Respondents profiles.
\r\n\tb. The growth of digital environments which can educate and empower as well as exploit and destroy (mobile learning, STEM education, tablets, etc.).
\r\n\tc. Social, racial, class, and gender-based discriminations that restrict the developmental potential and the prosperity perspectives
\r\n\td. Health hazards and illnesses such as the laters COVID-19 pandemic.
\r\n\te. Armed conflicts with casualties and displacements of populations seeking refuge
\r\n\tf. Lack of physical spaces that will support and nourish development and learning, etc.
\r\n\tEducation in the post-modern era strives to address the above issues and develop policies, curricula, methodologies, and strategies to contribute to an environmentally and socially sustainable future. It embraces multiple perspectives and worldviews and seeks to touch on inequalities and discriminations in favor of equity. In this direction, children’s s agency lies at the heart of democratic approaches. Educational processes adopt forms of interactions that actualize learning as “becoming” and place it in a continuum between past, present, and future. This book intends to feature innovative approaches that employ transformative elements (targets, methods, materials, ideas, etc.) and embrace the concept of child development as “becoming” in an ever-changing and challenging world.
\r\n\r\n\tWe invite authors to contribute original research or research review papers that present innovative approaches addressing personal and social transformation. All aspects of early childhood education will be considered, including research methodology for the early years.
",isbn:"978-1-80355-949-0",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-948-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-950-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"351c41dca5c8c997f15e758f2e035178",bookSignature:"Dr. Maria Ampartzaki and Associate Prof. Michail Kalogiannakis",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11281.jpg",keywords:"Early Childhood Education, Preschool, STEAM, Environmental Sustainability, Social Sciences, Social Sustainability, ICT, Digital Devices, Education for Equity, Gender Issues, Post-modern Epistemology, Social Constructivism",numberOfDownloads:65,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 16th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 14th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 12th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 3rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 2nd 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"8 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Maria Ampartzaki is an Assistant Professor in Early Childhood Education in the Department of Preschool Education at the University of Crete. Her research interests include ICT in education, science education in the early years, inquiry-based and art-based learning, teachers’ professional development, action research, and the Pedagogy of Multiliteracies, among others. She has run and participated in several funded and non-funded projects on the teaching of Science, Social Sciences, and ICT in education.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Michail Kalogiannakis is an Associate Professor of the Department of Preschool\r\nEducation, University of Crete in Greece. He graduated from the Physics Department\r\nof the University of Crete and continued his post-graduate studies at the University\r\nParis-7 and University Paris-5 and received his Ph.D. degree at the University Paris 5.\r\nHis research interests include science education in early childhood, science teaching\r\nand learning, e-learning, the use of ICT in science education, and games simulations.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"422488",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Ampartzaki",slug:"maria-ampartzaki",fullName:"Maria Ampartzaki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/422488/images/system/422488.jpg",biography:"Dr Maria Ampartzaki is an Assistant Professor in Early Childhood Education in the Department of Preschool Education at the University of Crete. Her research interests include ICT in education, science education in the early years, inquiry-based and art-based learning, teachers’ professional development, action research, and the Pedagogy of Multiliteracies, among others. She has run and participated in several funded and non-funded projects on the teaching of Science, Social Sciences, and ICT in education. She also has the experience of participating in five Erasmus+ projects.",institutionString:"University of Crete",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Crete",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"260066",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Michail",middleName:null,surname:"Kalogiannakis",slug:"michail-kalogiannakis",fullName:"Michail Kalogiannakis",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260066/images/system/260066.jpg",biography:"Michail Kalogiannakis is an Associate Professor of the Department of Preschool Education, University of Crete, and an Associate Tutor at School of Humanities at the Hellenic Open University. He graduated from the Physics Department of the University of Crete and continued his post-graduate studies at the University Paris 7-Denis Diderot (D.E.A. in Didactic of Physics), University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (D.E.A. in Science Education) and received his Ph.D. degree at the University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (PhD in Science Education). His research interests include science education in early childhood, science teaching and learning, e-learning, the use of ICT in science education, games simulations, and mobile learning. 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Prior studies about gender differences in PTSD have generally focused on prevalence and symptom expression. However, no systematic review has organized the results of studies examining why women developed more PTSD symptoms than men, and what neural basis underlies their different reactions to stress. Understanding these can lead to more targeted and more effective treatments and interventions. In this review, we discuss the susceptibility to, and resilience of, gender differences of PTSD in the existing literatures and the neural mechanisms that underlie them. We propose that investigating the susceptibility and resilience of gender differences in PTSD may help to shed light on the gender-based risk for, or mechanism of, developing PTSD, which may result in long-term treatment gains.
\nMost findings of gender differences in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) prevalence found that females are reported to be diagnosed with PTSD after a trauma twice as often as males [1] and developed stronger PTSD symptoms than males [2]. The lifetime prevalence of PTSD in females is higher (10.4%) than in males (5.0%), and that kind of difference become evident in adulthood, peaked in early adulthood, then decreased with age [3, 4]. These findings also show that women experience a longer duration of posttraumatic stress symptoms (4 years duration for females compared to 1 year for males) [5] and display more re-experiencing, avoidance and hyperarousal [3]. In general, women are slightly less likely to experience life traumatic events than men. However, women are at higher risk for PTSD after exposure to a traumatic event because women and men often experience different types of trauma [6]. Meta-analysis showed that men tend to experience traumatic events such as accidents, natural disasters, man-made disasters, and military combat, whereas women tend to experience more incidents of sexual assault and sexual abuse. It is noteworthy that the different types of potentially traumatic events (PETs) only predict a part of gender differences in PTSD [7, 8]. Moreover, the gender differences in PTSD are often cross-cultural, and these kinds of differences were amplified in more traditional cultures [9]. Norris et al. compared gender differences in PTSD in different cultures and suggested that PTSD symptoms such as intrusion and avoidance differences in gender appear to be more evident in more traditional cultures [9]. Also, gender differences in PTSD are not simply associated with biological sex; they may also be due to social gender role [10]. For example, female police officers showed less PTSD prevalence than female civilians, despite greater exposure to traumatic events commonly experienced by female police officers.
\nFrom previous literatures, anxiety disorders are much more common among girls than boys [11]. For example, Lewinsohn et al. investigated a large sample of adolescents, which included 1079 who had never met criteria for any disorder, and found that girls were more likely than boys to develop anxiety disorders in early life [12]. The preponderance among females emerged early in life. Data from several investigations indicate that females are twice as likely as males to experience anxiety disorder before age six [11, 12], and this difference lasts throughout adolescence. Many studies also show that adolescent girls are more likely than adolescent boys to make connections between bad events experienced in early life and possible negative events in the future, which could make girls more vulnerable to worry and anxiety [13–15]. As a result, adolescent girls are six times as likely as boys to develop generalized anxiety disorder, and three times as likely as boys to develop obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) [16, 17]. The gender differences in prevalence of obsessive-compulsive disorder weaken and even showed an opposite trend with increasing age (males developed more obsessive-compulsive disorder than females) [18, 19]. Similar evidences can be found in studies that were conducted in adults. Data from a large-sample survey suggest that women are at higher risk to be diagnosed with anxiety disorders [20, 21]. A national comorbidity survey found that women are more likely than men to develop panic disorders, agoraphobia, generalized anxiety disorders and posttraumatic symptom disorders [22]. Moreover, women are twice as likely as men to meet the diagnostic criteria for certain phobias [23]. A similar trend can be found in their Phobia reports [24]. However, gender differences are weak in social anxiety disorder (SAD) and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) in studies of adults [25, 26]. Results from clinical samples show a similar trend in healthy people: The World Health Organization conducted an international survey across 15 countries. It found that more women than men received therapy or are receiving therapy, with a focus on panic disorder with agoraphobia [27]. There is no difference between genders in the number of people who are receiving a diagnosis of SAD, even though more women than men are diagnosed with SAD than men [28].
\nGender differences were found not only in prevalence of anxiety disorder but also in symptoms of anxiety disorder. For example, the prevalence of Panic Attack between the genders is similar [29], but women showed more typical symptoms such as dizziness, sensations of shortness of breath or smothering [30]. As for the duration of Panic Attack, women showed a more chronic course than men [31, 32]. Women are also more likely to have comorbidity of GAD, somatization and agoraphobia [33, 34]. The most noticeable evidence of gender differences in symptoms of anxiety disorder are those of avoidance in agoraphobia. Females showed more avoidance behavior than males [34, 35]. As for gender differences in OCD symptoms, women diagnosed with OCD tend to have more cleaning behavior and aggressive symptoms of obsessions, while men showed greater obsessive slowness, symmetry obsessions/compulsions, touching rituals and sexual or “odd” symptoms. Besides, the course of OCD in males is more chronic than in females, except in cases of episodic OCD [16].
\nGender differences have been found in expression of phobia. For example, girls reported more fear than boys in 9–12 years old children [36]. Similar results can be found in adults, women reports more and stronger fear than men [37–39]. There are also some evidences gender differences in phobia. For instance, Tucker and Bond examined the role of gender in phobia by different surveys and found that femininity is predictive of all categories of animal phobia in general, whereas masculinity is not [40]. Although women were more likely to have an animal phobia, there were no gender differences in social phobia [35]. Fodor and Garrett [41] pointed out that high masculinity and high femininity are assumed to be mutually exclusive traits, phobic behavior of any kind, albeit agoraphobic fears in particular, is consistent with traditionally defined feminine and at odds with the traditional male role, which suggests social gender role is also having significant influence on phobia [41]. Data from a large-scaled survey across 11 countries also found that the role of femininity-masculinity has crucial influence on phobia of animal [42]. Females tend to exhibit higher disgust sensitivity levels than males [39, 43], and cross cultural study of animal fears showed that the disgust-relevant animals were feared significantly more by females than males [44]. However, few studies showed gender differences in phobia associated with social judgments or speech in public [45]. In summary, the gender differences in phobia and expression of fear are not just biological differences, but are it also modulated by social gender role.
\nInconsistent evidences of conditioned fear can be found in animal studies, Baran et al. examined the gender differences of conditioned fear extinction in Sprague-Dawley rats, which indicated that females were resistant to extinction [46]. Milad et al. also found greater fear in female than in male rats during extinction recall [47]. But Chang et al. used the contextual fear paradigm in mice and observed that males showed more freezing both in acquisition and extinction [48]. Gruene et al. [49] conducted a large-sample analysis of fear conditioning and extinction in large cohorts of gonadally intact male and female rats. They found that there were no gender differences in freezing over the course of fear conditioning, fear extinction and extinction recall. But in their retrospective analysis of freezing during fear acquisition and fear extinction, distinct gender differences in susceptible vs. resilient groups have been observed. As a group, females were more easily to be distinguished as susceptible or resilient group in fear conditioning than males. Their findings demonstrated that females might in fact have more distinct neural processes than males [49]. However, a variety of fearful, rather than only freezing behaviors can be observed in response to a conditioned cue. It is a possibility that females, more frequently than males, show freezing behaviors. It is therefore necessary to explore different measurements of fear in future studies [50]. For example, inconsistent evidence has been found when using eyeblink as a measure to detect fear response. Some studies suggested that more female than male rats demonstrated more frequent and stronger eyeblinks in fear acquisition [51–53]. But Toufexis et al. were unable to replicate this difference [54].
\nGender differences in human beings are more complicated. Lebron-Milad et al. [55] investigated gender differences in fear learning. They could not find any difference in (Skin Conductance Response(SCR), also known as the electrodermal response, is the phenomenon that the skin momentarily becomes a better conductor of electricity when either external or internal stimuli occur that are physiologically arousing) between females and males over the course of fear learning and fear extinction. But they found different neural activities between women and men in different phases. Women showed increased activation of the right amygdala, right rostral anterior cingulate cortex (rACC) and dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC), compared to men in the fear acquisition phase. In the extinction phase, men showed increased activation in bilateral rACC, while women showed stronger activation in insula [55]. Although there is no evidence of gender differences in physiological arousal levels, there is nevertheless a trend showing that women and men are different in responses to stress because these brain activities are usually associated with stress. Inslicht et al. [56] examined fear acquisition in PTSD patients and found that women demonstrated higher skin conductance response than men in fear acquisition. Even though men have a higher baseline of skin conductance response, women showed higher SCR for conditioned stimuli compared to men [56]. These findings indicate that females acquire fear more easily than males, which in turn might be a risk factor for PTSD.
