Mechanical properties of composites based on nanostructured nitinol with surface layers of tantalum and titanium.
\r\n\tThe properties of metamaterials are designed not from the properties of their base materials, but rather from the metamaterial's newly designed structures. The precise shapes, geometries, sizes, orientations, and arrangements of metamaterial composing elements render metamaterials versatile ‘smart’ properties related to manipulating electromagnetic waves, by blocking, absorbing, enhancing, or bending waves of specific wavelengths. This allows achieving benefits extending far beyond what could be achieved by employing conventional materials.
\r\n\tMetamaterials have broad and diverse potential applications including optical filters, medical devices, remote aerospace devices and materials, sensors, infrastructure monitoring, highly effective management of solar power, high-frequency battlefield communication, lenses for high-gain antennas, shielding structures to prevent earthquake damage, acoustic materials, etc. Metamaterial research area is highly interdisciplinary: it involves electrical engineering, electromagnetics, classical optics, studies in the solid-state physics field, antenna engineering, optoelectronics, material science, nanoscience and nanotechnology, semiconductor design, and even can involve computational chemistry.
In the modern world, an efficient manner of operational characteristic increase and of classical material shortcoming elimination is a formation on their basis of composite materials [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]. Development of the layered composite materials allowing to effectively combine desirable operational characteristics of the modified surface layers and the main material (substrate) at the present time is perspective in many areas of human activity: in optics (conducting, antireflecting, filtering, reflecting, and absorbing media), electronics (conductors, semiconductors, dielectrics), machine engineering, building and household (tribological, durable, wear-resistant, functional, protective, resistant to action of aggressive environment, decorative, and other coatings for structural and utility materials), medicine (biocompatible materials), etc. [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17].
\nAn effective and fairly common method for such surfaces formation is physical vapor deposition, including variations of magnetron sputtering, since at relatively small expenditure of time and resources, it allows to efficiently receive qualitative thin films of a diverse nature on substrate of virtually any nature and geometry and to control properties of the created materials [7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17]. The deposition method developed at the Baikov Institute of Metallurgy and Materials Science allows one to produce [coating—transition layer—substrate] nanocompositions from thermodynamically nonmiscible elements with good adhesion and resistance to external thermal and mechanical influences [18] and at the same time to avoid substrate overheating with bombarding electrons by keeping them near the sputtering target, which is of high importance for substrate materials with low melting points or phase structure that is sensitive to temperature changes [7].
\nAmong other things, this technology can be successfully used in the formation of medical composite materials that need to have complex properties, combining only the required characteristics of classical materials—for example, for the production of noninvasive stent implants designed to restore the patency of hollow parts of the cardiovascular, excretory, digestive, and respiratory systems [19, 20]. At the same time, the parameters of the resulting composites depend on a number of process conditions that can be conveniently varied over a wide range.
\nIn addition, the initial choice of the components of the future composite is important. Materials with the shape memory effect are the best candidates for creation of medical implants plastically deformable in the cooled condition to extremely compact type promoting easier and less traumatic delivery to the necessary site of an organism without serious surgical intervention. Then, they independently take the functional form in set operational conditions without additional effect [20, 21, 22, 23]. The most known medical material from this class is nitinol (NiTi) endowed with mechanical characteristics similar to behavior of living tissues that helps it to adapt to physiological loadings providing necessary service conditions [20, 21, 22, 23]. But in addition to positive mechanical characteristics, this alloy possesses also a number of shortcomings: difficulty of processing in case of product production, the high content of a toxic element, disputable level of biocompatibility, and corrosion resistance. Research toward its improvement is actively conducted [23, 24, 25]. Thus, nitinol can be taken as the basis of the composite (substrate) and a biologically inert barrier at the contact between the metallic parts of the implant and active biological body fluids is needed. A new surface should be represented by a material with high corrosion resistance and biocompatibility. For example, tantalum and titanium is interesting due to high corrosion resistance in aggressive media, radiopacity, conductivity, wear resistance, nontoxicity, etc. [6]. Silver also exhibiting antitumor and antibacterial action is one of the suitable materials [26].
\nThe purpose of this work was to investigate capabilities and regularities of production of layered biomedical composite materials based on an NiTi shape memory alloy with a surface layer from highly corrosion-resistant and biocompatible tantalum, titanium, or silver with strong adhesion between the components formed by magnetron sputtering and to study its operational properties.
\nIn this work, creation of layered composites was carried out by formation of tantalum, titanium, silver, etc., surface layers on flat and wire nitinol, titanium, glass/SiO2, etc., substrates (basis) by magnetron sputtering in an argon atmosphere by using a Torr International facility (United States). Working and residual pressure in the vacuum chamber was 0.4 and 4 × 10−4 Pa, respectively.
\nThe surface layers were produced under the following conditions of the process: (1) direct current magnetron, in the case of tantalum and titanium layers I ~ 400–1100 mA, U ~ 360–700 V; in the case of silver layers I ≈ 865 mA, U ~ 830 V; (2) with substrate rotation (rate was 9 rpm) and without it; (3) sputtering time t = 5 to 120 min; (4) bias voltage Ub ≈ 0–1000 V; and (5) sputtering distance (the distance from the target to the substrate) of 40–200 mm.
\nTo avoid overheating, the substrate is critically important for substrate materials with phase structures that are sensitive to temperature changes as nitinol, for example—the thermal treatment allows one to vary static properties and cyclic loadings in operating conditions with a wide range of deformations and is extremely important for stabilization of the properties, constraining (shaping) the samples, and successful application of the product.
\nTo determine the substrate surface temperature, we used special control samples from materials with various melting points: In (tm = 156.4°C), Sn (tm = 231.9°C), Pb (tm = 327.4°C, and Zn (tm = 419.5°C). Since none of the metals showed surface melting, we concluded that, under any conditions, the substrate surface temperature did not reach 150°C in any of the regimes used.
\nDisks made from chemically pure tantalum, titanium, silver, copper, etc., were used as the sputtered target. Plates made from nitinol, titanium, copper, steel, glass/SiO2, etc., with a size of 10 × 10 × 0.5 mm and 280 μm diameter wires from nanostructured nitinol (with the composition 55.91 wt% Ni + 44.03 wt% Ti, having grains in the form of 30 to 70 nm diameter nanowires and a cubic crystal lattice (В2 phase)) were used as the basis for composites. Plates were treated with abrasive sandpaper (from 400 to 800 grit) and polished (until their surface became mirror-like) with the addition of diamond suspensions with a particle size of 3, 1, and 0.05 μm for the removal of flat indentations and defects. Nitinol wires were also polished consecutively with sandpaper from 180 to 1000 grit and subjected to finishing polishing with GOI (State Optical Institute) paste to a mirror surface. The decrease in the diameter was to 10 μm in comparison with the original. The depth of surface defects after the processing was less than 1 μm. Different substrates were selected to perfect the production of layered composites. Silicon, copper, and steel substrates are also of interest as a basis for production of functional materials for a wide range of applications (optics, electronics, construction materials, etc.). To clean, activate, and polish the substrate surface, before sputtering, it was bombarded with argon ions at Ue = 900 V and Ie = 80 mA; i.e., preliminary ionic etching (PIE) was performed.
\nPhase structure of the deposited films was characterized by the Ultima IV X-ray diffractometer (Rigaku Co., Japan) in Cu Kα—radiation on the base of Bragg—Brentano method. Phase analysis was prepared in the PDXL program complex using the ICDD database. The surface morphology and the layer-by-layer composition were investigated on a scanning election microscope (SEM) VEGA II SBU with the module INCA Energy for energy-dispersive analysis (TESCAN, Czech Republic), on a GDS 850A atomic emission spectrometer (JEOL Co., Japan), and on a JAMP-9500F Auger spectrometer (JEOL Co., Japan) in combination with ion etching at argon bombardment under an angle of 30°. In Auger electron spectroscopy, the surface layer thickness was taken to be equal to the depth at which the atomic percentages of the constituent elements plateaued. Fracture surfaces were also examined on the TESCAN VEGA II SBU.
\nOn the whole, similar results were obtained by examining the surface layer composition (Figure 1): the top surface layer was oxygen-enriched to a depth of 20 nm owing to active surface adsorption, a deeper layer consisted of only submitted element, and the transition layer was also oxygen enriched and resided on the substrate. The formation of the transition layer is connected with the fact that magnetron sputtering results in atoms and ions of the sputtered substance not only condensing on the substrate surface but also approaching it with some excess energy with their contact leading to a number of interparticle interactions: “knocking in” of sputtered atoms and ions, “knocking out” by them (upon elastic or inelastic interaction with or without transfer of their additional energy), and redeposition or, on the contrary, penetration of the surface particles (both of the substrate and earlier deposited elements) into the substrate structure, formation of radiation defects that stimulate mutual diffusion of elements of the deposited layer and substrate at their interface, etc. Thus, the mobilized particles, sputtered substance, and surface region of the substrate that are subjected to multiple collisions and set in chaotic motion at or near the substrate surface are constantly mixed. In the end, the surface region becomes so saturated by the sputtered substance that its interaction with new flows of atoms and ions leads to the formation of the surface layer of the composite.
\nComposition depth profiles for a Ti-nitinol sample obtained by sputtering for 30 min at direct current of 865 mA, voltage of 700 V, and distance of 200 mm (a) and for Ag-nitinol obtained at a distance of 150 mm (b).
Figure 2a shows dependence of tantalum surface layer thickness from time of magnetron sputtering on a nitinol substrate. Increasing the sputtering time to 20 min (at direct current of 865 mA, voltage of 700 V and distance 200 mm) increased the thickness of both the surface layer (consisting only of the deposited substance) and the transition layer (containing elements of both the substrate and deposited substance). Further increasing the sputtering time caused an increase only in the thickness of the surface layer, which varied nonlinearly, following a descending law, and up to 30 min more intensively, than at bigger time. This situation remains at all used materials and conditions. It occurs, most likely, because at the beginning of surface layer formation, atoms and ions of deposited substance, overcoming a sputtering distance, collide with particles of working gas, with each other and with new substrate surface and do not appear at each site of its surface in equal volume and at the beginning interact with it chaotically and unevenly. And further (at increase of sputtering time, and so of the time of influence on a surface), particles continue to collide, mixing up, try to reach thermodynamically more advantageous position and state, and a more uniform distribution of the deposited substance at the surfaces takes place. By consideration of cross section of samples, it is visible that at smaller time of a sputtering, the surface shows a big heterogeneity (Figure 2b). First, the layer had the form of isolated islands. Subsequently, a more uniform Ta distribution over the substrate surface was obtained.
\nDependence of the surface layer structure on the time of magnetron sputtering of tantalum on a nitinol substrate at direct current of 865 mA, voltage of 700 V, and distance 200 mm (a) and microstructure changes (b).
In case of thin films of tantalum, according to literary data, formation of both alpha and beta phases, which differ in properties, is possible [10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 27, 28, 29]. The X-ray diffraction patterns of our samples with nitinol basis (Figure 3) demonstrate that depending on sputtering, time tantalum is formed in two various crystal states—an alpha (a cubic crystal lattice) and a beta (a tetragonal lattice with the small content of oxygen).
