Biogenic and abiogenic sources of H2.
\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3529",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Colorectal Cancer - Surgery, Diagnostics and Treatment",title:"Colorectal Cancer",subtitle:"Surgery, Diagnostics and Treatment",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Colorectal cancer is one of the commonest cancers affecting individuals across the world. An improvement in survival has been attributed to multidisciplinary management, better diagnostics, improved surgical options for the primary and metastatic disease and advances in adjuvant therapy. In this book, international experts share their experience and knowledge on these different aspects in the management of colorectal cancer. An in depth analysis of screening for colorectal cancer, detailed evaluation of diagnostic modalities in staging colorectal cancer, recent advances in adjuvant therapy and principles and trends in the surgical management of colorectal cancer is provided. This will certainly prove to be an interesting and informative read for any clinician involved in the management of patients with colorectal cancer.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-1231-0",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-7195-9",doi:"10.5772/50593",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"colorectal-cancer-surgery-diagnostics-and-treatment",numberOfPages:532,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"25832741e70e2fca568d88c1647786e9",bookSignature:"Jim S Khan",publishedDate:"March 12th 2014",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3529.jpg",numberOfDownloads:43752,numberOfWosCitations:16,numberOfCrossrefCitations:19,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:30,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:65,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 18th 2012",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 4th 2012",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 31st 2012",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 31st 2013",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 30th 2013",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"155719",title:"Dr.",name:"Jim",middleName:"S",surname:"Khan",slug:"jim-khan",fullName:"Jim Khan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/155719/images/system/155719.jpg",biography:"Jim Khan is a specialist colorectal surgeon with a comprehensive training in general, colorectal, laparoscopic and robotic surgery. After graduation in 1996, he specialised in general surgery and became a fellow of the Royal College of Physicians & Surgeons Glasgow. He completed his specialist registrar training in colorectal surgery in Wessex. He learned complex pelvic and rectal cancer surgery while working with Professor Heald at Basingstoke. His specialist colorectal training included the UK National Laparoscopic Fellowship at Colchester, where he received training from Prof Roger Motson in advanced laparoscopic pelvic surgery. Later on he was awarded a travelling clinical fellowship at Mayo Clinic Rochester (US). He has vast experience of laparoscopic surgery and his main practice is application of laparoscopic and robotic surgery for treating colorectal cancer and inflammatory bowel disease. He, in collaboration with Prof Amjad Parvaiz, has published and presented widely on this subject. At Portsmouth he is actively involved in medical education and clinical training. He trains on a variety of courses both nationally and internationally including basic surgical skills, laparoscopic skills, ATLS, TEMS, Laparoscopic colorectal surgery and coloproctology courses. He has been a national trainer for consultants’ training in laparoscopic colorectal surgery (LapCo)—a programme run by the Department of Health for promotion of training in key-hole bowel cancer surgery.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Royal Hampshire County Hospital",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1020",title:"Colorectal Surgery",slug:"gastroenterology-colorectal-surgery"}],chapters:[{id:"46164",title:"Screening for Colorectal Cance",doi:"10.5772/57506",slug:"screening-for-colorectal-cance",totalDownloads:1950,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Syed Naqvi and Syeda Farah 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3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"184794",title:"Dr.",name:"Ancuta Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Păcurar",slug:"ancuta-carmen-pacurar",fullName:"Ancuta Carmen Păcurar"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11865",leadTitle:null,title:"Operator Theory - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tIn mathematics, operator theory is the study of linear operators on function spaces, beginning with differential operators and integral operators. The operators may be presented abstractly by their characteristics, such as bounded linear operators or closed operators and consideration may be given to nonlinear operators. The study, which depends heavily on the topology of function spaces, is a branch of functional analysis. If a collection of operators forms an algebra over a field, then it is an operator algebra. The description of operator algebras is part of operator theory. Single operator theory deals with the properties and classification of operators, considered one at a time. For example, the classification of normal operators in terms of their spectra falls into this category.
\r\n\r\n\tThe theory of operator algebras brings algebras of operators such as C*-algebras to the fore. Many operators that are studied are operators on Hilbert spaces of holomorphic functions, and the study of the operator is intimately linked to questions in function theory. For example, Beurling's theorem describes the invariant subspaces of the unilateral shift in terms of inner functions, which are bounded holomorphic functions on the unit disk with unimodular boundary values almost everywhere on the circle. Beurling interpreted the unilateral shift as multiplication by the independent variable on the Hardy space. The success in studying multiplication operators, and more generally Toeplitz operators (which are multiplication, followed by projection onto the Hardy space) has inspired the study of similar questions in other spaces, such as the Bergman space. Hence, operator theory has a connection with complex analysis. Additionally, this book will be intended to be an illustration of the use of operator theory when applied to solve specific problems in pure and applied mathematics, engineering, physics, or science in general.
\r\n\t
In the view of planetary carbon cycling, the carbon-based terrestrial “life” can be seen as an intermediate between the oxidized end (carbon dioxide, CO2) and the reduced end (methane, CH4), as depicted as “organics” (simplistically expressed as CH2O) in Figure 1. The Earth’s carbon cycling is largely driven by about 120,000 terawatts (TW) of the Solar radiation reaching the Earth’s surface,1 and about 47 TW [1] from the Earth’s internal heat, which is due equally to the decay of radioactive isotopes such as uranium-238 (238U), thorium-232 (232Th), and potassium-40 (40K) in crust and mantle [2] and to the residual heat from planetary accretion during proto-Earth formation [3].
Schematized general view of carbon dynamics with reference to “life” and life-supporting “split of water” as the source of redox potential. Life is interpreted as the intermediate carbon compounds between the reduced end (CH4) and oxidized end (CO2) of the carbon cycle, and the cycle is driven by the supply of redox power from the split of water in a variety of manners.
The life is not only intermediate but also transient, and the life is otherwise dissipated, maintained by continuous supplies of oxidizing and reducing powers, simplistically represented by oxygen O and hydrogen H, respectively, after “split of water” [4]. The surface of the red planet, or red rust planet, Mars, is oxidized by Solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation due to lack of the UV-absorbing ozone layer in its thin atmosphere, resulting in the predominance (>95% v/v) of CO2 in the Martian atmosphere [5]. The gas giant Jupiter’s atmosphere consists of 89.8% H2, 10.2% He, 0.3% CH4, and others (CO2 not detected) with some uncertainties [6]. By contrast, the Earth’s atmosphere contains CO2 (400 ppm) and CH4 (1.7 ppm) simultaneously [7], which is regarded as a biomarker combination of a habitable planet [8]. In this context, the detection of CH4 (mean 0.69 ppb) in the Martian atmosphere and its variability (up to 7.2 ppb) [9] was exciting enough to ignite a search-for-life on Mars. Then, the emerging problem is where and how methane is supplied on the fully oxidized Mars [10] as well as on the Earth whose surface is also oxidized by photosynthetically generated O2. Deep-sea methane seepage is one of the methane sources to the Earth’s surface, although its significance on a long time scale is yet to be fully understood.
While methane cycling occurs within the range of the global carbon cycling in atmosphere, hydrosphere (manly ocean), lithosphere (defined as crust and mantle in this chapter), and biosphere, it is also indirectly connected to the carbon sequestration or sink into lithosphere (Figure 1). That is, part of methane is to be sequestrated for long term, probably more than millennium long, separation from biogeochemical cycling, and such indirect sequestration occurs via the formation of authigenic carbonate at methane seeps commonly, typically, and unequivocally.
Carbonate in lithosphere represents a vast majority of the Earth’s carbon pool (Figure 2). Most of the carbonate was precipitated in “early ocean,” resulting in sequestration or removal of abundant CO2 from “early atmosphere” that was likely similar to the modern Venus atmosphere consisting of about 8.9 MPa, or 89 bar, CO2 (96.5% of total 9.2 MPa) [11], compared with the modern Earth atmosphere of about 40 Pa CO2 (0.04% of total 0.1 MPa) [12]. The mass sequestration of CO2 during “early Earth” era is currently recognized as the vast estimate of sedimentary carbonate in the lithosphere. Modern carbonate formation at methane seeps corresponds only to a tiny fraction of the already-sequestrated carbonate in the past; however, it is an ongoing process, and there should be much more seeps yet to be found. That is, the more seeps are found, the more importance will be taken into account.
Global carbon pools in various forms. Most of global carbon has already been sequestrated in the lithospheric kerogen (organic) and carbonate (inorganic). Methane seeps still contribute to the sequestration via authigenic carbonate formation. Abbreviation: dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC).
This chapter provides an overview of methane seeps in the deep sea that harbor and sustain unique biological communities depending not only on small amounts of photosynthetic primary production (photoautotrophy) transported from the shallow euphotic zone to the deep aphotic zone but mainly on
Methane seeps are also referred as cold seeps and hydrocarbon seeps. Seeping fluids are not literally cold; the fluids are geothermally warmed and often slightly warmer than ambient waters. They are called “cold” only to indicate that the seep fluids are relatively colder than the hydrothermal vent fluids that may reach >300°C. Seeping fluids sometimes contain hydrocarbons other than methane, for example, ethane, propane, and even petroleum. However, methane occupies a vast majority of the leaked hydrocarbon components, provides a material source for authigenic carbonate formation, and sustains exotic biological communities like oases in the deep sea that depend on methane and methane-derived productions. For these reasons, this chapter uses the term “methane seep” prior to others.
In relation to human life, methane is a colorless and odorless gas and is lighter than air. It is nontoxic but may be suffocative in confined rooms. Methane is also an important greenhouse gas but is naturally generated and emitted; its emission is not intentionally controllable by human efforts, which is different from the case of CO2.
From a cosmological viewpoint, methane is regarded as a primordial molecule, as it occurs in the interstellar medium despite its low abundance, that is, 1–4% of carbon monoxide (CO) abundance [14]. Viewed from astrochemistry, methane was generated primordially and is still being generated foremost in interstellar molecular clouds. This astrochemical methane, in turn, can be seen as a part of original matter for the formation of proto-Solar system disk and thus of proto-Earth. Earth was formed through accretion of planetesimals [3], a large amount of methane would have been brought into the Earth during the accretion (and is still being exogenously delivered by meteorites and possibly by comets) and may still remain in Earth’s interior as primordial methane and other hydrocarbons [15].
Besides the residual of primordial methane, methane is newly generated and regenerated by various processes through the carbon cycling of the Earth. Both biological (biotic, biogenic) and non-biological (abiotic, abiogenic) processes are involved in the generation of methane, also known as methanogenesis. In addition, both organic and inorganic matters serve as the starting materials for methanogenesis.
Therefore, methanogenesis pathways are roughly sorted into four categories: biotic of organic origin (fermentation), biotic of inorganic origin (CO2 respiration), abiotic of organic origin (thermogenesis), and abiotic of inorganic origin (geothermal version of the Fischer-Tropsch process or Sabatier reaction) due to geothermalism and magmatism in crystalline rocks, as schematically outlined in Figure 3 that employs the stable isotope signatures known as δ13C and δ2H (δD) of CH4 as described later (adapted from [16] with δ values for atmospheric CH4 from [17]). Generally, δ values are indicative of origins or sources, while the differences in the δ values, also known as “Δ” values, may reflect pathways/processes of methane generation/consumption or oxidation [18, 19].
δ2H (δD)-δ13C diagram of methane of different origins. Biogenic methane from organic matter (by fermentation) and from inorganic CO2 (by CO2-respiration) is distinguishable from abiogenic methane from organic matter (by thermogenesis) and from CO2 (by geothermal Sabatier reaction).
The origins and generation pathways, as well as consumption (oxidation) and conversion pathways, of methane stated earlier are summarized in Figure 4. In addition, the sources of H2 for both biogenic and abiogenic CO2 reduction (methanogenesis of inorganic origin) can be both organic and inorganic; the former (organic-derived H2) can be from fermentative and/or thermogenic degradation of organic matter, while the latter could be of magmatic origin as well as “split of water.” Those H2 sources and generation mechanisms are listed in Table 1, including “mechanical” split-of-water along geological (lithological) faults [20], as well as briefly referred in Figure 1.
Schematized geochemical dynamics of methane. Origins and fates of methane are depicted with reference to key compounds (acetate and other organic matters as well as CO2) and key paths including addition and removal of H2. Aerobic oxidations and inputs/outputs of water are not shown. Acetate is a source of methane via syntrophic acetoclastic methanogenesis (path 1) and serves as a reductant for anaerobic sulfate reduction (as part of path 8). H2 used for Sabatier-type methanogenesis (path 2) and autotrophic acetogenesis (path 3) is of both biotic and abiotic origins. Anaerobic oxidation of methane, or AOM, occurs via reverse methanogenesis (path 4) and with nitrate (as part of path 8). Methane and acetate are used for biosynthesis of organics (paths 5 and 6), and organics are degraded via acetate-fermentation (path 7) and anaerobic oxidations with sulfate, nitrate, Fe3+, etc. (path 8). Organics may be produced via chemoautotrophy (path 9).
