Superalloys used for turbine engine applications.
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8502",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Plant Science - Structure, Anatomy and Physiology in Plants Cultured in Vivo and in Vitro",title:"Plant Science",subtitle:"Structure, Anatomy and Physiology in Plants Cultured in Vivo and in Vitro",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Over seven chapters, this book helps readers to integrate knowledge of plant anatomy, physiology, and morphogenesis as well as consider the conditions of the different environments to which plants are exposed. It highlights the importance of knowledge of the anatomy of plant tissues for different applications. In addition to the variety of physiological studies presented here, the book also emphasizes anatomical studies in botanical quality control of medicinal herbs with human health benefits. It is reflected in this book that studies on plant structure have greatly benefited from the new approaches and techniques available today.",isbn:"978-1-78984-747-5",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-746-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-562-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78878",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"plant-science-structure-anatomy-and-physiology-in-plants-cultured-in-vivo-and-in-vitro",numberOfPages:120,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"13ca4ffde7bd7a7ce518358e1ac56c6e",bookSignature:"Ana Gonzalez, María Rodriguez and Nihal Gören Sağlam",publishedDate:"May 13th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8502.jpg",numberOfDownloads:8535,numberOfWosCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitations:7,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:16,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:26,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 13th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 12th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 11th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 30th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 28th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"281854",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez",slug:"ana-maria-gonzalez",fullName:"Ana Maria Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/281854/images/system/281854.png",biography:"Ana Maria Gonzalez is the director of the Northeast Botanical Institute (IBONE), where she is a National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET) researcher. She is also in charge of the IBONE's Plant Anatomy Area. Her teaching career includes being a Professor of Vascular Plant Morphology, Faculty of Agriculture, Universidad Nacional del Nordeste, Corrientes, Argentina, and Professor of Biology, Universidad Nacional del Chaco Austral, Saenz Peña, Chaco, Argentina. She is a postgraduate lecturer in master\\'s and doctoral courses in the Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, where she teaches numerous courses on anatomy, histological techniques, and bioimaging. Dr. Gonzalez has published 88 articles and more than 160 abstracts presented at national and international congresses.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:null,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"National University of the Northeast",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"117985",title:"Dr.",name:"María",middleName:"Victoria",surname:"Rodriguez",slug:"maria-rodriguez",fullName:"María Rodriguez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/117985/images/system/117985.jpg",biography:"María Victoria Rodriguez currently works at the Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmaceúticas (FBIOYF), Rosario National University. She is an assistant researcher at the Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET) of Argentina. She is an adjunct professor of Pharmacobotany for Pharmaceuticals students and Cell Differentiation and Structure of Vascular Plants for bachelor students in Biotechnology. Dr. Rodriguez has presented more than sixty works at scientific-technological events and has twenty-eight publications on topics related to plant anatomy, pest biocontrol, bioinformatics, and botany (medicinal plants). Dr. Rodriguez has twenty-five postgraduate courses and/or trainings on the subjects of her specialization. She is a reviewer of international journals and book chapters related to plant anatomy, medicinal plants, and biocontrol.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de Rosario",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National University of Rosario",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"235232",title:"Dr.",name:"Nihal",middleName:null,surname:"Gören Sağlam",slug:"nihal-goren-saglam",fullName:"Nihal Gören Sağlam",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/206317/images/system/206317.jfif",biography:"Nihal Gören Sağlam has obtained her Bsc degree (1995-2000), Msc degree (2001-2004) and PhD (2004-2009) at Istanbul University Department of Biology (Plant Physiology). From 2002 till 2009 she has been Research Assistant at Istanbul University, Department of Botany. From 2010 till 2011 she was a Post-Doctoral researcher (Warwick University, School of Life Sciences, UK). From 2009 she has been Research Assistant Dr. at Istanbul University Department of Botany. Her research experience/interests are: Plant Physiology, Senescence hormon interactions, Stress senescence interactions, Microarray, gene expression, Protein-DNA interactions (Yeast-1-Hybrid), Confocal microscopy\r\n\r\nShe has had following International Training:\r\n1. Post-Doctoral Researcher (2010-2011)– School of Life Sciences, Warwick University, UK, (Tubitak Grant)\r\n2.Academic Visitor (2008, 6 months)- Warwick HRI, UK\r\n3.“Molecular Aspects of Salt and Drought Tolerance in Crops (Plants)” 2007, University of Cairo, Giza, Egypt (ICGEB Grant)\r\n4. Academic Visitor (2006, 3 months)- Warwick HRI, UK",institutionString:"Istanbul University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Istanbul University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"41",title:"Plant Biology",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences-plant-biology"}],chapters:[{id:"68924",title:"Phloem: Cell Types, Structure, and Commercial Uses",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88162",slug:"phloem-cell-types-structure-and-commercial-uses",totalDownloads:1603,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Phloem is the vascular tissue in charge of transport and distribution of the organic nutrients. The phloem is also a pathway to signaling molecules and has a structural function in the plant body. It is typically composed of three cell types: sieve elements, parenchyma, and sclerenchyma. The sieve elements have the main function of transport and typically have lost their nuclei and other organelles in the course of their specialization. Hence, the sieve elements rely on specialized neighboring parenchyma cells to sustain all of their physiological function and activities. All cell types of the phloem may vary morphologically and in their distribution in the tissue, and this diversity is taxonomic and functionally informative. The phloem can be of primary or secondary origin, being derived from either procambium or cambium, respectively. Some vascular plant lineages have exclusive primary phloem, such as the lycophytes, ferns, and the monocotyledons, and the sieve elements will be long living in these taxa. In plants with secondary growth, the secondary phloem is formed, and typically the primary phloem collapses. Because new secondary phloem is constantly formed, the longevity of sieve elements in the secondary plant body is much more reduced. In this chapter, the structure of the phloem and its cell types are described in detail and also some of the known commercial uses of this tissue.",signatures:"Marcelo