\nX-ray diffraction patterns of a composite on the basis of a nitinol received at magnetron sputtering time: (a) 5 min, (b) 10 and 20 min, (c) 29 min, (d) 30 min at direct current of 865 mA, voltage of 700 V and distance of 200 mm.
In the case of a sample with a Ta surface layer obtained by sputtering for 5 min, the major phase was nitinol, but many peaks β-Ta in the 2-theta range from 33 to 81° were observed, which also corresponds to various crystal orientation. In the composites formed after sputtering for 10 and 20 min, β-Ta with O were a major phase, and only two main peaks were observed, but nitinol was also present. After 29 min, the strongest peak was that from α-Ta, and there were β-Ta with O and nitinol, due to the averaging of results over the entire probing depth; at further increase in time, α-Ta dominated and very weak peaks of β-Ta and nitinol were observed. Thus, it turns out that irrespective of summary sputtering time, the beta phase is formed in the beginning and at sputtering time, more than 20 min on it, alpha tantalum is deposited. The same regularities are observed in case of other substrates, which are united by availability of oxygen in a surface. In contrast to data available in the literature, the formation of α-Ta in this study cannot be due to an increase in temperature [10, 14, 27, 28].
\nSeveral theories of tantalum formation in α or β phase is developed, which are generally connected with working temperature and pressure (defining mobility and energy of atoms) and the substrate nature. However, different authors achieve often contradictory results.
\nIt is noted that the alpha phase is formed at temperatures more than 400°C, promoting mobility increase in deposited atoms : initially at heating of a substrate or as a result of the annealing following sedimentation (then deposited β-Ta transforms in α-Ta) [10, 14, 27, 28]. However at a temperature about 400–500°C, β phase is also received (for example, in the form of the particles distributed in α) [10, 28], and α is also formed without heating [12, 15]. It is specified that with the growth of temperature, the size of grains, impurity amount in a surface layer (for example, the dissociation of oxides enhanced, i.e., the O contents lowered), and its amorphousness decreases.
\nPresence at the working atmosphere of the high oxygen content according to [16] leads to fast formation of oxides and, therefore, promotes formation of a tantalic layer in a beta state, whereas in [15], oxygen environment did not prevent the formation of alpha tantalum. At a deposition on silicon and glass substrates in [13, 16, 17], 0.5–0.7 Pa sputtering pressure led to α-Ta formation and smaller or bigger pressure—β-Ta, but in [15] already at 0.28 Pa, α phase was formed.
\nIn [17], alpha tantalum was also formed at 0.3 and 1.4 Pa pressure, but at sputtering on earlier deposited α-Ta (110) layer. Also, it was specified that (110) is the most low-energy lattice for body-centered cubic (BCC) materials and provokes formation on itself of the same structure. Being a zone of a new surface nucleation, the substrate surface specifies the character of its structure formation. It was shown that on amorphous carboniferous or oxidic surfaces, the beta tantalum is formed, for example, on titanium without natural oxide or TaN substrates, the α-Ta is formed [11, 12, 14, 17].
\nAnd though availability of oxygen on a substrate surface not always prevented the formation of α-Ta, nevertheless, it is considered that it promotes formation of β-Ta. Therefore, its creation in this work in an initial time period on all substrates is quite expected, despite ionic etching.
\nIn [14], as well as in this research, it was shown that longer time promotes layering of α-Ta on earlier formed β-Та, but authors connected it with a considerable warming up of a surface (more than 350°C), whereas in this work, temperature of a substrate did not rise higher than 150°C and so could not influence formation of alpha phase. It is worth noting that α-Та is a more thermodynamically stable phase. It is, therefore, reasonable to assume that, in this study, it results from a more uniform surface coverage with increasing sputtering time (because increasing the sputtering time increases the probability that a particle will find a more appropriate state and position), possible local surface heating (within several atomic layers, which cannot be detected visually), and the absence of oxygen (incorporated into the β-Та sublayer) [11, 12, 14, 17].
\nIn combination with the above results of layer composition, this X-ray diffraction data lead us to assume that the surfaces of both the substrate and surface layer actively adsorbed oxygen and that, in the initial stage of the process, the sputtering time was too short for a purely metallic tantalum layer to form.
\nPurely silver or titanium layers in a single phase are formed on nitinol at all conditions, which is reflected in an X-ray pattern by characteristic peaks (Figure 4) [26]. A composite with silver that is produced for 30 min has only Ag peaks observed because of natural growth of the thickness of the surface layer. At a sputtering time of 20 min or in Ti-NiTi composite produced for 20 and 30 min, the main phase is a sputtered metal, but also traces of the nitinol substrate are observed owing to data averaging over the depth. These results are repeated with all the used substrates.
\nX-ray patterns of Ag-NiTi composites obtained by sputtering: (a) for 20 min, (b) for 30 min, and (c) Ti-NiTi for 30 min at a distance of 150 mm, 865 mA, and 400 V.
Figure 5 shows the dependence of the thickness of the surface tantalum layer (produced for 30 min at ~865 mA, ~700 V, a sputtering distance of 200 mm and with PIE on a flat nitinol substrate) on the applied negative bias voltage that was instrumental in the process of ion-atomic deposition [7, 18]. The bias voltage affected both the thickness and the structure of layers: a voltage of 100 V reduced (relative to zero voltage bias) the thickness of the surface and the complete layers supposedly because of the structure densification by the additional ionic bombardment. At higher voltages, the surface layer became thicker owing to an increase in the rate of deposition of the sputtered material, while the thickness of the transition layer was reduced somewhat (apparently because of further densification of its structure). The optimum conditions were attained at 500 V, and the further increase in the bias voltage probably led to certain sputtering of the surface: the thickness of the surface layer was reduced again, while the thickness of the transition layer remained the same.
\nDependence of the thickness of the surface tantalum layer produced on a nitinol substrate at ~865 mA, ~700 V, a sputtering distance of 20 cm, and with PIE for 30 min on the bias voltage.
Large corrugations with a length on the order of 20–10 μm and a width of 3–5 μm were observed at the surface of all samples (Figure 6). Their characteristic appearance did not change with applied bias voltage, and they did not disappear after a layer with a thickness of about 10 nm was etched out. Therefore, they may be interpreted as the initial microrelief of the sample surface. When the bias voltage was applied, smaller wavelike corrugations with a length of 6–10 μm and a width of 0.5–1 μm emerged at the surfaces of samples. An increase in the bias voltage from 100 to 1000 V led to the gradual smoothing of these corrugations, which were easily observable at first, but became virtually imperceptible at 1000 V. The surface after 1000 V did not differ from the one obtained under zero voltage bias (Figure 6). The emergence of smaller scale corrugations may probably be attributed to the presence of residual compressive stresses at the composite surface. A bias voltage of 500 V triggered a uniform distribution of point dimples that likely represented the traces of ion bombardment [9], but these pits and all other inhomogeneities of a similar scale disappeared after a layer with a thickness of about 10 nm was etched out.
\nAppearance of the surface tantalum layer produced on a titanium nickelide substrate at ~865 mA, ~700 V, and a sputtering distance of 15 cm (the sputtering process took 30 min) under Ub = (a) 100, (b) 500, (c) 800, and (d) 1000 V.
The overall thickness of surface layers was increased almost linearly with sputtering power. The thicknesses of both the surface and the transition layers were raised to 30% of the maximum value (Figure 7). The thickness of the transition layer was reduced in the 30–50% power interval, while both the surface and the transition layers became thicker again at higher powers. The increase in their thicknesses may be attributed to the raised target sputtering rate [7], and the temporary reduction in the transition layers thickness may be associated with the structure densification and a reduction in the available formation time with increasing energy and density of the flux of sputtered material. When the tantalum sputtering power was raised above 70%, the thickness of the surface layer increased only slightly, and the thickness of the transition layer remained the same (on a metal substrate) or was increased (on a glass substrate; see Figure 7) presumably owing to the influence of pores in the material. This also raised the target consumption rate and the potential to contaminate the surface of the composite with, among other things, elements of the walls of the working chamber that are knocked out by high energy particles.
\nDependence of the thickness of the surface titanium layer produced on a glass substrate at ~865 mA, ~400 V, a sputtering distance of 150 mm, Ub ~ 0 V, for 30 min on the sputtering power.
On the one hand, with distance increasing at other equal conditions, the thickness of the tantalum surface layer naturally decreases (Figure 8) because larger volume of the sputtered substance is scattered away from the substrate; on the other hand, the thickness of the transition layer increases, which can be explained by a more intense flow of the sputtered substance at a shorter distance, uniformly but faster filling the surface and less diffusing into the substrate; and the total thickness of the layers eventually reaches a certain plateau, practically unchanged when the distance is more than 80–90 mm. Since the presence of a substantial transition layer is a presumable reason for the good adhesion of a new surface to the substrate [6], the surface layer must be adjusted to the mechanical properties of the substrate, and also considering the microdefects of the surface at small distances, the distances from the target to the substrate in the range of 100–150 mm are more optimum.
\nChange in the tantalum surface layers thickness as a function of the distance between the target and the substrate for composite obtained for 30 min at 400 V, 865 mA.
In contrast to tantalum, where the appearance of the surface layer thickness curve completely corresponds to the calculated models [7], in the case of a silver layer, two plateaus are observed (Figure 9): almost constant thicknesses at small sputtering distances can be attributed to saturation of the surface at high intensities of flux falling on the substrate. Unlike the previous case, both the surface layer and the transition layer are thinned with increasing distance, because a smaller volume of substance reached its goal, but the intensity of the flow did not affect the formation of the transition layer.
\nChange in the silver surface layers thickness as a function of the distance between the target and the substrate for composite obtained for 30 min.
Visually, the layer thickness also was reduced (Figure 10) as the sputtering distance was increased under otherwise equal conditions. At smaller distances from the target to the substrate, no appreciable transition layer was observed in SEM images.
\nDependence of the thickness of the surface tantalum layer distribution of elements in the structure of composites produced on a nitinol substrate for 120 min at ~865 mA, ~700 V, Ub ~ 1000 V, and with PIE on the sputtering distance. The sputtering distance was (a) 100 and (b) 200 mm, while the layer thickness was (a) 6.3 and (b) 3.6 μm.
The morphology of a new surface repeats the substrate state regardless of the sputtering conditions (Figure 11). However, at small distances, surface microdefects appear as point depressions (Figure 12), recalling effect of high bias voltage and ion implantation [7, 9], which is correlated with a more intense flow of the sprayed material reaching the surface of the substrate, in comparison with larger distances. Formation of layers on the side that is opposite to the sputtered flow was noted. In this case, the structure and patterns of these layers changes are analogous to the straight side, but every 10–15 times thinner (Figure 13). This also could be accounted for by a large sputtering distance: when particles that are sputtered travel over large distances, they completely lose additional energy and directed movement, slow down to thermal velocities corresponding to the gas temperature, start to move like any atoms in a gaseous state, and can condense at the opposite side of the substrate upon collision with it [7]; there is also the possibility that sputtered atoms without complete loss of their kinetic energy fall to the opposite side of the substrate as a result of multiple collisions and reflections on atoms of the working gas.