Biogenic | Split-of-water by light (via light reaction of photosynthesis) |
Fermentation (including syntrophic H2 generation) | |
Reverse methanogenesis (CH4 + H2O → CO2 + H2) | |
Abiogenic | Thermogenic supply (via diagenesis of sedimentary organic matter) |
Magmatic supply (from crystalline rocks of crust and mantle) | |
Lithologic split-of-water (e.g., serpentinization) | |
Split-of-water by radiation | |
Split-of-water by light (ultraviolet) | |
Mechanical split-of-water (e.g., fault-activated H2 generation [20]) |
Biogenic and abiogenic sources of H2.
Split-of-water (H2O → H2 + O2) serves as the major source of H2 in the Earth’s biosphere. Split-of-water by electricity is not included, as it mostly occurs artificially. H2 generation via reverse methanogenesis during anaerobic oxidation of methane (AOM) is involved. Abiogenic magmatic H2 may include primordial H2 and H2 from split-of-water by heat, as well as thermogenic H2 migrated from sedimentary organic matter in diagenesis.
Methane in common originates biologically, especially microbiologically, from anaerobic degradation, or fermentation, of organic matter, during which oxygen (O) is removed from organic matter (simplistically CH2O). Fermentation is a common process and occurs in various environs. An example is enteric fermentation in gastrointestinal tracts of cellulose-digesting termites and ruminants such as cattle and sheep. It is often said that flatus of termites and ructus (belching) of cows contain methane and thus contribute to global warming, as methane is a 28–36 times more powerful greenhouse gas than CO2 [21], and flatus of non-cellulose-digesting animals such as dog and man would contain small amounts (usually <1%) of methane, too.
Anaerobic digestion of food wastes generates methane as “biogas” [22], and anaerobic degradation of organic burials in landfills, paddy fields, and swamps also release methane as expressed in Japanese as “
Biogenic methane is also produced from the inorganic carbon dioxide, CO2, through the process that is regarded as essentially the reduction of CO2 with H2, that is, CO2 + 2H2 → CH4 + H2O. This process can be seen as a biological version of the Fischer-Tropsch process or Sabatier reaction and is based on the biological process known as Wood-Ljungdahl pathway or reductive acetyl CoA pathway (discussed later). The “reduction of CO2 with H2” is also viewed as the “oxidation of H2 with CO2,” which is biologically translated as a type of anaerobic respiration (oxidation) using CO2 as an oxidant instead of O2 in aerobic H2 oxidation [23].
This view of CO2 respiration recalls the microbiological processes of “sulfate reduction,” as portrayed simplistically SO42− + H2 → HS− + H2O, in the other name of “sulfate respiration”; and “nitrate reduction,” NO3− + H2 →→→→ N2 + H2O (again simplistic but consisting of four reductions), in the other name of “nitrate respiration” (as well as denitrification).
In both reduction and respiration views, CH4 can be regarded as a by-product or an “exhaust,” in contrast to our usual notion of methane as a “fuel,” as described earlier. More important (than the reduction and respiration views) is the source of H2 that is noted as molecular hydrogen (H2) or a reductant (electron donor, H+ +
In addition, a recent experiment showed that CO (not CO2) and H2 are used for an energetic metabolism by symbionts of the gutless marine oligochaete worm
Methanogenesis based on anaerobic organic breakdown also occurs in abiogenic (non-biological) pathways. This process is geological rather than biological and occurs by elevated heat and pressure against the organic matter buried in deep subsurface strata. The thermal breakdown of organic burials is known as “thermogenesis,” as part of geological “diagenesis,” in contrast to “biogenesis” that occurs in the so-called physiological temperatures, except activities of hyper-thermophilic methanogenic microorganisms (not many known species of archaea [26]) at focused geothermal sites. Formation temperatures for biogenic and thermogenic methane are generally estimated to be <50°C and 157–221°C, respectively [27], which roughly reflects formation depths, that is, shallower and deeper zones of methane generation, respectively.
During diagenetic thermogenesis of methane, carbon and hydrogen isotopes are subject to discrimination or fractionation, as occurring in biological methanogenesis, too; however, the tendency and degree of isotope fractionations are distinguishable between geological and biological methanogenesis, as described in detail in Section 3.1. Generally, thermogenic methane has more 13C and 2H (deuterium, D), that is, higher (enriched) δ13C and δD, respectively, than biogenic methane does [28].
Regardless of bio-/thermogenesis, generated methane is of organic origin. Adding to the organic origin, methanogenesis of inorganic origin occurs, too, via both biological and geological pathways to reduce carbon dioxide CO2 with molecular hydrogen H2 to yield methane (CH4) and water (H2O). The bulk reaction is essentially the same as the oxidation of H2 with CO2, which corresponds to anaerobic respiration using CO2 as the oxidant (instead of aerobic respiration using O2 as the oxidant) in a biological context. Translated into a geological context, the biological CO2 respiration corresponds to the geothermally activated Fischer-Tropsch synthesis and Sabatier reaction [29] that are well-known processes in chemical engineering.
A similar but different pathway in terms of carbon origin (CaCO3 instead of CO2) has been assumed for abiotic methanogenesis in deeper subsurface, that is, mantle of the Earth [30, 31], though the size of methane pool in mantle has not been well estimated. In a Fischer-Tropsch or a Sabatier manner, CaCO3 as well as CO2 is reduced with H2 to generate geothermal CH4. In addition, serpentinization, a water-rock interaction, has been regarded as the major H2-supplying and thus CH4-supplying process [32]. However, as the reaction rate of serpentinization was recently revised to be slower than previously expected [33], its significance in abiotic methanogenesis has been subject to reevaluation [29, 34].
A certain part of methane that originates in the subsurface will immediately migrate upward and reach the surfaces of land and seafloor by diffusion, buoyancy, compression (due to geo-pressure and subduction-driven tectonic squeeze), or geo-/hydrothermal circulations. Methane may also migrate and will be pooled for some while (in a geological sense) in the subsurface reservoirs and then eventually migrates upward and reaches the surfaces by pressurization as well as diffusion and buoyancy. Leakage of subsurface methane takes the forms of seepage, venting, eruption, and so on [35]. These forms represent processes and pathways, and this section focuses more on the latter (pathways), employing the ideas and terminologies presumed for possible methane seepage on Mars [10], despite some differences.
Subsurface methane may reach surface via “macro-seepage,” “mini-seepage,” and “micro-seepage.” The “macro” implies seeps that are visible by naked eyes, and the “mini” and “micro” are invisible by naked eyes and visible with the help of specified instruments. The distinction is just like the one between macroorganisms and microorganisms; the latter can only be seen under microscopes. Regarding their activities and fluxes, compared with hydrothermal vents that vigorously eject high flux of “focused flow,” macro-seeps are less active but efflux similarly focused flow of seep fluids via subsurface channels. Bubbles of methane gas are occasionally visible in water columns, for example, in the Eel River Basin, off northern California [36] and Northern Gulf of Mexico [37]. By contrast, mini- and micro-seeps slowly exhale “diffuse flow” through sediment matrix pores, and the slow flows are virtually invisible and not readily detectable.
Macro-seepage is formed by subsurface channels often connected with faults. Macro-seepage is also associated with the decomposition of subsurface methane hydrates, or gas hydrates, triggered by shifts in subsurface temperature and pressure due to high-rate sedimentation, subsurface movement such as salt diapirs and mud volcanoes (described later), and so on [38]. The number of seafloor macro-seeps is unknown but may exceed the number of terrestrial macro-seeps, that is, >10,000 [39].
Mini-seepage occurs around macro-seeps, in the transition zone from focused flow centers to zero seepage surroundings. By contrast, micro-seepage is independent of macro-seepage and probably caused mainly by ongoing microbial methanogenesis in sediments. It is the least intensive, compared with the most intensive hydrothermal venting and less intensive macro-seepage. However, micro-seeps likely occur the most extensively on land and seafloor, as implied by the power law probability distributions or “size frequency distributions” [40]. The total flux of mini-seepage is unknown; however, due to their globally widespread occurrence, it is estimated that micro-seeps exhale up to 25 million tons year−1 of methane, which is a little more than the estimate from macro-seeps [39].
Despite the importance of invisible seeps in global methane flux, this chapter focuses on visible seeps to comprehend geo-biological landscape of methane seepage more easily. The landscape is characterized by both biological communities and authigenic carbonate rock and will lead to a concept of methane seeps not only as oases for biological communities but also as immediate sinks of leaking methane.
Methane is flammable, in a day-to-day sense, in air with oxygen, and the combustion is, in a chemical sense, termed oxidation (of methane with oxygen, and reduction of oxygen with methane). Likewise, methane is oxidizable in water without oxygen but with, for example, sulfate and nitrate. This non-aerobic (non-O2-involved) process is viewed as “anaerobic oxidation of methane” in a chemical sense, which has been often abbreviated as “AOM” in a geochemical tradition, because AOM has tremendous importance in geochemistry and also in geo-biology, as well as in resource geology and global climate change issues.
AOM was first reported in 1976 from the unusually anoxic water columns and sediments of the Cariaco Trench [41]. Methane should have been leaked from the anoxic “trench” to the overlying oxic water column and oxidized aerobically; however, it seemed that methane is already oxidized in the anoxic trench. There was a clear negative correlation between the concentrations of methane and sulfate (as well as a positive correlation between the concentrations of methane and sulfide).
Then, AOM with sulfate was postulated and formulated as thermodynamically possible as CH4 + SO42− + 2H+ → H2S + CO2 + 2H2O, Δ
Once prefigured, microbiologists started isolating and obtaining pure cultures of the corresponding microorganisms; however, it has not yet been successful until today. In 1999, the involvement of archaea in AOM was demonstrated by δ13C-depletion in archaeal lipid biomarkers (due probably to δ13C-depeletion in the source CH4), and, using non-culture-dependent technique (16S rRNA gene sequencing), predominance of methanogenic archaea in the Eel River Basin sediment (including the SMTZ layer) was revealed [42].
This finding led to the idea of “reverse methanogenesis” [43, 44] that convert CH4 to CO2 to provide reducing power [H+ +
Eventually in 2000, also using non-culture-dependent techniques, a microbial consortium of archaeal-bacterial symbiosis was demonstrated by microscopy coupled with microbial group-specific staining from the Hydrate Ridge sediment at a 780-m depth [45]. The AOM players were reverse-methanogenic ANME archaea and sulfate-reducing bacteria, and the consortium, or a clump of cells, is composed of archaeal cells inside and bacterial cells outside.
Other than reverse-methanogenic ANME, acetogenic and methylogenic ANMEs are also involved in the AOM processes [46]. In any case, hydrogen (H+ +
Detailed mechanism of AOM has slowly been understood in particular reference to electron transfer [49, 50]; however, metabolic interplays between ANME and anaerobic respirers have not fully elucidated yet. For example, it is generally recognized that, in SO4-rich marine and NO3-rich freshwater habitats, sulfate- and nitrate-respirers play roles in AOM, respectively; however, some examples are not readily explained by the general recognition: in a freshwater wetland, AOM is associated with sulfate reduction, not nitrate reduction [51], and, also in a freshwater wetland, active AOM occurs below the nitrate-rich zone, that is, in a sulfate-poor Fe-rich zone [52].
Most of the seep methane is oxidized to CO2, and only little reaches the sea surface to enter atmosphere. Oxidation of methane occurs aerobically in water column and anaerobically in sediments. It is estimated that anaerobic oxidation of methane (AOM) accounts for >50% reduction in the methane emission from freshwater wetland [51] and ~100% “sink” at seafloor methane seeps [53] as discussed later. Based on the stoichiometry of methane and oxygen consumptions, the advocator of the AOM hypothesis and her colleague stated that “a substantial fraction of the methane that fuels seep ecosystems is sourced from deep carbon buried kilometers under the sea floor” [54].
In summary, during AOM with sulfate, carbon dioxide and sulfide are produced; the former (CO2) is incorporated into authigenic carbonate and autotrophic biomass, and the autotrophy is energetically driven by oxidation of the latter (H2S). By these processes, that is, AOM, carbonate authigenesis, and chemo-autotrophy, methane seepage functions as “sink” as well as “source” of methane that was once sequestrated in sub-seafloor.
