\r\n\tThus, we call for research and review papers on the chemistry and physics of dyes, pigments, and their intermediates, including chemical constituents, spectroscopic aspects, surface, solution, crystal formation, photochemical, and ecological or biological properties. The book will be of interest to a wide variety of researchers worldwide whose work involves various fields of activity such as dyes and pigment synthesis, imaging, sensor, energy, medicine, polymers, food product, toxicological properties, etc.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-114-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-113-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-115-0",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"fcd069956c2e931195925b19a74ce9a3",bookSignature:"Dr. Brajesh Kumar",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12081.jpg",keywords:"Heterocycles Pigments, Azo, Nitro, Indigo, Alizarin, Chromophores, Chromophores, Photochemical, Sulphonation, Diazotisation, UV-Vis Spectroscopy, Metal-Ligand",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 19th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 16th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 15th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 3rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 2nd 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"22 days",secondStepPassed:!1,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Brajesh Kumar has worked as a faculty member in various universities in India, Ecuador, and South Korea. 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\n
1. Introduction
\n
In this chapter, we consider the unknown system called laser propulsion. Designing the system is a mixture of various engineering fields, including propulsion engineering, laser engineering, electromagnetic wave engineering, flight dynamics, and control engineering, which are interconnected to each other. The laser propulsion has been studied in the field of the propulsion engineering for more than 50 years. Moreover, the laser propulsion appeared as a gadget in several sci-fi works [1, 2]. (Strangely, in all those works, the laser propulsion is introduced as a technology of aliens rather than an earth-oriented technology. It would reflect that this technology is full of mysterious images.) However, in view of the practical application, few have achieved so far. This is mainly because no laser facilities whose continuous power is sufficiently high have been available. However, in 2010, the world has changed. A 100 kW fiber laser has been commercialized by IPG Photonics Inc. A 100 kW fiber laser facility has been delivered to the NADEX laser R&D Center in Fukui, Japan. We come to the place where we can do genuine experiments of laser propulsion. Surrounding situations are being prepared today. Laser propulsion is one step short of practical application.
\n
As shown in Figure 1, in the laser launch system, a vehicle is propelled by transmitting the propulsive energy via laser beam from the ground. Gaining the specific impulse higher than the practical chemical propulsions, the laser propulsion is of the same class of the electric propulsion for spacecraft. At the same time, by leaving the heavy part of the energy source on the ground, the lightweight vehicle on the basis of simple propulsion energy system is realized.
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Figure 1.
Laser launch system.
\n
In the following, at first, we are going to consider why the laser propulsion is necessary. For this, we need to consider what kind of launch systems will be required in near future. The conventional rocket technology is in the period of maturity, while the fetal movement for new launch system of high specific impulse that is not limited by the chemical reaction has been ignited. Then, we need to investigate what kind of the laser propulsion system is technologically feasible. Ensuring the foregoing studies of the laser propulsion, we shall consider the practical laser launch system. The technological problems to be solved are numerous. The laser transmission through turbulent atmosphere gives critical problems to the feasibility in the laser launch system although they have been half ignored so far. Solving the numerous technological problems that are necessary to realize the laser launch system is related to the advanced technology such as Starshot project [3], space-based solar power [4], and laser communication in space [5]. Naturally, the space will become familiar by realizing the laser propulsion. Laser propulsion is the technology that is worth challenging.
\n
\n
\n
2. Principles of laser propulsions
\n
Laser propulsion is a variation of the wireless power transfer (WPT) technology, which transfers power remotely using electromagnetic (EM) waves such as microwaves or laser beams. When electric power is necessary at the receiving side, the power of EM waves is transformed to dc current using semiconductors. For the laser propulsion, the power of EM waves is transformed directly into the enthalpy of a working fluid to generate momentum via thermal propulsion mechanisms. This can be called the laser thermal propulsion (LTP). Similar idea would be the laser electric propulsion (LEP) that converts the EM wave power to the dc power to store in the battery once, and then the dc power is used to generate thrust via electric propulsion mechanisms. The LEP is a new idea that allows the storage of the energy on board. However, the heavy weight of the battery would be the bottleneck for the feasibility of this system. Moreover, the LTP will be more energy efficient than LEP because the LEP requires multiple energy conversion processes, which lose the power at each stage. On the other hand, for LTP, it is necessary that the laser beam is always irradiated on the vehicle so that the control mechanisms keep the linkage between a laser source on ground and a fast-moving vehicle. Moreover, it is necessary to keep the vehicle in sight of the laser source so that available flight trajectory of the vehicle is largely limited. Furthermore, the atmospheric perturbation to the laser beam may be a critical factor in the feasibility study of the LTP. A laser beam is transmitted across turbulent atmosphere for a long distance up to 100 km from ground to space.
\n
There are two kinds of the laser propulsion: repetitive pulse (RP) laser type and continuous wave (CW) laser type. The concept of laser propulsion is first proposed by Kantrowitz in 1971 [7]. His concept was to irradiate the laser beam on the ablator installed on the bottom surface of the vehicle as propellant. At that time, it was unknown how much the momentum can be generated for a certain laser power. The research team led by Kantrowitz first investigated the momentum coupling performances of RP laser propulsion and its physical mechanisms. As a result, the impulse generation mechanisms of laser-supported detonation waves and laser-supported combustion waves have been developed. At the beginning of 2000s, Myrabo invented a new vehicle design called a Lightcraft, which is illustrated in Figure 2, to perform first launch demonstrations using a 10-kW-class CO2 RP laser facility of US Air force [8]. He succeeded in the independent flight of the vehicle without any external guide or support except for the laser beam for the first time in the world. The world record of the flight altitude was 71 m. Through the development of the Lightcraft, Myrabo developed the concept of “beam-riding.” The vehicle must be kept irradiated to generate the momentum all the time of flight. Lightcraft was designed to keep its trajectory along a fixed laser beam, while this is the meaning of the term of beam-riding. When the vehicle position is deviated from the laser beam, the recovery side force is generated to the vehicle to keep the trajectory. His consideration was epoch-making because no previous studies in the laser propulsion have considered the flight dynamics of the vehicle. In the same periods, Sasoh invented the in-tube laser propulsion, which is illustrated in Figure 3, and investigated the concept experimentally using a 1-kW-class RP CO2 laser. A projectile could be accelerated in a tube efficiently due to the confinement effect of the tube wall. In the times of early 2000s, several different types of RP laser propulsion have been invented and investigated experimentally. The concepts of laser propulsion that have been proposed so far are reviewed in the two review papers in detail [9, 10]. From the research team of the author, new laser launch system using “donut-beam,” whose power density has hollow distribution on the cross-sectional plane, higher at peripheral of the cross section than at the center, and a spherical vehicle for stable acceleration has been proposed. This concept is studied in experiments [11] and numerical simulations [12]. Because the concept uses the atmospheric air as propellant, the acceleration performance of vehicle is determined by the aerodynamic drag and the atmospheric air density to be propelled using the laser power. Each concept of RP laser propulsion uses only gaseous propellant or only solid propellant, called the laser ablative propulsion, or the both. The gaseous propellant mostly used is the air atmosphere, and air-breathing propulsion concepts have been studied by many researchers. By focusing an intense laser pulse in the air, a laser-supported detonation wave is generated instantaneously to generate a blast wave around the optical focal point, as illustrated in Figure 4. The impulsive thrust is generated as recoil of the blast wave reflection in the nozzle. This method is a variation of the pulse detonation engine (PDE), which generates the thrust via isochoric heating and unsteady gas expansion. The source of the gas expansion, the LSD wave can be generated even in the hypersonic flow, and it can be applied in the air-breathing engines that can operate in hypersonic speeds.
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Figure 2.
Myrabo’s Lightcraft.
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Figure 3.
Sasoh’s LITA.
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Figure 4.
Laser-supported detonation wave.
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For the CW laser propulsion, only gaseous propellants have been used, because strong momentum coupling from laser ablation requires intense and short laser pulse, and the power density from the CW lasers is too small to be used for the laser ablative propulsion. Moreover, no air-breathing engines have been studied for CW laser propulsion. Two different kinds of rocket were proposed. The laser-sustained plasma (LSP) engines, illustrated in Figure 5, use the plasma kept by laser absorption to heat the gaseous propellant running through it [13]. The strong point of this type is high specific impulse more than 1000 seconds because of the high temperature of plasma more than 10,000 K. Mystery remains in plasma stability to the perturbation of the laser power density and its distribution relative to the flows of propellant. Strict optical alignment is necessary for operation. Another kind is heat exchanger (HX) rocket proposed by Kare, which is illustrated in Figure 6 [14]. The laser power is converted to the propellant enthalpy via solid heat exchanger so that the specific impulse is limited up to 900 seconds due to the allowable maximum temperature for the heat exchanger. However, the strict optical alignment is not necessary for its operation, and this type is robust to the perturbation to the laser power density and the distribution that is expected during the flight. In the CW laser propulsion, the propellant is heated through the isobaric process, and a propellant pump for an additional compression process is necessary. Hence, the engine for CW laser propulsion is more complicated and then heavier than the RP laser propulsions. This is why no launch test has been accomplished until today.
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Figure 5.
LSP type CW laser propulsion.
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Figure 6.
Heat exchanger rocket.