\nMorphology of the surface of a glass substrate, straight side (a) and opposite side (b), and a silver layer that is formed on it, straight side (c) and opposite side (d), by sputtering for 20 min at a distance of 70 mm.
Morphology of the silver surface layer sputtered for 20 min at a distance of 40 mm.
Change in the tantalum surface layers’ thickness as a function of the distance between the target and the substrate on the opposite side of the substrate for composite obtained for 30 min at 400 V, 865 mA.
The study of the composites after static breakdown (metal wire) or brittle fracture (glass) showed that their components (the surface layer and the base) were not separated from each other even in the area of failure (Figure 14). It was assumed that the presence of the transition layer was the reason for good adhesion between the surface layer and the base. Preliminary ion etching improved adhesion.
\nSurface layer in a Ta-nitinol sample on a wire substrate after 80 min of sputtering with rotation at 865 mA, 400 V and distance of 150 mm.
The mechanical properties of samples with a working part length of 45 mm were determined under the conditions of static stretching on an Instron 3382 (Instron, USA) universal testing machine with a loading speed of 2 mm/min. The base diameter was used in the calculation of strength properties. Three to five samples were tested per one experimental point. Micro-Vickers hardness measurements determined at loading 1–2 N by the WOLPERT GROUP 401/402 device—MVD (WILSON Instruments, USA) equipped with a light microscope. The conventional yield strength σ0.2, the ultimate strength σu, the relative elongation δ, and microhardness were determined (Table 1). Six types of samples were studied: TiNi in the initial state (as-received), TiNi after polishing and annealing, TiNi after PIE, and composites with Ta and Ti layers. Wires after polishing were annealed at 450°C for 15 min in air as this treatment is needed for end stabilization of the nitinol structure that caused SME and superelasticity and product shaping. Composites were produced at 865 mA, 400 V, a sputtering distance of 150 mm and the conventional sputtering time listed in the Table 1.
\nSample | \nσy, МПа | \nσu, МПа | \nδ, % | \nMicrohardness, HV | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
TiNi | \n547 ± 5 | \n1585 ± 7 | \n47 ± 1 | \n332 ± 3 | \n
TiNi after mechanical surface treatment and annealing | \n641 ± 6 | \n1815 ± 9 | \n54 ± 1 | \n399 ± 3 | \n
TiNi after PIE | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n310 ± 6 | \n
Ta@TiNi, 10 min of sputtering | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n330 ± 4 | \n
Ta@TiNi, 30 min of sputtering | \n652 ± 7 | \n1884 ± 8 | \n55 ± 1 | \n418 ± 4 | \n
Ti@TiNi, 30 min of sputtering | \n648 ± 6 | \n1879 ± 8 | \n55 ± 1 | \n391.4 ± 5 | \n
Mechanical properties of composites based on nanostructured nitinol with surface layers of tantalum and titanium.
Results of mechanical stretching tests show positive influence of 1 μm thickness surface layers of Та and Ti on static properties of a nanostructural alloy, which promotes increase of yield strength and tensile strength by 2–4%. Relative elongation of all samples was of 55%. During preliminary ion etching of the surface of the substrate, bombardment with argon ions is carried out, which facilitates the removal of the surface oxide and the riveted layer with residual surface stresses and defects. Apparently, this explains a slight decrease in the microhardness of the samples immediately after PIE. Two types of composites were studied with a tantalum surface layer obtained for 10 (the main phase β-Ta) and 30 min (the main phase α-Ta formed on the beta phase). The surface of the composite material is distinguished by large microhardness values in comparison with the samples after PIE, since the hardness of both β-Ta and α-Ta is higher than that of nitinol. A thicker surface layer corresponds to higher microhardness values. With respect to the nanostructured substrate, a Ta layer of the order of 1 μm thick, consisting of a mixture of beta and alpha phases, shows an increase in the microhardness by about 26%. In this case, the effect of mechanical surface treatment and annealing on the surface microhardness can be practically neglected in connection with the PIE being carried out. The surface of the titanium layer less significantly affects the microhardness of the nanostructured substrate, but still increases it by 18%.
\nAn object for investigations of corrosion resistance was wires of nanostructural nitinol and composites based on it with tantalum or titanium surface layers. Six types of samples were studied: (1) TiNi in the initial state (as-received), (2) TiNi after annealing, (3) TiNi after polishing, (4) TiNi after polishing and annealing, (5) TiNi-4 with Ta surface layer (Ta-TiNi), and (6) TiNi-4 with Ti surface layer (Ti-TiNi). Composites were produced at 865 mA, 400 V, a sputtering distance of 150 mm, a sputtering time 80 min on the main surface with rotation and 30 min on end faces after PIE. The researched composite materials had layered structure “a surface layer from the deposited substance (thickness ~ 0.9 microns)—the transitional layer containing elements both of the surface layer and of a basis (thickness ~ 0.2 microns)—a basis.”
\nThe material was tested for corrosion resistance under static conditions by dipping into solutions with various acidities because pH in the human body changes from 1 to 9. Neutral 0.9 wt% sodium chloride solution, artificial plasma and saliva, and four standard buffer solutions to reproduce acidic and alkaline media at the given level, and prepared from corresponding standard trimetric substances (fixanals) made by Merck, were used and listed in Table 2. Wire samples with a weight by 32.6 mg (separately from each other) were placed into flasks with 100 mL of the selected solution and aged totally in a dark place for up to 730 days. Sampling from flaks for analysis was after a selected period (7, 14, 30, 60, 90, 180, 360, or 730 days). The initial buffer solutions were used as reference solutions. Analysis was carried out by an ULTIMA 2 sequential atomic emission spectrometry (HORIBA Jobin Yvon, Japan) for using atomic emission spectrometry (AES) with inductively coupled plasma (ICP) for direct simultaneous determination of titanium and nickel in solutions. After immersion, the surface morphology and layer-by-layer composition were also investigated.
\nрН | \nСomposition | \n
---|---|
1.68 | \nPotassium tetraoxalate: КН3С4О8×2Н2О, 0.05 М | \n
3.56 | \nAcid potassium tartrate: С4Н5О6К, 0.025 М | \n
4.01 | \nAcid potassium phthalate: С8Н5О4К, 0.05 М | \n
6.31 | \nSodium chloride: NаСl, 0.9 wt.% | \n
9.18 | \nAcid sodium tetraborate: Nа2В4О7×10Н2О, 0.05 М | \n
7.36 | \nArtificial plasma: NaCl (92.3 mМ), NaHCO3 (26.3 mМ), K2HPO4 (0.9 mМ), KCl (2.7 mМ), NaH2PO4 (0.22 mМ), CaCl2 (2.5 mМ), MgSO4·7H2O (0.82 mМ), Na2SO4 (1.48 mМ), D-glucose С6Н12О6 (5.55 mM) [23, 30, 31] | \n
7.55 | \nArtificial saliva: NaCl (13.34 mМ), NaHCO3 (7.4 mМ), K2HPO4 (4.4 mМ), KCl (10 mМ), NaH2PO4 (1.2 mМ), CaCl2 (1.4 mМ), MgSO4·7H2O (0.7 mМ), Na2SO4 (0.13 mМ), Na2S (0.021 mМ), carbamide (1 g/l) [23, 30, 31] | \n
The composition and acidity of modeling solutions used for immersion test.
In Figures 15 and 16, an release of metal ions in model media depending on holding time, material treatment, nature, and temperature of the environment is shown. There are no results about all samples in the alkaline environment, artificial plasma and saliva, and also about TiNi-3, TiNi-4, Ta-TiNi, and Ti-TiNi samples in solutions with acidity 3.56–6.31, since in these cases, dissolution of elements was zero or below a limit of detection for all the time of a research. So, all further results concern only a solution with a pH of 1.68.
\nDependence of concentration of the elements dissolved from TiNi-Ti (a) and TiNi-Ta (b) composites in buffer solution with acidity 1.68 on immersion time of sampling and temperature of solution: the marked curves correspond to temperature of 21°C, curves without tags—37°C.
Dependence of nickel concentration in buffer solution with acidity 1.68 at 21°C on immersion time and a sample type.
In the remained cases, elements’ concentration in solutions increases (Figures 15 and 16) over time, but leaching of elements in medium considerably slows down. It can be related to sequential processes of the destruction and renewal of the protective film (de- and repassivation) on defect areas [30, 31].
\nMedium temperature growth insignificantly increases concentration of elements in solution (varies depending on immersion time and metal nature), but at the same time, the gradual inhibition of material dissolution is also observed, and at different temperatures, it occurs almost at the same time (Figure 15). It allows to assume that after initial increase in corrosion due to temperature increase in the following, with the surface repassivation, the degree of the material dissolution practically does not depend on temperature.
\nIn solution with Ti-TiNi (Figure 15a), titanium concentration is approximately twice more than nickel that is explained by chemical interaction of surface layer material with potassium tetraoxalate [31]. In case of composite material with a tantalum surface layer, Tа concentration was also considered (Figure 15b). Insignificant dissolution of material is also observed only in the most acidic environment (most likely on possible defective sites of a surface with an incomplete surface layer that requires separate studying), and concentration of tantalum is much less than of titanium, which, respectively, is less, than of nickel.
\nDepending on material treatment (Figure 16), ion release decreases in the following order: TiNi-2 > TiNi-1 > TiNi-4 > TiNi-3 > Ti-TiNi (if to look on nickel concentration) > Та-TiNi. According to the literature, the thermal treatment at a temperature from 400 to 1000°C, which is required for stabilization of the mechanical properties, always results in a significant worsening of the corrosion resistance [31]. At the same time, the surface treatment, which facilitates the formation of the most perfect and homogeneous passive film, increases the corrosion resistance. Because of chemical interaction of Ti with acid media composite with its surface layer obviously less corrosion resistant than with Ta, but they are both more resistant than nitinol without a protective layer.
\nComposites Ta-TiNi and Ti-TiNi were also tested for biocompatibility.
\nThe effect on the formation of H2O2 in the phosphate buffer (pH 6.8) on heating (37°C) for 200 min in the enhanced chemiluminescence system (luminol–p-iodophenol–peroxidase) [32] was studied. Sputtering of titanium and tantalum decreases the concentration of hydrogen peroxide formed by approximately 40 (6.5 ± 0.5 nM) and 60% (4.5 ± 0.3 nM), respectively, both close to the media concentration 3.2 ± 0.2 nM. By using a fluorescence probe specific to the OH radicals, coumarin-3-carboxylic acid (Aldrich, USA) [33], it was found that all types of barrier coatings decrease the amounts of these radicals formed in a 20 mM phosphate buffer solution (pH 6.8) on heating (80°C) for 2 h. Titanium and tantalum coatings decreased the amount of the hydroxyl radicals by about 70 and 80% (30.9 ± 2.0 and 26.1 ± 1.3 nM), respectively, in comparison with NiTi plates (120.7 ± 4.9 nM). The test systems we used showed that the titanium or tantalum surface composite layers prevent the excessive generation of reactive oxygen species.