Three major biological processes at methane seeps, that is, hydrogenophilic methanogenesis (reduction of CO2 with H2), AOM, and chemoautotrophy, are unified together from a viewpoint of “respiration.” This section explicates inter-connectivity and inter-dependency of respirations, particularly anaerobic respirations, which is hypothesized for the anoxic sub-seafloor of methane seeps.
Anaerobic respirations that provide energetic bases for chemoautotrophy and methanotrophy are not inter-dependent per se; however, they may virtually be inter-connected in anaerobic environments such as the methane seep sediments. Such inter-connections are schematically depicted as “chain” as only briefly shown in Figure 5, where CO2 respiration (autotrophic hydrogenophilic methanogenesis) initiates the chain, followed by anaerobic methanotrophy (AOM) via sulfate respiration (sulfate reduction), by anaerobic thiotrophy via nitrate respiration (nitrate reduction, denitrification).2 Chain elements are connected through the exhaust-fuel relationships, in which the exhaust from a process (respiration) is used as the fuel for the next one. Methane as the exhaust of CO2 respiration (methanogenesis) becomes the fuel for AOM exhaling sulfide, which in turn becomes the fuel for nitrate respiration.
Chain of anaerobic respirations. Although there a battery of anaerobic respirations, only CO2-respiration (methanogenesis), sulfate respiration (sulfate reduction), and nitrate respiration (nitrate reduction or denitrification) are shown. These respirations are connected by taking “exhaust” of a process (respiration) as “fuel” for the subsequent process.
The chain of anaerobic respirations is still only conceptual; however, it should be useful and expandable to overview wide-ranged inter-relationships of geo-biological processes occurring in methane seeps.
Locations of seafloor methane seeps, or sometimes methane vents, are closely tied with origins, generation processes, and migration pathways of methane, which are possible under specific conditions, set by certain geo-biological settings. If the conditions are right, the occurrence of methane seeps is expected even on extra-terrestrial planets and moons such as the red planet Mars and the Saturn’s satellite Titan [10]. Conditions being right, “early Earth” and even “early Mars” would have borne methane seeps/vents that would lead to emergence of life, with dual roles of methane as “fuel and exhaust” in a recent hypothesis [55]. Then, how and where methane seeps emerge is outlined in this section.
Not a small part of methane generated in the sub-seafloor is derived from organic degradation, in biogenic or abiogenic pathways. Therefore, continental margins that receive a large amount of organic matter from land and/or from coastal upwelling are thought to be the primary geographical setting for the formation of methane seeps. Sedimentary organic matter is subject to speedy burial due to high sedimentation rate, subject to anaerobic degradation by microorganisms to produce acetate and H2 as well as methane, and subject to geopressure and geotherm to form diagenetic methane.
Continental margins as recipients of terrestrial source materials (organic matter) give an impression of being “passive.” In fact, continental margins are largely categorized into “passive” margins and “active” margins from a geological, particularly geophysical point of view. Passive margins in this context mean tectonically non-active or inactive margins, while active margins refer to the continental margins under influence of plate tectonic activities. Hence, active and passive margins denote tectonically active and inactive margins, respectively. Both margins receive inputs of terrigenous organic matter in a similar manner by river flows and erosions but to different degrees, that is, to relatively smaller and greater degrees, respectively, due to the reasons described in the following subsections.
Active margins are facing plate boundaries between continental plates and oceanic plates, most of which are convergent margins (subduction zones); transform faults may also face but not so often. The rest of the plate boundaries are divergent zones (spreading axes or rifts). Rare examples of continental margin rifts are known in the Gulf of California and the Red Sea; they are only rarely seen and thus not dealt with in this chapter.
The plate-plate convergence results in subducting depressions of seafloor on the ocean side and uplift of mountain ranges on the land side, both of which run in parallel to and not too far from the coastlines. Examples are taken from the west coasts of the North and South America continents, that is, the Rocky and Andean Mountains, respectively. Rivers that flow westward (seaward) are relatively short and hosted by narrow watersheds, and therefore they transport relatively small amounts of terrigenous (allochthonous) organic matter contained in sediments to the continental margins.
In addition to the transport of allochthonous organic matter, autochthonous production (photosynthetic primary production) of organic matter occurs in light-penetrated surface waters, and certain part of the primary production is exported to underlying water column and to bottom. According to a detailed estimation, of the global primary production of 54 × 1012 kg C year−1, about 4% (2.3 × 1012 kg C year−1) is exported to bottom, and about 0.5 and 0.02% are buried in the margins (50–2000 m) and deep seafloor (>2000 m deep) [56], respectively, where “kilogram carbon” (kg C) equals “giga ton carbon” (Gt C) as well as “pentagram carbon” (Pg C), all indicating 1015 g C. Of global ocean area (about 3.5 × 1014 m2), margins occupy only about 9%, that is, 3% by shelves (50–200 m deep) and 6% by slopes (200–2000 m deep); however, organic burial in margins (2.9 × 1011 kg C year−1) is about 2.4 times greater than that in deep seafloor.
Compared with passive margins, active margins take relatively small part of the whole margin areas. However, active margins off west coasts of the North and South Americas, as well as passive margins off west coasts of Africa [57], receive the benefit of “coastal upwelling” driven by eastern boundary currents: Canary, Benguela, California, and Humboldt Currents. Coastal upwelling brings nutrients to surface water to enhance primary production, resulting in a facilitated organic transport and burial in sediments of the margins.
By contrast, active margins off eastern coasts of Eurasia continent and adjacent island arcs (archipelagos) receive less benefits from the coastal upwelling weakened by the intensified western boundary current, Kuroshio. Although they are part of the same “ring of fire” or circum-Pacific plate boundaries together with the western margins of the Americas, they are not equal counterparts in terms of upwelling benefits. Nevertheless, tectonic “squeeze” driven by subduction may equally benefit the formation of methane seeps in the active margins. An example may be the methane seep that was recently discovered in the forearc basin off Sumatra of the Sunda Arc [58].
Besides sedimentation, active margins have features of methane seepage associated with plate subduction. For example, “out-of-sequence thrusts” potentially serve as channel-forming faults for deep methane to migrate and seep more smoothly [59]. Tectonic “squeeze” (due to subduction compression) of methane-bearing strata may also facilitate the migration and seepage of methane [60, 61]. The deepest seeps of this type were found in the hadal zone of the Japan Trench at 7326-m depth in 1998 [62] and at 7336-m depth in 1999 [63], which is also the globally deepest biological community based on chemoautotrophy or methanotrophy. Topographic features include ridges, escarpments, valleys, canyons, seamounts, and so on.
Passive margins occupy greater widths and areas compared with the areas occupied by active margins. They also receive larger amounts of sediments containing terrigenous organic matter transported by the inflowing rivers from the greater watershed areas. The organic burials are eventually degraded to generate methane that will migrate by diffusion, buoyancy, or gravity depression, will be trapped by sealing strata, or will reach seafloor surface to seep. The seeps are often found at bases of escarpments and outcrops as well as in valleys and canyons.
Historically, methane seepage was first discovered in the passive margins of the Gulf of Mexico (GoM). In 1983, brine seepage associated with gutless tubeworms and mussels that resemble hydrothermal vent fauna was discovered at a 3200-m-deep base on the GoM side of the Florida Escarpment [64]. In 1984, oil seepage associated with gutless tubeworms and clams was discovered in the off-Louisiana coast of GoM [65], which was associated with subsurface methane hydrate (gas hydrate) [66]. The off-Louisiana sites have been a focus of petroleum industry and thus have been studied intensively. The “Bush Hill” (27°47.5’ N, 91°15’ W, mound crest about 540-m deep) in the Green Canyon of industrial interest is the methane seep version of the hydrothermal pilgrim sites of “Garden of Eden” and “Rose Garden” of the Galápagos Rift [67]. After the “Deepwater Horizon” drilling rig explosion near Bush Hill, ecology of the shore, water column, and benthic ecosystems have been studied extensively [16].
A unique example in the passive margin is the Cariaco Trench, or Cariaco Basin, located in the passive margin off Venezuela, which is a Dead Sea-type pull-apart basin. Because its sharply depressed topography blocks exchange with the overlying oxic water, the basin is totally anoxic in the water column from the depth of 200–300 m down to the maximum depth of about 1400 m as well as in sediments [68]. Due to the unique anoxia, a wave of studies on “anaerobic oxidation of methane” (AOM) originated from here in 1976 [41], and the Ocean Time Series Program called CARIACO (Carbon Retention in a Colored Ocean) was started in 1995 and is still ongoing.
Other examples of passive margins are found in the eastern margin of the North and South Americas, whose western margins provide examples of the active margins as stated earlier. In contrast to active margins, most of which are limitedly located along the circum-Pacific “ring of fire,” passive margins occupy a vast majority of continental margins. Other than off Americas, a number of methane seeps will be discovered in the passive margins that have been less surveyed. The passive margins off the land masses of Africa, Greenland, Svalbard, Siberia, India, Australia, China, Antarctica, and so on are under recent surveys or targeted for future surveys and exploitations [69, 70, 71].
Gas hydrates are a two-phase ice-like structure composed of crystalline water lattice (as the host molecule) and caged gas (as the guest molecule). When natural gas is trapped, they are often called “methane hydrate,” focusing on the major component of natural gas and on industrial exploitability. As water ice is stable under specific temperature and pressure conditions, methane hydrates are stable only in the “gas hydrate stability zone” (GHSZ) of suitable geotherms and geopressures. The GHSZ depths in subterranean and sub-seafloor vary according to gradients of geotherms and pressures (geopressures and hydrostatic pressures). Once gradients are subject to a shift due to, for example, global warming and isostatic rebound, methane hydrates will dissociate to release methane (and other gases), possibly resulting in the formation of methane seeps [71].
Carbon storage in sub-seafloor methane hydrates is estimated to be around 500 Gt C (0.5 × 1015 kg C) at maximum [72], almost half of total atmospheric CO2 carbon. The estimates vary by two orders of magnitude, depending on rates of sedimentation, compaction, and seepage. Seepage, however, serves as a “sink” that convert methane via oxidation to CO2 and further to CaCO3 precipitates (authigenic carbonate rocks, as described later) that sequestrate carbon back into lithosphere [73]. Therefore, microbial activities involved in methane oxidation and carbonate precipitation should be evaluated to acknowledge the roles of methane seeps as “source” and “sink” for leaching methane.
A different but similar process of methane supply from sub-seafloor is thawing of submarine permafrost, and up to 100% of thaw-released methane is subject to anaerobic oxidation in the permafrost sediments [53]. Because submarine permafrost is protected from intense cold by unfrozen bottom waters (minimum about −2°C) and subject to geotherm since the Holocene inundation, they are more susceptible to thaw and release methane than terrestrial permafrost. Therefore, the evaluation of anaerobic oxidation of methane (AOM) in submarine permafrost and associate methane seepage is an urgent matter of concern.
Volcanoes in a general sense expel high-temperature lavas, ashes, rocks, vapor, and gases by explosively, not continuously but occasionally. While volcanoes which show that such magmatic eruptions are igneous volcanoes, mud volcanoes may be regarded as sedimentary volcanoes. Mud volcanoes exhale gas (in an eruptive manner), mud, and slurry, which are not driven by a magmatic activity and not necessarily geo-hydrothermally structured, while “asphalt volcanoes” [74] may be generated by geothermally heated supercritical water [75]. More than 600 mud volcanoes have been known on land, and several thousands are assumed on seabed although the entire picture is unclear. On land or in the sea, mud volcanoes are located in the active margins, and they are primarily driven by over-pressurization of gas-bearing fluids. The hydrocarbon components of the gas are generally of thermogenic origin, rarely of microbial origin [76], and mud volcanoes may be regarded as geothermally driven in the sense of gas formation.
Seabed mud volcanoes are often associated with a topographic feature of “pockmarks,” that is, seafloor depressions as traces of eruptions or mud volcanic craters [77] as well as methane seepage (occasionally with gas babbles) and carbonates. Microbial mats are also often observed around the pockmark seeps, and some microbiological studies have been conducted, for example, at the 1-km-wide Haakon Mosby mud volcano in the Barents Sea, Arctic Ocean, where gutless tubeworms (
Buried salt deposits in ex-marine basins are compressed to form evaporites, particularly halite, that is, rock salt. The density of pure halite is about 2.16 g cm−3 and may not increase by further burial compression, while overlying sediments will increase in density (from initially about 2 g cm−3) by continued sedimentation atop. When the density of overlying sediment reaches eventually about 2.5 g cm−3, rock salt starts to rise due to gravitational instability, or Rayleigh–Taylor instability, and the salt movement is also called “salt tectonics.” Rock salt is not only “light” but also “soft” enough to deform for rising, bending, and intruding fissures and faults, where movements are called salt tectonics or salt diapirism and form salt diapirs or salt domes [80].