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High-power laser is the first priority to realize the laser launch system (LLS). In all the previous studies, except for Myrabo’s campaign, the time-average power of the laser was around a few kilowatt is too low for the practical experiment. As mentioned above, 1 MW laser power is necessary to launch 1 kg payload. Hence, if you want to launch 1-ton payload as in the case of the conventional chemical rockets, you need to prepare 1 GW laser facility. This power is 106 times as high as in the previous experiments, and it would be natural to think that even the basic phenomena should be different for such high-power laser in the foregoing experiments. In the previous experiments, it is impossible to generate and maintain continuously a laser-supported detonation wave using CW laser, while it will become possible if one uses the MW or GW-class laser. Once the heating mechanism is changed, the propulsion design will change. Evolution of super high-power CW laser will induce a new research domain of “high-power CW laser engineering.”
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On the other hand, it should be reasonable to assume that the minimum weight of launch vehicle should be heavier than 100 g. As the vehicle becomes smaller, the structural mass ratio is expected to increase to assure the structural strength. Hence, the minimum CW laser power for launch demonstrations should be around 100 kW. Of course, this estimate is quite rough, and the structural design of vehicle, propulsion performance, and trajectory plans should be considered for more detailed feasibility study. The launch system of laser power at 100 kW–1 MW is possible soon. There exists 100 kW fiber laser. It is technically possible to build a 1 MW laser by increasing the number of bundled fibers, and it is the matter of budget. Recently, high-power, energy-efficient, and compact fiber laser has been evolving. CW laser is easier to attain high power rather than RP laser especially in the case of fiber laser. If we could construct the LLS powered by CW laser, the launch demonstration will be completed at early times. As noted above, the design of LLS is the art of the integration in a broad area of engineering field. The relevant field includes propulsion, laser, beam transmission, flight dynamics, and control engineering.
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Even after a high-power laser becomes available, a number of the engineering problems are remained. If we could have a proper propulsion system, we should determine the trajectory of a vehicle. The basic guidance law of conventional launch vehicles is the bilinear tangent law. Typical trajectory is illustrated in Figure 7. However, for LLS, we need to concern the special issue that a vehicle must stay on the laser beam. Kantrowitz assumed a circular trajectory at which center the laser source is located. It is illustrated in Figure 8. For such a trajectory, a good point is that the laser beam can always be irradiated onto the side surface of the vehicle fuselage. Similar trajectory was considered by Escape Dynamics Inc. Possible bad point is the unknown effects of the atmospheric turbulence on the laser beam transmission. Because the atmospheric turbulence is especially strong near the ground, the laser beam should be distorted drastically. This effect gives the degradation of the energy efficiency of the laser beam transmission and the engineering problem to keep a “laser link” between the vehicle and the ground laser facility. Katsurayama et al. proposed a zenith trajectory for LLS as illustrated in Figure 9 [15]. The zenith trajectory gives the minimum influence of the turbulence on the beam transmission. A vehicle is transferred via apogee-kick efficiently to the orbit around the earth. They consider using air-breathing engines, which can produce higher velocity increments on horizontal flight, and the optimum trajectory will be possibly determined from the trade-off between the effect of the air turbulence on the laser beam transmission and the air-breathing engine performance. Phipps et al. solved the optimum trajectory for RP laser ablative rocket, without any air-breathing engine, from the ground to the orbit [16]. They commented simply to the effect of the air turbulence on the laser beam propagation. They concluded that the effect of the air turbulence is ignorable to the laser beam whose cross-sectional diameter is smaller than the “seeing size,” which will be explained below; typical value is around 10 cm for the wavelength at 530 nm. They also suggested how to correct the pointing error due to the wave front tilt. More detailed estimation and system design in this aspect is important for the feasibility of LLS.
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Figure 7.
Typical trajectory of conventional launch vehicles.
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Figure 8.
A circular trajectory concept for laser launch.
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Figure 9.
A zenith trajectory concept for laser launch G.
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Moreover, the control mechanisms to keep the laser link between the ground and vehicle are indispensable to maintain the continuous energy supply via laser beam for the operation of the propulsion system. Sasoh’s LITA and Myrabo’s Lightcrafts are the concepts of the passive way to maintain the laser link. On the other hand, Phipps considered an active control of the optics onboard of the vehicle of the ablative launch system for the first time. Finally, the cooperative control between vehicle and beam pointing will be the natural solution for this issue. For the beam pointing control, the information of the beam position and vehicle position should be resolved precisely. The spatial resolution should be around 1 cm. We need to innovate a high-resolution method to measure vehicle and beam position. After considering these problems, it is clear that the propulsion design and the air turbulence effect on the beam transportation are the root problem.
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3. Motivation of laser propulsion
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In order to expand the human activities in space, it is indispensable to drastically reduce the cost of transportation from ground to orbit. For an example of today’s launch cost, the launch cost for a unit payload mass of the actual rocket of Japan, H-II, to launch a 6 ton payload to geo transfer orbit is around 20,000 $/kg. Today the price competition is intense so that much of the same is the launch cost value in the USA and EU. Drastic reduction of the launch cost for the unit payload mass has been at stake for a long period. The space shuttle is the first attempt to reduce the launch cost. Shuttle was the first partly reusable launch vehicle. The orbiter was designed reusable to reduce the launch cost by using the orbiter repetitively at a high frequency. However, as it is well-known today, the space shuttle launch system was too huge and complex to reduce the launch cost due to the expensive maintenance. The Space Shuttle Project left the severe lessons for the engineers who still dream to develop a new reusable launch vehicle. Today, the expandable launch vehicles (ELVs) are still major way to the orbit, and the engineers are reducing the cost mainly by the standardization and the simplification. For an example, the next H-III rocket of Japan is claimed to halve the launch cost.
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Falcon Heavy produced by SpaceX is a huge rocket that can deliver 26.7 ton to GTO, which is four times as heavy as H-IIA, reducing the launch cost for an unit payload mass around to 6000 $/kg, which is around one-third of the H-IIA. This is not surprising. On the basis of the statistical data of the ELV developed so far, the launch cost of the ELV has a trend to decrease inversely with the vehicle size [6]. The launch cost for a unit payload mass draws a unique curve decreasing with the payload mass for the same launch mission. Falcon Heavy owes its low price to its large size. It is unclear if the price would continue to decrease with increasing the rocket size, like a huge launch vehicle for the interplanetary transport system designed by SpaceX. For the drastic cost cut, revolutionary breakthrough is necessary to compete the launch market.
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To the opposite direction, the unit launch cost naturally increases with the decreasing the payload weight. Recently, R&D of small satellites is very active, and the nanosats (lighter than 10 kg) and picosats (<1 kg) will become in practice soon. Then, the demand for very small launch vehicle (VSLV) at reasonable cost is increasing. Several teams are now developing VLSV using liquid propellant. The Vector Space System Inc. is launching small-sat launch vehicle, which can deliver a 65 kg payload to LEO using liquid propellant rocket using propylene and LOX. The Interstellar Technologies Inc. is launching a gas pressure-pumped liquid propellant rocket called MOMO, while the Rocket Lab Inc. developed electrically pumped liquid rocket engines. In general, liquid propellant offers the specific impulse higher the solid propellant rockets. On the other hand, the liquid propellant rockets tend to be more complicated than solid rockets partly because the liquid propellant needs to be pressurized and pumped to the combustion chamber of rocket engines. The final price would be determined by the balance between structural complexity and increase in the specific impulse.
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This can be explained in more quantitatively as follows. The launch cost of ELV mainly consists of the production cost of the launch vehicle and the propellant cost, if we could ignore the development of the system and the infrastructure maintenance of launch site. We shall start from the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation:
Here, ΔV is the velocity increments required to reach the orbit, Isp is the specific impulse, mst is the structural mass, mprop is the propellant mass, and mpay is the payload mass. We shall define empty mass as mempty = mst + mprop. Structural mass ratio ε is defined as mst/mempty. Furthermore, we shall assume simply that the production cost of the vehicle is proportional to mst and the propellant cost is proportional to mprop. Then, the launch cost, C, is proportional to mempty. The constant of proportionality is defined as α. After several mathematical steps of Eq. (1), the launch cost for an unit payload mass is formulated as
From this equation, it is proved that the launch cost for a unit payload mass decreases monotonously with Isp, while it decreases with ε. It is effective way to reduce the launch cost by increasing Isp and reducing the vehicle mass. This theoretical result is consistent to the VSLV designs by the ventures. Moreover, in order to ensure the structural strength of VSLV, ε increases inevitably as the vehicle size is reduced, increasing the launch cost. Here, we assume the single-stage launch, while the launch cost increases with the number of stages. Unfortunately, even when liquid propellants are used, it is quite difficult to realize the single-stage launch vehicle due to the limitation of chemical rocket Isp less than 460 seconds. Extreme reduction of launch cost can be attained by higher jump of Isp with extremely simplified structure of the vehicle, at a single stage.