\nThe biocompatibility was measured in vitro using standard test systems [34]. Then, the samples were examined under a DM 6000 fluorescence microscope (Leica, Germany). In the case of myofibroblasts from peripheral vessels, the percentages of vital cells for Ta-NiTi and Ti-NiTi were 95 ± 2 and 97 ± 2%, respectively. In the case of the human bone marrow mesenchymal stromal cells (MSC), the percentages of vital cells for Ta-NiTi and Ti-NiTi were 96 ± 3 and 96 ± 2%, respectively. Thus, none of the material surface samples used in the study had a short-term toxic effect on the cells that overgrew these surfaces de novo. The mitotic activity of the cells was assessed considering the mitotic index of the cells in the logarithmic growth phase (the third day after inoculation). The number of mitotic cells was determined by fluorescence microscopy using the vital staining with the Hoechst 33342 fluorescent dye (Sigma, USA). The MI value for the cells growing on the NiTi (reference) surface was 3.1% for the myofibroblast culture and 1.8% for the MSC culture. In the case of Ta-NiTi, the MI was 6.1% for the myofibroblasts and 4.3% for the bone marrow MSC. For the myofibroblasts and MSC cultured on Ti-NiTi, the mitotic indices were 5.8 and 4.7%, respectively. Morphological analysis of the myofibroblasts from peripheral vessels and bone marrow MSC on the surface of materials after 5 days of culturing were performed. Both myofibroblasts and MSC form a merged monolayer on the Ti-NiTi and Ta-NiTi surfaces.
\nNano- and microdimensional surface layers of α- and β-Ta, Ti, Ag, and Cu on flat and wire NiTi, Cu, Ti, and SiO2 substrates were created by vacuum magnetron sputtering aimed to investigate regularities of production of layered biomedical composite materials.
\nIt was shown that the thickness and the structure of surface layers were affected by the sputtering distance, time, power, and the bias voltage at the substrate. The presence of the transition layer that contains both substrate and target elements and provides high adhesion of the surface layer to the substrate has been demonstrated. The morphology of a new surface repeats the substrate state regardless of the sputtering conditions.
\nWith increase in deposition time, surface layer thickness does not linearly increase. Irrespective of summary sputtering time, the β phase is formed in the beginning, and at summary, surface layer thickness more than 0.6 μm on it α tantalum is deposited, while temperature remains below 150°C. The optimum bias voltage (500 V) for ion-atomic deposition was determined. It was demonstrated that an increase in power from 50 to 70% enhanced the thickness and uniformity of both the surface and the transition layers without their contamination.
\nA nonlinear increase in the thickness of the growing surface layers with decreasing sputtering distance under otherwise equal conditions was demonstrated. But the thickness of the transition layer and the dependence of the thickness change as a whole depend on the nature of the sputtered substance. It has been shown that at distances of 40–160 mm, insignificant deposition on the substrate side that is opposite to the sputtered flow is observed, with the thickness of formed layers also depending on the distance between the target and the substrate.
\nA slight corrosive dissolution was observed only in a medium with a pH of 1.56 for 2 years of a research. Dissolution in the other media is absent. Concentration of metals increases in solution over time, but the considerable slowdown of a metal ion release in solutions is observed over time. An increase in strength and plasticity in comparison with substrate was attained depending on the nature of the sputtered substance and substrate. Toxicity of samples has not been revealed.
\nThus, the growth of a thin surface layer with high corrosion resistance and good biocompatibility by magnetron sputtering allows one to obtain a barrier to nitinol contact with physiological medium, which can withstand loads when nitinol exhibits superelasticity and an SME, with the formation of a transition layer, but no nitinol phase state changing.
\nThe authors wish to thank Dyomin K Yu, Mikhailova AB, Gol’dberg MA, Kargin Yu F, and Gudkov SV for their help in sample analysis. The work was partially carried out under state assignment no. 007-00129-18-00 and was supported by the Russian President Program for Young Scientists (MK-4521.2018.8).
\nChapter is partially based on the results of earlier published works [35, 36, 37], and authors have the permission to re-use it.
\nThere is no conflict of interest to declare.
The rapid growing population, urbanisation and industrial development are the major contributors of organic pollutants in water, which have a detrimental impact on the ecosystem, and cause serious problems to the living world and environment. In order to balance the ecosystem and mitigate the huge risk caused by the persistence organic substances, the removal of organic pollutants in wastewater is paramount.
Over the past two decades, solar photocatalysis has been of particular interest for the removal and degradation of organic pollutants in wastewater. In the photocatalytic water decontamination process, the production of electron-hole (e−-h+) pairs via irradiation of the photocatalyst is the key step for the production of reactive oxidation species (ROS, i.e. hydroxyl radicals (•OH)), which is powerful oxidants and can non-selectively attack organic matters, degrading them into smaller elements and finally mineralise them to H2O and CO2 [1]. Under light irradiation of a photocatalyst, photons with energy equal or greater than its band gap (Eg) are absorbed by the catalyst, resulting in the formation of an electron-hole pair. Then the photogenerated conduction band electron (eCB−) and valence band hole (hVB+) could undergo undesired recombination or participate in a series of reactions to produce highly Reactive Oxidation Species (ROS, i.e., hydroxyl radicals (•OH)) that can mineralise any organic molecule in wastewater [2]. The necessity to find photocatalysts with unique photophysical properties that can be used efficiently in the photocatalysis process has been the driving force for the development of variety of material systems to achieve an efficient removal of organic pollutants. Different types of heterogeneous semiconductors, particularly titanium dioxide (TiO2), ternary and other oxide systems, are the most widely studied materials for photocatalytic water decontamination. TiO2, which is well known for its photocatalytic properties, widely used, low-cost n-type semiconductor with (Eg) of 3.2 eV, can be used for water decontamination and water splitting and building self-cleaning facades [3]. However, the major drawback of using TiO2 in practical photocatalytic water decontamination is concerning two important aspects of its photocatalytic properties: (i) TiO2 offers low photoconversion efficiency due to undesired recombination of electrons and holes [4] and (ii) its large band gap, which can be excited only by ultraviolet light (only 4% intensity of solar radiation) [5]. In addition, compared to other advanced oxidation processes (AOPs), such as Fenton based methods; UV/Oxidant methods and electrochemical oxidation methods, which can in-situ generate ROS during water treatment, the quantum yield of TiO2 is low for photocatalytic ROS production, hindering its application in photocatalytic water decontamination [6]. Therefore, exploring novel photocatalysts that have unique photophysical properties, offer high photo-conversion efficiency and with superior photocatalytic activity in water decontamination application is of great importance.
Perovskite-based nanomaterial have attracted huge attentions as a promising photocatalysis nanomaterial for various environmental application due to their unique features such as high chemical and thermal stability; excellent electrical conductivity; and narrow band gap that can offer efficient use of solar energy, compared to other semiconductor photocatalysts. Perovskite-type oxides are complex metal oxides, with the general formula of ABO3, the structure of which is shown in Figure 1. General structure of perovskite oxides represents a lattice that consists of larger A cations and are alkaline rare-earth metals, which are 12 fold coordinated by oxygen atoms, and small B cations that can be a divalent or trivalent transition, within oxygen octahedra. Their high stability under aggressive conditions is attributed to the existence of transition metals in their oxidation states [7, 8]. The structure of perovskites can easily be tuned by adjusting the category and proportion of their chemical compositions, which in turn inherit them diverse and unique physicochemical properties [9]. Perovskite oxides are capable of being activated by broad solar spectra to excite e−-h+ pairs and initiate the production of ROS, which facilitate organic pollutant oxidation and mainly comprise hydroxyl-radical (•OH) and superoxide-anion radical (O2•−) [10]. However, pure perovskites suffer from low photocatalytic efficiency, which is due to small surface area of bulk material, insufficient solar energy consumption, rapid recombination and low redox potential of e−-h+ pairs, which are unfavorable for efficient generation of reactive species [11].
ABO3-type of perovskite structure (reprinted with permission from ref. [
The performance of perovskites in photocatalysis process is generally influenced by their structure; composition; size and shape and synthesis process. Therefore, with the aim of enhancing their photocatalytic efficiency in the degradation of organic pollutants, numerous studies have been carried, using various synthesis methods such as sol-gel method; hydrothermal; solvothermal; sono-chemical; microwave assisted method and co-precipitation method. In order to enhance the photocatalytic performance of perovskite, a number of strategies can be adopted, such as regulating perovskite composition through partial or full cationic substitution by certain dopant(s); rescaling its structure through downsizing or morphology alteration; hybrid modification through coating and coupling with other AOPs. It is worth pointing out that the strategy of coupling with other AOPs is beyond the scope of this chapter, therefore, no further reference will be made. The aforementioned strategies have been proven to improve perovskite’s light absorption; create more active sites on the surface and inhibit e−-h+ pairs recombination. By regulating perovskite composition through hetero-substitution of perovskite by hetero-valent or homo-valent cations in A and/or B site, the redox property of the perovskite is significantly improved and oxygen vacancies are increased, thereby promoting ROS generation [12]. Incorporating dopants into the lattice of perovskite, its inherent band gap can be reduced by shifting the top of its VB upward or CB downward, leading to an extended optical absorption improvement of its photocatalytic activity. Loading perovskite on substrates to obtain a hybrid nanostructure is an effective option for narrowing the band gap and optimisation of electronic structure to inhibit the recombination of e−-h+ pairs. The coating strategy could address the majority of issues related to the efficient photocatalytic activity to some extent, as the coating strategy equip perovskite with an outstanding charge separation ability and strong oxidation ability. Rescaling structure and downsizing and controlling morphology of perovskites can be carried out to improve reactive sites and optimise optical absorption [13]. Smaller particle size can benefit from higher quantum efficiency due to larger accessible of reactive sites and more effective electron transfer paths. However, downsizing these particles to nanoscale increases the surface energy that prompts particles aggregation, hence elimination of the desired reactive sites and significant reduction of photocatalytic performance [14]. Controlled preparation of porous structure has been proven to equip perovskite with better optical absorption ability; increased reactive sites for photocatalytic reaction; as well as enhances the diffusion rate of organic pollutants. However, introducing pores to perovskite nanoparticles can make it physically fragile [15].
Despite intensive research studies that have been carried out on developing variety of nanoscale perovskite-based composites using different strategies, most of which with encouraging results, there is still much to be investigated. A comprehensive understanding of achieving an effective photocatalytic degradation of a wide range of organic pollutants using perovskites is highly crucial for unveiling the fundamental nature of perovskite photocatalysis for large-scale applications. In addition, to meet the requirements of designing efficient, stable and cost-effective perovskite-based composite photocatalyst with an outstanding use of solar energy for actual water remediation, a fundamental study of perovskite photocatalysis using different materials and various environmental pollutants is indispensable.