Salt diapirs are generally impermeable and serve as “cap” and “seal” against the underlying gas/oil reservoirs and gas hydrates that may be dissociated to release free gas. Over-pressurized gas/oil may crack salt diapirs, and the cracked fractures serve as conduits for gas and oil to seep. In reverse, salt diapir may penetrate gas hydrates. For example, chemical and geological structures of water columns, seabed, and sub-seafloor of the Blake Ridge and Cape Fear diapir seeps, southeastern US Atlantic margin, have been well characterized [81]. It may also be remembered that the first discovered methane seep was one of such salt diapir seeps [64].
Salt diapirs may also fall to form pockmarks [82]. Such pockmarks are filled with brine waters to form “brine pools.” It should be noted that the brine pools seen in Antarctic waters are different from the salt diapir brine pools; the Antarctic ones are formed by the sinking of brine water expelled from freezing seawater. Salt diapir brine pools are also associated with methane seepage and host chemosynthesis-based fauna [83, 84].
Methane plays important roles as the most reduced C1 compound in the global carbon cycling and as the readily oxidizable intermediate in the oxic surface environment, besides its roles as a powerful greenhouse gas to global warming and a fuel to human civilization. Therefore, the processes involving generation and degradation (oxidation) of methane, whether biological or not, encompass momentous biogeochemical significance.
Methane seeps are the point sources of methane emission from subsurface to surface environments. In addition, moreover, deep-sea methane seeps serve as important “sinks” that trap the major greenhouse gases of CH4 and CO2 to be sequestrated in carbonate rocks. The carbonate formation in methane seeps is thus relevant to global climate issues. The geological process, that is, authigenesis of carbonates, is probably maintained or even accelerated by the actions of micro- and macroorganisms inhabiting the methane seeps and is therefore said to be “boon” of geo-biological couplings.
The author is obliged to the crew and operation teams of manned and unmanned deep-sea vehicles and support ships of the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC) for deep-sea expeditions.
The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Bariatric individuals not only present with specific medical complications and more prevalent risk factors for cardiovascular disease (CVD) and musculoskeletal (MSK) conditions, this population also has significantly greater potential for functional decline. Graded increase in activities of daily living (ADL) limitation was observed with increasing body weight [1]. Rehabilitation medicine approach to address the needs of a bariatric individual encompasses both ends of the management spectrum: to restore and prevent further deterioration of physical function associated or aggravated with excess body weight; as well as to enhance post-operative results with a sustainable weight management strategy.
The rehabilitation medicine approach to function can be viewed from The International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) concept to better understand the interactive nature of a chronic health condition such as obesity and formulate a rehabilitation plan to address physical, psychological and socio-environmental barriers to bariatric-related disability [2, 3] (Table 1). Individualisation of care from all disciplines involved in the bariatric population to produce long-term sustainable results can also be deduced by understanding the dynamics of a disease process through this concept. We shall discuss the approaches to a bariatric evaluation, rehabilitation intervention and functional outcome in two parts with special focus on prehabilitation and peri-operative rehabilitation.
Domains affected | Descriptors |
---|---|
Body function | Energy and drive function |
Weight maintenance functions | |
Activities and participation | Handling stress and other psychological demands |
Walking | |
Moving around | |
Looking after one’s health | |
Environmental factors | Products of substances for personal consumption |
Immediate family |
Brief ICF Core set for Obesity [3].
Obesity affects physical, biopsychosocial aspects of an individual’s health and function. The complex nature may require rehabilitation interventions to be carried out in various settings to accommodate for different functional goals and engaging a multidisciplinary rehabilitation team to tap into different expertise to achieve the desired functional milestones. The bariatric individual presents with unique challenges to the treating team in both functional limitations and the approaches that can be employed to address these impairments and prevent further functional deterioration. The ICF highlights the domains that are affected by excessive weight: pain, cutaneous sensation, neuromusculoskeletal issues and movement difficulties as well skin issues due to difficulty in reaching during cleaning and toileting are the most commonly impaired function and complications leading to limitation in general tasks, mobility and poorer quality of life [1]. Concurrent presence of medical comorbidities can add up to tip the individual into compromised functional independence [1]. Common comorbidities related to obesity such as osteoarthritis of the weight bearing joints and cardiopulmonary conditions impacts severely on an individual’s functional reserves. Thus, the goal for bariatric rehabilitation program should include assisting the attainment of optimal weight reduction; to address current and potential medical complications especially metabolic syndrome, CVD and MSK conditions; to address functional limitations resulting from physical disabilities and improve quality of life through improving functional independence, self-confidence and empowering self-management.
Severe obesity with multiple comorbidities requires admission to medical facilities structurally adequate to assist in supporting and assisting individuals with excess body mass to transfer and mobilise with the use of bariatric- safe lifting devices, mobility equipment and transfer aids. Ideally these rehabilitation facilities are linked to a bariatric- dedicated medical and surgical specialities [4].
The bariatric patients frequently develop medical complications that may run a protracted course [5]. Common medical complications readily noted at admission include:
Skin excoriations, rashes or ulcers in deep tissue folds with possibility of fungal infections.
Edema or fluid retention and venous congestion that causes feeling of limb heaviness or leading to diaphoresis-fluid leakage that renders the skin sensitive to shear forces, skin tears and infection.
Diabetes and respiratory problems including obesity hypoventilation syndrome or obstructive sleep apnoea.
These complications may indicate specialised nursing care or aids to protect during mobilisation. It may also preclude the use of some rehabilitation modalities i.e. hydrotherapy and priorities needs to be given to address medical conditions that delays resumption of weight bearing or therapeutic standing.
Hospitalisation-related complications that tend to occur are mainly as a result of prolonged recumbency, also known as deconditioning. While deconditioning is not exclusive to bariatric population, its effects are more pronounced as bariatric individuals face challenges for immediate resumption of upright posture especially those who were admitted acutely for medical complications such as cardiopulmonary emergencies, following falls or exacerbation of musculoskeletal conditions leading to pain on weight bearing. Deconditioning can affect both physical and psychological domains as prolonged bed rest affects nearly all body systems. Specific to bariatric population these complications may entail a prolonged stay and protracted course of recovery:
Cardiovascular system: orthostatic hypotension and reduced exercise tolerance contributed by decreased cardiac output and resting tachycardia affecting sitting up, standing, transfers and physical activity participation.
Pulmonary system: orthostatic pneumonia or atelectasis resulting in hypoxemia and reduced tolerance to physical activity may complicate obesity hypoventilation syndrome or sleep apnoea.
Haematological system: deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism may occur despite no lower limb neurological deficit as abdominal mass may compress on lower limb circulation and altered blood viscosity.
Musculoskeletal system: muscle atrophy causing weakness; leading to longer periods of non-weight bearing and increasing the risk of osteoporosis, joint stiffness and worsening posture. Especially of concern is weakness of extensor muscles needed to assume or assist to an upright position.
Gastrointestinal: constipation from lack of upright posture often complicate prescription diet plans due to the bloating sensation, abdominal discomfort and possibility of spurious diarrhoea complicating personal hygiene due to poor access to the perineal region combined with postural stasis that predisposes to the development of pressure ulcers.
Endocrine: impaired insulin response with hyperglycemia; gastrostasis leading to sensation of nausea and oesophageal reflux symptoms.
The result impacts on a bariatric individual’s functional reserves in terms of muscle power, balance, and coordination, jeopardising functional performance and results in the development of psychological sequelae as a direct result of deconditioning or from the loss of function it entails. Confusion and disorientation are part of the deconditioning constellation seen earlier on the bedrest period which can culminate in clinically significant anxiety and depression once the impact of functional loss sets in as self-care, leisure activities and gainful employment becomes challenging. Reconditioning as a rehabilitation goal will be discussed further in the prehabilitation section. Given the prospect of functional deterioration that can occur at an accelerated rate in the bariatric population due to inherent difficulties in mobilisation, special attention should be given to addressing factors that negate upright sitting and to promote lower limb weight bearing in cases that permit them as soon as possible. These include identifying at risk bariatric individuals with hip and knee replacements, paralysis, amputations, contractures, osteoporosis, respiratory and cardiac conditions, and skin conditions such as pressure ulcers. Availability of bariatric mobility aids such as hoists, tilt tables, chairs or wheelchairs and walking aids greatly assist in preventing the ill effects on deconditioning and translates to better cost-efficiency to prevent such deleterious complications rather than treatment of the aforementioned complications.
Various models of bariatric rehabilitation exists to generally addresses 5 key factors: knowledge to empower action, goal-setting and self-care; beliefs surrounding causes and solutions to obesity; behavioural adaptation focusing on diet and physical activity, psychological coping strategies and adjustments of physical activity to include exercise, current functional capacity and that expected after bariatric surgery. A holistic model such as bio-psycho-social model explained via ICF helps to provide a multi-dimensional framework to evaluate the needs, identify the barriers and provide intervention or solutions to improve independence. Selection of the model to address such an individualistic experience such as function is paramount as the different considerations of the desired rehabilitation goals and outcomes of interest are given priority by different models [6]. The lack of obesity-specific outcome measures to quantify physical impairments and ADL limitations prevents stratification of bariatric individuals based on the magnitude of disability [7]. This is useful to establish as a threshold value for inpatient rehabilitation admission, and serves as an objective severity identification tool that impacts on the decision of appropriate rehabilitation setting and chart progress during rehabilitation. An example of such tool is the Obesity-related Disability Test (TSD.OC) developed by Donini et al. that aims to evaluate pertinent obesity- specific functional dimensions [8]. The main targets for bariatric rehabilitation are the cardiorespiratory, musculoskeletal and multi-systemic effects of deconditioning as described above. Strategies that reduce pain, increases strength and mobility as well as optimise functions can be delivered in various settings depending on the severity of obesity-induced disability. Inpatient rehabilitation facility offers an opportunity for more intensive rehabilitation input and caters well to bariatric clients admitted acutely for MSK or CVD that often runs a prolonged hospital stay and poorer functional recovery if left without rehabilitation input. The goals of inpatient rehabilitation are focused on attaining maximal functional independence for safe home discharge through improvements in strength, balance, and endurance coupled with initiation of CVD risk factor control and body weight reduction through dietary and physical activity prescription. An outpatient program may provide significant functional improvements in clients who can access both the centres and their lodging with appropriate means of transportation between them. This is attained by promoting increased pain-free joint range of motion, increasing muscle strength and cardiopulmonary endurance during functional activities. Concurrent efforts to optimise CVD risk factor and improve lean-to-fat mass ratio are also continued in the outpatient setting through education and individualised counselling on dietary and physical activity plan to maximise functional capacity despite excessive weight. Capodaglio et al. conducted a prospective 4-week inpatient bariatric rehabilitation with orthopaedic conditions consisting of strengthening and aerobic exercises adapted to the patient’s mobility; caloric restriction and nutritional education with psychological counselling [7]. The results exemplified that mild and severely disabled bariatric individuals with orthopaedic comorbidities can significantly experience functional improvements independent of the weight loss sustained; with the higher BMI and younger individuals showing the most functional gains. Similarly, Hanapi et al. employed an approach based on the cardiac rehabilitation model and resources for inpatient bariatric clients with CVD risk factors and orthopaedic comorbidities [9]. Employing adapted physical activity and exercise prescription, dietary modification, provision of psychological and social support, their approach successfully addressed weight, cardiometabolic profile optimisation prior to bariatric surgical intervention and conferring postoperative improvement in mood, dependency level, perceived physical and mental health during the postoperative phase with sustained functional capacity, endurance and quality of life up to 3 months post operatively.
Admission planning for an inpatient rehabilitation stay is crucial to ensure logistic requirements, staffing ratio, bariatric-compliant equipment, administrative support and a mobilisation plan is developed as part of a function-centric rehabilitation plan. By definition, bariatric individuals include individuals whose weight exceeds or appears to exceed the identified safe working loads for equipment, lacks mobility or presents with challenges in manual handling [10, 11]. Moving and handling of bariatric clients can accentuate the risks of musculoskeletal injuries and excessive spinal loading in health care workers. Planning of staff and equipment reduces the risks associated with the care of bariatric patients. Safety of patients and health care workers can be enhanced by developing a movement and handling plan as each bariatric admission often presents with unique issues that require problem solving and an understanding of equipment or patient transfer procedures. Involvement of occupational health and safety representatives as well as risk reduction efforts can minimise unplanned situations that may differ between patients due to individuals’ risks, goals and resources available. Every aspect of patient- HCW interaction should be therapeutic from rehabilitation perspective including communication. Open discussion on equipment use and transfer techniques can lead the way to more serious discussions on dietary habits, adapting lifestyles and long-term functional goals. Education on the importance of physical activity and dietary management to aid weight loss and maintain functional independence helps boost motivation and compliance [9]. Discharge planning should include not just physical preparation of the destination. Consideration should be given to post-rehabilitation functional limitations that may require physical help or adaptive equipment as functional goals attainment may require repeated cycles of rehabilitation. Potential home modifications and long-term plans for adapted physical activity, dietary maintenance, psychological support, surveillance for relapses and complications as well as plans for higher functions such as return to work and driving should be discussed with the patients and their social support.