\nGender differences have also been found also in effect of stressors on PTSD. Wood and Shors [51] investigated the response to stressors via the classical eyeblink-conditioning paradigm. They found that exposure to a stressor-facilitated acquisition of a conditioned response in males, while exposure to the same stressful event dramatically impaired acquisition by females [51]. However, there were some evidences that chronic restraint stress [57], psychosocial stress [58], and early-life stress [59] impaired fear extinction in males. Interestingly, chronic restraint stress can enhance fear extinction in females [60], while environmental stress impaired fear extinction [49]. Although previous stress is a good predictor of PTSD [61], some studies suggested that there is a sex difference. For instance, peri-pubertal stress exposure (predator odor plus elevated platform) impaired fear extinction in men but enhanced fear extinction in women [62]. These inconsistent results might be the influence of gonadal hormones. Increasing evidences suggests that gonadal hormones modulate fear acquisition and fear extinction [54, 63–68].
\nThe amygdala is part of a workspace in the brain that is significant for creating affective feelings [69]. In general, women and men showed equivalent amygdala responses to novel negative material. However, women tend to have a more sustained amygdala response to familiar negative material relative to men, indicating that women’s amygdala responses are more persistent in multiple repetitions of negative stimuli [70]. That might explain why women who have experienced traumatic events are more likely than men to develop PTSD [71], even when the type of trauma experienced is similar for both [72]. Women have been reported to be more sensitive and responsive to threats [73–79]. Researchers have identified that the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), amygdala and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) consistently participate in attentive processing of emotional faces [80]. McClure et al. [81] used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to examine the developmental and gender differences in the activation of neural structures. They found that in adult women, orbitofrontal cortex and amygdala responses were activated selectively by angry cues, while adult men showed a less discriminating pattern of activation [81].
\nAccording to Blain et al., gender differences have been found in exposure to trauma, PTSD development, as well as in psychotherapy outcomes [82]. Different risk factors are associated with gender differences in PTSD, such as neurohormonal, affective, and social cognition, as well as in coping styles used by females and males to manage distress [83]. Some researchers suggest that gender differences in PTSD are due to these risk factors. In the following paragraphs, we will discuss the possible gender differences in risk factors related to PTSD.
\nStudies have shown that certain genetic characteristics may affect the prevalence of PTSD. For example, PTSD was more prevalent in identical twins than in non-identical twins [84]. And from previous literatures, anxiety-related risk factors are more likely to be inherited in female generations. Lake and his colleagues found that anxiety-related genetic factors influenced females more than males [85]. Similarly, a study of adolescents also demonstrated that fear and phobias are more likely to be passed on in females than in males [86]. Another possible explanation is that extrinsic factors are responsible for men demonstrating lower heredity of anxiety: The higher heredity of anxiety in females is due to the interaction between society and gene. Hettema et al. [87] conducted personal interviews with 5000 members of male-male and female-female twin pairs from the Virginia Adult Twin Study of psychiatric and substance use disorders. He found that even if the prevalence in anxiety disorders among females is twice that of males, the underlying structure of the genetic and environmental risk factors for the anxiety disorders is similar between females and males [87]. This difference may be explained by a unique environmental factor shared across the disorders and, to a lesser extent, by a common, shared environmental factor. The gender differences in epigenetics may also result in gender differences in PTSD. For instance, research has shown lower plasma cortisol levels in women with a history of prior trauma [88]. Nugent and McCarthy [89] also suggested that the gender differences in DNAm (A type of epigenetic modification involving the covalent coupling of methyl groups to cytosine, a nucleotide found in DNA) might contribute to the gender-different prevalence in PTSD [89]. Uddin et al. [90] explored whether DNAm plays a role in contributing to the observed sex differences in prevalence of stress related disorder, especially PTSD. They proposed that sex differences in DNAm among genes are known to influence brain development and the resilience to developing PTSD [90].
\nIn previous conditioned-fear studies, men showed generally higher skin conductance response than women. For example, males showed higher skin conductance response in instrumental conditioning fear paradigm [91] and slower habituation for negative acoustic stimuli but were not as reactive as females in skin conductance response to experimental stimuli [92]. However, there was no evidence to indicate gender difference in physiological response to acute stress. Katkin and Hoffman confirmed that more women reported fear than men, but they found no gender difference in autonomic response to shock [93]. The evidence for gender differences in physiological reactivity to stressful situations does not seem to be consistent. Kelly et al. explored the gender differences in reactivity to a social stress challenge by measuring neuroendocrine, autonomic and affective response domains [94]. Their findings demonstrated that cortisol reactivity and the level of autonomic responding failed to discriminate between males and females following the psychosocial stress challenge (i.e., the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST)). Kelly et al. [95] also examined the gender differences in predisposition to panic in individuals without psychopathology. In their study, women showed a similar autonomic response as men but reported more fear and panic than men immediately following a challenge procedure [95]. In summary, observed gender differences in physiological responses to negative stimuli may be due to the gender differences in HPA axis (HPAA) (HPA axis is a complex set of direct influences and feedback interactions among three endocrine glands: the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland and the adrenal glands) stress responses, which may result from sexual dimorphism in brain function and circulating sex steroids [96].
\nSeveral studies support the hypothesis that phobias in women are biological, wherein differences are considered to be modulated by the sex hormones [97]. Hedlund and Chambless [98] used an aversive conditioning procedure to test potential sex differences in conditioning ability that may be related to the differential incidence of phobias between the sexes. Their findings suggest that women condition more readily during the premenstrual period [98]. Pearlstein et al. interviewed 78 female patients with late luteal phase dysphoric disorder and confirmed that the luteal phase increases their symptoms and state anxiety levels [99]. Kajantie and Phillips [100] also suggested that although adult women usually show lower HPAA and autonomic responses than men of the same age, the HPAA response is higher in women’s luteal phase, and poststress-free cortisol levels approach those of men [100]. Jin and Zheng [101] examined the effects of female menstrual phases on conditioned fear acquisition and extinction. Their results showed that females in the luteal phase acquired the conditioned context fear response more effectively and extinguished it more slowly than females in the menses phase [101]. Women who are pregnant or in the postpartum period are considered to be at high risk for a diagnosis of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) [19, 102, 103].
\nHuman beings throughout the ages have made evolutionary strategies for survival. Female stress responses have likely evolved in ways that not only protect the female, but also her offspring. The “fight-or-flight” is not that common in females [104]. Their responses to stress are more likely to be marked by a pattern of “tend and befriend” (tending involves nurturing activities to protect themselves and offspring and reduce stress, while befriending involves maintaining social networks that may help in this process). Also, when men and women compete in similar circumstances, they differ in their biobehavioral responses [105] and (women) in responses to maternal frightening behaviors [106]. Females displayed more help-seeking behaviors and experience more fear than men, and males displayed more avoidance and fight behaviors, while experiencing traumatic events [107, 108]. It is noteworthy that gender difference in patterns of reaction to stress are not only modulated by biological factors. The gender role also plays a crucial role [10]. However, Swaab et al. suggested that the HPA axis is affected by both environmental factors and gender role [109].
\nWomen typically report higher trait anxiety levels than men. For example, Chambless and Mason examined the gender differences in agoraphobia and found women scored significantly higher in trait anxiety [110]. They also found that women were slightly more avoidant when alone. But, the results of gender differences in trait anxiety are inconsistent. For example, Turgeon et al. compared 96 women and 58 men who suffered from panic disorder with agoraphobia [34]. Their results showed no gender differences in trait anxiety.
\nFoot and Koszycki examined gender differences in anxiety-related personality traits in patients with panic disorder with or without agoraphobia [111]. They could not find any gender differences in trait anxiety level. Some researchers claimed that Chambless and Mason’s findings are only statistically but not clinically significant, and that the results may be affected by different anxiety level measurements. For instance, Bander and Betz [112] measured anxiety level with the S-R Inventory instead of STAI-T, with items of S-R Inventory differing in emphasis from those of STAI (STAI items emphasize cognitive and affective indicators of anxiety, and S-R Inventory items emphasize physiological/autonomic responses indicative of anxiety). Using S-R Inventory, they could not find any gender differences in trait anxiety [112]. Similarly, a number of other studies showed that women, compared to men, demonstrate higher anxiety levels in cognitive and affective dimensions but not in physiological and autonomic dimensions [94, 95].
\nIt is well documented that women experience less traumatic events than men. Women are at higher risk in potentially traumatic events (PTEs), such as sexual assault, child sexual abuse, attempted rape, sexual coercion [113] and intimate violence [114]. These PTEs are directly related to the high prevalence of PTSD in females [6]. Women are also more vulnerable to the effects of undesirable life events. The emotional impact of undesirable life events is significantly greater among women than men [115]. Moreover, individuals who experienced undesirable life events (life stress) reported greater PTSD symptomatology and the same amount of overall distress as those who had experienced trauma. In fact, individuals who experienced atypical trauma (e.g., death of significant others) reported more severe PTSD symptoms than those who had experienced a typical trauma (e.g., combat or war) [116]. However, females are still more likely than men to develop PTSD, and this did not change when controlling for the type of traumatic events [7, 22].
\nEvidences from the literature suggest that experience in childhood with diminished control may result in a cognitive style characterized by a greater chance of interpreting or processing subsequent events as out of control, which may play a role in psychological vulnerability for anxiety [117]. Several studies find a gender difference in the sense of control [118–120]. Women are more likely to find themselves in disadvantaged circumstances with less power to control their lives. Moreover, the different behaviors of educators toward boys and girls will affect children’s development. Some researchers have found that teachers respond more positively to boys than to girls, which may diminish the feeling of control in girls [121]. And feeling of less control may result in greater likelihood of developing anxiety disorders [121–123].
\nGirls in general are more likely than boys to report symptoms of anxiety and fear. One of the most common explanations for this gender difference is the expectation of gender role, that is, differences in levels of masculinity and femininity [124]. Girls and boys are socialized to develop gender- or sex-stereotyped feminine and masculine skills, behaviors and personalities. According to theories on gender roles, the feminine gender role is more consistent in expressing fear and emotional behavior. It is more likely to be accepted, tolerated and encouraged that girls express and acknowledge vulnerability. In contrast, boys are expected to display more frequent traits such as confidence and courage and, consequently, learn how to decrease levels of fear or reduce expression of fear [125]. Many studies suggest that gender role is strongly related to psychopathology (e.g., gender role expectation potentially increases sensitivity to anxiety producing stimuli) [110, 126]. Muris et al. [127] examined the relation between gender role orientation and fear and anxiety using a nonclinically referred sample of children. Their results indicated that femininity and a preference for girls’ toys and activities were positively associated with fear and anxiety, whereas masculinity and a preference for boys’ toys and activities were negatively related to these emotions [127]. Similar results have been found in a sample of adults, in which femininity was positively associated with a higher level of fear [40, 128] and high levels of trait anxiety [112, 129, 130]. Subjects who displayed higher levels of femininity, but lower masculine traits reported higher levels of fear [131].
\nIt is generally accepted that a lack of social support during and after a trauma present a significant risk for developing PTSD [132], and some studies have found it to be a reliable predictor for developing PTSD [133]. Women tend to seek more social support than men, but nevertheless have a higher risk than men for developing PTSD [134]. The explanation may be the difference in both levels and benefits of social support received by females and males in response to trauma [135]. Social support was found to be more strongly protective against traumatization among women than among men. Women with low social support were more likely to experience symptoms of PTSD [133, 134, 136, 137]. Christiansen and Elklit [133] explored the effects of social support in PTSD on men and women. They found that women in a stabbing sample (subjects who saw dead body inside a school) felt more let down than the men. Also the predictive power of social support in PTSD symptoms was stronger in women in the stabbing sample, but not in an explosion sample (subjects who experienced explosions in a fireworks factory) [133]. Therefore, the effect of gender on the relationship between social support and PTSD is further complicated by the possibility that different types of trauma and social support modulate the PTSD symptomatology [10, 138].
\nAcross various studies, women are about one-third less likely than men to report having experienced a trauma [6, 139]. However, women are approximately twice as likely as men to meet criteria for PTSD following such events, and they are more than four times as likely as men to develop chronic PTSD. These results suggest that the higher rate of PTSD among women cannot be attributed to a greater overall risk of trauma. Coping style for dealing with trauma has been proven to play a critical role in PTSD development [83]. The different coping styles between men and women may be one of the explanations for gender differences in PTSD. Men and women are known to have different coping styles. Women are more likely to exhibit an emotional reaction to stressors (emotion-focused), and are believed to spend more time seeking support and discussing problems with friends or family. Unlike women, men are more likely to use direct problem-focused coping strategies to deny or avoid stressors [135]. However, emotion-focused strategies may not always be adaptive. Focusing on emotions can impede adjustment and also distract people from making active coping efforts [140]. Blake et al. [141] examined psychological coping styles and mental health treatment histories in veterans with PTSD. They found that subjects with PTSD showed a significantly greater use of emotion-focused coping [141]. Moreover, women have been found to be significantly more likely to report a lack of alternative coping strategies than men [142, 143]. Female trauma victims are also more likely to self-blame and to hold negative views about themselves and the world than male victims, as well as to view the world as dangerous. Such negative cognition about self and the world are important predictors for PTSD symptoms [144].