R. Pace",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68924",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68924",authors:[{id:"286705",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo",surname:"Pace",slug:"marcelo-pace",fullName:"Marcelo Pace"}],corrections:null},{id:"65075",title:"Phytohormone-Mediated Homeostasis of Root System Architecture",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82866",slug:"phytohormone-mediated-homeostasis-of-root-system-architecture",totalDownloads:628,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Unlike animals, most of the plants are sessile. This may be a reason why they developed the powerful ability of organ generation throughout their lifetime, which is distinct from the animals, whose generation potential is restricted in a certain period during development. Half part of the plant body, the root system, is hidden under the ground, where there is a competition of resources, for example, water and nutrients or biotic stresses and abiotic stresses surrounding the root system. With its strong regeneration ability, the architecture of the root system is shaped by all of these environmental cues together with the internal developmental signals. In this process, phytohormones work as the regulatory molecules mediating the internal and external developmental signals, thus controlling the morphology and function of the root system architecture. This chapter introduces the development of root system regulated by various phytohormones, like auxin, cytokinin, etc.",signatures:"Dongyang Xu and Masaaki K. Watahiki",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65075",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65075",authors:[{id:"279724",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Masaaki",surname:"Watahiki",slug:"masaaki-watahiki",fullName:"Masaaki Watahiki"},{id:"279725",title:"Dr.",name:"Dongyang",surname:"Xu",slug:"dongyang-xu",fullName:"Dongyang Xu"}],corrections:null},{id:"65082",title:"Cross Talk among Phytohormone Signal and Carbohydrate Metabolism Involving Regenerable Calli Induction under Osmotic Treatment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83556",slug:"cross-talk-among-phytohormone-signal-and-carbohydrate-metabolism-involving-regenerable-calli-inducti",totalDownloads:581,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nonregenerable calli (NRC) derived from immature seeds of japonica rice were inoculated on MS medium containing 10 μM 2,4-D (MSD10). They turned to highly regenerable calli (HRC) when sorbitol was supplemented into the medium. Meanwhile, high levels of endogenous IAA and ABA were accumulated in HRC. Exogenous IAA precursor and ABA in MSD10 have the same effect to enhance regeneration ability. However, there are only partial effects if IAA precursor or ABA was supplemented, respectively. The regeneration ability is prominently decreased from 75% to 25% while an auxin transport inhibitor, 2,3,5-triiodobenzoic acid, was included in the medium. It suggested that endogenous auxin signal and ABA may involve in the induction of HRC. Furthermore, it showed higher contents of glucose, sucrose, and starch and higher expression levels of wall-bound invertase 1, sucrose transporter 1 (OsSUT1), and OsSUT2 genes in HRC than in NRC. The expression levels of PIN-formed 1 and LEA1 were also consistent with the trend of carbohydrate metabolisms. We thus concluded a flowchart for HRC induction by osmotic stress. According to the hypothesis, osmotic stress may regulate endogenous levels of auxin interacting with ABA, then affect carbohydrate metabolism to trigger callus initiation and further shoot regeneration in rice.",signatures:"Hsiang-Ting Lee and Wen-Lii Huang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65082",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65082",authors:[{id:"275518",title:"Prof.",name:"Wen-Lii",surname:"Huang",slug:"wen-lii-huang",fullName:"Wen-Lii Huang"},{id:"287882",title:"Mr.",name:"Hsiang-Ting",surname:"Lee",slug:"hsiang-ting-lee",fullName:"Hsiang-Ting Lee"}],corrections:null},{id:"65965",title:"Jasmonates: An Emerging Approach in Biotic and Abiotic Stress Tolerance",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84608",slug:"jasmonates-an-emerging-approach-in-biotic-and-abiotic-stress-tolerance",totalDownloads:545,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Plant hormones acts as key signaling compounds in plant stress responses and development under biotic and abiotic stresses. The potential roles of phytohormones had been considered so far and copious investigation is going on in finding the impending role of phytohormones in abiotic and biotic stresses. In the list of known classical plant hormones, Jasmonates, [jasmonic acid and its methyl ester (methyl Jasmonates)] have been recently added and shown as potential tool in enhancing tolerance of plants against various physiological processes. These are oxidized lipids (oxylipins) mainly derived from α-linolenic acids (α-LAs), play an active role in senescence through signaling, flower nectar secretion, Gprotein signaling, physiological activities and development in plants. Exogenous application of jasmonates on different plant parts have proved effective in improving plant abiotic stress tolerance particularly salinity, drought, and temperature (low/high) conditions and also in biotic stress tolerance like pathogen attack or wounding by production of defensive secondary metabolites, through the stimulation of phenyl-propanoid metabolism resulted from accumulation of JA in plant cells or tissues. Based on this prolific role of Jasmonates and its derivatives in different fields of biological sciences these phytohormones have opened new vistas and increasing interest in future Agricultural, Biotechnological and Physiological researches.",signatures:"Shivani Lalotra, Akhouri Hemantaranjan, Bhudeo Rana Yashu, Rupanshee Srivastava and Sandeep Kumar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65965",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65965",authors:[{id:"270428",title:"Ms.",name:"Shivani",surname:"Lalotra",slug:"shivani-lalotra",fullName:"Shivani Lalotra"},{id:"291718",title:"Prof.",name:"A.",surname:"Hemantaranjan",slug:"a.-hemantaranjan",fullName:"A. Hemantaranjan"},{id:"291719",title:"Mr.",name:"Bhudeo",surname:"Rana Yashu",slug:"bhudeo-rana-yashu",fullName:"Bhudeo Rana Yashu"},{id:"291722",title:"Ms.",name:"Rupanshee",surname:"Srivastava",slug:"rupanshee-srivastava",fullName:"Rupanshee Srivastava"},{id:"291724",title:"Mr.",name:"Sandeep",surname:"Kumar",slug:"sandeep-kumar",fullName:"Sandeep Kumar"}],corrections:null},{id:"70467",title:"A Regulatory Circuit Integrating Stress-Induced with Natural Leaf Senescence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89498",slug:"a-regulatory-circuit-integrating-stress-induced-with-natural-leaf-senescence",totalDownloads:729,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Any condition that disrupts the ER homeostasis activates a cytoprotective signaling cascade, designated as the unfolded protein response (UPR), which is transduced in plant cells by a bipartite signaling module. Activation of IRE1/bZIP60 and bZIP28/bZIP17, which represent the bipartite signaling arms and serve as ER stress sensors and transducers, results in the upregulation of ER protein processing machinery-related genes to recover from stress. However, if the ER stress persists and the cell is unable to restore ER homeostasis, programmed cell death signaling pathways are activated for survival. Here, we describe an ER stress-induced plant-specific cell death program, which is a shared response to multiple stress signals. This signaling pathway was first identified through genome-wide expression profile of differentially expressed genes in response to combined ER stress and osmotic stress. Among them, the development and cell death domain-containing N-rich proteins (DCD/NRPs), NRP-A and NRP-B, and the transcriptional factor GmNAC81 were selected as mediators of cell death in plants. These genes were used as targets to identify additional components of the cell