Outpatient bariatric rehabilitation continues the inpatient gains made with focus on long-term prevention of function and weight- gain relapse. The common impairments addressed are osteoarticular pain especially of the lower back and knees as well as joint malalignment. The effects of excessive weight on systemic inflammation, joint compression and premature degenerative disease of the joint can be offset by the role of adapted physical activity which is more pronounced in this setting to maintain compliance to caloric expenditure, CVD prevention and positive psychosocial reinforcement. A combination of both aerobic, resistance and flexibility exercises adapted to individual MSK conditions working on large muscle groups alongside dietary modification has led to improvement in CV biomarkers, fat loss and skeletal muscle gains conferring enhanced functional improvements in programs that include resistance exercises [12, 13]. In comparison to diet modification intervention alone, multimodal exercises program combined with diet interventions conferred lean mass sparing effect [14]. This is also evident in a systematic review of sarcopenic obesity treatment whereby excess fat mass and reduced lean mass impairs physical performance in which weight loss attained through exercise in combination with dietary intervention is the best treatment strategy that improves metabolic consequences of excess fat mass while preserving lean muscle mass and promotes functional recovery [15]. Aerobic exercises for caloric expenditure, reducing joint pain and controlling weight which is a risk factor of osteoarthritis as well as resistance exercise for strengthening of the joint supporting musculature and cartilage health reduces obesity-related joint conditions [16, 17]. As the client returns to the community, psychological support to sustain weight loss motivation and purpose as well as addressing stigma associated with excessive weight is equally important to ensure sustained functional and weight loss gains are maintained. Chronic pain and its effect on gait, psychical activity, participation and quality of life also needs to be addressed.
In conclusion, bariatric rehabilitation addresses common medical comorbidities and obesity related MSK complications through multimodal rehabilitative and allied health interventions, including prescription exercises and diet modification to increase cardiopulmonary endurance and caloric expenditure while minimising fear of movement and joint pain. This in turn leads to progressive body weight reduction and improved comorbidities profile leading to better body composition and physical function capacity.
Bariatric individuals often present with medical comorbidities arising from obesity-related changes or complications sustained from hospitalisation- related bedrest for acute medical crises. Functional impairments evident pre-operatively should be addressed to improve postoperative results and functional independence. The concept of deconditioning is discussed above- the bariatric individual runs a higher risk of developing deconditioning due to delayed weight bearing or resumption of an upright position. This is often multifactorial: common patient related factors such as sarcopenia, kinesiophobia, osteoarticular joint pain and exertional dyspnoea; logistic issues i.e. lack bariatric-safe equipment or staffs’ lack of ergonomic awareness are among easily amenable factors [18]. Deconditioning impacts the geriatric age group more [19]. Adapted exercises have been successful to prevent multisystem deconditioning from zero-gravity environment or from prolonged bed rest [20, 21]. Hanapi et al. demonstrated a 6-weeks bariatric surgery prehabilitation [9] consisting of patient education and prescription of therapeutic exercises, dietary modification and nutritional-behavioural counselling, the use of technological advancement to facilitate early non-weight bearing aerobic and resistance exercises that had successfully prepared the bariatric patients for the demands of the surgery as well as facilitated early post-operative mobilisation that has been purported to reduce post-surgical morbidity [22, 23]. This model adapted the principles of cardiac rehabilitation in formulating the evaluation, intervention and outcomes including risk-stratifying the bariatric surgery candidates for cardiovascular risk during exercise participation, quantifying exercise capacity for exercise prescription and addressing CVD risk factors that can complicate anaesthetic and post-operative care. Priorities were given to utilising adapted physical activity and early mobilisation to translate cardiorespiratory and musculoskeletal reserve improvements into functional mobility and independence in basic activities of daily living. This model along with other bio-psycho-social approaches have shown positive impact on long term functional capacity, endurance, dietary habits, weight loss and quality of life up between 3 to 12-month post-surgery [24].
In the management of a complex, chronic condition such as obesity a multidisciplinary approach has consistently shown the best outcomes [25]. This approach however must be integrated into individual clinical complexity of each individual bariatric patient. An approach that entail evaluation with the intent to individualise treatment plan utilising multimodal treatment strategies i.e. diet, physical activity and functional rehabilitation, educational therapy, cognitive-behaviour therapy, drug therapy, and bariatric surgery will most likely ensure quality of weight loss, addressing the medical and psychiatric comorbidities together, psychosocial problems and physical disability [26]. Older bariatric patients may face a more challenging rehabilitation course due to age-related changes such as sarcopenia, muscular fatty infiltration which leads to strength reduction and diminishing exercise capacity; as well as external factors such as increased inertia from excessive mass causing imbalance, longer exposure to effects of obesity causing pronounced musculoskeletal degeneration and pain as well as more damage in the peripheral tissues [7]. Sarcopenic obesity in advanced age contributes to more dependence in ADL [27]. Muscular and mobility deterioration in combination contributes to exacerbate physiological changes associated with ageing. Thus, identification of such patients earlier prior to surgery is paramount to ensure successful outcomes following bariatric surgery.
The economics of bariatric rehabilitation can be seen from 2 angles- in respect to functional restoration and from a long-term preventive viewpoint. Bariatric individuals who have undergone rehabilitation have shown functional improvement independent of the amount of weight lost, with more pronounced improvement in function observed in the severely disabled individuals [7]. This translates to earlier weight bearing, resumption of mobility and independence in self-care which in turns minimises the risk post-operative complications. Alongside improvement in muscular strength and lean mass, individuals who have undergone rehabilitation also had controlled CVD risk profiles, joint pain and reduced sedentary time conferring protection to future CVD in this high-risk group. However, to truly understand the cost–benefit effect of bariatric rehabilitation, long term outcomes expressed in multiple domains of function are needed to allow better understanding of the effect of different rehab interventions, optimal intensity and duration to therapeutic effect.
Capacity building in an organisation that caters for bariatric rehabilitation is essential to reduce personal risks to patients and staff as well as minimise disruption of bariatric rehabilitation services. This includes developing a bariatric rehabilitation pathway, continuous staff education and training and an audit of the outcomes from the pathway. A bariatric rehabilitation pathway details the appropriate facilities, staff and equipment are available at each stage of the bariatric individuals’ rehabilitation process from admission to outpatient facilities. Although this may incur short term increase in expenditure, the long term return of investment can be quantified through better morbidity and mortality reduction of the bariatric population regardless of conservative or surgical management approach chosen to suit individual medical and functional needs.
Formulation of an individually-tailored rehabilitation program based on each bariatric patients’ clinical complexity should be the priority to holistically manage such clients using a multidisciplinary team approach. Multidisciplinary teams offer the best post-operative outcomes [28], addressing quality of weight loss, medical and psychiatric comorbidities, psychosocial problems and physical disability [29]. To ensure a smooth transition from prehabilitation through postoperative rehabilitation, the physical, biopsychosocial model continues to be relevant and emphasis should be placed on preventing surgical-related complications, secondary prevention of CVD, addressing bariatric-related disabilities, psychological and socio-environmental barriers, enhancing physical function through adapted physical activities, education on nutritional management as well as implementation of sustainable weight management strategies.
The post-bariatric surgery management will require coordinated care from a multidisciplinary team of healthcare providers starting from immediate post-op followed by long-term management. The integration of several medical specialties including clinical nutrition, endocrinology, psychiatry [1], rehabilitation medicine, as well as allied health professionals including physiotherapy, occupational therapy, and nursing should be included as part of the core management team. Each team member should provide detailed assessment of impairments, outline prevention strategies and provide solutions for disease management alongside implementation of a functional restoration program. A functional restoration program post-operatively should aim to not only achieve marked weight loss, but also prevention of weight regain, progression of obesity-associated comorbidities, restoration of physical functioning and increase health-related quality of life.
A post-op functional restoration program can be broadly grouped into two categories:
Medical
Nutritional management
Weight management
Comorbidities
Rehabilitation
Physical activity and exercise training
Psychosocial
The goal of weight loss procedures in general is to either reduce the amount of consumed calories (restrictive) per day or to alter the absorption of the fat (malabsorption) in the food one consumes. For restrictive procedures such as vertical banded gastroplasty (VBG) or laparoscopic adjustable gastric banding (LAGB), that has no malabsorption effect, the volume of food intake will be reduced overall, hence, some nutritional deficiencies may occur. Malabsorptive surgeries such as or biliopancreatic diversion (BPD), gastric sleeve (GS) or Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) causes alterations in the intestinal tract and creates challenges in maintaining healthy levels of nutrients including proteins, vitamins and minerals as well as reduction in the absorption of calcium and iron [30].
Management of these potential nutritional deficiencies is therefore paramount for patients undergoing bariatric surgery and strategies should be employed to compensate for food reduction or food intolerance to reduce the risk for clinically important nutritional deficiencies. Signs and symptoms of protein deficiency such as hair loss, fatigue and leg swelling should be monitored. Heber et al. recommended the nutritional management should include: an average of 60 – 120 g of protein daily in all patients to maintain a lean body mass during the weight loss and for the long term to prevent protein malnutrition and its effects, and this is especially important in those treated with malabsorptive procedures to prevent protein malnutrition and its effects [28].
Long-term vitamin and mineral supplementation is recommended in all patients undergoing bariatric surgery with those who have had malabsorptive procedures requiring potentially more extensive replacement therapy to prevent nutritional deficiencies [28]. Specific signs and symptoms of common vitamin and mineral deficiencies include bone pain (calcium), fatigue (iron, vitamin B12), brittle nails (zinc), poor wound healing (vitamin E), easy bruising (vitamin K), numbness and tingling in the hands and feet (vitamin B1). Deficiencies in fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K is expected therefore, it is essential for patients to take specially formulated vitamins (A, D, E, and K in water-soluble form). B-complex vitamins, iron, and calcium must also be supplemented at higher than daily recommended levels, because of the impact of the gastric bypass procedure on their absorption. Due to the body’s limited ability to a absorb calcium postoperatively and the acidic environment needed for absorption, a citrated form of calcium is recommended and taken in amounts that meet or exceed daily recommended levels [30]. For maximal absorption, elemental calcium supplements should be taken in divided doses not to exceed 500 mg, three times daily [30]. Iron deficiency is also very common after malabsorptive procedures and iron-fortified foods such as leafy greens, legumes, seafood, iron-fortified grains, red meat and poultry should be consumed on a regular basis. Routine laboratory testing of the iron stores postoperatively may be required with iron supplementation either orally or parenterally administered accordingly by the healthcare provider.
Dumping syndrome may occur as a result of malabsorptive procedures such as RYGB where the food content empties into the small intestine faster than usual. Patients may experience symptoms such as abdominal cramping, nausea and vomiting due to the small intestine being unable to absorb the nutrients from food that have not been fully digested in the stomach. Reactive hypoglycaemia may also occur due to the large surge of insulin after “dumping”. Dietary changes is the mainstay of treatment for dumping syndrome. Avoidance of simple carbohydrates such as white flour and sugar, consumption of more complex carbohydrates such as whole grain and sources of protein such as fish, meat, beans, legumes and soy are recommended. Frequent loose stools is also a potential side-effect of malabsorptive procedures. It is critical that patients stay adequately hydrated to reduce the risk of dehydration. Lack of mobility may also predispose patients with regular soiling of the perineum to skin pathologies including development of pressure areas. Nutritional education is vital to the success of the surgery and prevention of complications. Regular follow-up and periodic monitoring of nutritional deficiencies postoperatively will be required for detection and correction. Lifelong supplementation of daily mineral, multivitamin and micronutrients must be considered.
Following weight loss surgery, patients may lose weight fairly rapidly at first, and then as time passes the weight loss becomes more gradual. Commonly, weight will stabilise at about 18 months after RYGB [30]. During these 18 months, weight loss can be erratic with alternating periods of significant weight loss followed by a plateau. Other than the loss of fat mass, there are many other factors that may contribute to the fluctuations in weight loss during the initial phase. This includes variations in water weight which is dependent upon the individuals’ hydration status, contents of the gastrointestinal tract, gain of muscle mass, or menstrual cycles [30].