\nThere are a variety of effective treatments for PTSD, including Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) and pharmacotherapy [145]. Overall, the literature suggests that females are somewhat more likely to seek therapy for PTSD than males [146]. However, there is evidence that women and men may respond differently to the same PTSD therapy [82], and they may also prefer different treatments for PTSD. It has been suggested that gender socialization plays a role in the treatment of PTSD, and that males express less affect and are more cognitively oriented toward treatment than females [147]. However, results of various studies have been inconsistent, Başoğlu et al. examined treatment for PTSD patients who experienced natural disasters and found no gender differences in effectiveness of treatment [148]. Felmingham and Bryant [149] examined potential gender differences in responses to Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) and found there were no significant differences between men and women in treatment response immediately after treatment. However, they found that men displayed more severe PTSD symptoms than women in the exposure only group [149]. Gender differences have been found in PTSD patients treated with medication. A study search of electronic bibliographic databases showed that gender differences have been identified in response to PTSD medication-based treatment [150]. Nugent et al. [151] found a gender difference regarding pharmacological PTSD prevention: girls receiving propranolol reported more PTSD symptoms relative to girls receiving placebo, while boys who received propranolol showed a nonsignificant trend toward fewer PTSD symptoms than boys receiving placebo [151].
\nIn conclusion, women are approximately twice as likely as men to develop PTSD after a trauma, and certain risk factors may account for why they reported PTSD more often than men. To date, existing studies have focused on prevalence, and the description of gender differences in PTSD symptoms. However, most researchers in this area primarily paid attention to men. More research is needed to address questions related to how and why females develop PTSD at a higher rate than males, how gender acts as a susceptibility or resilience factor. As for the possible explanations of gender differences in PTSD, most researchers attributed these differences to biological differences (e.g., gene, hormones). Future studies are needed to delineate more precisely the ways in which culture, and gender role, alone and in combination, shape the gender differences of PTSD. Further research is also needed to improve PTSD prevention and treatment in women.
\nThe authors wish to express their appreciation to Charlotte Isler for her careful review of this chapter. This research was supported in part by grants from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 31371057) and Psychological Services and Counseling Base for the Happy Guangzhou Project.
\nDue to the adverse consequences of industrial pollution and waste, climate change, and resource depletion, the effects of environmental issues on the quality of life have increased in recent years [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35]. The world is witnessing an aggressive violation of nature. In response, companies nowadays have to find a way to balance the relationships between economic development, resources, and ecology [4]. This balance has been among the most complex and important managerial challenges of the twenty-first century [2].
Consequently, the implementation of environmentally friendly policies is an emergent priority on the policymakers and managers’ agenda. Studies on green marketing, green economics, green accounting, green management, and green supply chain management have increased [36]. Thus, the need to integrate green management within human resources is what we call green human resource management (GHRM). In this respect, green human resource management (GHRM), as a management function, has received great deal of attention in the environmental management literature recently [37].
Despite the growing number of studies on GHRM, several researchers outlined the lack of empirical studies from the African continent [20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 38]. Thus, researchers need to conduct empirical research in Africa instead of limiting themselves to Asia, Europe, and America, especially, Africa, which is suffering from severe environmental degradation and environment-related humanitarian disasters [26]. Furthermore, researchers need to investigate the current status of GHRM in the African context given the socioeconomic development challenges and other pressing priorities facing developing African organizations [19].
According to the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, The North African country of Morocco is the fifth-largest economy in Africa and considered to have the most competitive economy in North Africa. Morocco participates fully in international efforts to preserve the environment. For instance, the country has set up many foundations to strengthen its environmental policy, such as the Green Morocco Plan or plan Maroc vert. In addition to the governmental authority in charge of the environment, the Mohammed VI Foundation for the Protection of the Environment plays a key role in the development of many educational and preservation projects [39].
Along with the kingdom commitment and efforts for the good of the whole planet, GHRM should be taken into account in order to assume the environmental responsibility of companies. Thus, this paper aims to investigate GHRM in Morocco.
Given the “newness” of this concept in Morocco, the first aim of this study is to gain insight on the awareness of GHRM. Unless awareness is created, adoption is out of question. In this regard, we believe that assessing awareness on GHRM is an effective way to gain insight on its actual or potential implementation.
Additionally, according to Pardhi et Chaudhary, [25] the focus of the researchers was mostly toward the GHRM and its importance. However, to best of our knowledge, no effort has been made to studying the perceived importance of GHRM by policymakers. Thus, this paper was carried out to examine the HR managers and directors’ perceived importance of GHRM.
Moreover, this paper calls into question the main challenges that may hinder GHRM’s implementation. Assessing GHRM challenges may build resilience capacity, which would enable managers to create a proactive strategy as well as to predict potential problems and solutions. As posited by Kodua et al. [14], studying GHRM challenges serves as a valuable reference to policymakers and practitioners to help them take suitable measures to mitigate the GHRM implementation barriers and consequently promote it. Thus, we believe that investigating challenges related to GHRM may lay a solid foundation for its implementation success and promotion among managers.
Besides, to make sure that the nonawareness of GHRM will not influence our findings, and that GHRM practices (GHRMP) may be implemented implicitly without referring to the term GHRM, we aimed to examine the connection between environmental and HRM strategies within companies as well as to highlight the efforts made by HRM staff to meet environmental management requirements. Thus, the fourth aim of this paper is to emphasize the connection between environmental concern and HRM in the selected companies.
Furthermore, an essential prerequisite for launching GHRM in companies is to identify the key requirements for business decisions to implement it. Thus, the fifth aim of this paper is to improve the understanding of the requirements for GHRM’s implementation. Understanding the necessary requirements is crucial in order to understand the key practices that need to be analyzed and developed to best implement GHRM and for researchers to better understand the issues and the managerial difficulties that need to be addressed.
Finally, studying GHRMP status and feasibility is able to help in determining the viability of this process by identifying the factors that can promote or refrain from its success. For this reason, this study aims to provide a broad picture as well as a detailed analysis of the potential risks associated to GHRMP in reality. Thus, feasibility of practices may give to HRMS the chance to “get it right” before committing time, money, and business resources to some GHRMP that may not fit in Morocco.
The exploration of the questions above is crucial, as this investigation can offer a theoretical foundation for rendering GHRM more rational and valuable to the company’s decision-makers. Overall, this study aims to (a) shed light on the awareness and perceived importance of GHRM among HR managers and directors; (b) explore the connection between environmental concerns and HR strategies in the selected companies; (c) investigate the challenges related to GHRM’s implementation; (d) explore GHRM requirements; (e) highlight HR managers’ and directors’ perceptions of the various GHRMP and their feasibility in the Moroccan context.
In this respect, we selected four ISO14001 certified companies as this certification requires companies to always manage environmental policy and improve environmental performance according to the standard requirements [10]. Additionally, environmental management system (EMS) as a regulatory framework requires from companies to document the procedures and policies that guide the environmental impact of the firm [40].
This article is structured as follows. The first section examines the literature review of GHRM, the second section presents the research methodology, the third section presents the results, while the fourth section presents discussion.
In the past, companies and their shareholders expected good economic performance to guarantee the success of the company; however, this is no longer the case; financial and economical outcomes need to be combined with a reduced ecological footprint and increased attention to social and environmental aspects [41]. Wehrmeyer [42] stated that if a company needs to take an ecological approach to its operations, employees are the key to its success or failure.
GHRM concentrates on using human resource management procedures and guidelines to ensure sustainable resources usage and vigorously boost environmentalism [14]. Thus, through GHRM, the company ensures that employees have a positive attitude toward the environment, have green skills, and are responsible for the environmental consequences of their actions [43].
Given into consideration the above discussion, organizations need to engage in GHRM and build a positive green image and reputation to stay ahead of the competition [37]. Thus, the term of “green HRM” has become the focus of environmental management research and is considered as a hot topic in recent studies [3, 4, 38, 40, 44].
Research studies on ecology based on HRM and environmental management linkage started in the 1990s through the book “Greening people: human resources and environmental management” by Wehrmeyer [42]. Subsequently, GHRM was introduced as a new effective management discipline that integrates environmental management to enhance performance through environmentally friendly management practices [35].
GHRM is most regularly used to refer to the concern of people management policies and practices toward the broader corporate environmental schedule [41]. Ren et al, [28] state that GHRM is an organization’s aspiration to design and implement HRM practices, policies, and philosophies to support environmental objectives, promote attitudinal and behavioral change, and improve the environmental performance of the organization. Therefore, management scholars around the world are currently analyzing different management practices that can contribute to the achievement of environmental goals. HR professionals are advised to deploy green cues in traditional HR functions to ensure environmental sustainability [1].
The following subsection provides a summary of emerging GHRM practices for each HRM function.
In order to ensure that a company achieves appropriate green contributions from its workforce, altering or adapting the HRM functions to be environmentally friendly is essential [21]. It is therefore important to substitute green aspirations and mere good intentions into a real organizational policy.
GHRM practices (GHRMP) are similar to traditional HRM practices as they include recruitment and selection, training and development, performance appraisal and compensation, etc. However, GHRMP ought to lead to the capabilities necessary for the continuous improvement of the firm’s environmental performance [45]. Thus, human resource departments play a major role in greening the policies and practices from entry to exit processes such as recruitment and selection, training and development, performance appraisal, rewards, compensation management, and exit policies that are collectively termed GHRMP [46]. Therefore, such green practices help in fulfilling green objectives and in achieving organizational goals throughout HRM process from recruitment to retirement [25].
Many companies reported that job analysis enhances administrative efficiency; for this reason, a clear delineation of roles and responsibilities for a given position guarantees that each level of the organizational structure understands its contribution and adds value to the company [47]. From an environmental management perspective, an appropriate job design should follow the principles of environmentally friendly jobs, and each job description should specify environmentally friendly duties and tasks [48]. Thus, the implementation of GHRMP begins with job analysis and design and emphasizes the importance of incorporating environmental protection responsibilities and duties in each position [33].
According to Wehrmeyer [42], recruitment practices can support environmental management by ensuring that new entrants are familiar with the environmental culture of the organization and are able to uphold its values. Tang et al, [49] define green recruitment as the organization’s preference to select candidates who are committed and sensitive to environmental issues and who are willing to contribute. Thus, employees’ green tendency should be given attention in recruitment and selection, which is helpful to engage employees in green behaviors, ensure that employees have a positive green attitude, emphasize information about the green agenda in recruitment campaigns, and strive to recruit employees with high environmental behavior [50]. Accordingly, the selection activity for future employees should focus on the overlap between the candidates’ environmental values and those of the organizations and should select those who have significant environmental values as part of their daily practices [45]. As stated by Ramasamy [27] and Ullah, [41], creating this culture at the recruitment stage ensures that the new recruits will be well set in pursuing the objective of corporate green policy and are familiar with the words of conservation and sustainable environment.
The workforce training has long been identified as an important component in fostering and implementing environmental management practices in an organization [51]. Thus, green training is defined as a specific training provided to employees on power saving management, safety, energy efficiency and supported by softcopy as material rather than printed handouts [16].
Xie et al. [52] has defined green training as a process of continuing education designed to update employees’ knowledge and skills, which is exactly what both companies and employees need for sustainable development. Thus, green training is provided to employees in order to improve their environmental awareness and practical operation ability [50].
Indeed, via green training, employees become more receptive to change through the assimilation of the environmental dimension, and they consequently understand the importance of acting proactively [6]. Therefore, enterprises should guide employees to think and handle their work in a more environmentally friendly way while cultivating their professional skills and knowledge [50].
According to Bombiak et Marciniuk-Kluska [48], the integration of environmental management objectives into performance appraisal system ensures regular feedback on employee’s progress. The green performance assessment can be defined as the process by which employees are prompted to enhance their professional skills that help to achieve the organizational goals and objectives in a better way [53].
Green performance appraisal has different activities such as setting green targets for all members, creating green performance indicators, evaluating employees’ green outcomes, and using disbenefits [49]. Accordingly, green performance management creates green indicators to establish green criteria for all members, covering topics such as environmental incidents, environmental responsibilities, reduction of carbon emissions, and communicating environmental concerns and policies [31].
The success of employees in their ecological performance appraisal is the proof that a company’s strategic sustainability goals are being mirrored and accomplished from the top to the bottom [53]. Thus, the reward system is meant to be linked to the outcomes of green initiatives to effectively boost pro-environmental behaviors and to reflect company’s commitment to environmental performance [22, 23].
Green compensation and benefits can be defined as possible tools for encouraging environmental activities in firms [54]. These compensations include financial rewards (salary increases, cash bonuses, a variable component linking pay to eco-performance) and nonfinancial rewards (paid excursions, time off, favored stopping, free transport pass, and blessing declarations) [11].