death pathway, which is described here as a regulatory circuit that integrates a stress-induced cell death program with leaf senescence via the NRP-A/NRP-B/GmNAC81:GmNAC30/VPE signaling module.",signatures:"Otto Teixeira Fraga, Bruno Paes de Melo, Luiz Fernando de Camargos, Debora Pellanda Fagundes, Celio Cabral Oliveira, Eduardo Bassi Simoni, Pedro Augusto Braga dos Reis and Elizabeth Pacheco Batista Fontes",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70467",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70467",authors:[{id:"21426",title:"Prof.",name:"Elizabeth",surname:"Fontes",slug:"elizabeth-fontes",fullName:"Elizabeth Fontes"}],corrections:null},{id:"71539",title:"Leaf Senescence in Wheat: A Drought Tolerance Measure",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89500",slug:"leaf-senescence-in-wheat-a-drought-tolerance-measure",totalDownloads:507,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The present study was conducted on the experimental site of INRAA, unit research of Setif. A set of 10 genotypes of durum wheat (Triticum durum Desf.) planted during four cropping seasons (2009–2013). The objectives of this study are to evaluate the performance of some durum wheat genotypes and tested the efficiency of using senescence parameters in screening under semi-arid conditions. The analysis of variance demonstrates significant effects of genotypes and years on the grain yield and senescence parameters. Based on the means comparison, the values of total mean grain yield (2009–2013) varied from 37.84 q/ha for Oued Zenati to 44.7 q/ha for Altar84 with general mean of 42.71 q/ha. The mean rankings based on the mean grain yield demonstrate that the genotypes Mexicali75, Hoggar, and Sooty have the best ranking with highest grain yield. The mean values over years of Sa% varied between 47.91% for the genotype Oued Zenati and 59.45% for Waha. The genotypes with highest values for the parameter mid-senescence (Σ50s) are the most tolerant and adapted genotypes.",signatures:"Hafsi Miloud and Guendouz Ali",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71539",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71539",authors:[{id:"99819",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",surname:"Guendouz",slug:"ali-guendouz",fullName:"Ali Guendouz"},{id:"307654",title:"Prof.",name:"Miloud",surname:"Hafsi",slug:"miloud-hafsi",fullName:"Miloud Hafsi"}],corrections:null},{id:"66996",title:"Ethiopian Common Medicinal Plants: Their Parts and Uses in Traditional Medicine - Ecology and Quality Control",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86202",slug:"ethiopian-common-medicinal-plants-their-parts-and-uses-in-traditional-medicine-ecology-and-quality-c",totalDownloads:3944,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The main purpose of this review is to document medicinal plants used for traditional treatments with their parts, use, ecology, and quality control. Accordingly, 80 medicinal plant species were reviewed; leaves and roots are the main parts of the plants used for preparation of traditional medicines. The local practitioners provided various traditional medications to their patients’ diseases such as stomachaches, asthma, dysentery, malaria, evil eyes, cancer, skin diseases, and headaches. The uses of medicinal plants for human and animal treatments are practiced from time immemorial. Stream/riverbanks, cultivated lands, disturbed sites, bushlands, forested areas and their margins, woodlands, grasslands, and home gardens are major habitats of medicinal plants. Generally, medicinal plants used for traditional medicine play a significant role in the healthcare of the majority of the people in Ethiopia. The major threats to medicinal plants are habitat destruction, urbanization, agricultural expansion, investment, road construction, and deforestation. Because of these, medicinal plants are being declined and lost with their habitats. Community- and research-based conservation mechanisms could be an appropriate approach for mitigating the problems pertinent to the loss of medicinal plants and their habitats and for documenting medicinal plants. Chromatography; electrophoretic, macroscopic, and microscopic techniques; and pharmaceutical practice are mainly used for quality control of herbal medicines.",signatures:"Admasu Moges and Yohannes Moges",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66996",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66996",authors:[{id:"249746",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Admasu",surname:"Moges",slug:"admasu-moges",fullName:"Admasu Moges"},{id:"297761",title:"MSc.",name:"Yohannes",surname:"Moges",slug:"yohannes-moges",fullName:"Yohannes Moges"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10772",title:"Parasitic Plants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"31abd439b5674c91d18ad77dbc52500f",slug:"parasitic-plants",bookSignature:"Ana Maria Gonzalez and Héctor Arnaldo Sato",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10772.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"281854",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Maria",surname:"Gonzalez",slug:"ana-maria-gonzalez",fullName:"Ana Maria Gonzalez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6277",title:"Physical Methods for Stimulation of Plant and Mushroom Development",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"33dff71e3489403e273057ae36bd0dbd",slug:"physical-methods-for-stimulation-of-plant-and-mushroom-development",bookSignature:"Mohamed El-Esawi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6277.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"191770",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed A.",surname:"El-Esawi",slug:"mohamed-a.-el-esawi",fullName:"Mohamed A. 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The concept of biomarkers has existed from the time of the inception of ayurvedic medicine, just around the seventh century when the sweetness of urine was linked to diabetes even though the terminology had not been developed then [1]. The perspective of what constitutes the definition of a biomarker is somewhat diverse. Biomarkers (biological markers) are generally biomolecules whose qualitative and quantitative presence provides an indication of the state of a biological system. A more exhaustive definition as provided by the World Health Organization (WHO) led joint venture on chemical safety that describes a biomarker as any substance, structure, or process that can be measured in the body or its products that can influence or predict the incidence of outcome or disease [2]. The application of biomarkers has attained a vital and grounded position in clinical research, usually as predictors of the clinical outcomes for a varied number of disease conditions and their management [3].
\nExtensive scientific investigation into the mechanism of wound healing has revealed that the traditional guides in the determination of the wound healing potential, i.e., erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) and C-reactive protein, do not yield enough positive and negative predictive values [4]. In lieu of the scientific evidence available, the focus has shifted to cytokines, chemokines, and proteases which hold the greatest potential as biomarkers [4].
\nCytokines are proteins of relatively low molecular weight that are secreted to influence or modulate the behavior of immune cells and also other cells [5]. Crucial among them include interleukins, lymphokines, and other signaling molecules such as interferons and tissue necrosis factor (TNF-α). It has been long considered and corroborated by scientific evidence that pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukins 1α (IL-1α), 1β (IL-1β), and 6 (IL-6) and TNF-α play essential roles in wound healing process such as the stimulation of keratinocyte and fibroblast proliferation, modulation of immune response, synthesis and breakdown of extracellular matrix proteins, and the chemotaxis of fibroblast to the wound site [6].