This chapter provides an overview of the state-of-the-art design and synthesis strategies for perovskite-based nanomaterials and nanocomposites for efficient water remediation. Initially the principles of photocatalysis process are described, with the emphasis on the mechanisms of photocatalytic water decontamination by perovskite and highlighting its inherent challenges. An evaluation of several strategies that have been used to develop perovskite-based nanocomposites for enhanced photocatalytic degradation of organic pollutants in water is presented. Finally, the remaining challenges and perspectives for developing novel perovskite-based photocatalysts with potential large-scale application are elucidated.
In photocatalytic process, perovskite uses photon as a source of energy to initiate chemical reaction. As the photocatalyst is irradiated by light with energy equal or larger than the perovskite band gap, the electrons are excited from the valance band (VB) to the conduction band (CB), as a result photoreactive species such as e− and h+ are created, which can be transferred to the surface of perovskite [16]. The factors affecting the photocatalytic activity of perovskite as a catalyst are namely, the excitement of the electron, separation of the electron and hole and photo-oxidation reduction reaction taking place at the surface of the catalyst [17].
The mechanisms of photocatalytic degradation of organic pollutants consists of several steps: (1) under light irradiation perovskite absorbs photon with an appropriate energy to form photoreactive species like e− and h+; (2) interfacial charge transfer; (3) reduction and oxidation process to form Reactive Oxidation Species; (4) degradation of organic pollutants; and (5) desorption of pollutants/intermediates from the surface of the perovskite. The reaction mechanisms of photocatalytic degradation of pollutants in water are demonstrated by Eqs. (1)–(5) [18].
Under light irradiation of perovskite, when the energy of photon is equal or larger than the perovskite band gap energy, the electrons are excited from the valence band (VB) of perovskite to the conduction band (CB), as a result of which the photoactive species (e− and h+) are formed. The photoexcited electrons would either reunite with holes or transfer to the surface of the perovskite, which can react with O2 to form superoxide anion radical (O2•−), while the photogenerated holes react with water to form hydroxyl radical (•OH) at the surface of the catalyst [19]. The schematic representation of the degradation mechanism is illustrated in Figure 2. In this process, ·OH acts as a powerful oxidising agent that attacks the organic molecules non-selectively.
Schematic representation of photocatalytic degradation of organic pollutants and ROS production by perovskite (reprinted with permission from ref. [
Figure 3 shows the bandgap values, CB and VB positions, of several perovskite photocatalysts. It is apparent that pristine perovskites have the valance band potential energy (Evb) higher than the •OH/OH− redox potential, which allows for the generation of ·OH during the photocatalysis process. Nonetheless, the higher position of CB compared to that of the redox potential of O2/O2•−, hinders the formation of O2•− during the photocatalytic degradation process. Therefore, during the ROS production on perovskite, in order for the electrons to react with O2 and form O2•−, the conduction band potential (Ecb) of perovskite should be more negative than the standard redox potential of O2/O2•− (−0.33 eV vs. NHE). On the other hand, the valance band potential energy (Evb) of perovskite should be higher than standard redox potential of •OH/OH− (+1.99 eV vs. NHE). In such case, the OH− can be oxidised by the photogenerated holes and form •OH, which can attack pollutants to convert them to nontoxic forms or completely degrade them to CO2 and H2O [20].
Band gap values of several perovskite photocatalysts (Adapted with permission from ref. [
The main criteria for a perovskite photocatalyst to be used in the degradation of organic pollutants in water are high capability of being activated by photons; efficiently extracting electrons for photocatalytic reaction; chemically stable; nontoxic; and cost effective. The absorption of photons the following charge generation is dependent on the physiochemical property of the perovskite and recombination.
The efficient use of solar energy still remains a great challenge. An ideal perovskite photocatalyst should have an enhanced and broaden light absorption, and capture a wide spectrum, from ultraviolet to visible light and even the near-infrared region. Therefore, it is necessary to adopt strategies that lead to optimisation of light harvesting, improving e−-h+ separation, and generating sufficient active sites on the perovskite surface for photocatalytic reaction to take place A number of strategies have been reported in the literature, such as cationic substitution, nanostructure perovskite, coating and combined perovskite-based photocatalyst systems, in which perovskite is coupled with other AOP systems. The main aim of these state-of-the-art strategies is to enhance efficient light utilisation, improve charge separation and create richer active sites on the surface of the perovskite. Narrowing band gap is usually the option for the increased light harvesting by capturing more excited photons form a wide spectrum, and consequently enhancing photocatalytic activity [21].
Once the photogenerated charges are generated and successfully migrated to the surface of perovskite, where photocatalytic reactions take place, they can still undergo surface recombination or be trapped by undesirable reactants. In the photocatalytic process the e−-h+ pairs are generated within several femtoseconds (fs) and undergo recombination within picoseconds (ps) to nanoseconds (ns), as depicted in Figure 4. However, the time span from the bulk to reactive sites is usually hundreds of ps, and the reaction time between the carriers and the adsorbed reactants requires nanoseconds (ns) to microseconds (μs) [22]. The lifetime of the photogenerated charges of some perovskites have been reported as BTO: 3.25 ns, STO: 2.06 ns, LFO: 3 ns and LMO: 2 ns, knowing that the reaction time to form O2•− is several nanoseconds [22]. This implies that the relatively short lifetime of the carriers on perovskite limits their application in photocatalytic degradation of organic pollutants.
Different length of time required in photocatalytic process.
In general, photocatalytic degradation takes place on the surface of the perovskite photocatalyst. Therefore, to improve photocatalytic degradation efficiency, a good adsorption of organic pollutants on the surface of perovskite is necessary. Undoubtedly, larger surface area is required to provide higher adsorption capacity towards organic pollutants and richer active sites for photocatalytic degradation reaction. A shorter diffusion pathway of charge carriers is also expected, as it reduces chance of e−-h+ recombination.
Although pure perovskites are potentially better than other oxide photocatalysts, their weak photocatalytic activity hinders their employment in industrial application. Undoubtedly, this is due to their inherent photocatalytic issues such as: (i) small surface area; (ii) insufficient solar energy utilisation; (iii) fast recombination rate of e--h+. To improve carriers’ utilisation, a number of modification strategies have been reported, through which nanomaterials and nanocomposite materials are developed with significantly high photocatalytic performance. Some of these strategies are described in detail in the following sections.
Poor photocatalytic degradation of pristine perovskite under visible light (>400 nm) is mainly attributed to the wide band gap [23], which hiders its potential application in the degradation of organic pollutants. The photocatalytic properties of perovskite can be modified by partial or full cationic sites substitution. The partial or full cationic substitution can narrow the band gap and inhibit the recombination of e−-h+ , which leads to a significant enhancement of their photocatalytic activity. The substitution can be made in A-site, B-site or both sites, the detailed description of each type of substitution is provided in the following sections. It is worth mentioning that a number of factors can affect the substitution such as the types and concentration of dopant atoms, the substitution sites and so on. It is worth mentioning that the substitution of A-site, B-site or both sites in perovskite induces lattice defect and adjusts its optical and redox properties, thereby enhancing the photocatalytic degradation of organic pollutants [24].
However, choosing the right substitute is very important in maintaining the perovskite crystal structure. The stability of A-site substituted perovskite with cubic structure can be defined through Goldschmidt’s tolerance factor
Where
Since the cubic structure of perovskite is stabilised at 0.76 <
Metal elements as substitutes in the ABO3 perovskite lattice [
The performance of various substituted perovskites with different substitution type and dopants used in substituting A-site, B-sites and both sites in the degradation of organic pollutants is highlighted in Table 1.
Pure perovskite | Type | Dopant | Target pollutant | Performance of substituted perovskite | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
LaFeO3 | A-site | Eu/Gd/Dy/Nd | Safranine-O (15 mg/L) | 7 times higher degradation rate than that by pure LFO | [99] |
LaFeO3 | A-site | Ti | 4-Cl-phenol (25 mg/L) | Complete removal and highest mineralization rate | [8] |
LaFeO3 | A-site | Li | Methylene blue (78.54 mg/L) | 45.7% removal compared to 35.1% by pure LFO | [32] |
LaFeO3 | A-site | Ca | Methylene blue (10 mg/L) | 77.5% removal compared to 48.9% by pure LFO | [33] |
LaFeO3 | A-site | Bi | 2,4-dichlorophenol (10 mg/L) | 61% removal compared to 28% by pure PLFO | [100] |
LaTiO3 | A-site | Ba/Sr/Ca | Congo red (100 mg/L) | 75.33% degradation compared to 50.8% by pure LTO | [30] |
SrTiO3 | A-site | Eu | RhB (5 mg/L) | 95% removal, 2.6 times higher than that by pure STO | [105] |
SrFeO3 | A-site | Pr/Sm | RhB (5 mg/L) | 86% degradation efficiency compared to 43% by pure SFO | [103] |
LaFeO3 | B-site | Mn | Methyl orange (100 mg/L) | 96.4% removal higher than that by pure LFO | [45] |
LaFeO3 | B-site | Cu | Acidpink 3B (10 mg/L) | 97.4% removal compared to 62.2% by pure LFO | [101] |
SrTiO3 | B-site | V/Mo | Methylene blue (10 mg/L) | 91.5% removal compared to 59.9% by pure STO | [46] |
SrTiO3 | B-site | Bi/Cu | Dibutyl phthalate (10 mg/L) | Higher degradation efficiency compared to pure STO | [48] |
SrTiO3 | B-site | V | Methylene blue (10 mg/L) | Higher degradation efficiency compared to pure STO | [41] |
SrTiO3 | A- & B-sites | La, Fe | Methyl Orange (10 mg/L) | Removal 19 times higher than that by pure STO | [104] |
SrTiO3 | A- & B-sites | La, Cr | RhB (5 mg/L) | Removal 6 times higher than that by pure STO | [102] |
Performance of various substituted perovskites.
Substitution of a metal in A-site can have a direct impact on the structure and stability of perovskite. For example, partial substitution of A′ metal on A-site, having a modified perovskite with the general formula of A1−xAx′BO3, can cause the creation of vacancies in the lattice [28]. Partial substitution of A-site in perovskite is also capable of modifying the valence state of cations in B-site, leading to a better redox property and a higher photocatalytic activity. For example, substitution of La3+ by K+ in A-site of LaCoO3 results in modification of Co3+ into Co4+ in La1–xKxCoO3 [29]. The concentration of dopants or substitutes in partial substitution of A-site is an important factor that can affect the crystal size, band gap and oxygen vacancy content. By incorporating different concentrations of La3+ into the lattice sites of the SrTiO3(STO) host structure, different crystal defects and impurity energy levels can be formed on La-STO, resulting in different band gaps. Higher concentration of La3+ doping results in the decreased particle size of La-STO. However, an excessive concentration of the doping element can act as recombination center for photoinduced pairs and lead to a declined photocatalytic activity.