The process of decision-making becomes a much simpler task when people are given green opportunities, and the end result would be a competitive workforce with high green values that benefit forward-thinking organizations [46]. Thus, motivated employees equipped with new skills will be likely to be proactive in practicing new values and methods at work and to further learn by engaging in green initiatives, such as introducing new ideas to customers and suppliers on how to reduce their environmental impacts [55].
In this regard, green ideas should be embraced of all employees, regardless of their function, which will encourage their interest in environmental issues and enable them to make the most out of their skills.
In order to ensure compliance with environmental management, organization must develop and communicate a clear set of rules and regulations that require employees to be concerned about environmental protection. Therefore, setting sanctions and disciplinary measures (demotion, lay-off, salary, and allowances reduction) for employees who do not meet their performance requirements will ensure that all employees remain committed to achieving the company’s environmental objectives [27].
Maintaining the green discipline in the organization builds and facilitates green employee competence, which contributes toward pro-environmental behaviors. Accordingly, managers should maintain green discipline by punishing employees or fining them for not observing the environmental policy in companies [20]. Thus, organizations can implement a consistent set of rules and regulations that require/regulate workers to follow the organizations’ environmental policies and to be concerned with environmental conservation [13].
In order to improve employees’ health and safety, some organizations have created strategies such as green factory or green zone to maintain a conducive environment to prevent various health problems [12]. Thus, green health and safety cover the old-fashioned health and safety administration and other aspects of a company’s environmental management [33]. This position comprises a wider range of activities associated with green initiatives.
In this regard, a better workplace can be made possible through “Green Health and Safety” management practices such as wearing helmet, gloves, and glasses wherever necessary, proper waste management at workplace, etc. [46]. Thus, green health and safety management ensures the implementation of environmental standards that meet national and international regulations and eventually to ensure the safety of not only employees but also customers and other stakeholders [56].
In Morocco in particular, there is a lack of publications on GHRM [38]. Thus, this research is an exploratory qualitative study that aims to provide a deep understanding of GHRM in the Moroccan context rather than a generalization.
Given that GHRM is a relatively new, we consider that ISO 14001 certified companies are the most likely to have introduced or at least acknowledge the importance of GHRM. As stated by Al-ghazali and Afsar [40], organizations with environmental management systems, such as ISO 14001, are expected to have implemented green initiatives across the business functional areas. Additionally, ISO14001 certified companies tend to apply more environmentally oriented work practices, have an environmental policy, and are more sensitive to environmental issues [21]. Thus, the selection of the companies and the sample for the interviews were based on the purposive sampling technique. We targeted four ISO14001 certified companies, which are continuously improving their environmental performance in line with the requirements of the standard.
As mentioned previously, data were collected from four ISO14001 companies. The reason for choosing these companies in particular is the fact that they are sensitive to environmental issues and have implemented several projects and proactive actions, including employees and community environmental education, environmentally friendly process, employees environmental volunteering, and several other projects.
Although our sample size contained only four companies, it allowed us to provide a deeper understanding by presenting rich data on HR managers’ perceptions of GHRM. Furthermore, our sample size is considered acceptable compared with other similar studies on GHRM. For example, Suharti and Sugiarto [56] used an exploratory qualitative approach in a single multinational cement company in Indonesia. A study by Yong et al, [57] used a sample of four HR managers/leaders from four large manufacturing companies. Yusoff et al, [58] conducted an exploratory study to understand how four HR managers from four multinational companies in Malaysia perceive and understand the concept of GHRM.
At the first stage, we contacted managers or senior personnel of the selected companies through emails, LinkedIn, and phone calls addressed to HR departments. We stated the objectives and relevance of the study and the potential contribution of the company to the research. Besides, we narrowed the sampling to the HRMs and HRDs because this category is well aware and knowledgeable of HRM practices and strategies. As argued by Obeidat [21], HR managers are in a good position to provide GHRM information. Thus, strategically placed managers within the HR division were the main target group of the study because of the in-depth knowledge they have of administrative HR functions, the strategic planning, and implementation (Table 1).
Activity | Interviewees |
---|---|
Mining | Human Resources Director |
Human Resources Senior Manager | |
Human Resources Manager | |
Sustainable development Project Manager | |
Water and electricity distribution | Human Resources Senior Manager |
Construction and public works | Human Resources Director |
Water solutions and equipment | Chief Financial and Administrative Officer |
Respondents profiles.
The data were collected through semistructured interviews. The themes have been previously prepared in the interview guide. Therefore, the interview questions were framed to understand the connection between environmental concern and HRM, the current status of GHRMP, GHRM awareness, perceived importance, challenges and requirements. Thus, using NVIVO12 software, we created the six main categories of codes listed below.
The data analysis involved the following steps: (a) a careful (re-)reading of the interview after transcription; (b) coding and analysis of the text according to the themes predefined in the guide; (c) interpretation of the results in the light of the codes and themes discerned. NVIVO was used, in particular, to organize the transcription of the interviews by theme, which resulted in a better-quality result than with manual methods.
The purpose of this theme is to examine the awareness of HR managers and directors of GHRM. Data are collected to find out the extent to which managers are aware of this process and have enough information on the subject (Figure 1).
World Cloud.
All managers in the surveyed companies (1, 2, 3, and 4) have never heard of GHRM. This result implies the lack of awareness and the non-familiarity of the process in the Moroccan context. This result is also illustrated in the word cloud where the most used expressions by our respondents were “no,” “never heard,” and “new.”
The unawareness of GHRM may impedes the consideration of implementing it in the core practices of HRM and in the companies’ environmental initiatives. Since the respondents don’t have enough information to determine how important GHRM may be, HRM and HRD may not consider the possibility of taking such insecure step.
After defining, presenting, and explaining GHRM, its relevance and practices, we discussed “the link between environmental concern and HRM”. We aimed to understand if there is an integration of environmental issues into HR strategies, policies, and practices. The collected data revealed that companies implement some green initiatives; however, they don’t have a well-developed process such as GHRM, and in which, the environmental agenda is included in all HR practices.
Accordingly, the results revealed that environmental concerns are integrated into HRM through training and job descriptions. The setting up of these two practices refers to the requirements of ISO14001 certification, which implies, on the one hand, the need to integrate environmental concerns into job descriptions by assessing the risks associated with each job and, on the other hand, to provide training in order to raise employees’ awareness to ecology.
In the same vein, one of our respondents emphasized that the contribution of HRM to the environment is of a short-term nature to meet a periodic demand for certification. Thus, the company implements practices and initiatives without implementing GHRM and without revising and reviewing its HR practices and policies.
In this category, we aim to explore the perceived importance of GHRM. Particularly, we attempted to understand whether HRM and HRD were aware of the need to align HR strategy with environmental strategy and whether they recognize the contribution of the HR function to the environmental management success. All respondents perceived the importance of this process except two respondents.
These two respondents focused on the WHY question of GHRM, more specifically, the reason and motivation for implementing GHRM as they involve their employees in the process through targeted environmental initiatives. Thus, to address this kind of debate on GHRM importance, researchers should frame the arguments of HMRs and HRDs into eminent researches.
In contrast, other respondents perceived the process as important.
According to our respondents, GHRM is considered as a formalization of environmental responsibility and a level of sophistication of green efforts. Instead of having scattered and dispersed organizational initiatives and practices, GHRM is considered as a targeted policy to address the need of involving human resources in environmental issues. Thus, the corporate environmental efforts should involve the workforce through a policy that includes several practices such as GHRM.
In this theme, we address the need to explore the challenges that may confront the implementation of GHRM in the Moroccan context. The first challenge that has been raised is the lack of in-depth knowledge of GHRM by HR managers in Moroccan companies.
The second challenge concerns the operationalization of GHRM. Indeed, GHRM needs a well-designed guideline, an appropriate action plan, and performance indicators.
Operationalizing GHRM will provide a clear standard against which HR managers can measure progress toward their environmental goals. This requires a deepening of the necessary knowledge, skills, abilities, and operations. Therefore, there is a need to set targets to create focus on the gap between the current state of performance and what the company hopes to achieve.
In the same vein, another respondent emphasized the ambiguity and confusion in designing a reliable measure of environmental performance. Thus, it not an easy task to measure every particular human activity that may occur as well as changes in ecosystem conditions.
In this part of our interview, we aimed to find out the extent to which managers in these companies are willing to propose and introduce GHRM. More specifically, the requirements that need to be fulfilled by this process in order to be feasible in ISO14001 certified companies. One respondent showed interest in implementing GHRM, stating that it is a promising path without limitations and restrictions.
Besides, the first requirement that was outlined by our respondents is to demonstrate the impact of GHRM on environmental awareness, responsibility, and green values of employees in Morocco. Several research studies have demonstrated these causal links [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 38, 39, 44, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63], but unfortunately, none of these research studies was conducted in Morocco.
As mentioned by our respondent, the impact of GHRM on cultural and value change among employees needs to be demonstrated by taking into account the contextual Moroccan factors.
Another requirement that was underlined is the setting up of a GHRM action plan. Indeed, for GHRM to be a process embraced by companies, it is necessary to specify how it should be implemented, create reporting for monitoring and analysis, and design performance indicators.
The aim of this part of our analysis is to find out the perception of HR managers of different HR practices and their feasibility in the Moroccan context.
Regarding green recruitment, all companies use social media and online job portals to recruit. However, none of the organizations have planned to specifically assess the ecological awareness, values, or contributions of the applicants.
The first reason for which green recruitment is not feasible in the Moroccan context refers, for our respondent, to the uselessness of including environmental concern in the recruitment of profiles who are not concerned with the environmental goals of the company.
The second reason why green recruitment is not practicable refers to, on the one hand, the difficulty of finding candidates with the main and most necessary skills to carry out the basic and fundamental tasks of the job. On the other hand, the unfairness of judging candidates on skills, knowledge, or values that they did not have the opportunity to acquire or develop at school.
Another reason that was emphasized is the concerns and the priorities of recruiters, and for whom, environmental criterion is not the first factor to be taken into account in recruitment. As long as it is difficult to find the right profile for a vacant position, it is not possible to add an additional environmental criterion, which is also difficult to be found.
In this category, the objective was to explore training and any learning activities that organizations have engaged in to raise environmental awareness. All our respondents perceive the importance green training except for one who stated:
For this respondent, green training is not necessary to get employees involved in ecology, for him, the act of behaving in an environmentally friendly way requires a cultural change and that ecology is a posture rather than a skill to be acquired during training. In contrast, the other respondents expressed their appreciation for green training.
One of the key aspects raised by our respondents was the need to make employees aware of the environmental footprint of their actions. Indeed, the implementation of an environmental management system must be followed by raising employees’ awareness about the behaviors to be displayed and providing them with the necessary skills to perform their tasks.
A major challenge related to green training was highlighted by one of our respondents as the difficulty of sensitizing and changing the behavior of the ageing workforce.
In this part, the data were collected to understand whether the performance appraisal system includes environmental responsibility. The majority of companies implement an evaluation of high environmental risk activities as well as environmental related positions. Thus, a risk assessment is undertaken thorough a look at HSE engineers’ performance. Additionally, harmful activities to the environment are also analyzed and evaluated on how severe the risk is.
One of our respondents pointed out that his company evaluates the overall environmental performance, emphasizing that individual evaluation of environmental performance will have a great contribution to the overall environmental performance.
In this part, we aimed to explore HR managers’ opinions on the possibility of integrating environmental considerations into the company’s disciplinary system. All interviewees agreed that it is impossible to integrate environmental orientation into the disciplinary system. Broadly speaking, a negative and unfavorable judgment was expressed by all interviewees.
Managing green discipline is not doable according to our respondents because there is a regulatory system to be followed. In fact, companies do not have the power to punish employees who violate green conduct because environmental misconduct does not exist in the civil service code and the labor code.
Besides, one of our respondents thinks that green discipline management is a severe and extremely strict practice. Thus, conducting green change in the company requires motivation and involvement practices. For our respondent, punitive system may create resistance to change.
In this part, we aimed to assess, on the one hand, the extent to which the surveyed companies have a green workplace that complies with environmental standards and to list the different initiatives that are in place, on the other hand.
In our context, the initiatives that have been put in place are diverse, including recycling of paper and toners; carbon footprint; suppression of polluting activities; tree planting; optimization of water and energy consumption. However, e-work initiatives such as web and teleconferencing, virtual job interviews, telecommuting, e-learning, etc., weren’t implemented.
Accordingly, it is time for HR managers to consider teleworking and strike a balance between virtual and in-person work so that both employees and employers benefit from a wholesome environment.
Giving employees the necessary independence helps to generate creative solutions, to solve environmental problems, and to invest the best of their abilities [17]. In this category, we tried to understand whether organizations gather and treat employee suggestions on the environmental aspect. We also tried to shed light on the initiatives put in place by the surveyed companies to involve employees in ecology. Two respondents highlighted initiatives that have been put in place in this regard.