\nGrellner et al. [7, 8] in their work to quantitatively analyze pro-inflammatory cytokines in human skin wounds realized an upregulation of the expression of IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α in the inflammatory phase of the wound healing process. The levels of these pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1, and IL-6) were higher in nonhealing wounds than healing wounds owing to the fact that nonhealing wounds stay in the inflammatory phase of wound healing process [4]. Bilder et al. [9] also report an increase in the levels of IL-8 in chronic nonhealing wounds as opposed to those with a healing potential. Ligi et al. [10] upon the assessment of several studies which evaluated the level expression of cytokines and chemokines in the microenvironment of a chronic ulcer alluded to a heightened pro-inflammatory condition in a nonhealing wound, thus corroborating other studies. It was however noted that the level of cytokines detectable does not necessarily correlate to its bioactivity due to anti-inflammatory cytokines whose presence counteracts the activity of these pro-inflammatory cytokines [10]. There are also specific cytokine inhibitors and proteolytic enzymes that also act on these cytokines to mask their bioavailability [10]. Patel et al. [4] also report the inconsistency in wound and serum levels of cytokines which poses a challenge in its use as reliable biomarkers of nonhealing wounds.
\nThe IL-1 family of cytokines is made up of two pro-inflammatory cytokines, namely, IL-
Interleukin 6 is described as the chief contributor to the stimulation of a majority of the acute-phase proteins during inflammation. IL-6-deficient transgenic mice (IL-6 KO) therefore showed a substantial delayed cutaneous wound healing relative to the wild-type control animals by about threefold, the time required for healing [15].
\nBased on similar animal model studies on IL-6 knockout mice and the administration of recombinant murine IL-6 protein, IL-6 was found to be essential in stimulating the mitogenic activity of keratinocytes, an action that has been linked to scar formation as well as exerting a chemo-attractive action on neutrophils [6]. These effects seek to kick-start the wound healing process. However, a study conducted to determine the indicators of inflammation in the pathogenesis of diabetic foot ulcers identified a positive correlation between high serum IL-6 levels in diabetic patients with foot ulcers and low serum IL-6 levels in those without foot ulcers. This implicates its effect on poor wound healing [16].
\nThis is not surprising as IL-6 has a reputation for dictating the transition from acute to chronic inflammation systemically by its stimulatory effects on T and B cells.
\nTumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) is a key pro-inflammatory cytokine involved in the early phase of most inflammatory events in the body. Employing mouse models, the expression of TNF-α at detectable levels was discovered to happen just after wound creation and sees an increase in the first several hours until it reaches a peak within 24 hours after which it returns to the basal level [17]. Vascular endothelial cells, keratinocytes, and fibroblasts are the major sources of TNF-α which cause an initiation of the inflammatory phase of the wound healing by promoting the recruitment of inflammatory leukocytes. TNF-α is also involved in the regulation of the activity of fibroblasts, keratinocytes, and vascular endothelial cells as well as in modulating synthesis of extracellular matrix proteins and matrix metalloproteinase [17, 18]. Based on diabetic models, an increase in TNF-α level coupled with decrease in IL-10 that has anti-inflammatory properties results in sustained expression of chemokines CXCL2 and CCL2 and leads to continuous infiltration of leucocytes to the injury site. This ultimately prolongs the inflammation and reduces the wound healing potential [19].
\nTransforming growth factor describes the superfamily for pluripotent cytokines which have very important functions to perform during disease, homeostasis, development, and repair. These sets of proteins are structurally related, but functionally distinguishable and relevant among them for wound healing are the isoforms TGF-β 1–3 [20]. The roles of these isoforms in the wound healing process can be both distinct and overlapping. However, the overall nature of their contribution to the wound healing has generated some controversy and thus is among the most studied molecules involved in the process [6]. Transforming growth factor β1 (TNF-β1) however has the widest spectrum of actions, affecting all manners of cell types that are involved in all stages of wound healing. These effects have been reported to be both positive and negative [21]. Historically, the synthesis of TNF-β1 from keratinocytes, platelets, and macrophages is upregulated right after injury, and this is crucial for initiating inflammation and granulation tissue formation. In addition, TNF-β1 contributes to the chemotactic migration of cells during wound repair. Some proteases such as MMP-1, MMP-2, MMP-3, and MMP-9 are also under the control of TNF-β1 [6, 22]. Based on human studies, TNF-β1 was found to stimulate the production of extracellular matrix molecules, including collagens and fibronectin, which strengthen the repaired wound. In spite of this knowledge, available evidence goes to raise questions about the true effects of TNF-β1 levels on wound healing [23]. Wound healing in Smad knockout mice, which have the signaling pathway of TNF-β1 blocked, was rather accelerated to the surprise of the investigators. In similar fashion, TNF-β1 knockout mice showed demonstrated reepithelialization during incisional wound repair, in comparison with wild-type mice. The consensus in the face of current evidence is that the selective inhibition of TNF-β1 in some cells may prove beneficial [24].
\nThe growth factors are essentially responsible for the initiation of the proliferation stage of the wound healing process. The platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), transforming growth factors (TGF-𝛼, TGF-𝛽), insulin growth factor (IGF-1), fibroblast growth factor (FGF), and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factors (GM-CSF) are examples of growth factors whose roles in wound healing as well as their possible use as biomarkers have been studied extensively based on their expressed levels [25]. In spite of the fact that insight about ideal levels and the spatiotemporal distribution of growth factors is far from complete, available data points to no local growth factor deficiency in chronic leg ulcers with the possible exception of TGF [6]. Trengove et al. [26] after studying wound fluids from both healing and nonhealing wounds arrive at similar conclusion that poor wound healing may be due to inflammatory mediators rather than a deficiency of growth factors.
\nPlatelet-derived growth factors (PDGFs) are made up of a family of homodimeric or heterodimeric growth factors, including PDGF-AA, PDGF-AB, PDGF-BB, PDGF-CC, and PDGF-DD [27]. PDGF has been established to have chemotactic role for cells that migrate to the healing wound site such as fibroblasts, neutrophils, and monocytes. It was actually the very first growth factor shown to have this function [28]. It additionally stimulates the proliferation of fibroblast and the deposition of extracellular matrix. In vitro studies have also revealed that it stimulates insulin growth factor (IGF) release in fibroblasts which is vital to the initiation of the repair process [28]. Lastly, it stimulates fibroblasts to contract collagen matrices and induces the myofibroblast phenotype in the implicated cells. It has thus been established to be a major player in the wound healing and has formed the basis for studies into its clinical application in the treatment of wound healing disorders.
