [41].
Apart from these, attempt has also made to establish the stability, efficacy, and safety of certain drugs with anti-inflammatory activity which has poor solubility and permeability profile and/or oral side effect like curcumin [35], Swietenia macrophylla [27], Lornoxicam [54], Nimesulide [55], mangosteen [56], and diclofenac diethylamine [57]. Figure 6 represents the comparison of anti-inflammatory effect of flurbiprofen nanoemulgel by Radhika and Guruprasad with marketed preparation [37].
Graphical representation of improvement in anti-inflammatory effect of nanoemulgel of flurbiprofen. Regenerated from [
Dental nanoemulgel preparation is intended for periodontal delivery of drug to treat chronic bacterial infection of the gum and bone supporting teeth. Periodontal disease causes inflammation of gum forming pockets which may lead to gum tissue and bone damage. Srivastava and team formulated syringeable ketoprofen nanoemulgel for intra-pocket delivery and found satisfied pharmaceutical characterization offering sustained release of ketoprofen into the pocket. Significant reduction was observed in alveolar bone loss, gingival index, and tooth motility by ketoprofen nanoemulgel due to decreased cytokine levels [58]. Whereas, the study of Nayak and team suggested that controlled released delivery of Quercetin nanoemulgel can be used successfully in periodontitis [59].
Ocular nanoemulgel can be better alternative drug delivery system to the conventional eye drops to cure corneal fungal infection. Permeation of fluconazole from nanoemulgel preparation was found four times that of commercial fluconazole eye drop due to high permeation, sustained release of drug, and prolongation in the precorneal residence time. Prolong release was achieved by in situ gelation of Gellan gum due to its crosslinking with tear fluid. Fluconazole nanoemulgel formulation showed no sign of any ocular irritation and tissue damage [60]. Whereas, Tayel used a rabbit model to successfully control the release rate of terbinafine-HCL nanoemulgel, which can be an effective alternative to conventional eye drop for ocular fungal infection, into the rabbit aqueous humor [61].
A thermo-sensitive nanoemulgel of itraconazole with tea tree oil was prepared for patients suffering from periodic vaginal candidiasis. Antimicrobial activity of itraconazole and tea tree oil combined to give synergistic effect covering cure for wide range microbial infection [34].
Minoxidil is the commonly used drug for the treatment of hair loss also known as alopecia. Nanoemulgel is capable of increasing solubility and permeability of drug through the skin; hence, nanoemulgel preparation of minoxidil will be more effective and safer than conventional preparation present in the market for the treatment of alopecia areata [62].
Nasal nanoemulgel of zaleplon was formulated by Hosny and Banjar for the treatment of insomnia. The main objective was to solve the problem with marketed zaleplon tablet. Zaleplon tablet suffers from poor bioavailability due to extensive first-pass metabolism and delayed onset of action due to poor aqueous solubility. Nasal zaleplon nanoemulgel showed eight times more bioavailability than the marketed zaleplon tablet [63].
Selegiline HCL-loaded nanoemulgel possess better sustains release effect of the drug and higher bioavailability than the conventional gel and a marketed tablet. Bioavailability was reported to be 5.53 and 6.56 times that of normal gel and tablet [64]. Microemulgel loaded with rotigotine has also shown significantly higher bioavailability than marketed patch of rotigotine in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease [65].
Use of nanotechnology in cosmetics is very common. Fullerenes, solid-lipid nanoparticle, liposomes, nanosomes, etc., are already nourishing in cosmetic industries. Ferulic acid nanoemulgel was developed by Harwansh and team to protect the skin damage from harmful UV radiation. Ferulic acid strongly absorbs the UV radiation. Its incorporation into nanoemulgel system made it effective for more than 4 hours on the UV-exposed skin [39].
Currently available marketed emulgel products for the treatment of acne and pimple, inflammation, and pain caused by osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis and skin infection have been listed in Table 2.