Accordingly, the first company has introduced a game in a new production unit to gather employees’ innovative and environmentally friendly suggestions. Thus, this initiative would allow employees to not only identify problems but also suggest solutions. The second company has implemented two initiatives: the first one is a formal program to gather suggestions. The second initiative is to encourage volunteering and contribute to local community. Thus, environmental volunteering may promote employees to be more active in environmental programs and concerned of environmental degradation.
In this category, we aimed to identify the opinion of the HR managers on green rewards, two respondents showed their interest.
According to our respondents, rewards are important tools to increase employee’s motivation toward environmental aspects. Without rewards, employees won’t give much attention to the environment. Thus, this practice may support and encourage the employees to give ultimate environmental performance.
Additionally, our respondent emphasized that performance appraisal needs to be supported by rewards. Therefore, to increase employee’s engagement toward the corporate goals, companies need to implement a green reward program in order to compensate employee’s environmental efforts performance.
Table 2 represents the key findings of this paper.
Topics | Key findings | |
---|---|---|
Awareness | Nonawareness of GHRM and non-familiarity of the term. | |
Relationship between environ. concern and HRM | Implementation of certain practices to comply with the certification requirements. | Training programs to raise environmental awareness among employees in compliance with the standard. |
Job descriptions to evaluate environmental risk in order to fulfil the standard requirements. | ||
Occasional relationship, there is no GHRM that include environmental concern permanently. | ||
Perceived importance of GHRM | Not important | The Why question of GHRM. Thus, there is an ambiguity about its value and importance. |
Companies already involve employees to environmental preservation with no need for GHRM. | ||
Important | If sustainable development is the cornerstone of the company’s strategy, GHRM will be a reflection of company’s efforts to preserve the environment. | |
GHRM is a formalization of the company’s attempt to involve employees in environmental protection. | ||
Challenges | Lack of in-depth knowledge of GHRM. | |
Nonexistence of an operational plan and a well-designed guideline. | ||
Difficulty to design a reliable measure of environmental performance. | ||
Requirements | Prove the benefits of GHRM in Morocco specifically. | |
Emphasize the impact of GHRM on mindset, culture, responsibility, commitment and value change. | ||
Set up a GHRM’s action plan with a reporting for monitoring and analysis as well as performance indicators. | ||
Green recruitment | Extensive use of E-recruitment and non-feasibility of assessing candidates’ environmental awareness. | |
Uselessness of including environmental concern in the recruitment of profiles who are not concerned with the environmental goals. | ||
The difficulty of finding green profiles. | ||
Unfairness of judging candidates on skills, knowledge or values that they have not acquired or practiced at school. | ||
Not a priority for recruiters. | ||
Green training | Not important | Ecology is mindset and a culture, not a skill to be developed in training programs. |
Important | The introduction of every new system must be followed by training on its key requirements. | |
Raising employees’ awareness of the behaviors to be displayed is crucial in some activities. | ||
Green performance appraisal | Assessment of High-risk activities. | |
Assessment of HSE engineers’ performance. | ||
Assessment of the overall company environmental performance. | ||
Green discipline | Companies do not have the power to punish employees who violate green conduct. | |
Environmental misconduct does not exist in the civil service code and the labor code. | ||
Green discipline is a rough practice that may engender resistance to change. | ||
Green health and safety | Companies have an environmentally friendly workplace. However, e-work isn’t implemented. | |
Green involvement | Green suggestions. | |
Encouragement for environmental volunteering. | ||
Green compensation | Without rewards, environmental programs will not be considered by employees. | |
Performance appraisal should absolutely be followed by rewards. |
Key findings.
Several research studies were conducted to assess GHRM awareness among HR managers. Findings were diverse. In India, Mathur and Soni [18] found that in Indian manufacturing companies, the majority of participants were not aware of GHRM and have never heard of it. However, in [64], the majority of Indian IT professionals were aware of this process.
In Bangladesh, Almamun [1] affirms that Bangladeshi HR managers from different industries are aware of GHRM, However, proper green HR activities are not yet practiced in the organization. In the same vein, Uddin [65] found that the majority of Bank commercials in Bangladesh are ware of GHRM and believe that it helps the organization indirectly by improving its image as a green organization.
Moreover, In Egypt, Farid [60] found that HR managers in hotels were aware enough and familiar with the GHRM concept. While Tsymbaliuk et al. [66] found that GHRM practices have not become widespread in Ukraine.
These research studies oppose our findings in which all our respondents without exception have never heard of this construct. Indeed, GHRM is not a common and well-known process at the surveyed companies and has not earned yet the proper attention it deserves.
Although GHRM has proven its relevance and benefits in several environmental aspects and is increasingly gaining researchers’ and practitioners’ attention in the European and Asian context [38]. The nonfamiliarity of the concept by Moroccan HR managers could hinder its implementation. Indeed, if HR managers are not convinced, persuaded, and confident of the importance of their involvement in greening, they can never undertake a green revolution within the department. Thus, since GHRM can only be initiated and implemented with the support of senior managers [21], this process needs more campaigns to promote and communicate the importance of green practices to HR managers. Thus, all managers must have sufficient amount knowledge in greening without which, it is impossible to deploy green policies in their departments [60].
According to Opatha and Arulrajah [24], in order to achieve green contributions and environmental performance from employees, it is essential for all HRM practices to be adapted to be green or modified to ensure green outputs. However, most of our interviewees pointed out that there are only few practices required by ISO14001 certification. From this perspective, the HRM function according to our respondents is considered as a momentary support function to the implementation of environmental management system (EMS).
Our findings are in line with those found by Saifuddin et al. [32], who observed that HR managers implement green HR policies and strategies because their internal policies are based on the environmental standards. Thus, GHRM implementation is limited to practices required by IS014001 certification.
Additionally, this limited coverage of GHRMP can be explained also by the lack of knowledge of GHRM by all our interviewees. By introducing GHRM and its practices, HRDs realized that they are implementing some GHRMP such as green training and green job descriptions, without knowing that they are actually, GHRM practices. Therefore, it is the concept of GHRM that is not overly common and the level of refinement and perfection of the practices that has not yet been achieved.
Concerning the perceived importance of GHRM, we found that there is a debate on this process significance. Our respondents emphasized an important question that should be proven in future studies, it is the WHY question of GHRM. According to HR managers, since they have green initiatives that are working well, why would they implement GHRM. Thus, the WHY question of GHRM refers to the need to prove the value and importance of GHRM.
According to Ullah [41], raising awareness on GHRM’s importance could be achieved by proving that the success of environmental systems is crowned by its alignment with other corporate strategies. Thus, it is suggested to demonstrate the importance of having a policy with a package of interrelated and synergistic practices where the impact of each practice is enhanced when the others are also implemented [29]. As a result, GHRM will reflect the environmental efforts that the company redeploys by having a goal-oriented HR policy.
On the other hand, some of our respondents considered GHRM as an effective tool to enhance employee’s involvement toward environment. According to them, GHRM is a level of refinement, perfection, and formalization of the corporate green efforts toward a well-defined policy.
In summary, since GHRM is an understudied field in Morocco [38], it has become important to demonstrate its importance in the Moroccan context in order to limit this debate and uncertainty related to its relevance and importance.
Based on our findings, the lack of knowledge on GHRM is the first challenge that has to be overcome. This finding is consistent with past studies, according to Fayyazi et al, [61], the lack of knowledge could be considered as the main challenge related to GHRM implementation. In the same vein, Mtembu [19] reported that there is a lack of knowledge of GHRM in the African continent. This lack of knowledge is a major barrier to successful EMS implementation [62], which was also highlighted by Shukla [34], who stated that the lack of awareness is considered as the biggest challenge to bring GHRM into practice.
If managers do not have a clear vision of GHRM, they will not embrace the responsibility of implementing it [61]. Therefore, the involvement of HR department in environmental management should be encouraged through appropriate communication and awareness raising.
The second challenge that was outlined is the nonexistence of an operational plan of GHRM. In this regard, Janaki et al, [8] affirm that the fundamental problem for organizations does not lie in the strategy formulation phase, the problems often emerge during operationalization. Indeed, the operationalization of GHRM and its decomposition into clear lines and concrete practices are a challenging task that needs to be addressed. This challenge was also outlined by Al-Rommedy [36], who noted that there isn’t a comprehensive design for GHRM implementation. Indeed, if there is no comprehensive plan that defines the guidelines for GHRM and its operational plan, there will be no commitment to its implementation [61]. As stated by Dhingra, [64], most managers lack the knowledge of GHRM practical application.
The third challenge that was highlighted is the difficulty to create a reliable assessment of environmental performance. Our results corroborate those found by Renwick et al, [29], who pointed out that environmental performance management presents a challenge related to the measurement of green performance in different departments/units of the organization. Therefore, the incentives that could be linked to unreliable and unfair measurement of environmental performance are potentially conflictive and could compromise the organizational climate [6].
Similarly, Saeed et al. [31] affirm that there is a need to create performance indicators for all employees that include environmental responsibility, environmental incidents, car emissions, etc. To do this, it would be appropriate to address this challenge by focusing on assessing the risks associated with each department, section, or production unit. Then decide on actions to be taken to monitor environmental performance, ecological footprint, and pro-environmental behaviors.
GHRM requirements may emphasize what needs to be proven and improved to implement GHRM in companies. The first requirement that was outlined is to prove GHRM benefits in terms of values, awareness, culture, responsibility, and commitment.
Contemporary literature on values has emphasized the importance of individual values in explaining attitudes and behaviors [59]. Therefore, demonstrating the impact of GHRM on employees’ green values is of paramount importance. From this perspective, if the employee’s green values are in line with those of the organization, it is expected that the employee will be more likely to adopt environmentally friendly behaviors in the workplace. Chaudhary [44] states that GHRM reflects the environmental values of the organization, influences the environmental values of the employees, and shapes their green behavior. In this regard, employees can become “environmental activists” within the organization by absorbing organizational pro-environmental values [67]. Despite the previous studies that have proven the importance of GHRM in shaping employees’ green values, none of those studies have been conducted in Morocco.
In addition, our respondent highlights the importance of proving the impact of GHRM on employees’ environmental awareness. Al-Ghazali and Afsar [40] found that involvement in environmental actions requires a certain degree of environmental knowledge and awareness. Therefore, employees with a high level of environmental awareness and concern may feel a stronger moral obligation to voluntarily carry out environmental actions and initiatives [68]. Thus, GHRM practices have the ability to raise employees’ green/environmental awareness and shape their behaviors to develop pro-environmental attitudes in their personal and professional lives [31]. However, these findings need to be expanded to the Moroccan context.
The second requirement that was highlighted is to create an action plan of GHRM. Consistent with Fayyazi et al [61], the lack of a comprehensive plan for implementing GHRM creates ambiguity. Hence, there is a need to create an operational plan with specific actions to implement, and thus, so that managers become more aware of the actions to be undertaken and policies that need to be modified and oriented to be green. Hence, the operationalization of various GHRMPs and development of valid and reliable indicators are a serious requirement [31]. Thus, to commit to integrating environmental management into multiple levels of HR policies, there is a need to concretize the policy into action.
Despite previous research studies that highlight the need of hiring employees with a passion to preserve the environment [20], our findings emphasize that none of the respondents consider implementing this practice.
Green recruitment and selection are not achievable because the education system in Morocco does not focus on educating students in schools and universities on how to be environmentally friendly citizens. In other words, the academic programs and extracurricular activities in schools and universities do not take into account issues of environmental protection and resource sustainability. Therefore, recruiting candidates on the basis of environmental criteria does not seem adequate in the Moroccan context at the moment, efforts should be redeployed to use the educational system as a tool to raise the green awareness of students who will be employees in the future.
In the same vein, Anwar [69] states that even though universities emit relatively less pollution than companies, they bear a considerable responsibility for raising awareness and educating current and future generations about the importance of pro-environmental behavior, which was also posited by Almamun [1], who states that universities should introduce greening in their syllabus. Thus, education may be considered as driving force toward a sustainable future.
Similarly, Jabbour [5] states it is impossible to include environmental concerns as a selection criterion in the recruitment process. As mentioned by our respondents, green recruitment can only be implemented if environmental protection is embedded in the country’s culture and education system, but as long as this condition is not met, green recruitment could be labeled as discriminatory.
Additionally, green recruitment is not an interesting practice because assessing environmental awareness is not recruiters’ priority. Our findings corroborate those of Bombiak and Marciniuk-Kluska, [48] where the Polish managers considered the recruitment candidates with ecological knowledge and skills to be difficult. Thus, the assessment of candidates’ ecological skills during the recruitment process was not appreciated.
In summary, the recruitment of environmentally conscious candidates seems incompatible for several reasons, the Moroccan educational system does not include environmental protection in its curricula, the country does not have a national ecological culture shared by all citizens, the recruiter’s priorities do not allow him/her to prioritize the environmental concerns of the candidates, and finally, the difficulty of finding environmentally friendly profiles.