\nOwing to the close proximity of the expression sites of the PDGF, which is predominantly in the epidermis, and its receptors which are also in the dermis and granulating tissue, a paracrine mechanism has been suggested for its action [6, 29]. However, unlike other growth factors like fibroblast growth factor (FGF) and vascular epithelial growth factor (VEGF) that see an overexpression in the microenvironment or at the site of a healing wound or one in a granulation phase, the increase in the expression of PDGF-BB is without this spatial limitation as its levels in plasma also increases. It does make it potentially useful as the biomarker in wound healing [10].
\nThe action of proteases and their inhibitors goes a long way to influence the equilibrium between extracellular matrix (ECM) degradation and deposition which is responsible for the coordinated and timely healing of wounds [30]. There is an overwhelming wealth of evidence to suggest that nonhealing wounds are characterized by an increase in the levels of proteases and an imbalance in the protease/protease inhibitor levels [30, 31]. This manifests as a persistence of proteolysis and degradation of the extracellular matrix causing wound healing to delay. Significant among these proteases are the matrix metalloproteases (MMPs) [32]. MMPs are part of a family of zinc endopeptidase which essentially help in the degradation of provisional extracellular matrix, facilitate the migration of inflammatory cells to the wound site, remodel the granulation tissue, and modulate angiogenesis [28]. MMP activity as measured using Azocoll assay was found to be significantly elevated in chronic wounds as compared to acute wounds, thus implicating it poor wound healing [26].
\nProteases as biomarkers for wound healing hold the key to transform clinical approach to the management of wounds. For example, the appropriateness of using protease-modulating dressing and tissue-engineered products, scaffolds, and skin grafts for the treatment can be made by the determination of the levels of proteases [33].
\nMatrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are a group of endopeptidase that are zinc and calcium dependent and are usually divided into six groups depending on the substrate they act on. These MMPs consist of collagenases (MMP-1, MMP-3, MMP-8); gelatinases (MMP-2, MMP-9); stromelysins (MMP-3, MMP-10); matrilysins (MMP-7, MMP-26); membrane-type MMPs (MT-MMP) like MMP-14, MMP-15, MMP-16, and MMP-24; and other MMPs (MMP-11, MMP-12, MMP-19, MMP-20, MMP-22, MMP-23, MMP-28) [34].
\nVarious MMPs are relevant to the wound healing process at varied points, and the tight control of their proteolytic activity is also essential to conduct the different events of wound healing [36]. MMPs are however generally involved in the inflammatory, proliferative, and remodeling phases of the wound healing process by modulating cytokine/chemokine activity by activating them enzymatically or influencing their availability by cleaving them from cell surface. Additionally, the actions of MMPs involve the breakdown of proteins part of the cell-cell and cell-extracellular matrix interaction [35, 36].
\nIn terms of the predictive roles of MMPs’ level for the wound healing process, some studies have focused on the MMP-1 to tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase (TIMP-1) ratio. In one study, for instance, a significant correlation was found between a high ratio of MMP-1/TIMP-1 and good healing (r = 0.65, p = 0.008) with receiver operator curve (ROC) analysis showing an MMP-1/TIMP-1 ratio of 0.39 being the best predictive value for wound healing. High levels of MMP-8 and MMP-9 also appear to have negative predictive value for the process of wound healing [32].
\nWith the growing research into the therapeutic benefits of biomarkers comes the challenge of identifying biomarkers that satisfy the required characteristics for use clinically. It is prudent to validate new biomarkers affecting the wound healing process by employing innovative, simple, and cost-effective molecular approaches to determine the type, level, and activity of all potential biomarkers. With the advent of trendsetting technical knowhow in defining diseases and other biological processes, it has become increasingly possible to identify and characterize novel biomarkers of the wound healing process. Continuing the research into identification of new biomarkers affecting the wound healing process is imperative since it will eventually have weighty health benefits on patients and offer a relevant guide to wound management. This will significantly lower the risks of microbial colonization and invasion of wounds and loss of structural function as a result of chronic wounds.
\nEnergy transformation comprises the turbine, which is an inner combustion device and a spinning engine that utilizes water, wind steam, helium and air to produce work [1]. Kaygusuz [2] stated that dams use turbines as an electrical generator producing electricity for residential and industrial consumption. Nonetheless, in 1939, the first jet engine that powered an aircraft was built consisting of the combustion chamber, the turbine and the compressor [3]. This turbine used air as its working fluid in an internal combustion engine and this engine, in turn, removes enough chemical energy to convert it to mechanical energy from the fuel source while using the working fluid to drive the propeller and the engine [4]. Bell and Partridge [5] anticipated that the Joule cycle is a theoretical cycle for gas turbine applications, where both expansion and compression routes take place in a rotating machine [6]. This comprises some reversible processes such as the turbine using the expansion process and fluid friction for an increase in entropy which causes a spontaneous reaction using the compression method in the Brayton cycle [7]. The gas turbine is characterized by extended overhaul intervals, an increased operating speed, less moving parts, availability, low maintenance, reliability, long life span and rugged design [8]. The design of a turbine engine dictates its performance and the performance requirement are determined by the shaft house power developed in certain temperature conditions which may be extreme. Therefore, the need for high-performance materials becomes necessary because one factor which affects the efficiency of the engine; the turbine inlet temperature is made up of materials which are designed to reduce flow losses and must withstand erosion, corrosion and stress at elevated temperatures [9]. According to Reed [10], superalloys especially Nickel Superalloys are materials generally used at elevated temperatures for these gas turbine applications attributed to their elevated temperature strength, corrosion resistance, excellent formability, cost and low density [11]. However, the nickel-based superalloy has a maximum service temperature, not over 650
Comparison graph between nickel super alloy and high entropy superalloy.
Their elemental composition, lower densities, high configurational entropy and core effects alongside possessing the γ´ precipitate reinforcement phase makes this superalloy a preferred alternative material for turbine engine applications [16]. In a previous study, additive manufacturing was presented as a potential advance manufacturing technique as opposed to conventional arc melting and casting fabrication processes. This study attempts to present HESAs as a promising material for gas turbine engine applications, as opposed to traditional Nickel-based superalloys [17].
