\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10116",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Nano- and Microencapsulation - Techniques and Applications",title:"Nano- and Microencapsulation",subtitle:"Techniques and Applications",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Nano- or micro-encapsulation is used in many different fields and industries, including pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, food, and agrochemicals. It offers advantages for various applications, especially drug delivery. Nano-encapsulation can help extend and control the release of drugs as well as increase drug bioavailability and efficacy. It improves the precision of targeted drug delivery and allows for fabricating nano-encapsulated drugs for diagnostic and theranaostic applications. This book covers recent advances in fabricating nano-/micro-capsules using natural carriers for therapeutic and diagnostic drug delivery applications as well as rheology and formulations of micro-emulsions for diverse applications. This book is essential for scientists and researchers with diverse backgrounds in chemistry, engineering, material sciences, pharmaceuticals, and drug delivery.",isbn:"978-1-83968-349-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-348-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-350-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88590",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"nano-and-microencapsulation-techniques-and-applications",numberOfPages:290,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"8d92c5999718734b36a0cc3a6af7c7f6",bookSignature:"Nedal Abu-Thabit",publishedDate:"January 27th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10116.jpg",numberOfDownloads:5392,numberOfWosCitations:8,numberOfCrossrefCitations:14,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:23,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:45,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 20th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 18th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 17th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 5th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 4th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"308436",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Nedal",middleName:null,surname:"Abu-Thabit",slug:"nedal-abu-thabit",fullName:"Nedal Abu-Thabit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/308436/images/system/308436.png",biography:"Dr. Nedal Abu-Thabit holds a Ph.D. in Chemistry with a specialization in polymer chemistry from King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM). Currently, Dr. Nedal is an associate professor in the Chemical & Process Engineering Technology department at Jubail Industrial College. During the period 2013–2018, Dr. Nedal held the position of program director for the Polymer Engineering Technology major. Dr. Nedal has published more than forty research articles and reviews in refereed journals, fifteen book chapters, four books, and two patents. His research interests are related to polymer synthesis, preparation of nanocomposites, nanomaterials, and electrically conducting polymers for water sterilization and sensing applications, and isolation of biopolymers from renewable and sustainable resources. Dr. Nedal has contributed many articles to educational polymer chemistry.",institutionString:"Jubail Industrial College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Jubail Industrial College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"205",title:"Biophysics",slug:"nanotechnology-and-nanomaterials-biophysics"}],chapters:[{id:"74611",title:"Natural Polymers in Micro- and Nanoencapsulation for Therapeutic and Diagnostic Applications: Part I: Lipids and Fabrication Techniques",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94856",slug:"natural-polymers-in-micro-and-nanoencapsulation-for-therapeutic-and-diagnostic-applications-part-i-l",totalDownloads:658,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Encapsulation, specifically microencapsulation is an old technology with increasing applications in pharmaceutical, agrochemical, environmental, food, and cosmetic spaces. In the past two decades, the advancements in the field of nanotechnology opened the door for applying the encapsulation technology at the nanoscale level. Nanoencapsulation is highly utilized in designing effective drug delivery systems (DDSs) due to the fact that delivery of the encapsulated therapeutic/diagnostic agents to various sites in the human body depends on the size of the nanoparticles. Compared to microencapsulation, nanoencapsulation has superior performance which can improve bioavailability, increase drug solubility, delay or control drug release and enhance active/passive targeting of bioactive agents to the sites of action. Encapsulation, either micro- or nanoencapsulation is employed for the conventional pharmaceuticals, biopharmaceuticals, biologics, or bioactive drugs from natural sources as well as for diagnostics such as biomarkers. The outcome of any encapsulation process depends on the technique employed and the encapsulating material. This chapter discusses in details (1) various physical, mechanical, thermal, chemical, and physicochemical encapsulation techniques, (2) types and classifications of natural polymers (polysaccharides, proteins, and lipids) as safer, biocompatible and biodegradable encapsulating materials, and (3) the recent advances in using lipids for therapeutic and diagnostic applications. Polysaccharides and proteins are covered in the second part of this chapter.",signatures:"Ndidi C. Ngwuluka, Nedal Y. Abu-Thabit, Onyinye J. Uwaezuoke, Joan O. Erebor, Margaret O. Ilomuanya, Riham R. Mohamed, Soliman M.A. Soliman, Mahmoud H. Abu Elella and Noura A.A. Ebrahim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74611",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74611",authors:[{id:"308436",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Nedal",surname:"Abu-Thabit",slug:"nedal-abu-thabit",fullName:"Nedal Abu-Thabit"},{id:"139982",title:"Dr.",name:"Ndidi C.",surname:"Ngwuluka",slug:"ndidi-c.-ngwuluka",fullName:"Ndidi C. Ngwuluka"},{id:"283155",title:"Dr.",name:"Soliman M.A.",surname:"Soliman",slug:"soliman-m.a.-soliman",fullName:"Soliman M.A. Soliman"},{id:"322996",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Onyinye",surname:"Uwaezuoke",slug:"onyinye-uwaezuoke",fullName:"Onyinye Uwaezuoke"},{id:"322997",title:"Dr.",name:"Noura",surname:"A.A. Ebrahim",slug:"noura-a.a.-ebrahim",fullName:"Noura A.A. Ebrahim"},{id:"322998",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmoud",surname:"Abu Elella",slug:"mahmoud-abu-elella",fullName:"Mahmoud Abu Elella"},{id:"323003",title:"Dr.",name:"Riham",surname:"Mohamed",slug:"riham-mohamed",fullName:"Riham Mohamed"},{id:"323004",title:"Dr.",name:"Joan",surname:"Erebor",slug:"joan-erebor",fullName:"Joan Erebor"},{id:"323005",title:"Dr.",name:"Margaret O.",surname:"Ilomuanya",slug:"margaret-o.