Environmental training is implemented by all the companies of our sample, stating that on the one hand this practice is very important to the development of the required EMS skills, and on the other hand, the need to raise awareness of any new process or implemented system. Only one respondent was not interested in this practice, stating that environmental protection is a mindset and culture rather than a skill to be acquired.
Several research studies highlighted the importance of green training. For instance, Yong et al, [51] recognized that training plays a key role in developing the environmental knowledge, raising environmental awareness, motivating creativity for green innovation, strengthening green commitment, and improving environmental performance. Indeed, companies need to enhance the knowledge and skills of employees in order to encourage them to actively participate in environmental protection activities [4].
Additionally, the result advocates that the difficulty to raise awareness and involve older workers is a major challenge. Our findings are in line with Guerci and Carollo, [63] who found that young people are more sensitive to environmental plans while older workers, because of age and narrow-mindedness, consider environmental plans unnecessary. On the other hand, our results are in contrast with those reported by Wiernik et al., [70], who found that employee age had no effect on the degree of embracing green behaviors and that older employees embraced green practices and gained broad experience more than younger employees.
In a proactive approach against older people’s resistance, companies use environmental selection criteria by mainly asking older people about their own attitude toward sustainability, to avoid older people who are unwilling to advance the green agenda and do not believe in it [15].
Yong et al, [51] point out that without a formal performance assessment process, discipline will be weakened and employees’ ability to improve may be hindered. Therefore, companies need to create environmental benchmarks at the performance appraisal system for all employees to keep track of noncompliance or non-achievement of environmental goals [33]. However, our respondents pointed out that only HSE engineers and high environmental risk positions are being evaluated on this aspect. In contrast, administrative positions are not appraised on this aspect. Therefore, the assessment of the environmental performance of a specific category could limit the commitment of all staff is the EMS. The literature highlights the need to involve all employees including administrative positions to sustain good environmental performance, support the company’s core values, and build green intellectual capital [10].
Similar to Mathur and Soni [18], not all companies include the environmental performance of employees at all levels. In our case, there are companies that set goals and evaluate the environmental performance of higher environmental risk activities, while others assess the overall environmental footprint of the company’s activity. Thus, an environmental assessment of all activities is needed.
Our findings emphasized that it is not possible to integrate a disciplinary sanction against employees who do not respect the environmental rules in the company. This is due to the legal system that must be followed, which already defines the serious offences that can be punished. Therefore, even if there is a breach of the rules, the companies do not have the necessary power to sanction. Thus, the governing environmental laws do not provide explicit powers of inspection and enforcement to companies. Instead, companies try to sensitize, motivate, and involve rather than punish. Therefore, despite progress made, the environmental legal framework remains underdeveloped and still inconsistent.
In response to legal inconsistency, Jyoti [11] emphasizes that the legal initiative that companies can undertake in the long-term is to guarantee that ecological commitments are anchored by including provisos in staff contracts, i.e., that ecologically threatening conduct may comprise a rupture of agreement and consequently a conceivable reason for expulsion. In the same line, Almamun [1] states that in Bangladesh, government should incorporate GHRM in labor law as well as promote the organizations who practice it.
Besides, this practice is not doable as it is considered as a harsh practice that will make employee involvement more difficult, which was also highlighted by Guerci and Carollo, [63], who considered that a system of control and sanctions does not assure that the workforce is truly committed to environmental actions, it only reduces deviant behavior.
Furthermore, the management of green discipline is not appreciated because companies fear employee resistance to change. Indeed, to bring in a new system, companies prefer to involve employees instead of punishing them.
Green management is a strategic activity of the company that allows it to reduce waste, save energy, promote environmental health while preventing damage to the environment [71]. Thus, the provision of green workplace for all employees is the central function of green health and safety management [33]. The Moroccan ISO14001 certified companies set many initiatives such as using daylight, conducting green audits, recycling, reusing, planting, and optimizing water and electricity.
In this regard, companies have paid much attention to employees’ health and safety. However, video conferencing and online work were not practiced. Thus, companies need more sensitizing on the benefits of this work modality. Particularly, as the teleworking revolution helps employees and organizations in many ways. Not only does it reduce the operational costs of the organization through reduced absenteeism and transport costs, but it has also become a retention tool where employees are relieved of nerve-wracking commutes and are able to balance work and life [9].
Increasing employee interest through green involvement and empowerment by creating suggestion systems for innovative environmental ideas and solutions is of paramount importance [17]. Nisar [20] states that companies are required to provide opportunities for their employees to implement what they have learned during training programs, which will result in improved environmental skills, knowledge, abilities, and pro-environmental behaviors.
Nevertheless, this practice was not very common at the surveyed companies. Only two companies out of the four gave all employees the opportunity to actively participate in proposing innovative and environmentally friendly ideas. Indeed, it is necessary to allow employees to participate in regular meetings to solve environmental problems and to encourage them to introduce environmentally friendly ideas and initiatives. Thus, implementing green involvement practices may boost employee’s confidence and self-esteem to actively participate in the corporate green goals.
The implementation of a green reward system is seen as a valuable tool to increase employee motivation and commitment to the environment. These rewards can be financial or nonfinancial, with the aim of encouraging high performers to continue and pushing the rest to become more environmentally active and involved. Despite the literature pointing out that rewards can be valuable [2, 3, 4, 46], none of the surveyed companies use a green reward system to encourage pro-environmental behavior among employees.
The development of recognition and reward programs to encourage employees to be environmentally active is a fundamental practice of GHRM. Green incentives and rewards are often recognized as the most powerful way to link organizational interests with employee interests [35]. Indeed, the use of this practice can have a positive impact on employees’ motivation to be environmentally responsible [54], which further increase the need to promote this practice in Moroccan companies.
Recent years have shown a growing scientific interest in the role of HRM in environmental management. A literature review provides evidence that GHRM brings tangible benefits to the company rather than simply adding luster to the brand and reputation. Indeed, it is time for HRM department to embrace the green agenda alongside the scattered initiatives based on environmental protection.
This study reveals that GHRM is still at a primitive stage in Moroccan ISO14001 certified companies. Although the selected companies practice many green initiatives, they have not yet reached the level of detail, sophistication, and progress discussed in the literature. Indeed, although GHRM is a trend in other countries, it is not well known in Morocco. The lack of knowledge of this process could limit its implementation, hence a wide promotion of GHRM is needed to overcome this challenge.
Overall, the implementation of GHRM practices is moderate. The majority of the initiatives undertaken refer to the certification requirements, namely green job design and analysis, green training, and green health and safety management. Two companies are the exception in implementing green empowerment initiatives.
Our research work responds to the call of researchers who have recently recognized the importance of conducting GHRM exploratory qualitative studies [7, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 41, 42, 47, 49, 52, 56, 65, 66, 70, 71] in the African context [38, 72]. To our knowledge, this is the first research work that studies this concept in Moroccan firms. Consequently, this study contributes to a better understanding of GHRM through HR managers’ perceptions from various Moroccan companies. Although the findings cannot be generalized, given its exploratory nature, we believe that this work can be considered as an opener for future research. Taking this further, we look forward to seeing more research on this topic in the near future.
The finding of this study offers several implications for theory and practice. From a theoretical perspective, as GHRM is an emerging research field, there are limited studies in developing countries such as Morocco that offer empirical evidence. Hence, this research contributed to the literature by enhancing the understanding of GHRM in Morocco. Additionally, to the best knowledge of the researchers, prior studies on the subject matter have focused merely on quantitative field studies. Thus, the current study has been one of the limited qualitative studies that aims to highlight the GHRM’s perception from the experiences of HR managers and directors. Besides, through qualitative approach, the present paper added originating themes to previous literature, which previous studies have not yet established. Finally, our framework can be a starting point for analyzing GHRM as this paper also highlights future directions from HR managers perspective.
From a practical perspective, our discoveries give HR professionals a more profound comprehension of GHRM, its practices, importance, requirement as well as the main challenges that may hinder this process implementation. Consequently, findings may provide HR managers with a better idea of the solutions and the possible factors that may logically solve the situation of the newness of GHRM. Thus, being able to forecast and predict future events helps HR managers to predict how to achieve the environmental goals and drive a more efficient green change through HRM process.
Besides, this paper contributes to practitioners within the field of HRM with insights to how organizational strategies and practices can be designed and developed to prevent the negative effects on the environment, which may further boost up the willingness of HR managers to build interest in GHRM and endeavor to set up an environmentally policy to enhance the commitment of all company’s departments.
As is the case with most research, our study has limitations, which are also opportunities for future research. This research is a qualitative exploratory study in four IS014001 companies in Morocco. Although the results provide a deep understanding on GHRM perception by HRM and HRD, the findings cannot be considered representative of the ISO14001 certified companies as a whole. Thus, the study recommends future studies to investigate the same topic in other companies, thus potentially able to provide richer and diverse findings. Further, our sample was specially selected because of the company’s environmental concern. Thus, future research could examine whether HRM and HRD in non-green organizations have the same perception of GHRM or do not consider its implementation.
Additionally, this exploratory study was based on gathering information from only seven HR managers and, again, the limited number of participants means that the findings cannot be generalized. Besides, our interviewees didn’t know GHRM, thus, the results may have been affected by differences in respondents’ understanding of the topic.
In addition to the above limitations along with their related opportunities for future research, other avenues for further research can be proposed. We invite future research to conduct longitudinal studies to track the evolution of environmental performance, environmental awareness, green values, and EMS in organizations that are introducing GHRMP, with the aim of encouraging organizations to devote time, budget, and human resources to GHRM implementation.
Also, many HR managers seem to be doubtful about the importance of GHRM. Thus, future research can also focus on the “why” question of GHRM by emphasizing its importance in creating green businesses. Besides, as most of GHRM literature largely focuses on the consequences of GHRM [38]. It is suggested that future research should also investigate the determinants and what motivate companies to implement GHRM, which may also respond to HR managers question “Why implementing GHRM?”.
Additional research studies may also emphasize the impact of green training on attitudes, values, and behaviors, as environmental awareness is considered by some as a posture and not a skill to be acquired.
It is also recommended to focus on the awareness and behavioral change of older workers, we invite future research to focus on this aspect by investigating the impact of awareness raising of Generation X on their behavior, values, identification, and commitment to environmental policy. Moreover, a factor that is worth analyzing is local culture and educational system that are likely to play an important role in implementing GHRM.
Finally, HR professionals not only need to be certain that they have all the necessary competencies for using GHRM, but they must also be able to measure its effectiveness and consequences. Thus, it would be useful to develop a practical guide with clear policies that integrates all the GHRMP with concrete aspects to implement.
Authors are listed below with their open access chapters linked via author name:
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\\n\\nZhigang Chen 2016, 2018
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\\n\\nJaakko Kangasjärvi 2015-18
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\\n\\nJoachim Maier 2014-18
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\\n\\nAlberto Mantovani 2014-18
\\n\\nMarjan Mernik 2017, 2018
\\n\\nSandra Orchard 2014, 2016-18
\\n\\nMohamed Oukka 2016-18
\\n\\nBiswajeet Pradhan 2016-18
\\n\\nDirk Raes 2017, 2018
\\n\\nUlrike Ravens-Sieberer 2016-18
\\n\\nYexiang Tong 2017, 2018
\\n\\nJim Van Os 2015-18
\\n\\nLong Wang 2017, 2018
\\n\\nFei Wei 2016-18
\\n\\nIoannis Xenarios 2017, 2018
\\n\\nQi Xie 2016-18
\\n\\nXin-She Yang 2017, 2018
\\n\\nYulong Yin 2015, 2017, 2018
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\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nJocelyn Chanussot (chapter to be published soon...)