Sustainable weight loss strategies should include tailored exercise programs with monitoring of the exercise frequency and intensity to boost metabolic rate for a more rapid weight loss. A generic exercise program with lack of progressive targeted goals may lead to weight loss plateaus. Increase in physical activity and strength training will cause slower weight loss as the fat is replaced by muscle mass, which are denser tissues. This should not be perceived as a deterrent, but rather a positive trend that will lead to a leaner frame and stronger body. The recommended nutritional plan should be adhered to diligently to ensure adequate nutrition and muscle mass is maintained. Most weight regain or plateaus in weight loss boils down to eating habits. It is recommended that a patient eat several small meals a day with the ultimate goal of eating a regular diet in smaller amounts. Binge eating, snacking or grazing should be avoided as the extra calories will add up to the weight gain.
Several anatomic factors may influence weight loss, and this include the size of the gastric pouch which may change over time with the RYGB. As it enlarges over time, it will accommodate larger meals, causing a reduction in weight loss. Anostomotic dilatation between the stomach pouch and the intestine may also occur and this allows quicker emptying of the pouch, reducing its effect on satiety and potential weight loss [30]. This is also the underlying reason why one should not drink during meals after gastric bypass as it will result in a more rapid transition of solid food from the gastric pouch, eliminating the effect on satiety resulting in ingestion of larger portions. The resultant change in anatomic structure after malabsorptive procedures such as the RYGB also alters the absorption of food with higher absorption of fats, thus reducing the benefit of the surgery [30]. Eating small meals high in protein may help mitigate this effect.
Plateaus and fluctuations in weight loss are to be expected throughout various phases post-surgery. Constant reassurance, providing patient education on the expected outcomes and exploring together the underlying causes of weight plateaus can increase understanding, avoid miscommunication, avert patient depression or frustration with the surgery. A regular exercise regimen and adherence to correct eating behaviour and nutritional intake may lead to greater outcome and a more sustainable long-term weight loss.
Frequently, patients undergoing bariatric surgery have associated comorbidities including Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus, cardiovascular disease, lipid abnormalities, fatty liver, degenerative joint disease, hypertension, gastroesophageal reflux disease, and obstructive sleep apnea with considerable impact on disability and quality of life. To reduce the likelihood of weight regain and to ensure that comorbid conditions are adequately managed, all patients should receive careful medical follow-up postoperatively. Monitoring postoperative glycaemic control should consist of achieving glycated HBA1c of 7% or less with fasting blood glucose no greater than 110 mg/dl and postprandial glucose no greater than 180 mg/dl [28]. Lipid abnormalities should be monitored and treated with lipid-lowering therapy that remain above desired goals should be continued. However due to the dramatic reductions in lipid levels, the doses of lipid-lowering drugs should be periodically evaluated [28]. Ideally, a multidisciplinary team should be in place before the operation is performed. The bariatric surgeon should be part of this comprehensive team that provides pre- and postoperative care. The inclusion of other medical specialties in the team including endocrinologists, gastroenterologists and rehabilitation physicians allow a more holistic approach for the treatment of patients with multiple comorbidities and associated impairments and disabilities.
Surgery-induced weight loss by itself was associated with a series of beneficial health effects, including increased objectively measured habitual physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness [29]. Using a cardiac rehabilitation model is effective to cause significant improvement in bariatric individuals’ cardio-metabolic profile [31]. Hanapi et al. demonstrates the application of cardiac rehabilitation principle for post-bariatric surgery patients which include risk stratification through the use of submaximal exercise stress testing to objectively quantify the patient’s cardiovascular capacity for exercise participation, subsequent exercise prescription based on the individuals’ physical impairments and cardiovascular functioning, lifestyle modification to manage cardiovascular risk factors and translating the gains of cardiorespiratory and musculoskeletal fitness into more functional activities [9].
Postoperative exercise is imperative and remains the most important factor that can help a patient achieve long-standing and successful weight loss. Exercises can begin as early as day one postoperatively and short term and long term goals should be set early on and revised as activity and exercise capacity increases. The exercise program should incorporate muscle strengthening, physical endurance or aerobic exercises to improve cardiorespiratory fitness, balance training, functional mobility, musculoskeletal reconditioning, joint protection as well activity of daily living (ADL) training, tailored individually within the limit of patients’ cardiovascular capacity.
To sustain weight loss, effective behaviour changes towards increasing energy expenditure through occupational, leisure time and planned physical activity needs to occur alongside dietary management [32]. Physical activity can be incorporated to daily activities which helps with caloric expenditure or decreasing the amount of sitting time or sedentary leisure activities. Education on the importance of physical activities to aid weight loss and maintain functional independence helps boost motivation and compliance. This ultimately affects their level of independence, quality of life and self-efficacy [9].
In addition to loss of fat mass, there are other numerous benefits to exercise. These benefits include prevention of loss of muscle mass when losing weight rapidly after surgery, and improved overall weight loss. Exercise may also reduce a person’s appetite, increases immunity and reduces fatigue which may lead to improved self-confidence, and overall improved sense of well-being.
A substantial number of patients experience poor long-term outcomes following bariatric surgery which may be contributed by difficulty in making and sustaining changes in dietary intake and physical activity as well as post-surgery binge eating, which has also been associated with poorer weight outcomes [33]. A thorough preoperative assessment to evaluate patients’ understanding of the disease condition, identifying any misconceptions, assessing readiness and commitment to undergo a radical change in lifestyle and behaviour modification, as well identifying issues that may pose as barriers may be the key to a successful and sustainable weight management postoperatively. Sheets et al. recommend that preoperative assessment should include identifying patients strengths and weaknesses, educating patients thoroughly about postoperative changes including dietary intake and physical activity, coaching on lifestyle change strategies as well as offering specific recommendations to address any areas of concern [34]. The period post bariatric surgery is still a vulnerable time for most individuals as the reality sinks in as adjustment of behaviours and new habits take place. The need for continuous care and screening of psychosocial issues throughout both pre-and postoperative periods cannot be undermined. Screening for aberrant eating behaviours and depressive symptoms should be assessed whilst administering interventions to address emotional and psychological issues, behavioural modification strategies, increase compliance, and provide support [34]. It is the responsibility of each team member to detect or identify the presence of any psychological issues, and administer interventions through early referral to mental health professionals to improve outcomes of these individuals.
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Integrity - We are consistent and dependable, always striving for precision and accuracy in the true spirit of science.
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\n\nIntechOpen is a dynamic, vibrant company, where exceptional people are achieving great things. We offer a creative, dedicated, committed, and passionate environment but never lose sight of the fact that science and discovery is exciting and rewarding. We constantly strive to ensure that members of our community can work, travel, meet world-renowned researchers and grow their own career and develop their own experiences.
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Abdurakhmonov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5098.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"213344",title:"Prof.",name:"Ibrokhim Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Abdurakhmonov",slug:"ibrokhim-y.-abdurakhmonov",fullName:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4596",title:"Plants for the Future",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b43de0fe61cddb43f93cc0972b4299e0",slug:"plants-for-the-future",bookSignature:"Hany El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4596.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:2,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"51235",doi:"10.5772/64350",title:"Advances in Plant Tolerance to Abiotic Stresses",slug:"advances-in-plant-tolerance-to-abiotic-stresses",totalDownloads:4372,totalCrossrefCites:23,totalDimensionsCites:49,abstract:"During the last 50 years, it has been shown that abiotic stresses influence plant growth and crop production greatly, and crop yields have evidently stagnated or decreased in economically important crops, where only high inputs assure high yields. The recent manifesting effects of climate change are considered to have aggravated the negative effects of abiotic stresses on plant productivity. On the other hand, the complexity of plant mechanisms controlling important traits and the limited availability of germplasm for tolerance to certain stresses have restricted genetic advances in major crops for increased yields or for improved other traits. However, some level of success has been achieved in understanding crop tolerance to abiotic stresses; for instance, identification of abscisic acid (ABA) receptors (e.g., ABA-responsive element (ABRE) binding protein/ABRE binding factor (AREB/ABF) transcription factors), and other regulons (e.g., WRKYs, MYB/MYCs, NACs, HSFs, bZIPs and nuclear factor-Y (NF-Y)), has shown potential promise to improve plant tolerance to abiotic stresses. Apart from these major regulons, studies on the post-transcriptional regulation of stress-responsive genes have provided additional opportunities for addressing the molecular basis of cellular stress responses in plants. This chapter focuses on the progress in the study of plant tolerance to abiotic stresses, and describes the major tolerance pathways and implicated signaling factors that have been identified, so far. To link basic and applied research, genes and proteins that play functional roles in mitigating abiotic stress damage are summarized and discussed.",book:{id:"5098",slug:"plant-genomics",title:"Plant Genomics",fullTitle:"Plant Genomics"},signatures:"Geoffrey Onaga and Kerstin Wydra",authors:[{id:"176967",title:"Prof.",name:"Kerstin",middleName:null,surname:"Wydra",slug:"kerstin-wydra",fullName:"Kerstin Wydra"},{id:"176968",title:"Dr.",name:"Geoffrey",middleName:null,surname:"Onaga",slug:"geoffrey-onaga",fullName:"Geoffrey Onaga"}]},{id:"50897",doi:"10.5772/64351",title:"Advances in Plant Tolerance to Biotic Stresses",slug:"advances-in-plant-tolerance-to-biotic-stresses",totalDownloads:3230,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:32,abstract:"Plants being sessile in nature encounter numerous biotic agents, including bacteria, fungi, viruses, insects, nematodes and protists. A great number of publications indicate that biotic agents significantly reduce crop productivity, although there are some biotic agents that symbiotically or synergistically co-exist with plants. Nonetheless, scientists have made significant advances in understanding the plant defence mechanisms expressed against biotic stresses. These mechanisms range from anatomy, physiology, biochemistry, genetics, development and evolution to their associated molecular dynamics. Using model plants, e.g., Arabidopsis and rice, efforts to understand these mechanisms have led to the identification of representative candidate genes, quantitative trait loci (QTLs), proteins and metabolites associated with plant defences against biotic stresses. However, there are drawbacks and insufficiencies in precisely deciphering and deploying these mechanisms, including only modest adaptability of some identified genes or QTLs to changing stress factors. Thus, more systematic efforts are needed to explore and expand the development of biotic stress resistant germplasm. In this chapter, we provided a comprehensive overview and discussed plant defence mechanisms involving molecular and cellular adaptation to biotic stresses. The latest achievements and perspective on plant molecular responses to biotic stresses, including gene expression, and targeted functional analyses of the genes expressed against biotic stresses have been presented and discussed.",book:{id:"5098",slug:"plant-genomics",title:"Plant Genomics",fullTitle:"Plant Genomics"},signatures:"Geoffrey Onaga and Kerstin Wydra",authors:[{id:"176967",title:"Prof.",name:"Kerstin",middleName:null,surname:"Wydra",slug:"kerstin-wydra",fullName:"Kerstin Wydra"}]},{id:"48940",doi:"10.5772/60873",title:"Biochemical Parameters in Tomato Fruits from Different Cultivars as Functional Foods for Agricultural, Industrial, and Pharmaceutical Uses",slug:"biochemical-parameters-in-tomato-fruits-from-different-cultivars-as-functional-foods-for-agricultura",totalDownloads:2473,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Tomato and tomato based products are an important agricultural production worldwide. More than 80 % of grown tomatoes in the worldwide are processing in the products such as tomato juice, paste, puree, catsup, sauce, and salsa. Tomato fruit is rich in phytochemicals and vitamins. Tomato nutritional value, color, fruit and flavor of their products depends mainly on lycopene, β-carotene, ascorbic acid and sugars and their ratio in fruits. Epidemiological studies and the results associated with the consumption of tomato products against the prevention of chronic diseases such as cancer and cardiovascular disease, confirming the tomato products as a functional food, and show that lycopene and β-carotene acts as an antioxidant. In order to increase the amount of these elements in tomato