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This will be attained by using laser propulsion. By using only hydrogen as propellant, Isp can reach 900 seconds, which is limited by the allowable temperature limit of the engine materials, and the hydrogen temperature cannot exceed around 3000 K. The vehicle can be extremely simplified as the energy source is left on the ground. Laser propulsion can launch the payload of around 1 kg with a 1 MW laser facility. The maximum power of the available laser facility is 100 kW today. In principle, it is possible to develop a MW-class laser by bundling the fibers with the price of several tens million US dollars. Once it is developed, massive materials, though just 1 kg at a time, can be launched continuously and on demand to the orbit. The price of the 1 MW-class laser facility is almost the same level of a single launch of H-IIA rocket vehicle. Once a VSLV on demand is realized, the induction effect is expected for the technical breakthrough and the market expansion of small satellites. On the other hand, a GW-class laser facility is necessary to launch a payload of several tons at a time, which is typical launch capability of conventional launch systems. The development of such a huge laser facility will require an extremely large budget, and it would not be easy to realize in near future.
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4. A new design of laser propulsion
\n
Then, assuming that a 100-kW-class CW fiber laser is available, we shall consider how to build the LLS. At first, we need to expect the fluctuations of the laser power, the laser beam incident angle, and the cross-sectional distribution. For this reason, the heat exchanger type requires no precise optical alignment of the incident laser beam on the vehicle. Kare’s concept of heat exchanger rocket is illustrated in Figure 6. This is similar to the microwave rocket concept illustrated by the Escape Dynamics Inc. in 2015. In principle, the nuclear thermal rocket, like NERVA, is a kind of heat exchanger rocket. The specific impulse of a thermal rocket is maximized by using propellant of minimum molecular weight, hydrogen. If the propellant temperature could reach at 3000 K, the specific impulse in vacuum becomes 900 seconds [17, 18]. Nevertheless, Kare’s estimation of the proper-specific impulse is around 600 seconds. In this concept, the laser beam is irradiated and absorbed on the side surface of the vehicle fuselage, where the temperature is highest, and the propellant is heated through the heat convection on the inner surface of the fuselage. The temperature of the propellant never exceeds the temperature of the outer surface. Because the maximum temperature of the outer surface of the heat exchanger limits the maximum temperature of the propellant, the specific impulse is limited by the thermal resistance of the materials for the outer surface. Because the atmosphere includes the oxygen, the oxidation resistance is also an important issue for the outer materials. Moreover, a large amount of black-body radiation is emitted from the outer surface and is dissipated in the air as a significant factor of the energy loss. Furthermore, this type of the heat exchanger requires quite narrow flow channel to assure high heat transfer rate, and this causes the significant pressure loss of the propellant in the heat exchanger.
\n
An alternative design of heat exchanger rocket is illustrated in Figure 10. We shall consider the zenith angle launch similar to Katsurayama’s concept. As mentioned earlier, the zenith angle launch minimizes the effect of the atmospheric turbulence on the laser beam transmission and the complexity of the guidance and control. The vehicle introduces the laser beam of high-power density from the bottom surface of vehicle. Due to the atmospheric turbulence, the laser beam is expanded and deflected. In addition to the propulsion system of high performance (efficient and high specific impulse), precise beam pointing to a small window on the bottom surface of the vehicle is another key issue. A thrust-vectoring gimbal is assumed here for the attitude control. The pointing control and guidance are performed in a cooperative system consisting the propulsion thrust, gimbal, and laser beam optical system on the ground. The vehicle position is always informed onto the ground station. This will be done by the GPS signal from the vehicle or the optical tracking system on the ground or on orbit. On the basis of the information, the beam direction is controlled on the ground. At the same time, the exact position of the laser spot is detected on the vehicle and informed to the ground station. The beam position is adjusted from the ground, while vehicle adjusts its position transverse to the beam direction. Although more detailed analysis and design are necessary, we shall leave this issue for the future work. Before this issue, it is critical to investigate the effect of the atmospheric turbulence on the laser beam propagation through the atmosphere. As mentioned later, the high-frequency fluctuation of the laser beam direction (scintillation) should be critical when the vehicle attains the altitude higher than 10 km. Unfortunately, there is no control technique real-time correction of the scintillation today. The astronomers are taking pictures of stars at short exposure time, by catching the instantaneous image. The real-time correction of the beam direction should be based on the adaptive optics, for which we need to detect the atmospheric turbulence on the ray line between the ground station and the vehicle by some means. We need to develop anti-scintillation techniques in the near future. However, for the development of the launch system, we need to move forward step by step. It should be better to start from the aim to a 10 km altitude along the zenith angle trajectory. Myrabo reached at 71 m. The 10 km is a well worthful challenge. For the control and guidance techniques, before going to the cooperative control, it is realistic to accomplish more simple method of the active bream-riding flight along a vertical trajectory.
Here, Tp and Tg are the temperature of the bulk material of porous media and the gas, respectively. x is the coordinate inside of the porous media as illustrated in Figure 12. ρ is the density of gas. u is the velocity of the gas. Cp,g is the specific heat at constant pressure of the gas. h is the volumetric interfacial heat transfer coefficient, for which a number of empirical models have been presented, and is the function of Reynolds number whose standard size is element size of the bulk material of the porous media. For the carbon fiber-based porous media, the standard size should be the diameter of the carbon fiber, which is around 10 mm. When hydrogen is used as working gas, because hydrogen has the largest mean free path among the species at certain pressure, the porous flow features high Knudsen number, and then the analysis could become complicated. The fiber size significantly affects the energy transfer processes. av is the specific surface area of porous medium (surface area per unit volume), and qrad is light power irradiated by the black-body radiation from the element surface of porous medium, which is determined on the basis of the Stefan-Boltzmann law. IL is the laser power density. The scattering of the laser light, the scattering and reabsorption of radiation from high-temperature part, the reflection of radiation on the interface between the porous media and the engine wall, and the heat conduction inside of the porous media have been ignored. In a real engine, the energy efficiency can be enhanced by transforming the radiation to the gas enthalpy. For the heat convection in the porous media, the local thermal equilibrium (LTE) model (Tg = Tp) is frequently used. On the other hand, we shall use more general local thermal nonequilibrium (LTNE) model. Actually, the temperature difference between the gas temperature, Tg, and the bulk material temperature, Tp, drives the heat convection. Note that all the variables are calculated in SI unit.
\n
The calculation results for laser power at 100 kW and hydrogen propellant are shown in Figure 13. The total temperature and the energy efficiency defined as the fraction of the laser power that is converted to the gas enthalpy are plotted as functions of the incident laser power density, IL0. δT is defined as IL0/ρuCp,g, which is equal to the temperature of the gas without energy loss. On the curve of a constant δT, the mass flux ρu increases as the laser power density, IL0, increases. As is clear from the figure, the energy conversion efficiency increases monotonously with IL0. In order to attain 3000 K, IL0 should be larger than 109 W/m2, which means that the 100 kW laser beam is focused on a spot of the order of 1 cm. Moreover, because the mass flux is quite large, the Reynolds number and the Mach number of the flow into the porous media become 102 and 0.3, respectively, which are extraordinarily large numbers for the porous flows. The heat transfer model should be further investigated experimentally.
\n
Figure 13.
Result of propulsion model.
\n
\n
\n
5. Beam transmission through the atmosphere
\n
The laser beam transmission through the atmosphere is a critical issue for the feasibility of LLS. For the LLS, the laser beam propagates from 0 to 100 km across the atmosphere to point continuously and precisely on a vehicle. The laser beam expands both due to diffraction and atmospheric turbulence. In the studies of the LLS, to the best of author’s knowledge, as noted above, only Phipps et al. have considered the atmospheric beam transmission simply using the Fried parameter. Several studies considered the solar power satellite, SPS, using laser beam though there is no systematic study for the beam transmission through the atmospheric turbulence. This is partly because relevant theory has not been fully developed. The light wave propagation through the turbulent atmosphere has been studied in the field of astronomy in terms of the adaptive optics [20]. Only numerical simulations on the basis of the random phase screen method is useful for the exact analyses. To be exact, the atmospheric turbulence depends on local and instantaneous weather conditions. For a particular launch site, the numerical studies and the launch tests are necessary to verify the local effects of the atmospheric turbulence on the laser beam transmission. In some cases, it is necessary to apply the adaptive optics (AO) techniques like the large telescope like Subaru. On the other hand, qualitative discussion is also useful for typical cases, but it is not easy on the basis of numerical simulations. The analytical formula for the effects of the air turbulence on the Gaussian beam was found in 2009 [21]. What is necessary now is to know how and how much the air turbulence can affect the beam propagation. In this section, we shall discuss the impact of air turbulence on the laser beam propagation qualitatively on the basis of recent result in the research field of AO.
\n
In order to attain high-transmission efficiency, the laser spot on the vehicle is adjusted to a proper size. The beam diffraction is regulated using the focusing optics. From the formula of diffraction limit, the minimum spot diameter of a Gaussian beam, ds, is formulated as a function of the propagated distance z and wavelength λ, the beam quality factor at M2, and the beam diameter on the source of beam, ϕ0:
Substituting z = 100 km, λ = 1 μm, M2 = 1.1 (typical value for fiber lasers), and ϕ0 = 36 cm, we get ds ∼ 37 cm. This means that a straight beam of 30 cm can be built.