\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nYuekun Lai
\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nPrevious years (alphabetically by surname)
\n\nAbdul Latif Ahmad 2016-18
\n\nKhalil Amine 2017, 2018
\n\nEwan Birney 2015-18
\n\nFrede Blaabjerg 2015-18
\n\nGang Chen 2016-18
\n\nJunhong Chen 2017, 2018
\n\nZhigang Chen 2016, 2018
\n\nMyung-Haing Cho 2016, 2018
\n\nMark Connors 2015-18
\n\nCyrus Cooper 2017, 2018
\n\nLiming Dai 2015-18
\n\nWeihua Deng 2017, 2018
\n\nVincenzo Fogliano 2017, 2018
\n\nRon de Graaf 2014-18
\n\nHarald Haas 2017, 2018
\n\nFrancisco Herrera 2017, 2018
\n\nJaakko Kangasjärvi 2015-18
\n\nHamid Reza Karimi 2016-18
\n\nJunji Kido 2014-18
\n\nJose Luiszamorano 2015-18
\n\nYiqi Luo 2016-18
\n\nJoachim Maier 2014-18
\n\nAndrea Natale 2017, 2018
\n\nAlberto Mantovani 2014-18
\n\nMarjan Mernik 2017, 2018
\n\nSandra Orchard 2014, 2016-18
\n\nMohamed Oukka 2016-18
\n\nBiswajeet Pradhan 2016-18
\n\nDirk Raes 2017, 2018
\n\nUlrike Ravens-Sieberer 2016-18
\n\nYexiang Tong 2017, 2018
\n\nJim Van Os 2015-18
\n\nLong Wang 2017, 2018
\n\nFei Wei 2016-18
\n\nIoannis Xenarios 2017, 2018
\n\nQi Xie 2016-18
\n\nXin-She Yang 2017, 2018
\n\nYulong Yin 2015, 2017, 2018
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Over the past few decades, no major new types of antibiotics have been produced and almost all known antibiotics are increasingly losing their activity against pathogenic microorganisms. The levels of multi-drug resistant bacteria have also increased. It is known that worldwide, more than 60% of all antibiotics that are produced find their use in animal production for both therapeutic and non-therapeutic purposes. The use of antimicrobial agents in animal husbandry has been linked to the development and spread of resistant bacteria. Poultry products are among the highest consumed products worldwide but a lot of essential antibiotics are employed during poultry production in several countries; threatening the safety of such products (through antimicrobial residues) and the increased possibility of development and spread of microbial resistance in poultry settings. This chapter documents some of the studies on antibiotic usage in poultry farming; with specific focus on some selected bacterial species, their economic importance to poultry farming and reports of resistances of isolated species from poultry settings (farms and poultry products) to essential antibiotics.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Christian Agyare, Vivian Etsiapa Boamah, Crystal Ngofi Zumbi and\nFrank Boateng Osei",authors:[{id:"182058",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Agyare",slug:"christian-agyare",fullName:"Christian Agyare"},{id:"261271",title:"MSc.",name:"Crystal Ngofi",middleName:null,surname:"Zumbi",slug:"crystal-ngofi-zumbi",fullName:"Crystal Ngofi Zumbi"},{id:"261272",title:"MSc.",name:"Frank Boateng",middleName:null,surname:"Osei",slug:"frank-boateng-osei",fullName:"Frank Boateng Osei"},{id:"261273",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivian Etsiapa",middleName:null,surname:"Boamah",slug:"vivian-etsiapa-boamah",fullName:"Vivian Etsiapa Boamah"}]},{id:"49246",doi:"10.5772/61300",title:"Chitosan as a Biomaterial — Structure, Properties, and Electrospun Nanofibers",slug:"chitosan-as-a-biomaterial-structure-properties-and-electrospun-nanofibers",totalDownloads:4727,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:63,abstract:"Chitosan is a polysaccharide derived from chitin; chitin is the second most abundant polysaccharide in the world, after cellulose. Chitosan is biocompatible, biodegradable and non-toxic, so that it can be usedin medicalapplications such as antimicrobial and wound healing biomaterials. It also used as chelating agent due to its ability to bind with cholesterol, fats, proteins and metal ions.",book:{id:"4648",slug:"concepts-compounds-and-the-alternatives-of-antibacterials",title:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials",fullTitle:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials"},signatures:"H. M. Ibrahim and E.M.R. El- Zairy",authors:[{id:"90645",title:"Dr.",name:"Hassan",middleName:null,surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"hassan-ibrahim",fullName:"Hassan Ibrahim"},{id:"175694",title:"Dr.",name:"Enas",middleName:null,surname:"El- Zairy",slug:"enas-el-zairy",fullName:"Enas El- Zairy"}]},{id:"70919",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90891",title:"Antimicrobial Effect of Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles",slug:"antimicrobial-effect-of-titanium-dioxide-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:1817,totalCrossrefCites:21,totalDimensionsCites:47,abstract:"The widespread use of antibiotics has led to the emergence of multidrug-resistant bacterial strains, and therefore a current concern for food safety and human health. The interest for new antimicrobial substances has been focused toward metal oxide nanoparticles. Specifically, titanium dioxide (TiO2) has been considered as an attractive antimicrobial compound due to its photocatalytic nature and because it is a chemically stable, non-toxic, inexpensive, and Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) substance. Several studies have revealed this metal oxide demonstrates excellent antifungal and antibacterial properties against a broad range of both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. These properties were significantly improved by titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2 NPs) synthesis. In this chapter, latest developments on routes of synthesis of TiO2 NPs and antimicrobial activity of these nanostructures are presented. Furthermore, TiO2 NPs favor the inactivation of microorganisms due to their strong oxidizing power by free radical generation, such as hydroxyl and superoxide anion radicals, showing reductions growth against several microorganisms, such as Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. Understanding the main mechanisms of antimicrobial action of these nanoparticles was the second main purpose of this chapter.",book:{id:"9521",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A One Health Perspective"},signatures:"Carol López de Dicastillo, Matias Guerrero Correa, Fernanda B. Martínez, Camilo Streitt and Maria José Galotto",authors:[{id:"244902",title:"Dr.",name:"Carol",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez De Dicastillo",slug:"carol-lopez-de-dicastillo",fullName:"Carol Lopez De Dicastillo"},{id:"315494",title:"Mr.",name:"Matias",middleName:null,surname:"Guerrero Correa",slug:"matias-guerrero-correa",fullName:"Matias Guerrero Correa"},{id:"315495",title:"Ms.",name:"Fernanda",middleName:null,surname:"B. Martínez",slug:"fernanda-b.-martinez",fullName:"Fernanda B. Martínez"},{id:"315496",title:"Mr.",name:"Camilo",middleName:null,surname:"Zuñiga",slug:"camilo-zuniga",fullName:"Camilo Zuñiga"},{id:"315497",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria José",middleName:null,surname:"Galotto",slug:"maria-jose-galotto",fullName:"Maria José Galotto"}]},{id:"65613",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84411",title:"The Methods for Detection of Biofilm and Screening Antibiofilm Activity of Agents",slug:"the-methods-for-detection-of-biofilm-and-screening-antibiofilm-activity-of-agents",totalDownloads:9283,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:"Biofilm producer microorganisms cause nosocomial and recurrent infections. Biofilm that is a sticky exopolysaccharide is the main virulence factor causing biofilm-related infections. Biofilm formation begins with attachment of bacteria to biotic surface such as host cell or abiotic surface such as prosthetic devices. After attachment, aggregation of bacteria is started by cell-cell adhesion. Aggregation continues with the maturation of biofilm. Dispersion is started by certain conditions such as phenol-soluble modulins (PSMs). By this way, sessile bacteria turn back into planktonic form. Bacteria embedded in biofilm (sessile form) are more resistant to antimicrobials than planktonic bacteria. So it is hard to treat biofilm-embedded bacteria than planktonic forms. For this reason, it is important to detect biofilm. There are a few biofilm detection and biofilm production methods on prosthetics, methods for screening antibacterial effect of agents against biofilm-embedded microorganism and antibiofilm effect of agents against biofilm production and mature biofilm. The aim of this chapter is to overview direct and indirect methods such as microscopy, fluorescent in situ hybridization, and Congo red agar, tube method, microtiter plate assay, checkerboard assay, plate counting, polymerase chain reaction, mass spectrometry, MALDI-TOF, and biological assays used by antibiofilm researches.",book:{id:"8427",slug:"antimicrobials-antibiotic-resistance-antibiofilm-strategies-and-activity-methods",title:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods",fullTitle:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods"},signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",middleName:null,surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"}]},{id:"63397",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80624",title:"Antibiotic Resistance in Lactic Acid Bacteria",slug:"antibiotic-resistance-in-lactic-acid-bacteria",totalDownloads:2486,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"Most starter cultures belong to the lactic acid bacteria group (LAB) and recognized as safe by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). However, LAB may act as intrinsic or extrinsic reservoirs for antibiotic resistance (AR) genes. This fact may not constitute a safety concern itself, as the resistance gene transfer is vertical. Nevertheless, external genetic elements may induce changes that favor the horizontal transfer transmission of resistance from pathogens as well as from the human intestinal microbiota, which represents a severe safety issue. Some genus of AR LAB includes Enterococcus, Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, Leuconostoc, Pediococcus, and Streptococcus isolated from fermented meat and milk products. Currently, the WHO recommends that LAB used in the food industry should be free of resistance. Therefore, the objective of this chapter is to present an overview of the LAB antibiotic resistance and some methods to determine the same.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Yenizey M. Álvarez-Cisneros and Edith Ponce-Alquicira",authors:[{id:"256345",title:"Dr.",name:"Yenizey Merit",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez Cisneros",slug:"yenizey-merit-alvarez-cisneros",fullName:"Yenizey Merit Alvarez Cisneros"},{id:"256347",title:"Dr.",name:"Edith",middleName:null,surname:"Ponce-Alquicira",slug:"edith-ponce-alquicira",fullName:"Edith Ponce-Alquicira"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"65613",title:"The Methods for Detection of Biofilm and Screening Antibiofilm Activity of Agents",slug:"the-methods-for-detection-of-biofilm-and-screening-antibiofilm-activity-of-agents",totalDownloads:9277,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:"Biofilm producer microorganisms cause nosocomial and recurrent infections. Biofilm that is a sticky exopolysaccharide is the main virulence factor causing biofilm-related infections. Biofilm formation begins with attachment of bacteria to biotic surface such as host cell or abiotic surface such as prosthetic devices. After attachment, aggregation of bacteria is started by cell-cell adhesion. Aggregation continues with the maturation of biofilm. Dispersion is started by certain conditions such as phenol-soluble modulins (PSMs). By this way, sessile bacteria turn back into planktonic form. Bacteria embedded in biofilm (sessile form) are more resistant to antimicrobials than planktonic bacteria. So it is hard to treat biofilm-embedded bacteria than planktonic forms. For this reason, it is important to detect biofilm. There are a few biofilm detection and biofilm production methods on prosthetics, methods for screening antibacterial effect of agents against biofilm-embedded microorganism and antibiofilm effect of agents against biofilm production and mature biofilm. The aim of this chapter is to overview direct and indirect methods such as microscopy, fluorescent in situ hybridization, and Congo red agar, tube method, microtiter plate assay, checkerboard assay, plate counting, polymerase chain reaction, mass spectrometry, MALDI-TOF, and biological assays used by antibiofilm researches.",book:{id:"8427",slug:"antimicrobials-antibiotic-resistance-antibiofilm-strategies-and-activity-methods",title:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods",fullTitle:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods"},signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",middleName:null,surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"}]},{id:"62553",title:"Antibiotic Use in Poultry Production and Its Effects on Bacterial Resistance",slug:"antibiotic-use-in-poultry-production-and-its-effects-on-bacterial-resistance",totalDownloads:7327,totalCrossrefCites:43,totalDimensionsCites:92,abstract:"A surge in the development and spread of antibiotic resistance has become a major cause for concern. Over the past few decades, no major new types of antibiotics have been produced and almost all known antibiotics are increasingly losing their activity against pathogenic microorganisms. The levels of multi-drug resistant bacteria have also increased. It is known that worldwide, more than 60% of all antibiotics that are produced find their use in animal production for both therapeutic and non-therapeutic purposes. The use of antimicrobial agents in animal husbandry has been linked to the development and spread of resistant bacteria. Poultry products are among the highest consumed products worldwide but a lot of essential antibiotics are employed during poultry production in several countries; threatening the safety of such products (through antimicrobial residues) and the increased possibility of development and spread of microbial resistance in poultry settings. This chapter documents some of the studies on antibiotic usage in poultry farming; with specific focus on some selected bacterial species, their economic importance to poultry farming and reports of resistances of isolated species from poultry settings (farms and poultry products) to essential antibiotics.