-ilomuanya",fullName:"Margaret O. Ilomuanya"}],corrections:null},{id:"74680",title:"Natural Polymers in Micro- and Nanoencapsulation for Therapeutic and Diagnostic Applications: Part II - Polysaccharides and Proteins",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95402",slug:"natural-polymers-in-micro-and-nanoencapsulation-for-therapeutic-and-diagnostic-applications-part-ii-",totalDownloads:361,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Encapsulation remains a fundamental and consistent approach of fabrication of drug and diagnostic delivery systems in the health space and natural polymers such as polysaccharides and proteins continue to play significant roles. Micro- or nanoencapsulation is employed for the conventional pharmaceuticals, biopharmaceuticals, or biologics, bioactives from natural sources and diagnostics such as biomarkers. The outcome of any encapsulation depends on the technique employed and the encapsulating material. The encapsulating materials employed influence the physical and chemical attributes of the fabricated micro- and nanocapsules. The encapsulating materials could be natural or synthetic, however, natural polymers are preferred because they are human and environmentally friendly. Polysaccharides and proteins are abundant in nature, biogenic, biocompatible, biodegradable and possess biological functions making them materials of choice for encapsulation of drugs and diagnostics. This chapter reviews the recent and advanced applications of polysaccharides and proteins as nanocarrier materials for micro- and nanoencapsulation of therapeutics and diagnostics.",signatures:"Ndidi C. Ngwuluka, Nedal Y. Abu-Thabit, Onyinye J. Uwaezuoke, Joan O. Erebor, Margaret O. Ilomuanya, Riham R. Mohamed, Soliman M.A. Soliman, Mahmoud H. Abu Elella and Noura A.A. Ebrahim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74680",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74680",authors:[{id:"308436",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Nedal",surname:"Abu-Thabit",slug:"nedal-abu-thabit",fullName:"Nedal Abu-Thabit"}],corrections:null},{id:"72990",title:"Nanoprecipitation: Applications for Entrapping Active Molecules of Interest in Pharmaceutics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93338",slug:"nanoprecipitation-applications-for-entrapping-active-molecules-of-interest-in-pharmaceutics",totalDownloads:844,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nanoprecipitation technique, also named solvent injection, spontaneous emulsification, solvent displacement, solvent diffusion, interfacial deposition, mixing-induced nanoprecipitation, or flash nanoprecipitation, is recognized as a useful and versatile strategy for trapping active molecules on the submicron and nanoscale levels. Thus, these particles could be intended among others, for developing innovative pharmaceutical products bearing advantages as controlled drug release, target therapeutic performance, or improved stability and organoleptic properties. On this basis, this chapter offers readers a comprehensive revision of the state of the art in research on carriers to be used for pharmaceutical applications and developed by the nanoprecipitation method. In this sense, the starting materials, the particle characteristics, and the in vitro and in vivo performances of the most representative of these carriers, i.e., polymer, lipid, and hybrid particles have been analyzed in a comparative way searching for a general view of the obtained behaviors.",signatures:"Oscar Iván Martínez-Muñoz, Luis Fernando Ospina-Giraldo and Claudia Elizabeth Mora-Huertas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72990",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72990",authors:[{id:"320030",title:"Prof.",name:"Claudia Elizabeth",surname:"Mora Huertas",slug:"claudia-elizabeth-mora-huertas",fullName:"Claudia Elizabeth Mora Huertas"},{id:"326041",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis Fernando",surname:"Ospina Giraldo",slug:"luis-fernando-ospina-giraldo",fullName:"Luis Fernando Ospina Giraldo"},{id:"326042",title:"Mr.",name:"Oscar Iván",surname:"Martínez Muñoz",slug:"oscar-ivan-martinez-munoz",fullName:"Oscar Iván Martínez Muñoz"}],corrections:null},{id:"72983",title:"Nano/Microparticles Encapsulation Via Covalent Drug Conjugation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93364",slug:"nano-microparticles-encapsulation-via-covalent-drug-conjugation",totalDownloads:505,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Advancement in chemistry holds a great promise in improving drug encapsulation that leads to superior drug delivery efficiency and the therapeutic efficacy of nano/micro-delivery systems. Drugs are being designed to specifically access the infection sites via covalent conjugation to nano/micro-delivery systems. This chapter focuses on techniques for achieving covalent encapsulation of drugs in nano/micro-delivery systems, how conjugation is applied to selectively influence pharmacokinetic profile, intracellular, and extracellular uptake, specific targeting to disease sites, binding to specific receptors, and controlled/sustained release. In addition, the effect of conjugation on drug efficacy and biosafety of the micro/nanoparticulate drug delivery systems are discussed.",signatures:"Victoria Fasiku, Edith K. Amuhaya, Kingo M. Rajab and Calvin A. Omolo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72983",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72983",authors:[{id:"319522",title:"Dr.",name:"Calvin",surname:"Andeve",slug:"calvin-andeve",fullName:"Calvin Andeve"},{id:"319532",title:"Dr.",name:"Edith",surname:"Amuhaya",slug:"edith-amuhaya",fullName:"Edith Amuhaya"},{id:"323891",title:"Ms.",name:"Victoria",surname:"Fasiku",slug:"victoria-fasiku",fullName:"Victoria Fasiku"},{id:"323892",title:"Mr.",name:"Kingo",surname:"Rajab",slug:"kingo-rajab",fullName:"Kingo Rajab"}],corrections:null},{id:"71923",title:"Microencapsulation for Clinical Applications and Transplantation by Using Different Alginates",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92134",slug:"microencapsulation-for-clinical-applications-and-transplantation-by-using-different-alginates",totalDownloads:536,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Microencapsulation has been the most frequently used technique for several different disciplines such as cell-based therapies and/or transplantation. Technology is based on the idea of combining and coating a material or isolating from an external source. Microencapsulation may be performed with different materials and, among natural biocompatible materials, alginate-based microencapsulation technique is the most appropriate material for microencapsulation. The structural components of alginate materials are the derivatives of alginic acid, which is found in brown algae as an intercellular gel matrix. This alginate is preferred for clinical applications due to its safety in human studies. Therefore, the choice and the combined system need to be carefully optimized to achieve biocompatible application through cell microencapsulation especially for long term. Specifications of alginate such as primary source, isolation process, viscosity, and purity contribute to improve its biocompatibility. Clinically, cell microencapsulation is the major contribution to the field of transplantation by its technique and additionally provides local immune isolation. This chapter discusses the potential benefits of clinically suitable alginates and their applications. This promising technology may highlight its considerable potential for patients that require transplantation and/or replacement therapy in the future.",signatures:"Beyza Goncu and Emrah Yucesan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71923",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71923",authors:[{id:"316669",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Emrah",surname:"Yucesan",slug:"emrah-yucesan",fullName:"Emrah Yucesan"},{id:"316670",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Beyza",surname:"Goncu",slug:"beyza-goncu",fullName:"Beyza Goncu"}],corrections:null},{id:"69884",title:"Coconut Phospholipid Species: Isolation, Characterization and Application as Drug Delivery System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88176",slug:"coconut-phospholipid-species-isolation-characterization-and-application-as-drug-delivery-system",totalDownloads:650,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The purpose of this study was to isolate the ethanolamine species of coconut phospholipid and to investigate their potency as drug delivery system by using it to encapsulate vitamin C. The study consisted of two stages: the first stage was isolation and characterization of coconut phosphatidylethanolamine species; and the second stage was utilization of coconut phosphatidylethanolamine liposomes to encapsulate vitamin C. A dark brown gel of coconut phosphatidylethanolamine species (CocoPEs) was isolated from dried coconut meat (9.3×10−3%, w/w). At least 15 species were found in coconut phosphatidylethanolamine. The fatty acyl chains of the species were capric, linoleic, oleic, stearic and arachidic acyl chains. At least four different phases were identified on CocoPEs i.e. planar-shape gel phase, rippling phase, liquid crystal phase and hexagonal phase. The temperature (Tp) was at 25.29°C for changing from planar-shaped gel to rippling phase, 32.62°C (Tm) for major transition from gel to liquid crystal, and 65.53°C (Th) from liquid crystal to hexagonal phase. All of CocoPEs liposomes encapsulation efficiency with cholesterol concentration up to 30% were above 80%. CocoPEs showed great potency as encapsulation material. It had high encapsulation efficiency and addition of cholesterol to the liposome membrane only slightly reduced the efficiency.",signatures:"Dwi Hudiyanti, Nur Kamila, Febriani Kusuma Wardani and Khairul Anam",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69884",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69884",authors:[{id:"197465",title:"Dr.",name:"Dwi",surname:"Hudiyanti",slug:"dwi-hudiyanti",fullName:"Dwi Hudiyanti"},{id:"304061",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Nur",surname:"Kamila",slug:"nur-kamila",fullName:"Nur Kamila"},{id:"304062",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Febriani Kusuma",surname:"Wardani",slug:"febriani-kusuma-wardani",fullName:"Febriani Kusuma Wardani"},{id:"304063",title:"Dr.",name:"Khairul",surname:"Anam",slug:"khairul-anam",fullName:"Khairul Anam"}],corrections:null},{id:"72900",title:"Rheology of Structured Oil Emulsion",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92770",slug:"rheology-of-structured-oil-emulsion",totalDownloads:394,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This study is devoted to the rheology of oil emulsions, accompanied by both the formation and destruction of the structure. The presence of particles of a dispersed phase in an oil emulsion, including asphaltenes and resins, determines the formation of coagulation structures as a result of interaction and collision of particles. In this regard, to study the formation of coagulation structures, analytical solutions to the mass transfer equations are proposed, based on which the coalescence and fragmentation frequencies of the droplets are determined. Models and analytical solutions of the equation for the thinning of an interfacial film between droplets with their coalescence in the volume of an oil emulsion are proposed taking into account the Marangoni effect and the effect of asphaltene content. The thickness of the adsorbed layer on the droplet surface was estimated. Many empirical and semiempirical formulas have been proposed for determining the dependence of viscosity on the content of water and asphalt-resinous substances in oil. Based on the solution of the Fokker-Planck equation, the evolution of the distribution function of droplets in time and size in an oil emulsion is studied.",signatures:"Gudret Isfandiyar Kelbaliyev, Dilgam Babir Tagiyev and Manaf Rizvan Manafov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72900",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72900",authors:[{id:"318966",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Manaf",surname:"Manafov",slug:"manaf-manafov",fullName:"Manaf Manafov"},{id:"319230",title:"Prof.",name:"Dilgam",surname:"Taghiyev",slug:"dilgam-taghiyev",fullName:"Dilgam Taghiyev"},{id:"319231",title:"Prof.",name:"Gudret",surname:"Kelbaliev",slug:"gudret-kelbaliev",fullName:"Gudret Kelbaliev"}],corrections:null},{id:"71938",title:"Aggregation of Partially Hydrophilic Silica Nanoparticles in Porous Media: Quantitative and Qualitative Analysis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92101",slug:"aggregation-of-partially-hydrophilic-silica-nanoparticles-in-porous-media-quantitative-and-qualitati",totalDownloads:589,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this experimental work, the adsorption of partially hydrophilic silica nanoparticles, SiO2 has been investigated to determine the degree of silica nanoparticle aggregation in the porous media. An integrated quantitative and qualitative method was used by flowing silica nanoparticles into Buff Berea cores and glass micromodel. Water wet Buff Berea cores were flooded with 5 pore volumes of 0.05% silica nanoparticles solution followed by 10 pore volumes of brine post flush subjected to 30 and 60°C. The pressure drops increased rapidly at the initial stage of silica nanoparticles injection indicated the adsorption had taken place. Pressure drops reached the maximum value of ~3.1 psi and between 26.6–82.6 psi at 30 and 60°C respectively. Pressure drops gradually declined and stabilized in between ~0.4 and ~0.7 psi after couple of pore volumes of brine post flush, suggesting complete reversible and irreversible adsorption. Micromodel test provide qualitative information where the straining or log-jamming observed in the form of gelled-like suspension when silica nanoparticles in contact with brine. The adsorption is considered reversible when the suspension decreased after post flooded with brine. Silica nanoparticles used in this experimental work shows minimal aggregation that can be beneficial as improved oil recovery agent.",signatures:"Siti Rohaida Mohd Shafian, Ismail M. Saaid, Norzafirah Razali, Ahmad Fadhil Jahari and Sonny Irawan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71938",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71938",authors:[{id:"228103",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail",surname:"Mohd Saaid",slug:"ismail-mohd-saaid",fullName:"Ismail Mohd Saaid"},{id:"317869",title:"Dr.",name:"Sonny",surname:"Irawan",slug:"sonny-irawan",fullName:"Sonny Irawan"},{id:"317906",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Siti Rohaida",surname:"Mohd Shafian",slug:"siti-rohaida-mohd-shafian",fullName:"Siti Rohaida Mohd Shafian"},{id:"318473",title:"MSc.",name:"Norzafirah",surname:"Razali",slug:"norzafirah-razali",fullName:"Norzafirah Razali"},{id:"318474",title:"BSc.",name:"Ahmad Fadhil",surname:"Jahari",slug:"ahmad-fadhil-jahari",fullName:"Ahmad Fadhil Jahari"}],corrections:null},{id:"71786",title:"Microemulsion Formulation of Botanical Oils as an Efficient Tool to Provide Sustainable Agricultural Pest Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91788",slug:"microemulsion-formulation-of-botanical-oils-as-an-efficient-tool-to-provide-sustainable-agricultural",totalDownloads:857,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Microemulsion formulation is among the most suitable carrier for the delivery of bioactive and, therefore, has excellent potential for industrial applications. The microemulsion system is thermodynamically and kinetically stable. Due to the smaller droplet size of the microemulsion system, the bioactive covers a larger surface of the target pest. Botanicals and essential oils, in particular, are green options to control various soil and seed-borne pathogens. Each oil contains several bioactive constituents that practically avoid microbe-resistance against it. Nevertheless, to improve the handling and shelf-life of botanicals, microemulsion formulation is the best option available. The current chapter provides the insight of a microemulsion system and explores the possibility of botanical oil-based biopesticides for a sustainable agro-ecosystem. 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Hypoxic brain injury (HBI) is a clinical condition that results from a decrease in brain blood flow and oxygenation. Energy in the brain is mainly derived from oxygen and glucose by 95% oxidative metabolism [1, 2]. About 50% of the energy obtained is used for communication and synaptic activity between neurons, 25% for the passage of ions through the cell membrane and 25% for molecular transport and biosynthesis [3, 4]. Metabolic need increases in seizure and fever but decreases in deep coma and anaesthesia. HBI can be defined as a damage to brain cells due to hypoxia. In HBI, the clinical definition is more complex, indicating hypoxia with many etiologic causes, and broad-spectrum brain injury caused by ischemia with or without reperfusion. Clinic developmental stage of the brain, condition of development of damage, regional weakness, ethology, difficult predictability of treatment and outcomes are heterogeneous due to the differences in accepted guidelines and management standards. Although effective treatment has not yet been found, progress has been made in the prevention of HBI.