Superalloys are stable materials; they do not oxidize or fall apart in very harsh environments and at high temperatures. These amalgams are used for power generation, industrial, marine and aerospace applications [10]. They are characterized by their excellent heat and oxidation resistance at elevated temperatures, high melting temperature, and high-temperature mechanical strength, good fracture toughness, and stress-rupture, creep resistance [18]. In general, superalloys contain more of Co, Ni, Cr or Fe but less of Ta, Hf, W, Cr, B, Mo, Nb, Al, Zr, C, Ti because these elements adversely affect the properties of the blend. Superalloys have a typical face-centred cubic structure and are characterized by a γ´ precipitate with operating temperatures above 600
Gessinger and Bomford [24] suggested that Superalloys for gas turbine applications are widely fabricated using powder metallurgy. However, Bewlay, Gigliotti [25] fabricated the turbine disks using hot die forging and roll forming. Lavella, Berruti [26] studied the residual stresses in Inconel 718 turbine disks fabricated by milling while Groh, Gabb [27] developed a turbine disk using the casting technique. Compared with these conventional techniques, the powder metallurgy process produces turbine disks which are extremely difficult to forge; die life is relatively poor and die fill is extremely difficult but not with additive manufacturing.
Gas turbine engines require higher temperatures for efficiency. This high-temperature application, therefore, requires excellent emission control with an advance in the combustion hardware of the engine. Nickel superalloys materials were developed for this purpose and they make up about half of the weight of materials used in turbine engines [28, 29]. They have an FCC nickel matrix which is stable enough for the alloy to be used for combustion liners, blades, vanes, thermal barrier coatings, burners and are also applied to bear loads of over 75% of their emergent melting temperature. This is attributed to their characteristic high-temperature rupture and creep resistance, lifetime expectancy, low operating costs and excellent thermal efficiency [30]. Nickel superalloys are also used in space vehicles, submarines, petrochemical equipment and nuclear reactors. Nickel-based superalloy 718 (IN718) is widely used in wrought or cast at 540
According to Durand-Charre [36], Nickel-based Superalloys are majorly FCC phase structured. However, in aluminum-nickel superalloy systems, a second precipitate phase is formed, which is usually Ni3Al in a composition containing an ordered intermetallic structure [37]. The γ´ phase relies on the cooling rate of the superalloy through the solvus temperature of 894
Pollock and Tin [28] did an intensive review on nickel superalloys and the authors stated that the commercial superalloys comprise Co, Cr, W, Mo, Ta, W, Nb, Re, Ti, Al, C, Hf, Y, B and Zr. The yield strength of the nickel superalloy is between 900–1300 MPa at room temperature and the fatigue life at 593
Throughout the years, alloys utilized for commercial reasons were structured by choosing an element which framed the network of the whole component with the addition of essential solutes to the base component [40, 41]. The blends of these combinations were reduced as could reasonably be expected for the immense development of mass intermetallic mixes existing within the molar atomic proportions of these alloys, hence, attaining a 40% mark or more. Along these lines, the intermetallic phases reduce the quality of the alloys while in service [42, 43]. Therefore, a need arose to search for alloys with atomic percentages lesser than 35% and the possibilities of combining many metallic principal elements in several atomic compositions were further investigated [44]. According to Ye, Wang [45], an innovative class of alloys with these attributes was discovered more than a decade ago by mixing multiple principal elements in equimolar or near-equimolar compositions. Yeh, Chen [46] named the alloys ‘High Entropy Alloys’ (HEAs). The authors defined HEAs as amalgams having compositions with at least five principal metallic elements, with these components having a molar atomic proportion between 5 and 35% [47]. Studies on HEAs have concluded that most HEAs comprise simple FCC, BCC or HCP solid solutions phase attributed to their thigh-entropy effect [48]. Wang, Li [49] suggested that these solid solution phases with little or no intermetallic matrix enable HEAs to have outstanding properties such as strength, extraordinary mechanical and physical properties at cryogenic temperatures, plastic strain, fracture strength and good ductility; they possess elevated-temperature oxidation resistance and excellent work hardenability and have been reported to possess distinctive magnetic and tribological properties [50, 51]. Furthermore, Senkov, Wilks [52] reported that HEAs are exceptional refractory materials and their fatigue-resistance were reported to exceed conventional alloys by Hemphill [53].
In the literature, the development in the solid solution strengthening of High Entropy Alloys (HEAs) and the precipitation hardening properties of the alloys at temperatures above 1100
Chen, Chang [56] studied the hierarchical microstructural strengthening of HESAs and the composition of strengthening elements can consist of Cu, Fe, Ti, Zr, Co, V, Al, Nb, Cr and Mn. While the overall structure can comprise Mn, Ni, Fe, Ti, Co, Cr and V while for the grain boundary strengthening; C, B and Hf are added but must not be over 15% of the superalloy’s total compositional weight. Refractory elements like Ru, Ta, Re, Mo and W can be added but must also contain less than 15% of the total superalloy’s weight [55]. Tsao, Yeh [57] in 2013 recommended the development of superalloys using HEAs microstructure with single phases and an additional second phase for elevated temperatures applications. Yeh, Tsao [17] then fabricated Ni40.7Al7.8Co20.6Cr12.2 Fe11.5Ti7.2 high entropy superalloy (HESA) via casting method. The authors reported that the microstructure of the composition was stable at elevated temperatures and the superalloy was made up of γ´ nanosized precipitates with a density lower than 8 g/cm3.