\n
The effect of the atmospheric turbulence on the laser beam propagation is categorized: (1) scintillation, (2) beam expansion, and (3) beam wonder. Scintillation is the so-called twinkle of stars. The intensity of the light varies unsteadily at high frequency. Beam expansion means the additional expansion of the beam diameter after propagating on a long path across the atmosphere. Beam wonder means the variation of the center of the laser beam axis on the cross-sectional surface. This is induced by the additional angular deflection of the laser beam due to the air turbulence. These effects are originated from the fluctuation in the deflection index distributed in the atmosphere; described using the structure constant of deflection index Cn2. Cn2 is the function of the altitude, depending on the local weather condition. Since it is sensitive to the instantaneous perturbation as the passing of an aircraft, it is not easy to predict Cn2 precisely in general cases. Here, we shall choose well-known HV 7/5 model for the altitude distribution of Cn2 [20].
\n
Fried parameter (or called coherence length or seeing size) r0 is defined by integrating Cn2 along the beam direction as
Here, k is the wave number of the laser beam, sec is the secant (trigonometric function), β is the zenith angle, and L is the propagation distance. When a laser beam is transmitted from the ground to space, r0 is the maximum beam diameter on the ground for the diffraction limited focusing in space. Even when the beam diameter is larger than r0, the spot diameter on space object is larger than the diffraction limit of r0. Hence, it is useless to increase the beam diameter on the ground larger than r0. Fried parameter equals to the typical size of the turbulence. Its typical value is around 10 cm for the visible light around for λ = 500 nm. Because r0 ∝ λ1.2, it is around 20 cm for λ = 1 μm. For the flatness of the wave front, isoplanatic angle θ0 is defined as
The typical value for the visible light (λ = 500 nm) is 7 μrad, and considering θ0 ∝ λ1.2, typical value is 16 μrad for λ = 1 μm. In HV 7/5 model, the altitude distribution of Cn2 is formulated as follows taking r0 and θ0 as major parameters:
Here, z is the altitude from sea level [km], and h is the altitude from the beam source [km]. When the laser beam is emitted from sea level, z = h as assuming in the following. The unit of Cn2(z) is m−2/3. W and A are the constants that represent the atmospheric condition, formulated using (r0, θ0) as
Here, the units of r0, θ0, and λ are cm, μrad, and μm. As shown in Figure 14, the typical value of Cn2 is 10−15 m−2/3 near the ground and is reduced sharply to 10−17 m−2/3 at altitude of 10 km. Then, it becomes almost constant. For the laser beam propagation from the ground to the sky, the atmospheric turbulence has significant impact at altitude lower than 10 km. In the actual atmosphere, the atmospheric boundary layer, typically lower than 2 km, is quite effective to the fluctuations in the laser beam. On the other hand, the conditions in the boundary layer depend on the local landform and are time-varying even in 1 day. This complexity in atmospheric boundary layer makes Cn2 unpredictable. According to Ref. [21], beam expansion of a Gaussian beam δw is formulated as
As shown in Figure 14, δw saturates at the altitude around 10 km.
\n
The results are summarized in Table 1. The beam diameter on the ground is assumed 10 cm. The increment of the beam diameter δw is 1.7 cm (around 17%) at the altitude of 100 km. This should be regulated using the optics on the ground. The beam wondering is around 3 μrad. This means the beam position is deflected by 30 cm at the altitude of 100 km. Because the beam diameter is 10 cm and then the size of the beam-receiving surface on the vehicle is almost same, the fluctuation of the beam location at 30 cm is quite large. This fluctuation varies typically at a frequency of 1 kHz. Without any correction to the beam wondering, the thrust cannot be generated at altitude of the order of several tens kilo-meter. On the other hand, the beam wondering should be ignorable in the demonstration of launch up to the altitude of 1 km. Both r0 and θ0 increase with λ. Consequently, although δw decreases slightly with λ, δα is constant.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
λ (μm)
\n
ϕ0 (cm)
\n
r0 (cm)
\n
θ0 (μrad)
\n
δα (μrad)
\n
δw (cm)
\n
\n\n\n
\n
0.5
\n
10
\n
10
\n
7
\n
3.0
\n
2.0
\n
\n
\n
1
\n
10
\n
23
\n
16
\n
3.0
\n
1.7
\n
\n
\n
10
\n
10
\n
364
\n
254
\n
3.0
\n
1.1
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Beam expansion and wondering at altitude of 100 km.
\n
\n
\n
6. Summary
\n
It is clear that we need to develop a launch system of high specific impulse to expand our universe. Laser launch system (LLS) is a promising candidate that can generate the specific impulse higher than 900 seconds. As a 100-kW-class fiber laser has been developed today, actual launch to the orbit will happen in near future. In this chapter, we looked around the technical problems and tried some analyses for the propulsion performance and the atmospheric turbulence effect on the laser beam transmission. The latter problem will become important in the near future when the laser launch vehicle can reach the altitude higher than 10 km. This problem is linked with the methodologies for the guidance and control of vehicle. Future studies will clarify the design features and technical problems of LLS in more detail.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"launch vehicle, laser propulsion, laser, rocket propulsion, wireless power transmission",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/64539.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/64539.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64539",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64539",totalDownloads:1693,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:5,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:33,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"July 2nd 2018",dateReviewed:"October 25th 2018",datePrePublished:"May 2nd 2019",datePublished:"October 7th 2019",dateFinished:"November 26th 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"An advanced concept of launch system from ground to orbit, called laser launch system, has been discussed. As a 100-kW-class fiber laser has been developed today, the laser propulsion is now a realistic option for launching microsatellites frequently at very low cost. In this chapter, we shall discuss several unresolved technical problems such as propulsion design and laser beam transmission through atmosphere. It is proved theoretically that high specific impulse higher than 900 seconds is possible in a new conceptual design. On the other hand, the laser beam may be suffered by the atmospheric turbulence when the launch vehicle reaches at altitude higher than 10 km.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/64539",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/64539",book:{id:"7198",slug:"propulsion-systems"},signatures:"Koichi Mori",authors:[{id:"265661",title:"Dr.",name:"Koichi",middleName:null,surname:"Mori",fullName:"Koichi Mori",slug:"koichi-mori",email:"mori@nuae.nagoya-u.ac.jp",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Principles of laser propulsions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Motivation of laser propulsion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. A new design of laser propulsion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Beam transmission through the atmosphere",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Summary",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Pournelle J, Nieven L. Foot Fall. New York: Del Rey, Penguin Random House; 1985'},{id:"B2",body:'Wilson RC. New York: Burning Paradise, Tor Books; 2013'},{id:"B3",body:'\nhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breakthrough_Starshot'},{id:"B4",body:'\nhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space-based_solar_power'},{id:"B5",body:'\nhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_communication_in_space'},{id:"B6",body:'Ketsdever AD et al. Overview of advanced concepts for space access. Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets. 2010;47:238-250'},{id:"B7",body:'Kantrowitz A. Laser population. Astronautics and Aeronautics. 1971;10:74'},{id:"B8",body:'Myrabo LN. World record flights of beam-riding rocket lightcraft: Demonstration of disruptive propulsion technology. AIAA Paper 01-3798; 2001'},{id:"B9",body:'Komurasaki K, Wang B. Laser propulsion. In: Encyclopedia of Aerospace Engineering. New Jersey, USA: Wiley & Sons, Ltd, Hoboken; 2010'},{id:"B10",body:'Phipps C et al. Review: Laser-ablation propulsion. Journal of Propulsion and Power. 2010;26(4):609-637'},{id:"B11",body:'Tran TD, Yogo A, Nishimura H, Mori K. Impulse and mass removal rate of aluminum target by nanosecond laser ablation in a wide range of ambient pressure. Journal of Applied Physics. 2017;122:233304'},{id:"B12",body:'Xie C, Tran DT, Mori K. Numerical estimation of laser-ablation propulsion performance in spherical capsule. In: 31st International Symposium on Shock Waves. Nagoya, Japan. No. SBM000190; 2017'},{id:"B13",body:'Legner HH, Douglas-Hamilton DH. CW laser propulsion. Journal of Energy. 1978;2(2):85-94'},{id:"B14",body:'Kare JT. Laser-powered heat exchanger rocket for ground-to-orbit launch. Journal of Propulsion and Power. 1995;11(3):535-543'},{id:"B15",body:'Katsurayama H, Komurasaki K, Arakawa Y. A preliminary study of pulse-laser powered orbital launcher. Acta Astronautica. 2009;65:1032-1041'},{id:"B16",body:'Phipps CR, Reilly JP, Campbell JW. Optimum parameters for laser-launching objects into low earth orbit. Laser and Particle Beams. 2000;18(4):661-695'},{id:"B17",body:'Robbins WH, Finger HB. An Historical Perspective of the NERVA Nuclear Rocket Engine Technology Program. NASA Contractor Report 187154, AIAA-91-3451, Prepared fro Lewis Research Center Under Contract NAS3-25266, 1991'},{id:"B18",body:'Gabrielli RA, Herdrich G. Review of nuclear thermal propulsion systems. Progress in Aerospace Sciences. 2015;79:92-113'},{id:"B19",body:'Abrahamson J. Graphite sublimation temperatures, carbon arcs and crystallite erosion. Carbon. 1974;12(2):111-118'},{id:"B20",body:'Tyson RK. Principles of Adaptive Optics. 4th ed. Florida, USA: CRC Press, Boca Raton; 2015'},{id:"B21",body:'Ji X, Li X. Directionality of Gaussian array beam propagating in atmosphere turbulence. Journal of the Optical Society of America A. 2009;26(2):236-243'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Koichi Mori",address:"koichi.mori@mae.nagoya-u.ac.jp",affiliation:'
Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
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\n
1. Introduction
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When the Beatles, way back in 1965, sang the following lyrics of their song “I’ve just seen a face” [1], they summarized, by these naive lines, some of the cognitive processes and social outcomes related to one of the most culturally and socially important parts of the body (second only to the brain)—the face:
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“I’ve just seen a face,
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I cannot forget the time or place
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where we just met.