Product brand name | Active pharmaceutical ingredient(s) | Manufacturers | Application |
---|---|---|---|
Benzolait AZ emulgel | Benzoylperoxide | Roydermal | Pimple and blacks on skin |
Coolnac Gel emulgel 1% | Diclofenac diethyl ammonium | Chumchon | Inflammation and pain due to trauma |
Diclobar emulgel | Diclofenac diethyl amine | Barakat Pharma | Inflammation due to trauma and rheumatic diseases |
Levorage emulgel | Liquorice, hibiscus, and natural extract | THD Ltd | Anal fissures |
Meloxic emulgel | Meloxicum | Laboratories Provet | Musculoskeletal pain management and inflammation |
Miconaz-H-emulgel | Miconazole nitrate, hydrocortisone | Medical Union Pharmaceutics | Skin infection by candida |
Reumadep emulgel | Ashwagandha, myrrh, arnica, rosemary, mint, and cloves | Erbozeta | Inflammation and pain due to trauma |
Voltaren emulgel | Diclofenac diethyl ammonium | Novartis Pharma | Osteoarthritis joint pain |
Voveron emulgel | Diclofenac diethyl amine | Novartis Pharma | Osteoarthritis joint pain |
Available marketed emulgel preparations.
The skin permeability as well as bioavailability of nanoemulgel may be enhanced by various mechanisms. Some of the studied mechanisms with types of nanoemulgel are listed in Table 3.
Types of nanoemulgel | Mechanism of permeability/bioavailability | References |
---|---|---|
Conjugate of curcumin | Induced apoptosis in cancer cells, suppressing the expression of NF-κB, TNF-α, and COX-2 cellular targets | [66] |
Clove essential oil | Dispersion of the nanoemulsion in the polymeric matrices of the prepared nanoemulgel | [67] |
Snakehead fish (pphiocephalus striatus) | Ex vivo transdermal permeation value | [68] |
Methotrexate | Change in temperature experienced by the nanogel | [69] |
Terbinafine | Ex vivo drug permeation and in vivo antifungal activity | [70] |
Paclitaxel | Nanogel exerts high cytotoxicity to cancer cells and reverses multidrug resistance effectively | [71] |
Diphenhydramine | First-order kinetics and Fickian diffusion | [72] |
Raloxifene hydrochloride | Ex vivo permeation, histopathology, SEM, DSC, and CLSM studies | [73] |
Desonide | DES, Franz diffusion cell system, CLSM | [74] |
Ketoconazole | Ex vivo permeation | [75] |
Telmisartan | Ex vivo permeation, first-order reaction, and Higuchi model with non-Fickian diffusion | [76] |
Ibuprofen | Drug diffusion, however, drug partition, and matrix erosion | [77] |
Piroxicam | Franz diffusion cell | [78] |
Mechanism involved in enhancing permeability and bioavailability of some nanoemulgel preparations.
NF: nuclear factor, TNF: tumor necrosis factor, SEM: scanning electron microscopy, DSC: differential scan calorimetry, DES: dielectric spectroscopy, CLSM: confocal laser scanning microscopy.
Nanoemulgel has been found to be extraordinarily good vehicle system for hydrophobic drug delivery. High drug loading due to better solubilizing efficacy, improved bioavailability due to better permeability, and capability to control the release of drug make it a potent alternative delivery system in the treatment of various diseases. Application of nanoemulgel preparation in the treatment of acne, pimple, psoriasis, fungal infection, and inflammation due to osteoarthritis as well as rheumatoid arthritis has shown significantly higher efficacy. Besides transdermal application, it can also be applied for ocular, vaginal, dental, and nose to brain delivery of drug for the treatment of diverse local and systemic ailments such as alopecia, periodontitis, and Parkinson’s disease. Nanoemulgel has also shown its application in the cosmetic industries as a UV absorber nanoemulgel to protect skin from sunburn. Precisely, the nanoemulgel system has a marvelous ability to be applied in various local and systemic ailments. Some preparations are already present in the market, whereas others need a further clinical study to launch the product in the market.
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In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. 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The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. 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She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"117248",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Macnab",slug:"andrew-macnab",fullName:"Andrew Macnab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"3",type:"subseries",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Antibiotics, Biofilm, Antibiotic Resistance, Host-microbiota Relationship, Treatment, Diagnostic Tools",scope:"