fruit, it is important to evaluate and investigate tomato genotypes influence to the carotenoids accumulation. Studies have confirmed that the carotenoid content in tomato fruits is determined by genotypic characteristics. In this work the main attention will be focused on from the biochemical and physical properties in tomato of different varieties, chemical and physical properties, to functional properties of supercritical fluid extraction of lycopene from tomato processing by products supercritical fluid tomato extracts.",book:{id:"4596",slug:"plants-for-the-future",title:"Plants for the Future",fullTitle:"Plants for the Future"},signatures:"Pranas Viskelis, Audrius Radzevicius, Dalia Urbonaviciene, Jonas\nViskelis, Rasa Karkleliene and Ceslovas Bobinas",authors:[{id:"83785",title:"Prof.",name:"Pranas",middleName:null,surname:"Viskelis",slug:"pranas-viskelis",fullName:"Pranas Viskelis"},{id:"171932",title:"Dr.",name:"Dalia",middleName:null,surname:"Urbonavičienė",slug:"dalia-urbonaviciene",fullName:"Dalia Urbonavičienė"},{id:"173562",title:"Dr.",name:"Audrius",middleName:null,surname:"Radzevicius",slug:"audrius-radzevicius",fullName:"Audrius Radzevicius"},{id:"173563",title:"MSc.",name:"Jonas",middleName:null,surname:"Viskelis",slug:"jonas-viskelis",fullName:"Jonas Viskelis"},{id:"173564",title:"Dr.",name:"Rasa",middleName:null,surname:"Karkleliene",slug:"rasa-karkleliene",fullName:"Rasa Karkleliene"},{id:"173565",title:"Dr.",name:"Ceslovas",middleName:null,surname:"Bobinas",slug:"ceslovas-bobinas",fullName:"Ceslovas Bobinas"}]},{id:"49877",doi:"10.5772/62083",title:"Genomics Era for Plants and Crop Species – Advances Made and Needed Tasks Ahead",slug:"genomics-era-for-plants-and-crop-species-advances-made-and-needed-tasks-ahead",totalDownloads:2499,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Historically, unintentional plant selection and subsequent crop domestication, coupled with the need and desire to get more food and feed products, have resulted in the continuous development of plant breeding and genetics efforts. The progress made toward this goal elucidated plant genome compositions and led to decoding the full DNA sequences of plant genomes controlling the entire plant life. Plant genomics aims to develop high-throughput genome-wide-scale technologies, tools, and methodologies to elucidate the basics of genetic traits/characteristics, genetic diversities, and by-product production; to understand the phenotypic development throughout plant ontogenesis with genetic by environmental interactions; to map important loci in the genome; and to accelerate crop improvement. Plant genomics research efforts have continuously increased in the past 30 years due to the availability of cost-effective, high-throughput DNA sequencing platforms that resulted in fully sequenced 100 plant genomes with broad implications for every aspect of plant biology research and application. These technological advances, however, also have generated many unexpected challenges and grand tasks ahead. In this introductory chapter, I aimed briefly to summarize some advances made in plant genomics studies in the past three decades, plant genome sequencing efforts, current state-of-the-art technological developments of genomics era, and some of current grand challenges and needed tasks ahead in the genomics and post-genomics era. I also highlighted the related book chapters contributed by different authors in this book.",book:{id:"5098",slug:"plant-genomics",title:"Plant Genomics",fullTitle:"Plant Genomics"},signatures:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov",authors:[{id:"213344",title:"Prof.",name:"Ibrokhim Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Abdurakhmonov",slug:"ibrokhim-y.-abdurakhmonov",fullName:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov"}]},{id:"50295",doi:"10.5772/63361",title:"Genomics of Salinity Tolerance in Plants",slug:"genomics-of-salinity-tolerance-in-plants",totalDownloads:2700,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Plants are frequently exposed to wide range of harsh environmental factors, such as drought, salinity, cold, heat, and insect attack. Being sessile in nature, plants have developed different strategies to adapt and grow under rapidly changing environments. These strategies involve rearrangements at the molecular level starting from transcription, regulation of mRNA processing, translation, and protein modification or its turnover. Plants show stress-specific regulation of transcription that affects their transcriptome under stress conditions. The transcriptionally regulated genes have different roles under stress response. Generally, seedling and reproductive stages are more susceptible to stress. Thus, stress response studies during these growth stages reveal novel differentially regulated genes or proteins with important functions in plant stress adaptation. Exploiting the functional genomics and bioinformatics studies paved the way in understanding the relationship between genotype and phenotype of an organism suffering from environmental stress. Future research programs can be focused on the development of transgenic plants with enhanced stress tolerance in field conditions based upon the outcome of genomic approaches and knowing the mystery of nucleotides sequences hidden in cells.",book:{id:"5098",slug:"plant-genomics",title:"Plant Genomics",fullTitle:"Plant Genomics"},signatures:"Abdul Qayyum Rao, Salah ud Din, Sidra Akhtar, Muhammad Bilal\nSarwar, Mukhtar Ahmed, Bushra Rashid, Muhammad Azmat Ullah\nKhan, Uzma Qaisar, Ahmad Ali Shahid, Idrees Ahmad Nasir and\nTayyab Husnain",authors:[{id:"83285",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdul Qayyum",middleName:null,surname:"Rao",slug:"abdul-qayyum-rao",fullName:"Abdul Qayyum Rao"},{id:"147560",title:"Prof.",name:"Tayyab",middleName:null,surname:"Husnain",slug:"tayyab-husnain",fullName:"Tayyab Husnain"},{id:"179282",title:"Mr.",name:"Salah Ud",middleName:null,surname:"Din",slug:"salah-ud-din",fullName:"Salah Ud Din"},{id:"179283",title:"Ms.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Akhtar",slug:"sidra-akhtar",fullName:"Sidra Akhtar"},{id:"179284",title:"Mr.",name:"Bilal",middleName:null,surname:"Sarwar",slug:"bilal-sarwar",fullName:"Bilal Sarwar"},{id:"179285",title:"Mr.",name:"Mukhtar",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"mukhtar-ahmed",fullName:"Mukhtar Ahmed"},{id:"179286",title:"Dr.",name:"Uzma",middleName:null,surname:"Qaisar",slug:"uzma-qaisar",fullName:"Uzma Qaisar"},{id:"179287",title:"Dr.",name:"Bushra",middleName:null,surname:"Rashid",slug:"bushra-rashid",fullName:"Bushra Rashid"},{id:"179288",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Shahid",slug:"ahmad-ali-shahid",fullName:"Ahmad Ali Shahid"},{id:"179289",title:"Dr.",name:"Idrees Ahmad",middleName:null,surname:"Nasir",slug:"idrees-ahmad-nasir",fullName:"Idrees Ahmad Nasir"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"48920",title:"Molecular Farming in Plants",slug:"molecular-farming-in-plants",totalDownloads:3344,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Plant molecular farming describes the production of recombinant proteins and other secondary metabolites in plants. This technology depends on a genetic transformation of plants that can be accomplished by the methods of stable gene transfer, such as gene transfer to nuclei and chloroplasts, and unstable transfer methods like viral vectors. An increasing quest for biomedicines has coincided with the high costs and inefficient production systems (bacterial, microbial eukaryotes, mammalian cells, insect cells, and transgenic animals). Therefore, transgenic plants as the bioreactors of a new generation have been the subject of considerable attention with respect to their advantages, such as the safety of recombinant proteins (antibodies, enzymes, vaccines, growth factors, etc.), and their potential for the large-scale and low-cost production. However, the application of transgenic plants can entail some worrying concerns, namely the amplification and diffusion of transgene, accumulation of recombinant protein toxicity in the environment, contamination of food chain, and costs of subsequent processing. The given threats need to be the subject of further caution and investigation to generate valuable products, such as enzymes, pharmaceutical proteins, and biomedicines by the safest, cheapest, and most efficient methods.",book:{id:"4596",slug:"plants-for-the-future",title:"Plants for the Future",fullTitle:"Plants for the Future"},signatures:"Tarinejad Alireza and Rahimi Esfanjani Nader",authors:[{id:"173317",title:"Dr.",name:"Alireza",middleName:null,surname:"Tarinejad",slug:"alireza-tarinejad",fullName:"Alireza Tarinejad"},{id:"174002",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Nader",middleName:null,surname:"Rahimi Esfanjani",slug:"nader-rahimi-esfanjani",fullName:"Nader Rahimi Esfanjani"}]},{id:"48940",title:"Biochemical Parameters in Tomato Fruits from Different Cultivars as Functional Foods for Agricultural, Industrial, and Pharmaceutical Uses",slug:"biochemical-parameters-in-tomato-fruits-from-different-cultivars-as-functional-foods-for-agricultura",totalDownloads:2471,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Tomato and tomato based products are an important agricultural production worldwide. More than 80 % of grown tomatoes in the worldwide are processing in the products such as tomato juice, paste, puree, catsup, sauce, and salsa. Tomato fruit is rich in phytochemicals and vitamins. Tomato nutritional value, color, fruit and flavor of their products depends mainly on lycopene, β-carotene, ascorbic acid and sugars and their ratio in fruits. Epidemiological studies and the results associated with the consumption of tomato products against the prevention of chronic diseases such as cancer and cardiovascular disease, confirming the tomato products as a functional food, and show that lycopene and β-carotene acts as an antioxidant. In order to increase the amount of these elements in tomato fruit, it is important to evaluate and investigate tomato genotypes influence to the carotenoids accumulation. Studies have confirmed that the carotenoid content in tomato fruits is determined by genotypic characteristics. In this work the main attention will be focused on from the biochemical and physical properties in tomato of different varieties, chemical and physical properties, to functional properties of supercritical fluid extraction of lycopene from tomato processing by products supercritical fluid tomato extracts.",book:{id:"4596",slug:"plants-for-the-future",title:"Plants for the Future",fullTitle:"Plants for the Future"},signatures:"Pranas Viskelis, Audrius Radzevicius, Dalia Urbonaviciene, Jonas\nViskelis, Rasa Karkleliene and Ceslovas Bobinas",authors:[{id:"83785",title:"Prof.",name:"Pranas",middleName:null,surname:"Viskelis",slug:"pranas-viskelis",fullName:"Pranas Viskelis"},{id:"171932",title:"Dr.",name:"Dalia",middleName:null,surname:"Urbonavičienė",slug:"dalia-urbonaviciene",fullName:"Dalia Urbonavičienė"},{id:"173562",title:"Dr.",name:"Audrius",middleName:null,surname:"Radzevicius",slug:"audrius-radzevicius",fullName:"Audrius Radzevicius"},{id:"173563",title:"MSc.",name:"Jonas",middleName:null,surname:"Viskelis",slug:"jonas-viskelis",fullName:"Jonas Viskelis"},{id:"173564",title:"Dr.",name:"Rasa",middleName:null,surname:"Karkleliene",slug:"rasa-karkleliene",fullName:"Rasa Karkleliene"},{id:"173565",title:"Dr.",name:"Ceslovas",middleName:null,surname:"Bobinas",slug:"ceslovas-bobinas",fullName:"Ceslovas Bobinas"}]},{id:"51235",title:"Advances in Plant Tolerance to Abiotic Stresses",slug:"advances-in-plant-tolerance-to-abiotic-stresses",totalDownloads:4371,totalCrossrefCites:23,totalDimensionsCites:49,abstract:"During the last 50 years, it has been shown that abiotic stresses influence plant growth and crop production greatly, and crop yields have evidently stagnated or decreased in economically important crops, where only high inputs assure high yields. The recent manifesting effects of climate change are considered to have aggravated the negative effects of abiotic stresses on plant productivity. On the other hand, the complexity of plant mechanisms controlling important traits and the limited availability of germplasm for tolerance to certain stresses have restricted genetic advances in major crops for increased yields or for improved other traits. However, some level of success has been achieved in understanding crop tolerance to abiotic stresses; for instance, identification of abscisic acid (ABA) receptors (e.g., ABA-responsive element (ABRE) binding protein/ABRE binding factor (AREB/ABF) transcription factors), and other regulons (e.g., WRKYs, MYB/MYCs, NACs, HSFs, bZIPs and nuclear factor-Y (NF-Y)), has shown potential promise to improve plant tolerance to abiotic stresses. Apart from these major regulons, studies on the post-transcriptional regulation of stress-responsive genes have provided additional opportunities for addressing the molecular basis of cellular stress responses in plants. This chapter focuses on the progress in the study of plant tolerance to abiotic stresses, and describes the major tolerance pathways and implicated signaling factors that have been identified, so far. To link basic and applied research, genes and proteins that play functional roles in mitigating abiotic stress damage are summarized and discussed.",book:{id:"5098",slug:"plant-genomics",title:"Plant Genomics",fullTitle:"Plant Genomics"},signatures:"Geoffrey Onaga and Kerstin Wydra",authors:[{id:"176967",title:"Prof.",name:"Kerstin",middleName:null,surname:"Wydra",slug:"kerstin-wydra",fullName:"Kerstin Wydra"},{id:"176968",title:"Dr.",name:"Geoffrey",middleName:null,surname:"Onaga",slug:"geoffrey-onaga",fullName:"Geoffrey Onaga"}]},{id:"49554",title:"The Extraordinary Nature of RNA Interference in Understanding Gene Downregulation Mechanism in Plants",slug:"the-extraordinary-nature-of-rna-interference-in-understanding-gene-downregulation-mechanism-in-plant",totalDownloads:2358,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Gene silencing (also known as ribonucleic acid [RNA] interference [RNAi] or interfering RNA) was first recognized in plants and is considered one of the most significant discoveries in molecular biology in the last several years. These short-chain ribonucleic acid molecules regulate eukaryotic gene expression. The phenomenon involves a process that promotes RNA transcripts degradation through complementarity between RNA molecules and RNAi transcripts, resulting in the reduction of their translation levels. There are two principal classes of regulatory RNA molecules: small interfering RNAs (siRNA) and microRNAs (miRNA). Both are generated from the cleavage of double-stranded self-complementary RNA hairpins by a DICER enzyme that belongs to the RNase III family. Small RNAs (of about 21–24 nucleotides in size) guide specific effector Argonaute protein to a target nucleotide sequence by complementary base pairing. Thereby, the effector protein complex downregulates the expression of RNA or