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She’s just the girl for me
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and I want all the world to see
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we have met…”
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Mankind has developed certain skills allowing for fast and reliable processing of facial information. Humans are able to detect faces: that is, the ability to identify and locate all the present faces within the receptive field (“I’ve just seen a face”). Humans also have the ability to recognize a face: to judge whether a face has been seen before and in case of positive recognition the ability to retrieve semantic data such as name or context of encounter (“I can’t forget the time or place…”). People recognize other people by their face and not, for example, by the palm of their hand. The face plays a crucial role in mate quality appraisal (“She’s just the girl for me…,” asserts Sir Paul McCartney after only seeing her face), and the preference for facial beauty exists from a very young age [2, 3]. A pretty partner is a status symbol [4], that is, a visible indicator of economic or social status (“I want all the world to see we’ve met…”).
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Random social encounters can lead to dramatic consequences ranging from trust and romantic relationships to fear and violent clashes. The decision whether to avoid or approach an unknown person therefore involves a quick risk assessment of potential gains and losses. When there is no prior information, such a decision is in many cases based on outward appearance. Humans quickly infer social traits, such as attractiveness, aggressiveness, dominance, and trustworthiness from the physical properties of the bodies and faces of others [5, 6, 7]. When it comes to facial appearance, such social inferences can be made after a very short exposure time and with high levels of interpersonal agreement [8, 9, 10, 11, 12] consequently affecting social outcomes [13, 14, 15, 16, 17]. One of the most studied face-inferred social traits is attractiveness.
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The common notion that “Beauty is not judged objectively, but according to the beholder’s estimation” dates back at least to the third century BC (Theocritus, The Idyll as cited in [18]). Even Darwin came to the same conclusion and argued that different cultures showed a diversity of preferences for attributes such as skin color, body hair, and body fat (Darwin as cited by [19]).
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Despite cross-cultural and cross-gender differences in judgments of facial attractiveness, there is still a high level of agreement not only between individuals within a particular culture but also between individuals from different cultures or different genders [6, 20, 21]. In a comparison between judgments of 17 different social traits, as inferred from faces, facial attractiveness was found to have the highest interrater agreement and reliability level. The evidence for the existence of universal criteria for facial attractiveness raises two questions:
What is the functional role of facial attractiveness?
What are the facial diagnostic cues that constitute the criteria of attractiveness judgments?
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As an answer to the first question, the evolutionary view suggests that attraction and repulsion to certain faces serve as an adaptive function [22]. Throughout evolutionary history, humans have developed preferences to specific phenotypical cues that lead them to choose mates who will provide the best chance of successful reproduction and survival of their own genes. The evolutionary approach has been based on the premise that an attractive face is a biological signal that provides valuable information about the quality of the signaler. Mate quality attributes may include characteristics such as health, fertility, intelligence, and potential for parental care. However, most research has focused on health ([23]; for review, see [24]).
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To answer the second question, many studies have used facial image manipulations to test observers’ responses. Some of these studies have suggested that there are several facial diagnostic cues that advertise the biological quality of an individual through the medium of the face. These phenotypical cues include: facial symmetry, averageness (i.e., faces that are not too far from the population mathematical mean of the geometric structure and texture) and sexual dimorphism (i.e., secondary sexual characteristics; see [25] for meta-analysis).
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\n
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2. What makes a face attractive?
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Despite a large body of research and findings, the question of what makes a face attractive is not easy to formalize. Among the reasons for that we can include the following nonexclusive list:
The complexity of the human face: the human face is a complex object and requires a high-dimensional data structure to represent and analyze it. Even if we want to represent information about a static non-expressive face, such data structure should include information about morphology (i.e., structure) and texture. Over recent decades, there has been a significant progress in the development of computational tools for the analysis and synthesis of faces [26, 27, 28].
The effect of the external physical environment: the viewing conditions may have a dramatic effect on the way we infer social traits from a face in general. Such physical conditions may include viewing distance, perspective, lighting conditions etc. It is not clear that the same facial determinants of social traits are identical under different viewing conditions.
Facial movements: the face is not a rigid object. A large set of groups of muscles (a.k.a. Action Units [29]) can and do change facial appearance. Many of these facial movements convey social signals such as emotional expressions. As a result, facial movements may affect the social inference from the face and even override the social impression of the default neutral and nonexpressive face. Facial movements add another level of complexity to the representation and analysis of faces; however, computational models for analysis and synthesis of facial movements are already in use [30].
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Considering the above challenges, this chapter addresses the essence of facial beauty as a multifaceted question. To this end, we will approach the facial beauty signal as a part of a comprehensive communication system that comprises not only the signaling face as a transmitter but also the receiver (i.e., the observer) and the communication channel (i.e., of the external physical environment).
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3. Attractiveness within the context of communication theory
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All communications systems whether they are electronic, biological, or other comprise three fundamental elements:
The transmitter: the source that creates, modulates, and transmits the signals, for example a radio station.
The receiver: the agent that obtains the signal from the transmitter using a codebook. The codebook is an abstract list of rules that associates a meaning or reaction to specific messages.
The communication channel: the physical transmission medium or pathway that conveys the signals from the transmitter to the receiver; for example, a broadband fiber optic cable. A crucial point is that the communication channel modifies the transmitted signal. As a result, the signal received by the receiver is, in most cases, not identical to the original signal that was sent by the transmitter. Therefore, the physical properties of the channel determine the capability of the receiver to decode the transmitted signal [31]. In the case of social signaling from a face, the communication channel may have a large variety of characteristics: viewing distance, lighting conditions, the face or body’s spatial orientation, partial occlusion, etc. The communication channel thus imposes constraints on the available information, changing the receiver’s facial inference strategy. This means the question of what makes an attractive face is context dependent where a major factor that affects the attractiveness determinants is the communication channel.
\n\n
\n
3.1 The face as a signal transmitter
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The face is a central communication tool in human social interaction. It transmits a large range of signals that convey social information to which the receiver associates meaning about the transmitter. This meaning whether it is reliable or not may include: gender, age, ethnicity, health condition, mood, intention, and competence. Some social impression signals (e.g., those indicating social traits such as dominance, trustworthiness, and attractiveness) are transmitted involuntarily by the default phenotypic morphology and complexion of the face [6]. However, other signals, such as facial expressions of emotion, can be voluntarily deployed strategically to negotiate social situations. Humans, as highly adaptive social beings and in a similar way to other social animals, can camouflage these involuntary morphology-based signals to boost chances of success within their ecological niche. In practice, humans deploy social-camouflage strategies by using dynamic facial signals to camouflage the involuntary social signals transmitted by static facial morphology [5]. In the latter study, using a computer graphics platform and a data-driven technique, facial action units (AUs, i.e., independent facial groups of muscles; [29]) were correlated with the impression of attractiveness to create a dynamic model of facial expression that elicits the impression of attractiveness. \nFigure 1\n depicts the facial movements that elicit the strongest and weakest intensities of attractiveness and lists the significant AUs that were combined to produce them. The color-coded heat maps show the movement magnitude of the 3-D vertices that make up each dynamic social signal. Using a similar approach, Gill et al. obtained dynamic models of facial movements that modulate the perception of two additional fundamental social traits: trustworthiness and dominance [5]. The latter study also examined the camouflaging capabilities of the modeled dynamic social gestures (i.e., whether the facial movements that are formalized in the models could override the involuntary default social signals transmitted by static facial morphology of the transmitter). The results revealed that attractiveness was the most difficult of these traits to camouflage. Humans are thus condemned to bear the social consequences of the inherited attractiveness of their faces. By contrast, social camouflage of dominance and trustworthiness is probably commonplace in everyday interactions. Casting directors are probably aware of this inequality. An attractive character will require an actor with attractive morphology; however, social camouflage can help an actor fake a dominant or trustworthy character.
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Figure 1.
Social camouflage. The two rows depict the signals of attractiveness with strong (+) and weak (−) intensities. The texture maps at the left illustrate the appearance of attractiveness on a common face. The color-coded heat maps indicate the location of dynamic face regions of the attractiveness signal; red indicates the highest magnitude of vertex movement. The column on the right lists the action units present in the majority of the observers’ individual models [5].
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Figure 2.
Diagnostic cues vary with distance. Left panel: a hybrid image consisting of the low spatial frequencies (LSFs) of a girl and the high spatial frequency (HSF) of a boy. From a short viewing distance, the image is perceived as the face of a boy. From a long viewing distance, the image is perceived as the face of a girl. Right panel: the LSF of the girl’s image (upper image) and the HSF of the boy’s image (lower image).