Daoud, Manzoni [58] developed Al8Co17Cr17Cu8Fe17Ni33 HESA using thermos-calc, the authors compared the results with Alloy 800H and IN617. They reported that the HESA had higher tensile strength, this was attributed to two phases; one spherical γ´ precipitate which was less than 20 nm after the aging temperature at 700
Wang, Zhou [62] investigated Al0.2CrFeCoNi2Cu0.2 HESA and discovered the γ´ nanosized precipitate with 30% elongation. Tsao, Yeh [57] developed seven HESAs using the elements Ni, Fe, Al, Cr, Co, Ti by vacuum arc melting. They stated that the development of the γ precipitates in the superalloy was due to Fe, Cr elements and the γ´ matrix, they stated that substituting Ni with Ti enhances the thermal stability of HESAs thus encouraging the γ´ matrix and by controlling the elemental compositional partitioning in the middle of the γ-γ´ phase, the thermal properties of the high entropy γ matrix can be improved. More so, at elevated temperatures after long term exposures L12 γ´ nanosized precipitates were formed without topological closed packed phases. Gwalani, Soni [63] examined Al0.3CoCrFeNi2 and Al0.3CoCrFeNi HESAs and the authors observed γ´ precipitate in the Al0.3CoCrFeNi super alloy until 550
Senkov, Isheim [55] and Li, Lee [65] tested AlMo0.5NbTa0.5TiZr HESA by powder metallurgy and they all observed that the superalloy possessed high thermal stability and yield strength superior to nickel superalloys at 1200
HESAs are stable at elevated temperatures compared with commercial Rene’ N6, Udimet 700 and Hastelloy X superalloys, this attributed to their sluggish diffusion and high entropy effect. At high temperatures, Nickel-based superalloys form intermetallic topological closed-packed (TCP) phases rich in Fe-Cr because of the high iron content in less than 100 h at 900
Yeh and Tsao [71] did a thorough analysis of HESAs with the elemental composition of Fe, C, Al, Mo, Cr, Ti, Ni, Co, Ta, W and Nb. The siderophile element was Nickel while the strengthening element was Nb and C. The authors reported that the HESA’s microstructure comprised an FCC, L12 crystal structure and γ´ phase while the superalloys had hardness values of 400–470 HV at room temperature. At elevated temperatures, the HESAs hardness values recorded were between 300–350 HV. These values are greater than IN718 under high temperature. The yield strength of HESA at 1000
SuperAlloy | Composition | Phase Structure | Advantages | Disadvantages | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Iron-Based (Incoloy 800H, Type A-286 alloy, IN903) | IN800H (32Ni-21Cr-1.5Mn-01Si-0.3Ti-0.3Al-01C-bal Fe, wt.%) | Room-temperature strength, high-temperature strength, Creep, Wear and oxidation resistance | Difficult to machine, poor service performance, susceptible to defects, hot corrosion degradation | [74, 75, 76] | |
Cobalt-Based | (Co-30Ni-11Al-2Ti-5.5 W-2.5Ta-0.1B, at%) | High strength at elevated temperatures, corrosion -resistant, thermal shock resistant, easy to machine | Low strength compared to other superalloys, | [77, 78] | |
Titanium-based (TiAl, Ti6Al4V) | (Ti-48Al-2Cr-2Nb) | High Strength- toughness and fatigue strength, corrosion-resistant, | Low adhesive, high friction coefficient, low ductility | [79, 80] |
Superalloys used for turbine engine applications.
Wee, Do [81] described in a review of the mechanical thermal properties of superalloys and the authors stated that superalloys are required to perform excellently under severe thermal and mechanical stresses. The turbine engine may experience failure attributed to linear and cyclic movements of the pistons, connecting rods, rotors and shafts majorly affecting the cascade fluids on the surface of the superalloy [82]. For turbine applications, superalloys comprise elements which are meant for elevated temperature strength required for efficiency [83]. However, these alloying elements may also adversely impact the superalloy’s resistance when in this severe environmental conditions over some time. Therefore, there may be a need for additional protection of the superalloy through surface treatments [84]. There are several laser surface modification treatments, namely; laser surface hardening, laser surface heat treatment, Laser alloying, laser shot peening, laser surface dispersing and laser coatings and cladding [85]. Laser coatings enable the superalloy to be resistant to its environment, have microstructural stability and enhance its thermal, physical and mechanical properties [28, 86]. The coatings available can be classified as; overlay coatings, diffusion coatings and ceramic barriers [87, 88]. The deposition of Al from a different external source and diffusing it into the base superalloy to for an external layer is called aluminide or diffusion coating. Bonding an oxidation-resistant alloy which is weak but highly effective on a superalloy to enable surface protection and stability is called overlay cladding, while ceramic barriers are ceramic coatings attached to the surface of a superalloy [89].
Technological advancements in surface engineering have replaced conventional methods of surface treatments with laser surface modification (LSM) techniques. The use of lasers in LSM has been reported to produce wear, corrosion, fracture and fatigue resistant HEAs coatings. This is attributed to the energy absorption and rapid solidification of the deposition process, which promotes fine microstructures necessary for surface modification.
According to Wu et al. [90] used laser surface alloying to study the phase evolution and cavitation erosion-corrosion behavior of a HEA coating in distilled water and NaCl solution. The study showed that the alloy’s cavitation erosion resistance was enhanced in distilled water but not in NaCl solution due to the corrosion. Zhang et al. [91] fabricated HEA by laser surface alloying to examine the properties of the alloy and they reported that the microhardness property of the coating was thrice the number of the substrate and there were improvements in the wear resistance of the alloy. Huang et al. [92] investigated an equimolar HEA on a titanium alloy substrate using LSM and the results also showed enhancements in the wear resistance of the alloy attributed to the manufacturing route which contributed to the formation of the phases observed in the BCC matrix. Nahmany et al. [93] used an electron beam surface remelting technique to modify two-five component HEAs, and the authors inspected the influence of these surface modification processes on the properties of the alloys. The authors observed a significant increase in the microhardness due to the rapid solidification and cooling process associated with the fabrication technique. From literature, it can be deduced that LSM classified into laser surface remelting, surface amorphisation, laser transformation hardening, shock hardening, laser cladding, laser surface alloying and laser shock peening using different types of lasers can be used to enhance the properties of HEAs [94].
Laser application in surface modification techniques can be dated back to Albert Einstein who was the first scientist to conceive a stimulated emission in 1917 which today makes lasers applicable [95].
A laser is an abbreviation for “light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation”. It is classified into CO2 and Excimer gaseous lasers, Nd:YAG Solid-state Lasers, Liquid Dye lasers and Yb-doped Fiber. These lasers consist of an optical resonator, a pumping energy outlet and a gain medium. The gain medium is located inside the optical resonator which amplifies a light beam using external energy supplied by the pumping energy outlet. They are classified into dyes, semiconductors or fibers, solid and gaseous states.
Lasers are generally characterized by the ability to avoid divergence in a long-distance, possession of an increased level of energy and monochromaticity [96].
The CO2 laser comprises an electric pump, discharge tube, CO2 gas for the gain medium and optics such as silver or gold mirrors, zinc selenide lens and finally a window as the optical resonator. Although the Helium-Neon laser was the first gas laser developed in a Bell telephone laboratory, still, the CO2 is the most widely used gas laser for its high emission wavelength between 9–11 μm which offers very high power for surface modification. The process experiences low light absorption in the infrared regions, reduced optical fiber delivery, instability in the output power attributed to the contraction of the laser structure and thermal expansion when pumping the gas by an AC or DC which sometimes limits its application. Zhang et al. [97] reported fabricating HEAs with CO2 laser, and the alloy had fine microstructural morphologies and higher mechanical properties. While Zheng et al. [98] mentioned that the HEAs coating fabricated using gas lasers had cellular crystals with dispersion precipitates although the hardness values were reported to be high [99].