\nEncephalopathy—the neurologic syndrome composed of abnormalities of consciousness, tone and autonomic control is the hallmark of acute HBI [5]. The stage of encephalopathy depends on the timing and severity of the hypoxia. HBI is an important cause of mortality and morbidity in the paediatric age group. Although effective treatment has not been found yet, progress has been made in the prevention of HBI. Advances in conservation have been achieved with neonatal asphyxia and mild hypothermia in ventricular fibrillation after cardiac arrest in adulthood and early use of thrombolytics after embolic stroke in adults.
\nNeurons consistently require a source of metabolic substrates, especially glucose and oxygen. HI brain injury results from intracellular and intracellular processes during and after the imbalance of the presence and consumption of these substrates in the brain. In animal models, neuronal death after HBI occurs in two phases [6]: Immediately after HBI, neurons begin to die rapidly, possibly a cell death process characterised by necrosis, loss of acute plasma membrane integrity and loss of ATP [7]. In the second stage, neurons die from hours to days [8], primarily through apoptosis [9], which is cascade of active, tightly regulated intracellular pathways. Neuropathological evidence of classical neuronal apoptosis after HBI is less pronounced in humans than in animal models [10]. However, there is no doubt that urgent and delayed neuronal deaths are below neurological damage after HBI. New approaches to salvage neurons following HBI have strengthened the existing understanding of HI-induced brain injury mechanisms to specifically target central mechanisms of neuronal death. We will briefly review excitotoxicity, free radical toxicity and inflammation procedures in order to place these treatments in the context of their targeted cellular mechanisms.
\nGlutamate is a stimulating neurotransmitter everywhere in the brain. Under pathological conditions, including HI, neuronal receptors for glutamate are overactive due to pathologically high glutamate concentration in the extraneuronal domain. This high concentration occurs as a result of synaptic release of glutamate pathologically, dysfunction of glutamate uptake mechanisms and release of glutamate from the intracellular metabolic pool. Glutamate receptor overactivation results in neuronal death, hence excitotoxicity. Overactivation of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA), subtype of the glutamate receptor, was highly effective in neuronal death after HI. NMDA receptor overactivation allows intracellular calcium to rise to toxic levels and causes cell death by activating cytotoxic phospholipases, proteases, lipases and endonucleases. Calcium is also absorbed by the mitochondria, causing loss of ATP synthesis, oxidative stress, release of proapoptotic factors and activation of the apoptotic cascade.
\nFree radicals are molecules containing one or more unpaired electrons that allow increased intermolecular reactivity. Primary oxygen-free radical superoxide anion is produced in cells (O2\n−). Superoxide is an important intracellular signalling molecule, as is the metabolite hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Together with the highly reactive hydroxyl radical, O2\n− and H2O2 are oxygen-derived free radicals present in the cell. Oxidative stress refers to increased levels of these radicals. Oxidative stress contributes to neuron death after HI [11], by breaking down cellular proteins and DNA.
\nIn addition to oxidative stress, increased nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen-free radical, production is a central mechanism of HI-induced neuronal death [12]. Increased NO production is mediated by neuron-specific NO synthase (nNOS) and elevated by HI (and excitotoxicity)-induced intracellular calcium concentrations. Endothelial NOS (eNOS), a second NO synthase isoform, controls vascular resistance in all organs, including the brain. Maintaining eNOS activity during and after experimental HI improves cerebral blood flow and neuronal survival [13]; therefore, treatments aimed at reducing neuronal NO production should specifically target nNOS and maintain eNOS activity. In addition to its direct effects, NO interacts with O2\n− to form highly reactive and toxic radical peroxynitrite [14]. Peroxynitrite-mediated peroxidation of lipid components of cellular membranes [15] and mitochondrial proteins oxidative modification [16] are important mechanisms of neuronal damage. In particular, lipid peroxidation changes the cellular membrane structure and function that triggers cellular necrosis or apoptosis.
\nImproved results in HBI animal models following inflammation inhibition [17] show that inflammation is an important mechanism of HI-induced neuronal death. After HBI, microglia is activated [18], proinflammatory cytokines, e.g. IL-1 and TNF-alpha. In addition, microglia-derived chemokines increase acutely to receive peripheral immune cells into the brain [19]. HBI activates the complementary stage in the brain [20]. Complement activation results in the formation of membrane attack complexes that form pores within the plasma membranes and lead to cell lysis [21]. Therefore, after HBI, a coordinated inflammatory response emerges, which makes a significant contribution to HBI-induced neuron death in the brain.
\nThe understanding of the mechanisms of HI-induced neuronal approaches to neuroprotection have shown promise in pre-clinical studies and early clinical trials. Below, we review some of the most promising approaches at different stages of development from early stage research to clinical studies and FDA approval. Since these therapies may address different mechanisms than those mediating hypothermized neuroprotection, these novel therapies also provide additional neuroprotection to those available from hypothermia therapy.