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\n
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3.2 Viewing distance as a communication channel
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Social encounters may start at varying viewing distances. Based on the available information, individuals decide about their next action—whether to approach or avoid the other person. The face transmits a variety of social signals to receiving observers across a wide range of viewing distances acting as a communication channel. Evaluating the social and reproductive capacity of others is paramount to negotiating the type of social interaction between individuals and, ultimately, to promoting the survival of the human species. However, social encounters begin at varying viewing distances, which can dramatically change the visual information and level of detail that is available for social judgments.
\n
When a face moves closer to the receiver, its projection on the observing receiver’s retina increases in size. As a result, the high spatial frequency information (HSF, representing fine details) projected initially on the retina progressively shifts toward lower spatial frequencies (LSFs, representing coarser scale and global information). Furthermore, new HSF details become progressively available on the retinal projection of the closer face for visual categorization in the receiver. When a face moves away from the receiver, it has the opposite effect: the retinal projection diminishes in size, the retina-based HSFs are no longer detected due to the finite resolution of the retina and the facial information initially represented in retina-based LSFs becomes retina-based HSFs. Combining different messages, transmitted by different spatial frequency bands, in one image is known as a hybrid image [32]. An illustrative example is shown in \nFigure 2\n, in which a hybrid image that combines the LSF of one face (a boy) with the HSF of another face (a girl). The available information of the image changes with viewing distance (or size) and as a result the face is perceived as a boy at a short distance (or in a large image size) and as a girl at a long distance (in a diminished size).
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The critical impact of viewing distance, as a communication channel, raises the fundamental question of what specific facial signals communicate attractiveness and whether these signals change across viewing distance. Attractiveness diagnostic cues are found to covary with distance [33].
\n
\n\nFigure 3\n illustrates how observers use different information from faces (both structure and texture) to assess attractiveness from proximal and distal signals. The diagnostic cues, both structural and textural, are color coded as follows: distal diagnostic cues are in red, proximal diagnostic cues are in green, and cues that are diagnostic in both distal and proximal distances are in yellow. Across all receiver-transmitter gender conditions (e.g., females observing males and females observing females) consistently, the hair has been found to be the prominent distal diagnostic cue. This is not surprising, considering the relatively large projection of the hair on the retina at long viewing distances compared to other facial attributes. Interestingly, among female transmitters, short or pulled-back hair is perceived as a distal signal of unattractiveness. The latter result suggests that masculine attributes in women (i.e., short hair) may distally signal characteristics associated with masculinity. Among male signals, trimmed hair is perceived as a distal signal of unattractiveness. In proximal viewing distance there are more available cues and the influence of the hair as a determinant cue decreases. Among both female and male transmitters, the eye region structure is found as a proximal diagnostic cue (though to different extent across receiver-transmitter’s gender conditions and social traits). Moreover, among male transmitters, the glabellar frown lines were found as a proximal cue.
\n
Figure 3.
Attractiveness predictions and diagnostic cues. The results are organized by sex of stimuli (columns) and based on judgment of opposite sex observers. For each sex of stimuli, the leftmost (distal—48 m) and rightmost (proximal—1.5 m) columns show the model predictions for the two polarities of trait denoted by + and − (attractive and unattractive correspondently). The middle column of each sex of stimuli category shows the diagnostic structural (i.e., shape of the facial features) and textural cues using color codes: green (exclusively distal cues), red (exclusively proximal cues), and yellow (both distal and proximal cues) [33].
\n
Another interesting question is whether viewing distance induces a natural hierarchy across different social traits in which humans infer some of these traits at longer viewing distances with greater sensitivity than other traits. The communication channel induces a natural hierarchy of decoding success, with attractiveness being the trait inferred from the greatest viewing distances. When comparing four basic social traits (aggressiveness, attractiveness, dominance, and trustworthiness), attractiveness was found to be inferred from the longest viewing distance tested (96 m, [33]).
\n
\n
\n
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4. Conclusions
\n
The face is a communication tool that transmits a wide range of social signals. Inference of social traits from faces has evolved and diversified to serve, at least in part, as a rudimentary but instant communication tool to evaluate the benefits of cooperation or aversion during social interaction. Whether these signals are reliable or not, the facial signal decoding system in the receiver’s brain has to deal with the major challenge of organizing the high-dimensional input from the retina and mapping it into a stable representation of a social category. Among the signals of some basic social traits, the signal of attractiveness is found to be outstanding in terms of interobserver agreement, reliability, and robustness to a variety of manipulations induced by the sender and the communication channel. Not only does the transmitter send complex social signals, in addition the communication channel induces large variability on the received signals. The limitations of the information that is caused by the camouflaging communication channel may challenge the receiver. An example for a potential scenario is that what is attractive from afar may be far from attractive at a short viewing distance and vice versa. The visual system is thus required to have a detailed set of diagnostic tools that varies with the availability of information and channel conditions. Interestingly, in a comparison among several social traits, attractiveness was found to be decoded from the longest distance, longer even the decoding distance of aggression.
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The transmitter is not passive and by using specific facial movements they can camouflage the default neutral appearance of the face. Even if this is the case, the attractiveness of the face is found to be the most robust and hard to fake when compared with the other social traits that were studied [33].
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Facial attractiveness is therefore a robust signal in social communication and the human brain seems to be adapted to detect it more effectively than any other social trait. There can be several possible reasons for the latter outcome. One possibility is that attractiveness signals provide more reliable information about the transmitter. For example, while attractiveness is a reliable signal of potential successful reproduction and survival of descendants, signals of trustworthiness may reflect actual levels of trustworthiness to a lesser extent (if at all). Another possibility is that with the limited computational and attentional capacities of the human brain, the higher sensitivity to attractiveness signals reflects the gain and loss priorities. Such risk management policy may give priority to approaching an attractive transmitter while ignoring hazard cues of aggression.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
The author would like to thank Philippe G. Schyns, Benedict C. Jones, Oliver G. B. Garrod, and Rachael E. Jack from the University of Glasgow for their collaboration in some of the studies presented here. Special thanks to Stella E. Bell for her helpful suggestions during the write up of this chapter.
\n
\n',keywords:"action units, communication theory, facial attractiveness, social camouflage, social traits, spatial frequency",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/72702.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/72702.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72702",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72702",totalDownloads:487,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"October 11th 2019",dateReviewed:"March 31st 2020",datePrePublished:"July 14th 2020",datePublished:"May 12th 2021",dateFinished:"July 2nd 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The human face is an elaborate communication tool that transmits a large variety of signals such as: identity, gender, ethnicity, age, emotional state, health, and more. Of particular importance is the tendency of human observers to infer social traits (e.g., attractiveness, dominance or trustworthiness) rapidly from faces which, in turn, can lead to a specific action from a wide spectrum of possibilities ranging from mating to violent clashes. Among the social trait signals that are transmitted by the face, the attractiveness signal is outstanding in its robustness against manipulation initiated by the transmitter or interference caused by the physical environment’s many aspects. Among these aspects are the robustness of attractiveness to manipulations caused by the physical environment (e.g., viewing distance) or manipulations made by the signaler (e.g., facial movements). To understand what makes a face attractive and the unique role that attractiveness plays as a communication signal, this chapter will use the universal framework of communication systems. Every communication system consists of three key elements: a transmitter, a receiver, and a communication channel. All these three components affect the semantic meaning of every message transmitted in the system and thus shape the outcome following the message reception.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/72702",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/72702",signatures:"Daniel Gill",book:{id:"7811",type:"book",title:"Beauty",subtitle:"Cosmetic Science, Cultural Issues and Creative Developments",fullTitle:"Beauty - Cosmetic Science, Cultural Issues and Creative Developments",slug:"beauty-cosmetic-science-cultural-issues-and-creative-developments",publishedDate:"May 12th 2021",bookSignature:"Martha Peaslee Levine and Júlia Scherer Santos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7811.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83962-448-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-447-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-449-0",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"186919",title:"Dr.",name:"Martha",middleName:null,surname:"Peaslee Levine",slug:"martha-peaslee-levine",fullName:"Martha Peaslee Levine"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"313309",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Gill",fullName:"Daniel Gill",slug:"daniel-gill",email:"daniel.gill@winchester.ac.uk",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. What makes a face attractive?",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Attractiveness within the context of communication theory",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 The face as a signal transmitter",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Viewing distance as a communication channel",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"4. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nLennon JW, McCartney JP. I’ve Just Seen a Face, In: Help. London: EMI; 1965\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nBuss DM. The Evolution of Desire: Strategies of Human Mating. 4th ed. New York: Basic Books; 2016. p. 448\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nLanglois JH, Ritter JM, Roggman LA, Vaughn LS. Facial diversity and infant preferences for attractive faces. Developmental Psychology. 1991;27:79-84. DOI: 10.1037/0012-1649.27.1.79\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nEtcoff NL. Survival of the Prettiest: The Science of Beauty. 1st ed. 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Unfakeable facial configurations affect strategic choices in trust games with or without information about past behavior. PLOS One. 2012;7(3):e34293. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0034293\n'},{id:"B15",body:'\nRule NO, Ambady N. The face of success: Inferences from chief executive officers’ appearance predict company profits. Psychological Science. 2008;19:109-111. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02054.x\n'},{id:"B16",body:'\nTodorov A, Mandisodza AN, Goren A, Hall CA. Inferences of competence from faces predict election outcomes. Science. 2005;308:1623-1626. DOI: 10.1126/science.1110589\n'},{id:"B17",body:'\nTodorov A, Olivola CY, Dotsch R, Mende-Siedlecki P. Social attributions from faces: Determinants, consequences, accuracy, and functional significance. Annual Review of Psychology. 2015;66:519-545. DOI: 10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143831\n'},{id:"B18",body:'\nRubenstein AJ, Langlois JH, Roggman LA. What makes a face at tractive and why: The role of averageness in defining facial beauty. In: Facial Attractiveness: Evolutionary, Cognitive and Social Perspective. Westport Connecticut: Ablex publishing; 2002\n'},{id:"B19",body:'\nBruce V. Recognizing Faces. Hove and London: Lawrence Erlbaum; 1988. p. 154\n'},{id:"B20",body:'\nCunningham MR, Roberts AR, Barbee AP, Druen PB. ‘Their ideas of beauty are, on the whole, the same as ours’: Consistency and variability in the cross-cultural perception of female attractiveness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1995;68:261-279. DOI: 10.1037/00223514.68.2.261\n'},{id:"B21",body:'\nGill D. Women and men integrate facial information differently in appraising the beauty of a face. Evolution and Human Behavior. 2017;38(6):756-760. DOI: 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2017.07.001\n'},{id:"B22",body:'\nZebrowitz-McArthur L, Baron RM. Toward an ecological approach to social perception. Psychological Review. 1983;90:215-238. DOI: 10.1037/0033-295X. 90.3.215\n'},{id:"B23",body:'\nRhodes G, Yoshikawa S, Palermo R, Simmons WL, Peters M, Lee K, et al. Perceived health contributes to the attractiveness of facial symmetry, averageness, and sexual dimorphism. Perception. 2007;36:1244-1252. DOI: 10.1068/p5712\n'},{id:"B24",body:'\nThornhill R, Gangestad SW. Facial attractiveness. Trends in Cognitive Science. 1999;3:452-460. DOI: 10.1016/ S1364-6613(99)01403-5\n'},{id:"B25",body:'\nRhodes G. The evolutionary psychology of facial beauty. Annual Review of Psychology. 2006;57:199-226. DOI: 10.1146/ annurev.psych.57.102904.190208\n'},{id:"B26",body:'\nBlanz V, Vetter T. A morphable model for the synthesis of 3D faces. In: Proceedings of the 26th annual conference on Computer graphics and interactive techniques (SIGGRAPH ‘99); 8-13 August 1999; Los Angeles, New York: ACM Press; 1999. pp. 187-194. DOI: 10.1145/311535.311556\n'},{id:"B27",body:'\nSirovich L, Kirby M. Low-dimensional procedure for the characterization of human faces. Journal of the Optical Society of America A. 1987;4(3):519-524. DOI: 10.1364/JOSAA.4.000519\n'},{id:"B28",body:'\nTurk M, Pentland A. Eigenfaces for recognition. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. 1991;3(1):71-86. DOI: 10.1162/jocn.1991.3.1.71\n'},{id:"B29",body:'\nEkman P, Friesen WV. Facial Action Coding System: A Technique For The Measurement of Facial Movement. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press; 1978. DOI: 10.1037/t27734-000\n'},{id:"B30",body:'\nYu H, Garrod O, Schyns P. Perception-driven facial expression synthesis. Computers and Graphics. 2012;36(3):152-162. DOI: 10.1016/j.cag.2011.12.002\n'},{id:"B31",body:'\nShannon CE, Weaver W. The Mathematical Theory of Communication. Urbana, Illinois: The University of Illinois Press; 1949. p. 117\n'},{id:"B32",body:'\nSchyns PG, Oliva A. Dr. Angry and Mr. Smile: When Categorization Flexibly Modifies the Perception of Faces in Rapid Visual Presentations. Cognition. 1999;69(3):243-265. DOI: 10.1016/s0010-0277(98)00069-9\n'},{id:"B33",body:'\nGill D, Jones B. Facial diagnostic cues for social inferences covary with viewing distance [in preparation]\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Daniel Gill",address:"daniel.gill@winchester.ac.uk",affiliation:'
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These include situation of death, anatomical and histological analysis, toxicology and microbiological study. A low part of autopsies remain without a conclusive cause of death, but all these cases are usually seen in young population, apparently healthy who died suddenly and unexpectedly. In these situations a cardiac arrhythmia is suspected as cause of death and genetic testing is recommended despite not regularly performed. Sudden death is a natural and unexpected decease that occurs in apparently healthy people, or whose disease was not severe enough to expect a fatal outcome. It can be due to several pathologies, usually of cardiac cause and called sudden cardiac death. In infants and young people, both long QT syndrome and catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia are main causes in negative autopsies. These genetic diseases lead to ventricular fibrillation, syncope and sudden cardiac death in a normal heart. Unfortunately, sudden cardiac death could be the first manifestation of the diseases, being early identification and prevention a crucial point in current medical practice. This chapter focuses on sudden death and negative autopsy in young population, mainly due to cardiac arrhythmias.",book:{id:"6262",slug:"post-mortem-examination-and-autopsy-current-issues-from-death-to-laboratory-analysis",title:"Post Mortem Examination and Autopsy",fullTitle:"Post Mortem Examination and Autopsy - Current Issues From Death to Laboratory Analysis"},signatures:"Georgia Sarquella-Brugada, Sergi Cesar, Anna Fernandez-Falgueras,\nMaria Dolores Zambrano, Anna Iglesias, Josep Brugada, Ramon\nBrugada and Oscar Campuzano",authors:[{id:"54165",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramon",middleName:null,surname:"Brugada",slug:"ramon-brugada",fullName:"Ramon Brugada"},{id:"54168",title:"Dr.",name:"Oscar",middleName:null,surname:"Campuzano",slug:"oscar-campuzano",fullName:"Oscar Campuzano"},{id:"218478",title:"Dr.",name:"Georgia",middleName:null,surname:"Sarquella-Brugada",slug:"georgia-sarquella-brugada",fullName:"Georgia Sarquella-Brugada"},{id:"218479",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergi",middleName:null,surname:"Cesar",slug:"sergi-cesar",fullName:"Sergi Cesar"},{id:"218480",title:"MSc.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Fernandez-Falgueras",slug:"anna-fernandez-falgueras",fullName:"Anna Fernandez-Falgueras"},{id:"218482",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Dolores",middleName:null,surname:"Zambrano",slug:"maria-dolores-zambrano",fullName:"Maria Dolores Zambrano"},{id:"218483",title:"MSc.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Iglesias",slug:"anna-iglesias",fullName:"Anna Iglesias"},{id:"218484",title:"Prof.",name:"Josep",middleName:null,surname:"Brugada",slug:"josep-brugada",fullName:"Josep Brugada"}]},{id:"57778",title:"Defining Dental Age for Chronological Age Determination",slug:"defining-dental-age-for-chronological-age-determination",totalDownloads:2540,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Dental age assessment is one of the most reliable methods of chronological age estimation used for criminal, forensic and anthropologic purposes. Visual, radiographic, chemical and histological techniques can be used for dental age estimation. Visual method is based on the sequence of eruption of the teeth and morphological changes that are caused due to function such as attrition, changes in color that are indicators of aging. Radiographs of the dentition can be used to determine the stage of dental development of the teeth from initial mineralization of a tooth, crown formation to root apex maturation. Histological methods require the preparation of the tissues for detailed microscopic examination. The chemical analysis of dental hard tissues determines alterations in ion levels with age, whereas the histological and chemical methods are invasive methods requiring extraction/sectioning of the tooth. In this chapter, the different techniques and considered studies were overviewed in conjunction with their advantages and disadvantages. It needs to be taken into consideration that rather than restricting on one age estimation technique, using the other available techniques additionally and performing repetitive measurements may be beneficial for accurate age estimation.",book:{id:"6262",slug:"post-mortem-examination-and-autopsy-current-issues-from-death-to-laboratory-analysis",title:"Post Mortem Examination and Autopsy",fullTitle:"Post Mortem Examination and Autopsy - Current Issues From Death to Laboratory Analysis"},signatures:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner, Emine Kaygısız and Nilüfer Darendeliler",authors:[{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner"},{id:"200985",title:"Dr.",name:"Emine",middleName:null,surname:"Kaygisiz",slug:"emine-kaygisiz",fullName:"Emine Kaygisiz"},{id:"222232",title:"Prof.",name:"Nilufer",middleName:null,surname:"Darendeliler",slug:"nilufer-darendeliler",fullName:"Nilufer Darendeliler"}]},{id:"77222",title:"Forensic Analysis and Interpretation of Tool Marks",slug:"forensic-analysis-and-interpretation-of-tool-marks",totalDownloads:458,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The forensic analysis and interpretation of tool marks raise for consideration key methods and advances in the field of tool marks in forensic science. This chapter shows how tool mark analysis can be utilized in the course of criminal investigations. The focus of the chapter is on bringing together as much scientific knowledge in the area as possible in an accessible manner. It covers all aspects of tool mark evidence from the crime scene to the courtroom. This chapter provides information about tool marks in an effort to assist tool mark examiners as well as people practicing forensic science, crime scene examiners, crime investigating officers and members of the legal profession. It includes information about the analysis of tool marks at the crime scene and in the laboratory, the interpretation and assessment of challenges for examination and interpretation and also the way in which tool mark evidence can be presented in a courtroom.",book:{id:"10579",slug:"forensic-analysis-scientific-and-medical-techniques-and-evidence-under-the-microscope",title:"Forensic Analysis",fullTitle:"Forensic Analysis - Scientific and Medical Techniques and Evidence under the Microscope"},signatures:"Sachil Kumar, Geetika Saxena and Archana Gautam",authors:[{id:"335909",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Sachil",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"sachil-kumar",fullName:"Sachil Kumar"},{id:"345319",title:"MSc.",name:"Geetika",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"geetika-saxena",fullName:"Geetika Saxena"},{id:"345320",title:"MSc.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Gautam",slug:"archana-gautam",fullName:"Archana Gautam"}]},{id:"19161",title:"Diagnostic of Drowning in Forensic Medicine",slug:"diagnostic-of-drowning-in-forensic-medicine",totalDownloads:8162,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:null,book:{id:"243",slug:"forensic-medicine-from-old-problems-to-new-challenges",title:"Forensic Medicine",fullTitle:"Forensic Medicine - From Old Problems to New Challenges"},signatures:"Audrey Farrugia and Bertrand Ludes",authors:[{id:"34146",title:"Dr.",name:"Audrey",middleName:null,surname:"Farrugia",slug:"audrey-farrugia",fullName:"Audrey Farrugia"},{id:"49284",title:"Dr.",name:"Bertrand",middleName:null,surname:"Ludes",slug:"bertrand-ludes",fullName:"Bertrand Ludes"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1019",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[],lsSeriesList:[],hsSeriesList:[],sshSeriesList:[],testimonialsList:[]},series:{item:{},subseries:{paginationCount:0,paginationItems:[]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:0,paginationItems:[]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:0,paginationItems:[]},openForSubmissionBooks:{},onlineFirstChapters:{},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[],publishedBooks:{},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[],publicationYearFilters:[],authors:{}},subseries:{item:{id:"93",type:"subseries",title:"Inclusivity and Social Equity",keywords:"Social contract, SDG, Human rights, Inclusiveness, Equity, Democracy, Personal learning, Collaboration, Glocalization",scope:"
\r\n\tThis topic is dedicated to the efforts and promotion of UNESCO SDG4, the UNESCO initiative on the future of education, and the need for a new social contract for education. It aims to disseminate knowledge on policies, strategies, methods, and technologies that increase the resilience and sustainability of the development of the future of education and the new social contract for education. It will also consider the global challenges such as globalization, demographic change, digital transformation, climate change, environment and the social pillars of sustainable development.