Various alkaline-earth metallic ions (i.e., Ba, Ca, and Sr) and rare-earth metals (i.e., La, Ce, Eu and Nd) can be used to substitute A-site of perovskite, which can result in narrowing band gap, generation of large amounts of oxygen vacancies and improved photocatalytic efficiency for the degradation of organic pollutants under visible light [30, 31]. Partially substituting La3+ with Li+ via sol-gel method yields a modified perovskite powder (La0.97Li0.03FeO3) with improved photocatalytic degradation towards methyl blue. Since Li+ has lower charge than La3+, the charge neutrality is maintained by forming oxygen defects on the surface of La0.97Li0.03FeO3, which leads to improved photocatalytic activity [32]. Incorporating Ti into A-site of pure LaFeO3(LFO) via solid-solid diffusion results in reduced band gap and enhanced photocatalytic activity of the modified perovskite (La1–xTixFeO3) for the degradation of 4-chlorophenol without iron leaching. Substituting La3+ in pure LaFeO3 (LFO) with an appropriate amount of Ca2+ in LFO can be a feasible strategy to improve photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue under visible light [33]. Due to smaller radius of Ca2+ (0.134 nm) compared with La3+ (0.136 nm), the substitution of Ca2+ affects the crystalline size and the amount of charge-compensating oxygen vacancies in La1−
The B-site element in perovskite plays a more important role than the A-site element in photocatalytic reaction, as the redox reactions generally take place at the B-site element, and it can serve as a photocatalytic active center for most of the perovskites [35]. Doping B-site with divalent or trivalent cations induces the creation of oxygen defects, leading to a relaxation structure of AB1−xB′xO3 with enhanced photocatalytic degradation activity [36]. Substituting Mn into the lattice of SrTiO3 (STO) via hydrothermal method yields a visible-light-responsive photocatalyst, Mn-doped STO (MSTO), having a narrower band gap and higher photocatalytic degradation efficiency towards antibiotic tetracycline [37]. Mn4+ species (0.067 nm) could partially substitute Ti4+ (0.068 nm) into STO lattice and act as impurity energy band to narrow the band gap of STO and suppress the e−-h+ recombination, hence creating sufficient time for photogenerated holes to oxidize water and form ·OH for efficient photocatalytic degradation of tetracycline. Furthermore, substituting the B-site of perovskite by Cr yields advanced photocatalytic materials, in which the Cr3+ donor levels act as intermediate states for photon transition, allowing easier excitation of electrons and holes under visible light [38]. However, the presence of hexavalent Cr(VI) can hinder the photocatalytic activity of the catalyst [39]. Substitution of Fe3+ (0.064 nm) by a larger ionic radius Cu2+ (0.072 nm) in B-site of LFO results in lattice distortion, induced oxygen vacancies generation and suppressed the growth of large crystallite. This implies that a larger specific area with more accessible active sites is available for improved photocatalytic activity.
Substitution of the B-site perovskite with multiple valance cations results in coexistence of various cation states (i.e., Mn3+/Mn4+, Cu+/Cu2+ and V3+/V5+) in perovskites [40, 41]. The presence of high valence ions can trap the photo-generated electrons in the CB, thereby the e−-h+ pairs recombination is suppressed. While the low valence ions may supply electrons to the absorbed O2 on the surface of the catalyst, enhancing interfacial electron transfer and increasing the photocatalytic degradation of organic pollutants in water [42]. Substitution of B-site in LFO lattice by Cu results in LaFe0.85Cu0.15O3 with larger specific area and reduced band gap compared to LFO [43]. Under light irradiation of LaFe0.85Cu0.15O3, the reduction of Fe3+ and Cu2+ can be accelerated and leads to the generation of Fe2+ and Cu+. The presence of the redox couples of Fe2+/Fe3+ and Cu+/Cu2+ plays an important role in the creation of ·OH and other ROS, which degrade organic pollutants [44]. Doping Mn in LFO via stearic acid solution combustion method results in LaFe0.5Mn0.5O3–δ with higher photocatalytic efficiency for methyl orange degradation under sunlight, owing to the coexistence of variable valences of Mn ions such as Mn2+/Mn3+/Mn4+ [45]. The lower valence Mn2+ and Mn3+ provide electrons and reduce O2 to generate more O2•−, while the stable Mn4+ traps electrons and suppresses electron-hole recombination.
Substitution of the B-site perovskite by multiple cations can create a synergistic effect, leading to an enhanced perovskite photocatalytic activity and improved stability. The photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue can be enhanced by co-doping of Mo and V in STO [46]. The Mo and V cations incorporated into the B-site of perovskite can create impurity defects, leading to reduced band gap value and enhanced visible light utilisation. The photocatalytic activity of multiple cations doped perovskite, such as Bi and Cu doped STO, is much higher than a single cation doped perovskite [47]. The highest degradation of dibutyl phthalate can be achieved by STO co-doped with both Bi and Cu in B-stie [48].
Simultaneous substitution of A- and B-sites is a feasible strategy and can increase the photocatalytic efficiency of perovskite. Since the perovskite lattice offers a great flexibility in atomic arrangement, reasonable regulation of both A- and B-sites in perovskite can produce high performance A1–xA′xB1–xB′xO3–δ with improved electronic and photocatalytic properties. In general, the substitution of A-site cation leads to the generation of oxygen vacancies, whereas the substitution of B-site mainly tunes the band structure and brings about the formation of redox couples.
Simultaneous substitution of A- and B-sites of STO by La and Ni, respectively, leads to a larger surface area and new defect bands for highly efficient photocatalytic decomposition of MB compared to La or Ni mono-doped STO [49]. The substitution of both A- and B-sties of LaCoO3 leads to the creation of a modified perovskite photocatalyst La0.5Ba0.5CoxMn1–xO3–δ. The partial substitution of La3+ by Ba2+ in A-site results in improved catalytic activity and structural stability. While the substitution of B-site by Mn can further enhance the photocatalytic reactivity as a result of the formation of Co▬O▬Mn bond, offering accelerated electron transfer between the redox couples of Co2+/Co3+ and Mn3+/Mn4+. Doping perovskites with non-metal ions such as C, P, S, N, F and B is also a feasible strategy to narrow the band gap, which is necessary in enhancing photocatalytic activity of perovskite for water decontamination [50, 51].
Pristine perovskites show relatively weak photogenerated charge separation rate and low surface area. In addition, photo-generated e−-h+ pairs in some narrow-band gap perovskites tend to recombine, which results in considerable energy loss. Therefore, nanoengineered perovskite particles may address the above issues and provide high surface area, full utilisation of solar energy, efficient light absorption and effective e−-h+ separation. However, Perovskite nanoparticles can undergo agglomeration during synthesis, which endows inferior photocatalytic performance. In order to address the particle agglomeration issue and achieve efficient charge separation and good dispersion, coating perovskites on various supports has been proven to be a feasible strategy. In addition, by composing suitable cocatalysts, the photocatalytic reaction can be accelerated through lowering the activation energy. Loading perovskite on supports provides efficient charge migration and better pollutants adsorption capacity, which is crucial for improving photocatalytic activity. The loading amount can easily be tuned by simply changing the coating times and the concentration of the coating solutions. Given an appropriate support loading, abundant active sites are available for charge-transfer reactions, also the photogenerated carriers can be trapped on the supports to suppress e−-h+ recombination. Perovskites can be coated on various supports such as carbon, silica, graphene, zeolites, semiconductor cocatalysts and so on.
Carbonaceous materials have been widely studied and used in many applications, due to their outstanding characteristics such as large surface area, good electronic properties and excellent corrosion resistance. Loading perovskites on Carbon-derived materials can enhance photocatalytic degradation of organic pollutants, as they usually act as electron scavengers, owing to their large electron storage capacity. Composites of perovskite with carbon-based materials such as graphene oxide (GO) and its derivatives (graphitic carbon nitride and carbon aerogel) provide enhanced adsorption capacity towards organic pollutants, along with formed junctions, which hinders the e−h+ recombination.
Perovskite/GO composites have been proven to provide excellent photocatalytic activity in the degradation of organic pollutants. It is worth mentioning that the band-gap of the perovskite/GO composites can easily be tuned by incorporating perovskite with different proportions of GO. LaMnO3/graphene composite has been reported to have a superior visible-light responsive photocatalytic activity in the degradation of diamine green B [52]. The photo-generated electrons migrate from LaMnO3 (LMO) to GO across the heterojunction and temporarily stored on the surface of GO, suppressing electrons and holes recombination. The LMO particles are highly dispersed on the surface of GO, allowing them full exposure to light irradiation and high photon absorption, which improves the photocatalytic quantum efficiency. Compared to pure LMO, the decreased band gap in LMO/GO results in an obvious red shift of 30–40 nm in the light absorption edge, which enhances its photocatalytic activity. GO and STO composite can be prepared by hydrothermal method for efficient degradation of organic pollutants [53]. During heat treatment, GO is decomposed, and followed by the diffusion and dissolution of carbon species, which can penetrate into STO lattice and substitute its interlayer O2− sites, thereby introducing C 2p state within the band gap. Under light irradiation, the photoexcited electrons on STO can easily be transferred to carbon and promote charge separation, resulting in an increased amount of reactive oxidation species for efficient degradation of organic pollutants.
Graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4), which is one of the most promising visible-light-driven photocatalysts, is another non-metallic material with unique layered structure and narrow band gap of 2.7–2.8 eV. However, the application of pristine g-C3N4 is limited by the rapid recombination of photoinduced e−h+. This issue can be addressed by adopting strategies to couple g-C3N4 with perovskites, thereby developing catalysts with high photocatalytic properties. LaNiO3/g-C3N4 Z-scheme nanosheet has been prepared, in which 30 wt.% LaNiO3 loading provides intimate attachment of LNO on the surface of g-C3N4, leading to the formation of abundant heterojunctions at the interface that are required for the spatial isolation of photogenerated charge carriers. Under light irradiation of the LaNiO3/g-C3N4 hybrid, the accumulated electrons with stronger reducibility can reduce O2 to yield O2•−. As a result, the LaNiO3/g-C3N4 composite exhibits remarkable photocatalytic activity in the degradation of tetracycline, which is 3.8 times and 3.9 times faster than those of pristine g-C3N4 and LaNiO3, respectively. Loading p-type semiconductor LFO with n-type g-C3N4 nanosheets results in a hybrid p-n heterostructure photocatalyst (LFO/g-C3N4) that exhibits superior photocatalytic activity, compared to pristine g-C3N4 and LFO, in the degradation of Brilliant Blue [54].
Metal oxide is regarded as a promising supporting material for perovskites to achieve higher photocatalytic activity in degradation of organic pollutants. By forming heterojunctions between metal oxides and perovskite, the metal oxides act as co-catalysts, serve as charge collectors to facilitate charge separation and efficiently extend the lifetime of the charge carriers. Metal oxides such as TiO2, ZnO, and CeO2 are abundant in nature and have been widely used as alternative catalysts to precious metals in various chemical reactions [55].