\nErythropoietin (EPO) is an endogenous, hypoxia-derived glycoprotein produced in the kidney that has been shown to first regulate haematopoietic function through EPO-specific receptors. [22]. Recombinant EPO (r-EPO), currently approved to increase erythropoietin in anaemia, has also been shown in animal studies where HBI is neuroprotective [23, 24]. Activation of neuronal EPO receptors prevents HBI-induced activation of NMDA receptors and increases expression of anti-apoptotic proteins, potentially reduces excitotoxicity and reduces apoptosis [24, 25]. EPO receptor activation also inhibits HBI-induced stimulation of peroxynitrite (oxidative stress) and inflammatory cytokines, potentially reducing free radical toxicity and inflammation. [25]. EPO receptor expression, which is of particular importance for neonatal HBI, is abundant in the developing mammalian brain [26]. Systemically administered r-EPO after HBI has been shown to cross the blood-brain barrier [27]. In one study, the pharmacokinetics of EPO levels in cerebrospinal fluid in babies treated with EPO after HBI was parallel to that observed in serum [28], suggesting that r-EPO could cross the blood-brain barrier in humans.
\nMelatonin is a pineal gland hormone secreted in response to environmental light-dark cycles [29]. Melatonin has multiple cellular effects, two of which directly target known mechanisms of HBI. First, melatonin reduces free radical toxicity, scavenging hydroxyl radical and peroxynitrite by direct electron transfer [30]. Melatonin also reduces O2\n− production in brain slices in vitro following hypoxic ischemic stress [31]. Second, melatonin has anti-inflammatory activity. Thus, after umbilical cord occlusion in fatal sheep, melatonin reduced the production of 8-isoprostanes [32], a potent mediator of HBI-induced inflammation. In addition, melatonin given to rats immediately after focal cerebral ischemia decreased neutrophil migration and macrophage/activated microglial infiltration after 48 hours and decreased only in the ischemic hemisphere [33]. Finally, melatonin reduces the binding of NF-yaB to DNA, resulting in the production of proinflammatory cytokines including interleukin-2, interleukin-6 and tumour necrosis factor alpha [34]. These cellular effects have led to extensive investigation of melatonin as a treatment for hypoxic brain damage.
\nShort-term assessments of melatonin, infarct size and neurobehavioural outcomes in rats after focal cerebral ischemia are improved [33], suggesting that melatonin treatment may be applicable to global brain ischemia in the newborn. However, short-term improvements may reflect only the temporary inhibition of death-induced procedures without altering the final extent of neuronal death. Finally, melatonin may have a neuroproductive effect in addition to hypothermia. Following induction of global ischemia in newborn pigs, melatonin with hypothermia reduced MR spectroscopic indices of impaired cerebral energy metabolism compared to hypothermia alone [35].
\nAllopurinol is a xanthine oxidase inhibitor that is a source of cytosolic O2\n−, which has attracted attention as a potential neuroprotective agent during HI, especially as it can cross the placenta to produce therapeutic levels in newborns [36]. Animal models including in vivo and in vitro rat models and in vivo sheep models have demonstrated that allopurinol is neuroprotective [37].
\nTopiramate is an anti-epileptic drug of interest as a potential neuroprotective agent for brain injury. Topiramate prevents seizures by inhibiting neuronal excitability, including blockade of glutamate receptors [38]. This potential anti-excitotoxicity effect suggests topiramate as a candidate treatment for HBI. Indeed, following carotid artery ligation in the rat, topiramate significantly reduces neuronal death through inhibition of glutamate receptor activity [39], reducing HBI-induced neuronal apoptosis [40]. Of particular interest is the observation that topiramate, when combined with hypothermia, adds neuroprotective effects in animal models. [41].
\nIn the pilot study, topiramate associated with whole-body hypothermia in 27 asphyxia infants did not cause any adverse effects, short-term outcome differences or pathological cerebral magnetic resonance imaging incidence compared to 27 controls [42]. Further extensive clinical studies are needed to assess the efficacy of topiramate in preventing HI injury.
\nXenon is a chemically non-reactive gas that is extensively studied as a general anaesthesia in Europe [43, 44], due to its highly favourable safety profile. One of the activities of xenon is against NMDA receptor activation, which reduces excitotoxicity. This reduced activity results from the xenon glycine block that binds to its regulatory region on the receptor [45]. Following hypoxia or excitotoxicity in cultured murine neurons, increased xenon concentrations significantly increased neuronal survival [46]. In neonatal rats, xenon inhalation improved both histological and functional outcomes 2 months after global HI [47]. Similarly, following global forebrain ischemia in the newborn pig, xenon inhalation proved neuronal survival 72 hours after insult [48]. In particular, in these models, xenon-induced neuroprotection has been found to add to the neuroprotection provided by induced hypothermia.
\nThe central role of NO in HI-mediated neuronal injury and the presence of specific small molecule inhibitors of nNOS make nNOS inhibition a potentially attractive approach. With the discovery of the toxic role of NOS in HI, early studies of NOS inhibitors have yielded contradictory results since early inhibitors do not have isoform specificity [49]. However, newer, specific nNOS inhibitors may promise more [50]. Prophylactic use of highly specific nNOS inhibitor JI-10 in preterm fetal sheep increased neuronal survival following deep asphyxia [51]. Although initial data for selective nNOS inhibitors are promising, the extent of non-target effects, such as inhibition of eNOS activity and any accompanying reduction in cerebral blood flow, will need to be investigated to initiate clinical trials.
\nAfter HBI, the functions of cellular membranes may change due to lipid peroxidation and lipid signalling changes. After severe HI, neuronal plasma membrane dysfunction leads to reduced membrane integrity, infiltration of intracellular components into the extracellular space and necrosis. When HI is not severe enough to induce necrosis, HI-mediated dysfunction of mitochondrial intracellular membranes can trigger apoptosis [52]. Recently, a class of synthetic molecules has been used to address HI-induced dysfunction of injured neuronal membranes in pluronic, in vitro and in vivo. Pluronics, which consist of poly [ethylene oxide] (PEO) and poly [propylene oxide] (PPO) chains, have been arranged in a three-block PEO-PPO-PEO structure. This structure allows the pluronics to interact with the cellular membranes [53, 54] and recovers the integrity of the plasma membrane after injury. Pluronic F-68, a member of Pluronics, has been shown to immediately rescue neurons from death in in vitro HI models by apoptosis blockage [55, 56]. Preliminary evidence also shows that Pluronic F-68, provided to animals for 1 week after HI, significantly improves neuronal survival in the hippocampus, a brain region highly sensitive to global HI, and saves hippocampus behaviour [57]. The novelty of this membrane-targeted approach and the lack of toxicity [58, 59] suggest that targeting membrane dysfunction may be a suitable treatment for future HBI.