\r\n
\r\n\tResponses to the pandemic and the widespread discontent that preceded it must be based on a new social contract and a New Global Deal for education that ensures equal opportunities for all and respects all people’s rights and freedoms (UNESCO; 2021). Such a new social contract, as proposed by UNESCO, must be based on the general principles underlying human rights - inclusion and equality, cooperation and solidarity, and collective responsibility and interconnectedness - and be guided by the following fundamental principle: Ensure that everyone has access to quality education throughout their lives.
\r\n
\r\n\tWe face the dual challenge of delivering on the unfulfilled promise of ensuring the right to quality education for every child, youth, and adult, as well as fully realizing the transformative potential of education as a pathway to a more sustainable collective future. To achieve this, we need a new social contract for education that eliminates inequities while transforming the future. This new social contract must be based on human rights and the principles of non-discrimination, social justice, respect for life, human dignity, and cultural diversity. It must include an ethic of care, reciprocity and solidarity. The new social contract builds on inclusiveness, equity, lifelong learning, SDG, collaboration and personal learning in a global context for democracy.
\r\n
\r\n\tAt an international level, the adoption of the Open Educational Resources recommendation and the Open Science recommendation represents an important step towards building more open and inclusive knowledge societies as well as the achievement of the UN 2030 Agenda. Indeed, implementing the recommendations will help to achieve at least five more Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) that are intertwined with the topic of this book series, namely SDG 5 (Gender equality), SDG 9 (Industry, innovation and infrastructure), SDG 10 (Reduced inequalities within and across countries), SDG 16 (Peace, justice and strong institutions) and SDG 17 (Partnerships for the goals).
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/93.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11977,editor:{id:"210060",title:"Prof. Dr.",name:"Ebba",middleName:null,surname:"Ossiannilsson",slug:"ebba-ossiannilsson",fullName:"Ebba Ossiannilsson",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6LkBQAU/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:31:48.png",biography:'Professor Dr. Ebba Ossiannilsson is an independent researcher, expert, consultant, quality auditor and influencer in the fields of open, flexible online and distance learning (OFDL) and the "new normal". Her focus is on quality, innovation, leadership, and personalised learning. She works primarily at the strategic and policy levels, both nationally and internationally, and with key international organisations. She is committed to promoting and improving OFDL in the context of SDG4 and the future of education. Ossiannilsson has more than 20 years of experience in her current field, but more than 40 years in the education sector. She works as a reviewer and expert for the European Commission and collaborates with the Joint Research Centre for Quality in Open Education. Ossiannilsson also collaborates with ITCILO and ICoBC (International Council on Badges and Credentials). She is a member of the ICDE Board of Directors and has previously served on the boards of EDEN and EUCEN. Ossiannilsson is a quality expert and reviewer for ICDE, EDEN and the EADTU. She chairs the ICDE OER Advocacy Committee and is a member of the ICDE Quality Network. She is regularly invited as a keynote speaker at conferences. She is a guest editor for several special issues and a member of the editorial board of several scientific journals. She has published more than 200 articles and is currently working on book projects in the field of OFDL. Ossiannilsson is a visiting professor at several international universities and was recently appointed Professor and Research Fellow at Victoria University of Wellington, NZ. Ossiannilsson has been awarded the following fellowships: EDEN Fellows, EDEN Council of Fellows, and Open Education Europe. She is a ICDE OER Ambassador, Open Education Europe Ambassador, GIZ Ambassador for Quality in Digital Learning, and part of the Globe-Community of Digital Learning and Champion of SPARC Europe. On a national level, she is a quality developer at the Swedish Institute for Standards (SIS) and for ISO. She is a member of the Digital Skills and Jobs Coalition Sweden and Vice President of the Swedish Association for Distance Education. She is currently working on a government initiative on quality in distance education at the National Council for Higher Education. She holds a Ph.D. from the University of Oulu, Finland.',institutionString:"Swedish Association for Distance Education, Sweden",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null},editorialBoard:[{id:"320585",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Deborah",middleName:null,surname:"Young",slug:"deborah-young",fullName:"Deborah Young",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002vZLcTQAW/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T08:30:47.jpg",institutionString:"Empowering Communities Globally",institution:null},{id:"348038",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Feyza",middleName:null,surname:"Bhatti",slug:"feyza-bhatti",fullName:"Feyza Bhatti",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/348038/images/system/348038.jpg",institutionString:"Girne American University",institution:{name:"Girne American University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Cyprus"}}},{id:"128665",title:"Prof.",name:"Man-Chung",middleName:null,surname:"Chiu",slug:"man-chung-chiu",fullName:"Man-Chung Chiu",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bR9OrQAK/Profile_Picture_2022-03-09T08:36:59.JPG",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing Normal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{},publishedBooks:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"8977",title:"Protein Kinases",subtitle:"Promising Targets for Anticancer Drug Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8977.jpg",slug:"protein-kinases-promising-targets-for-anticancer-drug-research",publishedDate:"December 8th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rajesh Kumar Singh",hash:"6d200cc031706a565b554fdb1c478901",volumeInSeries:24,fullTitle:"Protein Kinases - Promising Targets for Anticancer Drug Research",editors:[{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9742",title:"Ubiquitin",subtitle:"Proteasome Pathway",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9742.jpg",slug:"ubiquitin-proteasome-pathway",publishedDate:"December 9th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Xianquan Zhan",hash:"af6880d3a5571da1377ac8f6373b9e82",volumeInSeries:18,fullTitle:"Ubiquitin - Proteasome Pathway",editors:[{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},testimonialsList:[{id:"8",text:"I work with IntechOpen for a number of reasons: their professionalism, their mission in support of Open Access publishing, and the quality of their peer-reviewed publications, but also because they believe in equality.",author:{id:"202192",name:"Catrin",surname:"Rutland",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",slug:"catrin-rutland",institution:{id:"134",name:"University of Nottingham",country:{id:null,name:"United Kingdom"}}}},{id:"18",text:"It was great publishing with IntechOpen, the process was straightforward and I had support all along.",author:{id:"71579",name:"Berend",surname:"Olivier",institutionString:"Utrecht University",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71579/images/system/71579.png",slug:"berend-olivier",institution:{id:"253",name:"Utrecht University",country:{id:null,name:"Netherlands"}}}},{id:"27",text:"The opportunity to work with a prestigious publisher allows for the possibility to collaborate with more research groups interested in animal nutrition, leading to the development of new feeding strategies and food valuation while being more sustainable with the environment, allowing more readers to learn about the subject.",author:{id:"175967",name:"Manuel",surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",institution:{id:"6221",name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",country:{id:null,name:"Mexico"}}}}]},submityourwork:{pteSeriesList:[],lsSeriesList:[],hsSeriesList:[],sshSeriesList:[],subseriesList:[],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 24th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:288,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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