A number of metal oxides, such as ZnO, CeO2, Al2O3, CuO, MnO2 and WO3 have been used in perovskite coating [56, 57, 58, 59]. It can be argued that the most widely used metal oxide to couple with perovskites is TiO2 [60, 61, 62]. The STO/TiO2 nanofiber has been synthesised via hydrothermal method, using TiO2 as both template and reactant [63]. Under UV light irradiation, the photogenerated electrons are transferred from STO to TiO2 due to their close contact, thus improving the interfacial charge migration to the adsorbed substance. The electrons react with dissolved O2 to form O2•− and subsequently protonated to strong oxidizing agents like H2O2, HO2• and ·OH. Reportedly, the incorporation of TiO2 into STO can prolong the lifetime of photoinduced charge carriers. It has been demonstrated that the combination of TiO2 and LaNiO3 can significantly enhance the photocatalytic activity of the modified perovskite in degradation of methyl orange and antibiotic ciprofloxacin under visible light. The LaNiO3/TiO2 step-scheme (S-scheme) can be synthesised via a facial sol-gel method as shown in Figure 6, in which the S-scheme heterojunction is formed between the n-type TiO2 and p-type LaNiO3 due to the potential energy difference of VB in TiO2 and CB in LaNiO3. Exploiting the electric field and band edge bending, the electrons can spontaneously be transferred from TiO2 CB to LaNiO3 across the interfacial region until they reach similar Fermi level. O2 is reduced to O2•− by the accumulative electrons in the CB of LaNiO3 with more negative potential, while the remaining holes in the VB of TiO2 oxidises H2O to ·OH, thereby the photocatalytic activity of the coupled TiO2 and LaNiO3 is significantly promoted. In another study, STO is coated on WO3, in which an efficient Z-scheme heterojunction is obtained [64]. Under visible light irradiation of the modified STO, the electrons in the CB of WO3 tend to recombine with the holes in STO, thus the electrons in the CB of STO and holes in the VB of WO3 can separate and form reactive oxidation species for efficient degradation of pollutants in water.
Schematic representation of LaNiO3 and TiO2 nanocomposite [
Perovskites can be coated on silica-based material for efficient charge separation and enhancement of absorption capacity, thus increasing their potential application in photocatalytic degradation of pollutants in water. Coating perovskites on porous silica can also provide easier transport of large organic molecules and the availability of more active sites, which results in efficient photo-Fenton catalytic degradation [65]. Various clay minerals such as montmorillonite, bentonite, kaolinite, illite and zeolite have been used as supporting materials for perovskites, which provide significant adsorptive capacity for the removal of toxic organic pollutants in aqueous solutions [66]. The porous silica support play two key roles in the degradation process, enhancement of the adsorption capacity via hydrogen bonds formed between the support and organic pollutants, and transportation of adsorbed substance to active sites.
Montmorillonite (MMT), which is one of the most abundant clay minerals and possesses ample ▬OH groups on the surface, has been used as a support for LFO to form a nanocomposite of LFO/MMT for effective removal of Rhodamine B in water. The presence of ▬OH groups on the surface of MMT allows LFO to be uniformly distributed on the surface of montmorillonite via Si▬O▬Fe bonds, which results in LFO/MMT with higher surface area and enhanced photocatalytic activity. LFO/MMT can effectively remove Rhodamine B (RhB) via synergistic effect of adsorption and photocatalytic degradation [67]. Different LFO/silica composites have been prepared and studied using several mesoporous silica materials (SBA-15, SBA-16 and siliceous mesostructured cellular foams (MCF)), along with nano-sized silica powder as supports for photocatalytic degradation of RhB [68]. Compared with other nanocomposites and pure LFO, LFO/MCF demonstrates the highest photocatalytic activity towards RhB. The superior photocatalytic activity of LFO/MCF can be attributed to the randomly distributed pores and short pore length of MCF, which allows easier and faster transportation of RhB to the active sites within the pores of LFO/MCF.
Zeolite, which is a crystalline aluminosilicate material, is another widely used supporting material for perovskites to enhance the photocatalytic degradation of organic pollutants. Using zeolite for loading perovskite can provide an effective nanocomposite with high photocatalytic activity, as its cages and pores enable easier and faster mass transfer of adsorbed substance, it provides abundant active sites for photocatalytic degradation of pollutants and can control the charge transfer process to reduce the e−-h+ recombination [69]. To optimise physicochemical properties of zeolite, such as adsorption capacity, before loading perovskites, approaches such as heating, chemical treatment like acid-modification and metal-modification can be applied [70]. HCl can be used to modify the natural zeolite prior to the LFO loading. The acid treatment approach can remove amorphous impurities and provide zeolite with larger surface area and more available pore volume for easy incorporation of LFO. Loading 30% STO on HZSM-5 zeolite results in STO/HZSM-5 with high surface area, leading to high photocatalytic degradation rate towards Reactive Brilliant Red-X3B [71]. The HZSM-5 is capable of mediating electron migration and extending the lifetime of photogenerated charge carriers, thus leading to high photocatalytic activity towards organic pollutants.
Constructing perovskite with various nanostructures can lead to full utilisation of solar energy, efficient light absorption and effective e−-h+ separation. Perovskite with various structures such as nanoparticles with/without Hierarchical porous structure, core-shell structure, nanotubes, nanocubes and nanofilm have also been proven to offer significantly high photocatalytic response [72]. A well-designed nanoscale and hierarchically porous perovskite structure usually provides high surface area and excellent light absorption efficiency to take full advantage of reflection, refraction and scattering of photons [73]. A smaller size perovskite increases the availability of multiple reactive sites for enhanced photocatalytic reaction and higher degradation efficiency [74]. Downsizing perovskites to nanoscale with desired morphologies and functional properties holds a tremendous opportunity for obtaining excellent photocatalysts as decreasing the particle size leads to an increase in the quantum yields of perovskite photocatalytic reactions [75]. In smaller size perovskite particles, shorter time is required for the photoinduced charge carriers to be diffused from the bulk to the surface of perovskite, thereby suppressing the recombination of the electrons and holes. Besides, the properties and the unique architecture that are achieved by downsizing perovskites to nanoscale allow for direct use of visible light to remove pollutants without chemical addition. However, with decreasing the perovskite particle size to nanoscale the surface tension of perovskite nanoparticles significantly increases, which inevitably leads to particle aggregation.
In a bid to enhance the photocatalytic properties of perovskite with higher degradation efficiency of organic pollutants in water, a number of studies have been carried out to produce various novel nanoscale structures with unique properties [76, 77, 78, 79]. The approaches that can be used to downsize perovskite particle and control its size are ball milling, ultrasonic treatment, micro emulsion method, addition of chelating agents and controlling the calcination temperature [80, 81]. A number of studies have used ball milling to downsize perovskite particle size. By controlling ball milling time duration, the particle size and defects of STO can be adjusted, for example, by increasing ball milling treatment time the particle size can be significantly decreased [82]. The smaller STO particles can provide shorter charge carriers transport path to the surface, where the photocatalytic reaction take place, thus decreasing the chance of photoinduced e−-h+ pairs recombination. On the other hand, longer ball milling treatment time results in the creation of defects like oxygen vacancies, which act as a mediator and further facilitates the charge separation to accelerate the degradation of organic pollutant molecules. Nanoscale (15 nm average thickness and 70–80 nm length) floral-like LFO 3D structure has been prepared via hydrothermal method using polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) as a chelating agent. Apparently, the photocatalytic activity of the nanoscale engineered LFO for the degradation of organic pollutants is much higher than that of the bulk LFO, owing to the higher surface area (90.25 m2/g as compared to bulk LFO of 8 m2/g) that provides abundant active sites and efficient separation of e−-h+ pairs via facile charge transport on small-sized nanosheets.
Over the last decade, several hierarchical nanostructure perovskites with different and effective morphology have been synthesised to enhance perovskite photocatalytic performance water decontamination [83, 84]. Hierarchical porous structure is one of the morphologies that provides larger surface area and more active sites, both of which enhance the contact between perovskite and organic pollutants during photocatalytic reaction [85]. Porous structure enhances the rate of mass transfer of pollutants within the perovskite, leading to an excellent photocatalytic activity with fast reaction kinetics for organic pollutant degradation. Porous nanofiber structure has also been synthesised for the enhancement of physical and chemical properties of perovskites compared to their granulate counterpart. Perovskite nanofiber structure can be synthesised using several approaches such as electrospinning method, template synthesis, hydrothermal method, self-assembly and solvothermal method, amongst which electrospinning method is widely regarded as a simple and easily controllable method for the fabrication of nanofibers [86]. The enhanced photocatalytic efficiency and higher removal of pollutants in water achieved by perovskite nanofiber structure can be attributed to the abundant and reachable active sites and the ultralong 1D nanostructure, both of which provide effective directing photo-generated electrons transportation [87, 88], as illustrated in Figure 7. The LaCoO3 nanofiber structure has been shown to exhibit a higher photocatalytic activity than the LaCoO3 nanoparticles in the degradation of RhB, owing to the favorable features of nanofiber structure such as larger surface area with more photoactive sites [23, 89]. The LFO ribbon-like porous ultrafine nanofibers have been synthesised by electrospinning, which exhibit higher specific surface area and more active sites for enhanced light absorption and photocatalytic degradation of MB.
Schematic representation of electron-hole pair separation in perovskite nanofiber systems.
The interfacial area of perovskite nanoparticles can be maximised by developing the Core-shell heterostructure with 3D hierarchical contact between the core and shell layers, in which a broader platform for charge carrier migration is provided. Various methods have been developed for synthesis of core-shell nanostructure perovskite such as surface functionalisation, template-sacrificial method and self-assembly method [90, 91, 92]. A heterostructure core-shell morphology enhances light absorption and multiple reflection of incident light, thus high light-harvesting efficiency, which makes core-shell perovskite structure ideal for photocatalytic applications, where charge separation is highly desirable [93]. A unique structure and heterojunction perovskite-based particles have been developed by coupling perovskites (SrTiO3, LaFeO3, LaMnO3, LaNiO3) with semiconductors (TiO2, ZnO and SnO2) as a core or shell to achieve an effective charge separation [94, 95]. LFO/TiO2 core/shell heterostructure has been developed as photocatalysts with significantly improved photocatalytic activity for the degradation of myclobutanil pesticide under solar light and visible light irradiation [96]. The LFO shell acts as photosensitizer of TiO2 for visible-light harvesting, and the full interphase contact between the core LFO and shell TiO2 provides extensive charge transfer by driving electrons to the TiO2 core and holes reversely to the LFO shell, which results in remarkably enhanced ·OH and O2•− generation for photodegradation of organic pollutants. A core-shell perovskite, (Ba,Sr)TiO3 as core and TiO2 as shell, has been reported to have an enhanced photocatalytic activity, due to charge separation efficiency across the core-shell interface.
Amongst the aforementioned nano structures, nanotube array has been widely studied for the enhancement of the photocatalytic activities of perovskites, due to their tunable size, uniformly aligned tubular structure, large internal surface area and fast electron transmission [97, 98].
Perovskites are highly crystalline and stable materials with unique and excellent features, which render them to be the best candidates amongst other semiconductor photocatalysts for photocatalytic degradation of organic pollutants. Their structure allows for tunning and adjusting their physiochemical properties through regulating their chemical composition, which offer a wide scope in developing novel nanocomposites.