\nThe main mechanism underlying hypothermia in reducing ischemic tissue damage is its effect on metabolism [60]. Oxygen use decreases by 7% almost linearly with each °C reduction below normal [61]. On the other hand, ischemia becomes more tolerable due to the slowdown in metabolism, although a decrease in blood pressure of about 5% per degree has been observed. In animal experiments, the brain volume is approximately 4% less at 25°C compared to 37°C. Here, the main decreasing cerebral blood flow and volume, the CSF section increases by about 32%. In conclusion, intracranial and venous pressures decrease [62]. In addition, hypothermia reduces the release of excitatory neurotransmitters, such as glutamate and glycine, suppresses free radical toxicity, creates favourable effects on intracellular mediator systems, also reduces intracellular acidosis, inhibits the excretion of ubiquitin, which binds abnormal proteins and facilitates their excretion, anti-apoptotic effects and anti-inflammatory effects and other mechanisms by reducing ischemic neuron damage [63, 64].
\nHypoxic-ischemic brain injury is a simple imbalance between demand and supply to brain energy. However, cellular mechanisms leading to neuronal death are complex and multifactorial. The overall effectiveness of induced hypothermia is relatively low and the need for mechanism-oriented therapies for HBI is high. Basic research may provide therapeutic targets for translation testing, while defining the underlying mechanisms of HBI-mediated neuronal death. The approaches discussed above target the cellular mechanisms of HBI-mediated neuronal death in many different ways. With ongoing research, one or more of these approaches or their derivatives may ultimately be effective treatments for HBI.
\nIntechOpen - where academia and industry create content with global impact
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MRI is commonly used once treating brain, prostate cancers, ankle and foot. The Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) images are usually liable to suffer from noises such as Gaussian noise, salt and pepper noise and speckle noise. So getting of brain image with accuracy is very extremely task. An accurate brain image is very necessary for further diagnosis process. During this chapter, a median filter algorithm will be modified. Gaussian noise and Salt and pepper noise will be added to MRI image. A proposed Median filter (MF), Adaptive Median filter (AMF) and Adaptive Wiener filter (AWF) will be implemented. The filters will be used to remove the additive noises present in the MRI images. The noise density will be added gradually to MRI image to compare performance of the filters evaluation. The performance of these filters will be compared exploitation the applied mathematics parameter Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PSNR).",book:{id:"6144",slug:"high-resolution-neuroimaging-basic-physical-principles-and-clinical-applications",title:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging",fullTitle:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging - Basic Physical Principles and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Hanafy M. Ali",authors:[{id:"213318",title:"Dr.",name:"Hanafy",middleName:"M.",surname:"Ali",slug:"hanafy-ali",fullName:"Hanafy Ali"}]},{id:"41589",doi:"10.5772/50323",title:"The Role of the Amygdala in Anxiety Disorders",slug:"the-role-of-the-amygdala-in-anxiety-disorders",totalDownloads:9671,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"2599",slug:"the-amygdala-a-discrete-multitasking-manager",title:"The Amygdala",fullTitle:"The Amygdala - A Discrete Multitasking Manager"},signatures:"Gina L. Forster, Andrew M. Novick, Jamie L. Scholl and Michael J. Watt",authors:[{id:"145620",title:"Dr.",name:"Gina",middleName:null,surname:"Forster",slug:"gina-forster",fullName:"Gina Forster"},{id:"146553",title:"BSc.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Novick",slug:"andrew-novick",fullName:"Andrew Novick"},{id:"146554",title:"MSc.",name:"Jamie",middleName:null,surname:"Scholl",slug:"jamie-scholl",fullName:"Jamie Scholl"},{id:"146555",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Watt",slug:"michael-watt",fullName:"Michael Watt"}]},{id:"26258",doi:"10.5772/28300",title:"Excitotoxicity and Oxidative Stress in Acute Ischemic Stroke",slug:"excitotoxicity-and-oxidative-stress-in-acute-ischemic-stroke",totalDownloads:7157,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:null,book:{id:"931",slug:"acute-ischemic-stroke",title:"Acute Ischemic Stroke",fullTitle:"Acute Ischemic Stroke"},signatures:"Ramón Rama Bretón and Julio César García Rodríguez",authors:[{id:"73430",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramon",middleName:null,surname:"Rama",slug:"ramon-rama",fullName:"Ramon Rama"},{id:"124643",title:"Prof.",name:"Julio Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"García",slug:"julio-cesar-garcia",fullName:"Julio Cesar García"}]},{id:"62072",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78695",title:"Brain-Computer Interface and Motor Imagery Training: The Role of Visual Feedback and Embodiment",slug:"brain-computer-interface-and-motor-imagery-training-the-role-of-visual-feedback-and-embodiment",totalDownloads:1439,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"Controlling a brain-computer interface (BCI) is a difficult task that requires extensive training. Particularly in the case of motor imagery BCIs, users may need several training sessions before they learn how to generate desired brain activity and reach an acceptable performance. A typical training protocol for such BCIs includes execution of a motor imagery task by the user, followed by presentation of an extending bar or a moving object on a computer screen. In this chapter, we discuss the importance of a visual feedback that resembles human actions, the effect of human factors such as confidence and motivation, and the role of embodiment in the learning process of a motor imagery task. Our results from a series of experiments in which users BCI-operated a humanlike android robot confirm that realistic visual feedback can induce a sense of embodiment, which promotes a significant learning of the motor imagery task in a short amount of time. We review the impact of humanlike visual feedback in optimized modulation of brain activity by the BCI users.",book:{id:"6610",slug:"evolving-bci-therapy-engaging-brain-state-dynamics",title:"Evolving BCI Therapy",fullTitle:"Evolving BCI Therapy - Engaging Brain State Dynamics"},signatures:"Maryam Alimardani, Shuichi Nishio and Hiroshi Ishiguro",authors:[{id:"11981",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Ishiguro",slug:"hiroshi-ishiguro",fullName:"Hiroshi Ishiguro"},{id:"231131",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Alimardani",slug:"maryam-alimardani",fullName:"Maryam Alimardani"},{id:"231134",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuichi",middleName:null,surname:"Nishio",slug:"shuichi-nishio",fullName:"Shuichi Nishio"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"29764",title:"Underlying Causes of Paresthesia",slug:"underlying-causes-of-paresthesia",totalDownloads:192666,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"1069",slug:"paresthesia",title:"Paresthesia",fullTitle:"Paresthesia"},signatures:"Mahdi Sharif-Alhoseini, Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar and Alexander R. Vaccaro",authors:[{id:"91165",title:"Prof.",name:"Vafa",middleName:null,surname:"Rahimi-Movaghar",slug:"vafa-rahimi-movaghar",fullName:"Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar"}]},{id:"63258",title:"Anatomy and Function of the Hypothalamus",slug:"anatomy-and-function-of-the-hypothalamus",totalDownloads:4558,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"The hypothalamus is a small but important area of the brain formed by various nucleus and nervous fibers. Through its neuronal connections, it is involved in many complex functions of the organism such as vegetative system control, homeostasis