DNA targets. In plants, cis-regulatory RNAi sequences are involved in defense mechanisms against antagonistic organisms and transposition events, while trans-regulatory sequences participate in growth-related gene expression. siRNA also performs neutral antiviral defense mechanisms and adaptive stress responses. This document is an attempt to scrutinize the RNAi nature in understanding gene downregulation mechanism in plants and some technical applications.",book:{id:"5098",slug:"plant-genomics",title:"Plant Genomics",fullTitle:"Plant Genomics"},signatures:"Jorge Ricaño-Rodríguez, Jacel Adame-García, Silvia Portilla-\nVázquez, José M. Ramos-Prado and Enrique Hipólito-Romero",authors:[{id:"176624",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Ricaño-Rodríguez",slug:"jorge-ricano-rodriguez",fullName:"Jorge Ricaño-Rodríguez"},{id:"176991",title:"Dr.",name:"Jacel",middleName:null,surname:"Adame-García",slug:"jacel-adame-garcia",fullName:"Jacel Adame-García"},{id:"176992",title:"Dr.",name:"Enrique",middleName:null,surname:"Hipólito-Romero1",slug:"enrique-hipolito-romero1",fullName:"Enrique Hipólito-Romero1"},{id:"176993",title:"Dr.",name:"José María",middleName:null,surname:"Ramos-Prado",slug:"jose-maria-ramos-prado",fullName:"José María Ramos-Prado"},{id:"177760",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvia",middleName:null,surname:"Portilla-Vázquez",slug:"silvia-portilla-vazquez",fullName:"Silvia Portilla-Vázquez"}]},{id:"50295",title:"Genomics of Salinity Tolerance in Plants",slug:"genomics-of-salinity-tolerance-in-plants",totalDownloads:2700,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Plants are frequently exposed to wide range of harsh environmental factors, such as drought, salinity, cold, heat, and insect attack. Being sessile in nature, plants have developed different strategies to adapt and grow under rapidly changing environments. These strategies involve rearrangements at the molecular level starting from transcription, regulation of mRNA processing, translation, and protein modification or its turnover. Plants show stress-specific regulation of transcription that affects their transcriptome under stress conditions. The transcriptionally regulated genes have different roles under stress response. Generally, seedling and reproductive stages are more susceptible to stress. Thus, stress response studies during these growth stages reveal novel differentially regulated genes or proteins with important functions in plant stress adaptation. Exploiting the functional genomics and bioinformatics studies paved the way in understanding the relationship between genotype and phenotype of an organism suffering from environmental stress. Future research programs can be focused on the development of transgenic plants with enhanced stress tolerance in field conditions based upon the outcome of genomic approaches and knowing the mystery of nucleotides sequences hidden in cells.",book:{id:"5098",slug:"plant-genomics",title:"Plant Genomics",fullTitle:"Plant Genomics"},signatures:"Abdul Qayyum Rao, Salah ud Din, Sidra Akhtar, Muhammad Bilal\nSarwar, Mukhtar Ahmed, Bushra Rashid, Muhammad Azmat Ullah\nKhan, Uzma Qaisar, Ahmad Ali Shahid, Idrees Ahmad Nasir and\nTayyab Husnain",authors:[{id:"83285",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdul Qayyum",middleName:null,surname:"Rao",slug:"abdul-qayyum-rao",fullName:"Abdul Qayyum Rao"},{id:"147560",title:"Prof.",name:"Tayyab",middleName:null,surname:"Husnain",slug:"tayyab-husnain",fullName:"Tayyab Husnain"},{id:"179282",title:"Mr.",name:"Salah Ud",middleName:null,surname:"Din",slug:"salah-ud-din",fullName:"Salah Ud 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",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/3.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 12th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"1",title:"Oral Health",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/1.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11397,editor:{id:"173955",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Marinho",slug:"sandra-marinho",fullName:"Sandra Marinho",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGYMQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-06-01T13:22:41.png",biography:"Dr. Sandra A. Marinho is an Associate Professor and Brazilian researcher at the State University of Paraíba (Universidade Estadual da Paraíba- UEPB), Campus VIII, located in Araruna, state of Paraíba since 2011. She holds a degree in Dentistry from the Federal University of Alfenas (UNIFAL), while her specialization and professional improvement in Stomatology took place at Hospital Heliopolis (São Paulo, SP). Her qualifications are: a specialist in Dental Imaging and Radiology, Master in Dentistry (Periodontics) from the University of São Paulo (FORP-USP, Ribeirão Preto, SP), and Doctor (Ph.D.) in Dentistry (Stomatology Clinic) from Hospital São Lucas of the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul (HSL-PUCRS, Porto Alegre, RS). She held a postdoctoral internship at the Federal University from Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys (UFVJM, Diamantina, MG). She is currently a member of the Brazilian Society for Dental Research (SBPqO) and the Brazilian Society of Stomatology and Pathology (SOBEP). Dr. Marinho's experience in Dentistry mainly covers the following subjects: oral diagnosis, oral radiology; oral medicine; lesions and oral infections; oral pathology, laser therapy and epidemiological studies.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"State University of Paraíba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/2.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11398,editor:{id:"179568",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Wen Lin",middleName:null,surname:"Chai",slug:"wen-lin-chai",fullName:"Wen Lin Chai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHGAQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-05-23T14:31:12.png",biography:"Professor Dr. Chai Wen Lin is currently a lecturer at the Department of Restorative Dentistry, Faculty of Dentistry of the University of Malaya. She obtained a Master of Dental Science in 2006 and a Ph.D. in 2011. Her Ph.D. research work on the soft tissue-implant interface at the University of Sheffield has yielded several important publications in the key implant journals. She was awarded an Excellent Exchange Award by the University of Sheffield which gave her the opportunity to work at the famous Faculty of Dentistry of the University of Gothenburg, Sweden, under the tutelage of Prof. Peter Thomsen. In 2016, she was appointed as a visiting scholar at UCLA, USA, with attachment in Hospital Dentistry, and involvement in research work related to zirconia implant. In 2016, her contribution to dentistry was recognized by the Royal College of Surgeon of Edinburgh with her being awarded a Fellowship in Dental Surgery. She has authored numerous papers published both in local and international journals. She was the Editor of the Malaysian Dental Journal for several years. Her main research interests are implant-soft tissue interface, zirconia implant, photofunctionalization, 3D-oral mucosal model and pulpal regeneration.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},editorTwo:{id:"479686",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghee Seong",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"ghee-seong-lim",fullName:"Ghee Seong Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003ScjLZQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-06-08T14:17:06.png",biography:"Assoc. Prof Dr. Lim Ghee Seong graduated with a Bachelor of Dental Surgery from University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur in 2008. He then pursued his Master in Clinical Dentistry, specializing in Restorative Dentistry at Newcastle University, Newcastle, UK, where he graduated with distinction. He has also been awarded the International Training Fellowship (Restorative Dentistry) from the Royal College of Surgeons. His passion for teaching then led him to join the faculty of dentistry at University Malaya and he has since became a valuable lecturer and clinical specialist in the Department of Restorative Dentistry. He is currently the removable prosthodontic undergraduate year 3 coordinator, head of the undergraduate module on occlusion and a member of the multidisciplinary team for the TMD clinic. He has previous membership in the British Society for Restorative Dentistry, the Malaysian Association of Aesthetic Dentistry and he is currently a lifetime member of the Malaysian Association for Prosthodontics. Currently, he is also the examiner for the Restorative Specialty Membership Examinations, Royal College of Surgeons, England. He has authored and co-authored handful of both local and international journal articles. His main interest is in prosthodontics, dental material, TMD and regenerative dentistry.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:42,paginationItems:[{id:"82914",title:"Glance on the Critical Role of IL-23 Receptor Gene Variations in Inflammation-Induced Carcinogenesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105049",signatures:"Mohammed El-Gedamy",slug:"glance-on-the-critical-role-of-il-23-receptor-gene-variations-in-inflammation-induced-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:11,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}},{id:"82875",title:"Lipidomics as a Tool in the Diagnosis and Clinical Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105857",signatures:"María Elizbeth Alvarez Sánchez, Erick Nolasco Ontiveros, Rodrigo Arreola, Adriana Montserrat Espinosa González, Ana María García Bores, Roberto Eduardo López Urrutia, Ignacio Peñalosa Castro, María del Socorro Sánchez Correa and Edgar Antonio Estrella Parra",slug:"lipidomics-as-a-tool-in-the-diagnosis-and-clinical-therapy",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82440",title:"Lipid Metabolism and Associated Molecular Signaling Events in Autoimmune Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105746",signatures:"Mohan Vanditha, Sonu Das and Mathew John",slug:"lipid-metabolism-and-associated-molecular-signaling-events-in-autoimmune-disease",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82483",title:"Oxidative Stress in Cardiovascular Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105891",signatures:"Laura Mourino-Alvarez, Tamara Sastre-Oliva, Nerea Corbacho-Alonso and Maria G. 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Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science\nand Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National\nUniversity of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013.\nShe relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the\nNational Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to\nOctober 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of\nFood Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is\ncurrently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology –\nKandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:{name:"Kobe College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. Her research interests include microalgal biotechnology with an emphasis on microalgae-based products.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7953",title:"Bioluminescence",subtitle:"Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7953.jpg",slug:"bioluminescence-analytical-applications-and-basic-biology",publishedDate:"September 25th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hirobumi Suzuki",hash:"3a8efa00b71abea11bf01973dc589979",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Bioluminescence - Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",editors:[{id:"185746",title:"Dr.",name:"Hirobumi",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"hirobumi-suzuki",fullName:"Hirobumi Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185746/images/system/185746.png",biography:"Dr. Hirobumi Suzuki received his Ph.D. in 1997 from Tokyo Metropolitan University, Japan, where he studied firefly phylogeny and the evolution of mating systems. He is especially interested in the genetic differentiation pattern and speciation process that correlate to the flashing pattern and mating behavior of some fireflies in Japan. He then worked for Olympus Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer of optics and imaging products, where he was involved in the development of luminescence technology and produced a bioluminescence microscope that is currently being used for gene expression analysis in chronobiology, neurobiology, and developmental biology. 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He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"426586",title:"Dr.",name:"Oladunni A.",middleName:null,surname:"Daramola",slug:"oladunni-a.-daramola",fullName:"Oladunni A. Daramola",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Technology",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"357014",title:"Prof.",name:"Leon",middleName:null,surname:"Bobrowski",slug:"leon-bobrowski",fullName:"Leon Bobrowski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bialystok University of Technology",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"354126",title:"Dr.",name:"Setiawan",middleName:null,surname:"Hadi",slug:"setiawan-hadi",fullName:"Setiawan Hadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Padjadjaran University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"332603",title:"Prof.",name:"Kumar S.",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"kumar-s.-ray",fullName:"Kumar S. Ray",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Statistical Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"415409",title:"Prof.",name:"Maghsoud",middleName:null,surname:"Amiri",slug:"maghsoud-amiri",fullName:"Maghsoud Amiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Allameh Tabataba'i University",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"17",type:"subseries",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11413,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983"},editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",slug:"attilio-rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",slug:"yanfei-(jacob)-qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:7,paginationItems:[{id:"82777",title:"Sustainability and Social Investment: Community Microhydropower Systems in the Dominican Republic",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105995",signatures:"Michela Izzo, Alberto Sánchez and Rafael Fonseca",slug:"sustainability-and-social-investment-community-microhydropower-systems-in-the-dominican-republic",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Globalization and Sustainability - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Emerging Issues",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11476.jpg",subseries:{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society"}}},{id:"82387",title:"Kept Promises? 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