Knowing that pristine perovskites suffer from a number of limitations such as low photocatalytic efficiency, insufficient solar energy consumption, rapid recombination of electron-hole and low redox potential, the great flexibility in regulating their physiochemical properties has been capitalised with the aim of developing perovskite-based materials with efficient photocatalytic activity in water remediation. A large number of perovskite-based nanocomposites have been developed and studied, using various synthesis methods and strategies such as partial and full cationic substitution using certain dopants, structure rescaling through downsizing and morphology alteration, coating and coupling with other advanced oxidation processes. Designing and preparing novel perovskite-based nanocomposites via these strategies, particularly partial and full cationic substitution, is elegant and can produce reasonably efficient photocatalysts, albeit it is still challenging.
Capitalising on the ability of computational tools, such as Density Functional Theory (DFT) based band structure, which are very effective for designing and understanding novel materials, will lead to further understanding of quantitative properties of these materials and shorten the selection process. Most of the perovskite-based nanocomposites exhibit promising photocatalytic performance, which can be considered as a viable solution to the problem of persistent organic pollutants faced by the living world and environment. However, a comprehensive study on these novel materials, particularly their ability in photocatalytic degradation of a wide range of organic pollutants is limited. The majority of the developed perovskite-based nanocomposites have been tested on synthetic wastewater under laboratory conditions, which does not quite represent natural wastewater with organic pollutants. It is worth pointing out that in natural wastewater organic pollutants can affect photocatalytic efficiency through radical scavenging and attenuation of radiation in photocatalytic process. Using actual water and studying the perovskite-based materials provide more opportunities for large applications. Rescaling the structure of perovskite nanocomposites and alteration of their morphologies, for example creation of hierarchical pore structure, may be sufficient to enhance some aspects of photocatalytic activity in the degradation of a particular dye or pollutant. Further work on the relationship between the structure and physicochemical properties of these nanocomposites will be beneficial for further enhancement of photocatalytic activities of these materials and providing a novel insight over structure-property relation. Partial and full substitution strategy using different dopants is mainly used to promote light absorption, which in turn enhances the photocatalytic activity. A comprehensive knowledge on the effects of these dopants on the photophysical properties of the modified perovskite materials will further reveal the capabilities of perovskite-based nanocomposites and pave the way for future development perovskite-based photocatalysts with superior photocatalytic activity. The main focus of almost all the studies has been on the small production of small laboratory-scale materials, incorporating 3D printing and testing the produced materials will certainly be beneficial for large-scale synthesis, leading to industrial production. Membrane filtration is usually the main separation process that is used for separating the catalysts, however, using membrane to recover perovskite-based catalysts makes the water treatment process costly and quite complex, particularly due to the occurrence of membrane fouling. Therefore, recovery and recycling the perovskite-based nanocomposites after water decontamination process merit thorough investigations.
The authors acknowledge the funding support from Chengdu Science and Technology Bureau (2019-GH02-00053-HZ).
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. 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As one of recent advanced technologies, a case study of pilot-scale MSW gasification is introduced, which could be one of the most efficient pathways to utilize the technology to produce electricity with a newly developed gasification process by reducing tar and pollutant emission.",book:{id:"6349",slug:"gasification-for-low-grade-feedstock",title:"Gasification for Low-grade Feedstock",fullTitle:"Gasification for Low-grade Feedstock"},signatures:"Yong-Chil Seo, Md Tanvir Alam and Won-Seok Yang",authors:[{id:"213854",title:"Prof.",name:"Yong-Chil",middleName:null,surname:"Seo",slug:"yong-chil-seo",fullName:"Yong-Chil Seo"},{id:"213857",title:"Mr.",name:"Md Tanvir",middleName:null,surname:"Alam",slug:"md-tanvir-alam",fullName:"Md Tanvir Alam"},{id:"222321",title:"Dr.",name:"Won-Seok",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"won-seok-yang",fullName:"Won-Seok Yang"}]},{id:"52687",title:"Methods of Estimating Forest Biomass: A Review",slug:"methods-of-estimating-forest-biomass-a-review",totalDownloads:3481,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"Forest plays a special role in carbon sequestration and thus mitigating climate change. However, the large uncertainty in biomass estimation is unable to meet the requirement of the accurate carbon accounting. The use of a suitable and rigor method to accurately estimate forest biomass is significant. Moreover, the world is increasingly facing the conflicting pressures of economic growth and environmental protection. Improving energy structure and vigorously developing biomass energy has become the development trend of energy utilization in the future. As energy plant is characterized by a large net accumulation of biomass. Therefore, the scientific evaluation of the size and potential of energy from plant also requires a suitable method for estimating biomass. Here, we reviewed the estimate methods, including allometric equation, mean biomass density, biomass expansion factor, geostatistics, etc. For each method, we will present background, rational, applicability, as well as estimation procedure by exemplifying a case. In this chapter, we argued that the new developed technique such as geo-statistics and remote sensing technique (e.g. LIDAR) would be the key tools to improve forest biomass estimation accuracy. However, prior to this, spatial variation of forest biomass at various levels should be explored using multi-source data and multi-approaches.",book:{id:"5393",slug:"biomass-volume-estimation-and-valorization-for-energy",title:"Biomass Volume Estimation and Valorization for Energy",fullTitle:"Biomass Volume Estimation and Valorization for Energy"},signatures:"Lei Shi and Shirong Liu",authors:[{id:"187616",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Lei",middleName:null,surname:"Shi",slug:"lei-shi",fullName:"Lei Shi"},{id:"194544",title:"Prof.",name:"Shirong",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",slug:"shirong-liu",fullName:"Shirong Liu"}]},{id:"52751",title:"Biomass Compositional Analysis for Conversion to Renewable Fuels and Chemicals",slug:"biomass-compositional-analysis-for-conversion-to-renewable-fuels-and-chemicals",totalDownloads:2941,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:32,abstract:"As the world continues to deplete its nonrenewable resources, there has begun a shift toward using renewable materials for the production of fuels and chemicals. Terrestrial biomass, as well as municipal solid wastes, provides renewable feedstocks for fuel and chemical production. However, one of the major challenges to using biomass as a feedstock for fuel and chemical production is the great amount of innate variability between different biomass types and within individual biomass species. This inconsistency arises from varied growth and harvesting conditions and presents challenges for conversion processes, which frequently require physically and chemically uniform materials. This chapter will examine intrinsic biomass compositional characteristics including cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, extractives/volatiles, and ash for a wide array of biomass types. Additionally, extrinsic properties, such as moisture content and particle grind size, will be examined for their effect on biomass conversion to fuels using four major conversion processes: direct combustion, pyrolysis, hydrothermal liquefaction, and fermentation. A brief discussion on recent research for the production of building block chemicals from biomass will also be presented.",book:{id:"5393",slug:"biomass-volume-estimation-and-valorization-for-energy",title:"Biomass Volume Estimation and Valorization for Energy",fullTitle:"Biomass Volume Estimation and Valorization for Energy"},signatures:"C. Luke Williams, Rachel M. Emerson and Jaya Shankar Tumuluru",authors:[{id:"95803",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya Shankar",middleName:null,surname:"Tumuluru",slug:"jaya-shankar-tumuluru",fullName:"Jaya Shankar Tumuluru"},{id:"187715",title:"Dr.",name:"C. Luke",middleName:null,surname:"Williams",slug:"c.-luke-williams",fullName:"C. Luke Williams"},{id:"194456",title:"MSc.",name:"Rachel M.",middleName:null,surname:"Emerson",slug:"rachel-m.-emerson",fullName:"Rachel M. Emerson"}]},{id:"52891",title:"Advances in the Application of Spectroscopic Techniques in the Biofuel Area over the Last Few Decades",slug:"advances-in-the-application-of-spectroscopic-techniques-in-the-biofuel-area-over-the-last-few-decade",totalDownloads:2658,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Guided by the instability of the oil market, as well as limited availability of and, especially, the environmental impacts of fossil fuels, the needs of the market for environmental-friendly energy sources have increased. However, as with any other product that is intended to place on the market, it is essential to ensure the quality of the fuel for successful marketing and acceptance by consumers. Spectroscopic techniques have been widely used for different purposes in the literature for the past decades, from biological applications to the measurement of the elemental composition of planets. From studies focused on biodiesel, bioethanol, biomass and biofuel in general, different spectroscopic techniques have also been applied in the area. The focus of this chapter is to elucidate what has been published in the last few decades over the subject, detailing the basic concepts of the main spectroscopic techniques applied and showing the results and developments over biofuel. The aim of the chapter is to achieve a set of information that can be used as a bigger compile of information of the state of the art regarding the theme.",book:{id:"5509",slug:"frontiers-in-bioenergy-and-biofuels",title:"Frontiers in Bioenergy and Biofuels",fullTitle:"Frontiers in Bioenergy and Biofuels"},signatures:"João Cajaiba Da Silva, Alex Queiroz, Alline Oliveira and Vinícius\nKartnaller",authors:[{id:"107106",title:"Prof.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Cajaiba Da Silva",slug:"joao-cajaiba-da-silva",fullName:"João Cajaiba Da Silva"},{id:"192636",title:"MSc.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz",slug:"alex-queiroz",fullName:"Alex Queiroz"},{id:"192637",title:"MSc.",name:"Alline",middleName:null,surname:"Oliveira",slug:"alline-oliveira",fullName:"Alline Oliveira"},{id:"192638",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Vinicius",middleName:null,surname:"Kartnaller",slug:"vinicius-kartnaller",fullName:"Vinicius Kartnaller"}]},{id:"62959",title:"Biogas for Clean Energy",slug:"biogas-for-clean-energy",totalDownloads:1724,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"This chapter demonstrates a biogas renewable energy resource potential study for electric power generation from easily available biogas feedstock materials in four selected case study sites. Under this study, the site used in the model is a rural Kebele in Jama Woreda at 10.548° N, 39.33° E. The common biogas feedstocks considered under this study are animal slurry, human feces and jatropha byproducts whereas the biodiesel is considered from jatropha seed.",book:{id:"6839",slug:"anaerobic-digestion",title:"Anaerobic Digestion",fullTitle:"Anaerobic Digestion"},signatures:"Demsew Mitiku Teferra and Wondwosen Wubu",authors:[{id:"259485",title:"Mr.",name:"Demsew Mitiku",middleName:null,surname:"Teferra",slug:"demsew-mitiku-teferra",fullName:"Demsew Mitiku Teferra"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"763",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"July 5th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University Plovdiv",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"243698",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"7227",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroaki",middleName:null,surname:"Matsui",slug:"hiroaki-matsui",fullName:"Hiroaki Matsui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Tokyo",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"312999",title:"Dr.",name:"Bernard O.",middleName:null,surname:"Asimeng",slug:"bernard-o.-asimeng",fullName:"Bernard O. Asimeng",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"22",type:"subseries",title:"Applied Intelligence",keywords:"Machine Learning, Intelligence Algorithms, Data Science, Artificial Intelligence, Applications on Applied Intelligence",scope:"This field is the key in the current industrial revolution (Industry 4.0), where the new models and developments are based on the knowledge generation on applied intelligence. The motor of the society is the industry and the research of this topic has to be empowered in order to increase and improve the quality of our lives.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11418,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). 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