of the organism, thermoregulation, and also in adjusting the emotional behavior. The hypothalamus is involved in different daily activities like eating or drinking, in the control of the body’s temperature and energy maintenance, and in the process of memorizing. It also modulates the endocrine system through its connections with the pituitary gland. Precise anatomical description along with a correct characterization of the component structures is essential for understanding its functions.",book:{id:"6331",slug:"hypothalamus-in-health-and-diseases",title:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases",fullTitle:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases"},signatures:"Miana Gabriela Pop, Carmen Crivii and Iulian Opincariu",authors:null},{id:"57103",title:"GABA and Glutamate: Their Transmitter Role in the CNS and Pancreatic Islets",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-their-transmitter-role-in-the-cns-and-pancreatic-islets",totalDownloads:3478,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are the major neurotransmitters in the mammalian brain. Inhibitory GABA and excitatory glutamate work together to control many processes, including the brain’s overall level of excitation. The contributions of GABA and glutamate in extra-neuronal signaling are by far less widely recognized. In this chapter, we first discuss the role of both neurotransmitters during development, emphasizing the importance of the shift from excitatory to inhibitory GABAergic neurotransmission. The second part summarizes the biosynthesis and role of GABA and glutamate in neurotransmission in the mature brain, and major neurological disorders associated with glutamate and GABA receptors and GABA release mechanisms. The final part focuses on extra-neuronal glutamatergic and GABAergic signaling in pancreatic islets of Langerhans, and possible associations with type 1 diabetes mellitus.",book:{id:"6237",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-new-developments-in-neurotransmission-research",title:"GABA And Glutamate",fullTitle:"GABA And Glutamate - New Developments In Neurotransmission Research"},signatures:"Christiane S. Hampe, Hiroshi Mitoma and Mario Manto",authors:[{id:"210220",title:"Prof.",name:"Christiane",middleName:null,surname:"Hampe",slug:"christiane-hampe",fullName:"Christiane Hampe"},{id:"210485",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Manto",slug:"mario-manto",fullName:"Mario Manto"},{id:"210486",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Mitoma",slug:"hiroshi-mitoma",fullName:"Hiroshi Mitoma"}]},{id:"35802",title:"Cross-Cultural/Linguistic Differences in the Prevalence of Developmental Dyslexia and the Hypothesis of Granularity and Transparency",slug:"cross-cultural-linguistic-differences-in-the-prevalence-of-developmental-dyslexia-and-the-hypothesis",totalDownloads:3601,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"673",slug:"dyslexia-a-comprehensive-and-international-approach",title:"Dyslexia",fullTitle:"Dyslexia - A Comprehensive and International Approach"},signatures:"Taeko N. Wydell",authors:[{id:"87489",title:"Prof.",name:"Taeko",middleName:"N.",surname:"Wydell",slug:"taeko-wydell",fullName:"Taeko Wydell"}]},{id:"58597",title:"Testosterone and Erectile Function: A Review of Evidence from Basic Research",slug:"testosterone-and-erectile-function-a-review-of-evidence-from-basic-research",totalDownloads:1331,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Androgens are essential for male physical activity and normal erectile function. Hence, age-related testosterone deficiency, known as late-onset hypogonadism (LOH), is considered a risk factor for erectile dysfunction (ED). This chapter summarizes relevant basic research reports examining the effects of testosterone on erectile function. Testosterone affects several organs and is especially active on the erectile tissue. The mechanism of testosterone deficiency effects on erectile function and the results of testosterone replacement therapy (TRT) have been well studied. Testosterone affects nitric oxide (NO) production and phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE-5) expression in the corpus cavernosum through molecular pathways, preserves smooth muscle contractility by regulating both contraction and relaxation, and maintains the structure of the corpus cavernosum. Interestingly, testosterone deficiency has relationship to neurological diseases, which leads to ED. Testosterone replacement therapy is widely used to treat patients with testosterone deficiency; however, this treatment might also induce some problems. Basic research suggests that PDE-5 inhibitors, L-citrulline, and/or resveratrol therapy might be effective therapeutic options for testosterone deficiency-induced ED. Future research should confirm these findings through more specific experiments using molecular tools and may shed more light on endocrine-related ED and its possible treatments.",book:{id:"5994",slug:"sex-hormones-in-neurodegenerative-processes-and-diseases",title:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases",fullTitle:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases"},signatures:"Tomoya Kataoka and Kazunori Kimura",authors:[{id:"219042",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tomoya",middleName:null,surname:"Kataoka",slug:"tomoya-kataoka",fullName:"Tomoya Kataoka"},{id:"229066",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazunori",middleName:null,surname:"Kimura",slug:"kazunori-kimura",fullName:"Kazunori Kimura"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"18",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81646",title:"Cortical Plasticity under Ketamine: From Synapse to Map",slug:"cortical-plasticity-under-ketamine-from-synapse-to-map",totalDownloads:15,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104787",abstract:"Sensory systems need to process signals in a highly dynamic way to efficiently respond to variations in the animal’s environment. For instance, several studies showed that the visual system is subject to neuroplasticity since the neurons’ firing changes according to stimulus properties. This dynamic information processing might be supported by a network reorganization. Since antidepressants influence neurotransmission, they can be used to explore synaptic plasticity sustaining cortical map reorganization. To this goal, we investigated in the primary visual cortex (V1 of mouse and cat), the impact of ketamine on neuroplasticity through changes in neuronal orientation selectivity and the functional connectivity between V1 cells, using cross correlation analyses. We found that ketamine affects cortical orientation selectivity and alters the functional connectivity within an assembly. These data clearly highlight the role of the antidepressant drugs in inducing or modeling short-term plasticity in V1 which suggests that cortical processing is optimized and adapted to the properties of the stimulus.",book:{id:"11374",title:"Sensory Nervous System - Computational Neuroimaging Investigations of Topographical Organization in Human Sensory Cortex",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11374.jpg"},signatures:"Ouelhazi Afef, Rudy Lussiez and Molotchnikoff Stephane"},{id:"81582",title:"The Role of Cognitive Reserve in Executive Functioning and Its Relationship to Cognitive Decline and Dementia",slug:"the-role-of-cognitive-reserve-in-executive-functioning-and-its-relationship-to-cognitive-decline-and",totalDownloads:23,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104646",abstract:"In this chapter, we explore how cognitive reserve is implicated in coping with the negative consequences of brain pathology and age-related cognitive decline. Individual differences in cognitive performance are based on different brain mechanisms (neural reserve and neural compensation), and reflect, among others, the effect of education, occupational attainment, leisure activities, and social involvement. These cognitive reserve proxies have been extensively associated with efficient executive functioning. We discuss and focus particularly on the compensation mechanisms related to the frontal lobe and its protective role, in maintaining cognitive performance in old age or even mitigating the clinical expression of dementia.