Excimer lasers, on the other hand, is a mixture of noble gases like helium buffer gas, xenon, argon and a chloride or fluoride halogen. Excimer which is about 248 nm is also known as excited dimers which are pumped using a pulsed electrical discharge for the production of nanosecond pulses in an ultraviolet region, for that reason; it can only be operated in a pulsed mode. Other limitations of this laser are low beam quality, the severity of maintenance and high running cost [100]. Sharma et al. [101] reported using an excimer laser with a wavelength of 248 nm for target ablation during the creation of epitaxial single crystal high entropy ABO3 perovskite thin films. The authors described how this process was significant in understanding different bonding environments to develop macroscopic responses driven by complex exchange interactions and electron–phonon channels.
Nd:Yag which is an acronym for neodymium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet laser is a 1064 nm solid-state laser made up of an active ion and a host from either glass or solid crystalline. It is one of the widely used for the surface modification of HEAs attributed to the ability of its light beam to be transported by flexible optical fibers, consequently increasing its delivery efficiency and compactness [102, 103]. It is also not limited by its mode of transport, which can occur both in pulse and continuous modes. Recently, diode lasers have been substituted for Xenon flash lamps as the pump source to improve the quality of the beam. More so, Nd: YVO4 is a recent substitute for the Nd:Yag laser due to its wider band absorption, high efficiency and lower operating threshold [104].
A Fiber Laser is about 848 nm in wavelength with a rare earth doped fiber used for high power generation due to its increased level of efficiency. The Yb-Doped fiber lasers have excellent electrical-to-optical efficiency with system compactness and high-quality beam. Neodymium, holmium, thulium, dysprosium, erbium and praseodymium are other rare earth elements used as a gain medium in fiber lasers. Fiber lasers are usually pumped with laser diodes; however, they are limited by their light propagation through the optical fiber which greatly influences the guiding medium compared with when the propagation occurs through the air inside the fiber. More so, other factors like the Kerr lens and Raman effects limit the performance of the laser, therefore, optical fibers with polarization maintenance are strongly recommended as the gain medium [105]. Fan et al. [106] examined the influence of fiber laser welding on the mechanical and microstructural proprieties in addition to the solute segregation of a high entropy alloy. The authors reported that the alloy showed dendritic structures with those fabricated using Nd:Yag laser and they observed copper’s segregation to the interdendritic region were also attributed to its smaller bonding energies with other elements in the HEA composition, conversely; the alloy showed better hardness and strength compared with the Nd:Yag.
Organic liquid dye lasers use organic dyes as the gain medium. These liquid dye with about 50–100 nm compared to solids have a higher density of atoms and they are evenly distributed. These lasers with wide bandwidth are replaceable and are transferred from very intricate regions which are sometimes used as solutes in considerable solvents to develop gain mediums [107]. Coumarin, pyrromethene, exalite, pyridine, styryl and fluorescein are dyes used for pulsed or tunable lasers. Nevertheless, these lasers are limited in applications because they require a large volume of organic solvents for efficiency. Xu et al. [108] used a laser stimulated fluorescence equipment consisting of an organic liquid dye to fabricate a HEA and study the performance of the coatings then the influence of aluminum on the properties of the alloy. The authors stated that the laser technology and the aluminum content enabled the phase transitions, grain refinement and corrosion resistance observed.
Other types of lasers are; semiconductor lasers, hybrid laser arc welding and free-electron lasers and the fabrications of HEAs using these lasers are limited in research, hence, should be further explored.
This type of surface modification is used for material hardening, electrochemical and tribological resistance and reduction in porosity. An increased rate of heat transfer occurs during the interaction between the substrate and the melted HEAs coating surface, especially during solidification. The rapid solidification and cooling rates invariably produce fine microstructures which also enhances the surface properties of the alloys. Chen et al. [109] used LSM on HEAs and they mentioned that the surface modification process increased the electrochemical and mechanical properties of the alloys. Ochelik et al. [105] found that the solidification rate influences the phases formed using LSM. The fast solidification rates promoted the BCC phase observed which was also responsible for the improved hardness properties of the alloys. Cai et al. [110] also reported observing a BCC solid solution phase and improved microhardness properties after using LSM. The as-remelted HEAs coatings had low wear mass loss showing an improvement in the wear resistance.
The LTH heats the HEAs coating or films at a very high temperature with an unfocused beam, and then rapid cooling occurs immediately without letting equilibrium phases to form by quenching, as a result, generating very low thermal distortion. This method uses a diode laser or CO2 to increase the surface properties of the HEAs [111].
This involves the direct injection or pre-placement of additional elements unto the surface of the substrate by a laser source. Rapid solidification occurs with the substrate maintaining its temperature while acting as a heat sink, still the composition of the surface changes [112]. Therefore, re-solidification and rapid quenching follow due to the temperature difference between the surface of the substrate and the treated surface zone. Zhang et al. [113] fabricated HEA coatings by LSA, and the HEA coating had a BCC solid solution phase with improved mechanical and corrosion properties. Jiang et al. [114] fabricated HEAs on a 304 stainless steel substrate and they stated that although the alloy had FCC and BCC phases, the BCC phase was more predominant. The authors also recorded a substantial increase in the hardness with good wear-resistant properties.
This method produces a nanocrystalline layer or thin amorphous layer on the surface of the substrate, energy is absorbed into the surface which melts the HEAs coating/films to a certain depth with a laser beam and rapid solidification occurs. This process is achieved using a high power density at a short period enough to create the amorphous structure needed for surface modification [115].
High-temperature properties of materials used for turbine engine applications are important for the reduction of fuel consumption, operating costs and pollution. Nickel-based superalloys are widely used due to its strength, resistance to degradation in oxidizing environments, toughness and density. However, Nickel superalloy is not stable at elevated temperatures having a maximum service temperature of 649
The authors will like to appreciate the National Laser Center (Laser Enabled Manufacturing Resource Group); Council for Scientific and Research (CSIR) and the Surface Engineering Research Laboratory; Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, South Africa for their scientific and technical support during this research.
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All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
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\n\n\n\nIntechOpen is committed to disseminating high-quality scientific research in a manner that exemplifies the best practice in scholarly publishing. IntechOpen is an official member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), which advocates the maintenance of the highest ethical standards for all parties involved in the act of publishing, including Authors, Academic Editors of the book, Peer Reviewers, the publisher and Societies, where applicable.
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\n\nAll scientific works are subject to Peer Review prior to publishing. IntechOpen is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and all participating referees and Academic Editors are expected to review submitted scientific works in line with the COPE Ethical Guidelines for Peer Reviewers where applicable.
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