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Gabriela Álvares-Pereira, Carolina Maruta and Maria Vânia Silva-Nunes"},{id:"81488",title:"Aggression and Sexual Behavior: Overlapping or Distinct Roles of 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B Receptors",slug:"aggression-and-sexual-behavior-overlapping-or-distinct-roles-of-5-ht1a-and-5-ht1b-receptors",totalDownloads:20,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104872",abstract:"Distinct brain mechanisms for male aggressive and sexual behavior are present in mammalian species, including man. However, recent evidence suggests a strong connection and even overlap in the central nervous system (CNS) circuitry involved in aggressive and sexual behavior. The serotonergic system in the CNS is strongly involved in male aggressive and sexual behavior. In particular, 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B receptors seem to play a critical role in the modulation of these behaviors. The present chapter focuses on the effects of 5-HT1A- and 5-HT1B-receptor ligands in male rodent aggression and sexual behavior. Results indicate that 5-HT1B-heteroreceptors play a critical role in the modulation of male offensive behavior, although a definite role of 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors cannot be ruled out. 5-HT1A receptors are clearly involved in male sexual behavior, although it has to be yet unraveled whether 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors are important. Although several key nodes in the complex circuitry of aggression and sexual behavior are known, in particular in the medial hypothalamus, a clear link or connection to these critical structures and the serotonergic key receptors is yet to be determined. This information is urgently needed to detect and develop new selective anti-aggressive (serenic) and pro-sexual drugs for human applications.",book:{id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS - New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg"},signatures:"Berend Olivier and Jocelien D.A. Olivier"},{id:"81093",title:"Prehospital and Emergency Room Airway Management in Traumatic Brain Injury",slug:"prehospital-and-emergency-room-airway-management-in-traumatic-brain-injury",totalDownloads:49,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104173",abstract:"Airway management in trauma is critical and may impact patient outcomes. Particularly in traumatic brain injury (TBI), depressed level of consciousness may be associated with compromised protective airway reflexes or apnea, which can increase the risk of aspiration or result in hypoxemia and worsen the secondary brain damage. Therefore, patients with TBI and Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) ≤ 8 have been traditionally managed by prehospital or emergency room (ER) endotracheal intubation. However, recent evidence challenged this practice and even suggested that routine intubation may be harmful. This chapter will address the indications and optimal method of securing the airway, prehospital and in the ER, in patients with traumatic brain injury.",book:{id:"11367",title:"Traumatic Brain Injury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11367.jpg"},signatures:"Dominik A. Jakob, Jean-Cyrille Pitteloud and Demetrios Demetriades"},{id:"81011",title:"Amino Acids as Neurotransmitters. The Balance between Excitation and Inhibition as a Background for Future Clinical Applications",slug:"amino-acids-as-neurotransmitters-the-balance-between-excitation-and-inhibition-as-a-background-for-f",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103760",abstract:"For more than 30 years, amino acids have been well-known (and essential) participants in neurotransmission. They act as both neuromediators and metabolites in nervous tissue. Glycine and glutamic acid (glutamate) are prominent examples. These amino acids are agonists of inhibitory and excitatory membrane receptors, respectively. Moreover, they play essential roles in metabolic pathways and energy transformation in neurons and astrocytes. Despite their obvious effects on the brain, their potential role in therapeutic methods remains uncertain in clinical practice. In the current chapter, a comparison of the crosstalk between these two systems, which are responsible for excitation and inhibition in neurons, is presented. The interactions are discussed at the metabolic, receptor, and transport levels. Reaction-diffusion and a convectional flow into the interstitial fluid create a balanced distribution of glycine and glutamate. Indeed, the neurons’ final physiological state is a result of a balance between the excitatory and inhibitory influences. However, changes to the glycine and/or glutamate pools under pathological conditions can alter the state of nervous tissue. Thus, new therapies for various diseases may be developed on the basis of amino acid medication.",book:{id:"10890",title:"Recent Advances in Neurochemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10890.jpg"},signatures:"Yaroslav R. Nartsissov"},{id:"80821",title:"Neuroimmunology and Neurological Manifestations of COVID-19",slug:"neuroimmunology-and-neurological-manifestations-of-covid-19",totalDownloads:41,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103026",abstract:"Infection with SARS-CoV-2 is causing coronavirus disease in 2019 (COVID-19). Besides respiratory symptoms due to an attack on the broncho-alveolar system, COVID-19, among others, can be accompanied by neurological symptoms because of the affection of the nervous system. These can be caused by intrusion by SARS-CoV-2 of the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS) and direct infection of local cells. In addition, neurological deterioration mediated by molecular mimicry to virus antigens or bystander activation in the context of immunological anti-virus defense can lead to tissue damage in the CNS and PNS. In addition, cytokine storm caused by SARS-CoV-2 infection in COVID-19 can lead to nervous system related symptoms. Endotheliitis of CNS vessels can lead to vessel occlusion and stroke. COVID-19 can also result in cerebral hemorrhage and sinus thrombosis possibly related to changes in clotting behavior. Vaccination is most important to prevent COVID-19 in the nervous system. There are symptomatic or/and curative therapeutic approaches to combat COVID-19 related nervous system damage that are partly still under study.",book:{id:"10890",title:"Recent Advances in Neurochemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10890.jpg"},signatures:"Robert Weissert"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:17},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:99,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:290,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",slug:"robert-koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11403,editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. His research interests are focused on modern imaging methods used in medicine and pharmacy, including in particular hyperspectral imaging, dynamic thermovision analysis, high-resolution ultrasound, as well as other techniques such as EPR, NMR and hemispheric directional reflectance. Author of over 100 scientific works, patents and industrial designs. Expert of the Polish National Center for Research and Development, Member of the Investment Committee in the Bridge Alfa NCBiR program, expert of the Polish Ministry of Funds and Regional Policy, Polish Medical Research Agency. Editor-in-chief of the journal in the field of aesthetic medicine and dermatology - Aesthetica.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11404,editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. 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