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Christian Agyare, Vivian Etsiapa Boamah, Crystal Ngofi Zumbi and\nFrank Boateng Osei",authors:[{id:"182058",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Agyare",slug:"christian-agyare",fullName:"Christian Agyare"},{id:"261271",title:"MSc.",name:"Crystal Ngofi",middleName:null,surname:"Zumbi",slug:"crystal-ngofi-zumbi",fullName:"Crystal Ngofi Zumbi"},{id:"261272",title:"MSc.",name:"Frank Boateng",middleName:null,surname:"Osei",slug:"frank-boateng-osei",fullName:"Frank Boateng Osei"},{id:"261273",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivian Etsiapa",middleName:null,surname:"Boamah",slug:"vivian-etsiapa-boamah",fullName:"Vivian Etsiapa Boamah"}]},{id:"65914",title:"Introductory Chapter: The Action Mechanisms of Antibiotics and Antibiotic Resistance",slug:"introductory-chapter-the-action-mechanisms-of-antibiotics-and-antibiotic-resistance",totalDownloads:4428,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:null,book:{id:"8427",slug:"antimicrobials-antibiotic-resistance-antibiofilm-strategies-and-activity-methods",title:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods",fullTitle:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods"},signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu, Nesrin Gareayaghi and Bekir S. Kocazeybek",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",middleName:null,surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"},{id:"248288",title:"Prof.",name:"Bekir",middleName:null,surname:"Kocazeybek",slug:"bekir-kocazeybek",fullName:"Bekir Kocazeybek"},{id:"406463",title:"Dr.",name:"Nesrin",middleName:null,surname:"Gareayaghi",slug:"nesrin-gareayaghi",fullName:"Nesrin Gareayaghi"}]},{id:"63397",title:"Antibiotic Resistance in Lactic Acid Bacteria",slug:"antibiotic-resistance-in-lactic-acid-bacteria",totalDownloads:2486,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"Most starter cultures belong to the lactic acid bacteria group (LAB) and recognized as safe by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). However, LAB may act as intrinsic or extrinsic reservoirs for antibiotic resistance (AR) genes. This fact may not constitute a safety concern itself, as the resistance gene transfer is vertical. Nevertheless, external genetic elements may induce changes that favor the horizontal transfer transmission of resistance from pathogens as well as from the human intestinal microbiota, which represents a severe safety issue. Some genus of AR LAB includes Enterococcus, Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, Leuconostoc, Pediococcus, and Streptococcus isolated from fermented meat and milk products. Currently, the WHO recommends that LAB used in the food industry should be free of resistance. Therefore, the objective of this chapter is to present an overview of the LAB antibiotic resistance and some methods to determine the same.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Yenizey M. Álvarez-Cisneros and Edith Ponce-Alquicira",authors:[{id:"256345",title:"Dr.",name:"Yenizey Merit",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez Cisneros",slug:"yenizey-merit-alvarez-cisneros",fullName:"Yenizey Merit Alvarez Cisneros"},{id:"256347",title:"Dr.",name:"Edith",middleName:null,surname:"Ponce-Alquicira",slug:"edith-ponce-alquicira",fullName:"Edith Ponce-Alquicira"}]},{id:"49246",title:"Chitosan as a Biomaterial — Structure, Properties, and Electrospun Nanofibers",slug:"chitosan-as-a-biomaterial-structure-properties-and-electrospun-nanofibers",totalDownloads:4726,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:63,abstract:"Chitosan is a polysaccharide derived from chitin; chitin is the second most abundant polysaccharide in the world, after cellulose. Chitosan is biocompatible, biodegradable and non-toxic, so that it can be usedin medicalapplications such as antimicrobial and wound healing biomaterials. It also used as chelating agent due to its ability to bind with cholesterol, fats, proteins and metal ions.",book:{id:"4648",slug:"concepts-compounds-and-the-alternatives-of-antibacterials",title:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials",fullTitle:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials"},signatures:"H. M. Ibrahim and E.M.R. El- Zairy",authors:[{id:"90645",title:"Dr.",name:"Hassan",middleName:null,surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"hassan-ibrahim",fullName:"Hassan Ibrahim"},{id:"175694",title:"Dr.",name:"Enas",middleName:null,surname:"El- Zairy",slug:"enas-el-zairy",fullName:"Enas El- Zairy"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"897",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81704",title:"Quorum Sensing Inhibition Based Drugs to Conquer Antimicrobial Resistance",slug:"quorum-sensing-inhibition-based-drugs-to-conquer-antimicrobial-resistance",totalDownloads:22,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104125",abstract:"Quorum sensing is the cell to cell communication mechanism in microorganism through signalling molecules. Regulation of virulence factor, sporulation, proteolytic enzymes production, biofilm formation, auto-inducers, cell population density are key physiological process mediated through quorum-sensing (QS) signalling. Elevation of innate immune system and antibiotic tolerance of pathogens is highly increased with perspective of quorum-sensing (QS) activity. Development of novel drugs is highly attractive scenario against cell-cell communication of microbes. Design of synthetic drugs and natural compounds against QS signal molecules is vital combat system to attenuate microbial pathogenicity. Quorum sensing inhibitors (QSIs), quorum quenchers (QQs), efflux pump inhibitors (EPIs) act against multi-drug resistance strains (MDR) and other pathogenic microbes through regulation of auto-inducers and signal molecule with perceptive to growth arrest both in-vitro and in-vivo. QQs, QSIs and EPIs compounds has been validated with various animal models for high selection pressure on therapeutics arsenal against microbe’s growth inhibition. Promising QSI are phytochemicals and secondary metabolites includes polyacetylenes, alkaloids, polyphenols, terpenoids, quinones.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Kothandapani Sundar, Ramachandira Prabu and Gopal Jayalakshmi"},{id:"82372",title:"Unlocking the Potential of Ghost Probiotics in Combating Antimicrobial Resistance",slug:"unlocking-the-potential-of-ghost-probiotics-in-combating-antimicrobial-resistance",totalDownloads:20,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104126",abstract:"Antimicrobial resistance is a global concern that requires immediate attention. Major causes of development of antimicrobial resistance in microbial cells are overuse of antimicrobials along the food chain especially in livestock, in preventing infections as well as misuse of antimicrobials by patients. Probiotics could be a viable alternative to antibiotics in the fight against antimicrobial resistance. Probiotic strains can act as a complement to antimicrobial therapy, improving antimicrobial function and enhancing immunity. However, there are safety concerns regarding the extensive use of live microbial cells especially in immunocompromised individuals; these include microbial translocation, inhibition of other beneficial microorganisms and development of antimicrobial resistance, among other concerns. Inevitably, ghost probiotics have become the favored alternative as they eliminate the safety and shelf-life problems associated with use of probiotics. Ghost probiotics are non-viable microbial cells (intact or broken) or metabolic products from microorganisms, which when administered in adequate amounts have biologic activity in the host and confer health benefits. Ghost probiotics exert biological effects similar to probiotics. However, the major drawback of using ghost probiotics is that the mechanism of action of these is currently unknown, hence more research is required and regulatory instruments are needed to assure the safety of consumers.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Abigarl Ndudzo, Sakhile Ndlovu, Nesisa Nyathi and Angela Sibanda Makuvise"},{id:"82178",title:"Managing Antimicrobial Resistance beyond the Hospital Antimicrobial Stewardship: The Role of One Health",slug:"managing-antimicrobial-resistance-beyond-the-hospital-antimicrobial-stewardship-the-role-of-one-heal",totalDownloads:16,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104170",abstract:"Infections caused by micro-organisms affect the health of people and animals, causing morbidity and mortality, with Asia and Africa as the epicenters. Some of the infectious diseases are emerging and re-emerging in nature. Examples include viral hepatitis, Lassa fever, Ebola, yellow fever, tuberculosis, covid-19, measles, and malaria, among others. Antimicrobials have been playing an important role in the treatment of infections by these microbes. However, there has been a development of resistance to these antimicrobials as a result of many drivers. This write-up used secondary data to explore the management of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) beyond the hospital antimicrobial resistance steward using the one health concept. The findings showed AMR to be a transboundary, multifaceted ecosystem problem affecting both the developed and developing countries. It is also one of the top ten global public health threats facing mankind. Globally, AMR will cost over US$100 trillion in output loss by 2050, about 700,000 deaths a year, and 4,150,000 deaths in Africa by 2050. About 2.4 million people could die in high-income countries between 2015 and 2050 without a sustained effort to contain AMR. The drivers of AMR are beyond the hospital and hospital AMR stewardship. Therefore, the need for one health concept to manage it.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Istifanus Anekoson Joshua, Mathew Bobai and Clement Sokfa Woje"},{id:"81918",title:"Machine Learning for Antimicrobial Resistance Research and Drug Development",slug:"machine-learning-for-antimicrobial-resistance-research-and-drug-development",totalDownloads:53,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104841",abstract:"Machine learning is a subfield of artificial intelligence which combines sophisticated algorithms and data to develop predictive models with minimal human interference. This chapter focuses on research that trains machine learning models to study antimicrobial resistance and to discover antimicrobial drugs. An emphasis is placed on applying machine learning models to detect drug resistance among bacterial and fungal pathogens. The role of machine learning in antibacterial and antifungal drug discovery and design is explored. Finally, the challenges and prospects of applying machine learning to advance basic research on and treatment of antimicrobial resistance are discussed. Overall, machine learning promises to advance antimicrobial resistance research and to facilitate the development of antibacterial and antifungal drugs.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Shamanth A. Shankarnarayan, Joshua D. Guthrie and Daniel A. Charlebois"},{id:"81891",title:"Alternatives to Antibiotics in Semen Extenders Used in Artificial Insemination",slug:"alternatives-to-antibiotics-in-semen-extenders-used-in-artificial-insemination",totalDownloads:29,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104226",abstract:"Antimicrobial resistance is a serious global threat requiring a widespread response. Both veterinarians and medical doctors should restrict antibiotic usage to therapeutic use only, after determining the sensitivity of the causal organism. However, the addition of antibiotics to semen extenders for animal artificial insemination represents a hidden, non-therapeutic use of antimicrobial substances. Artificial insemination for livestock breeding is a huge global enterprise with hundreds of million sperm doses prepared annually. However, reporting of antimicrobial resistance in semen is increasing. This review discusses the consequences of bacteria in semen samples, as well as the effect of antimicrobial substances in semen extenders on bacteria in the environment and even on personnel. Alternatives to antibiotics have been reported in the scientific literature and are reviewed here. The most promising of these, removal of the majority of bacteria by colloid centrifugation, is considered in detail, especially results from an artificial insemination study in pigs. In conclusion, colloid centrifugation is a practical method of physically removing bacteria from semen, which does not induce antibiotic resistance. Sperm quality in stored semen samples may be improved at the same time.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Jane M. Morrell, Pongpreecha Malaluang, Aleksandar Cojkic and Ingrid Hansson"},{id:"81699",title:"Efflux Pumps among Urinary E. coli and K. pneumoniae Local Isolates in Hilla City, Iraq",slug:"efflux-pumps-among-urinary-e-coli-and-k-pneumoniae-local-isolates-in-hilla-city-iraq",totalDownloads:13,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104408",abstract:"Urinary tract infections (UTI) are the most common bacterial infections affecting humans. Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae were common enterobacteria engaged with community-acquired UTIs. Efflux pumps were vital resistance mechanisms for antibiotics, especially among enterobacteria. Overexpression of an efflux system, which results in a decrease in antibiotic accumulation, is an effective mechanism for drug resistance. The ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters, small multidrug resistance (SMR), and multidrug and toxic compound extrusion (MATE) families, the major facilitator superfamily (MFS), and the resistance-nodulation- cell division (RND) family are the five superfamilies of efflux systems linked to drug resistance. This chapter highlights the results of studying the prevalence of efflux pump genes among local isolates of E. coli and K. pneumoniae in Hilla City, Iraq. class RND AcrAB-TolC, AcrAD-TolC, and AcrFE-TolC genes detected by conventional PCR of E. coli and K. pneumoniae respectively. The result revealed approximately all studied efflux transporter were found in both E. coli and K. pneumoniae in different percentages. Biofilm formation were observed in 50(100%) of K. pneumoniae and 49(98%) of E. coli isolates were biofilm former and follow: 30(60%), 20(40%) were weak, 12(24%), 22(44%) were moderate and 7(14%) and 8(16%) were Strong biofilm former for E. coli and K. pneumoniae, respectively.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Hussein Al-Dahmoshi, Sahar A. Ali and Noor Al-Khafaji"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:13},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:124,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:33,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:7,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. 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He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"13633",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdelhamid",middleName:null,surname:"Mellouk",slug:"abdelhamid-mellouk",fullName:"Abdelhamid Mellouk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13633/images/1567_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Paris 12 Val de Marne University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"109268",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Ataby",slug:"ali-al-ataby",fullName:"Ali Al-Ataby",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109268/images/7410_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Liverpool",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"3807",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmelo",middleName:"Jose Albanez",surname:"Bastos-Filho",slug:"carmelo-bastos-filho",fullName:"Carmelo Bastos-Filho",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/3807/images/624_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Pernambuco",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"38850",title:"Dr.",name:"Efren",middleName:null,surname:"Gorrostieta Hurtado",slug:"efren-gorrostieta-hurtado",fullName:"Efren Gorrostieta 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from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"13818",title:"Dr.",name:"Asim",middleName:null,surname:"Bhatti",slug:"asim-bhatti",fullName:"Asim Bhatti",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13818/images/system/13818.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Deakin University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"151889",title:"Dr.",name:"Joao Luis Garcia",middleName:null,surname:"Rosa",slug:"joao-luis-garcia-rosa",fullName:"Joao Luis Garcia Rosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/151889/images/4861_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin 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Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"1177",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"J. 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Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"111683",title:"Prof.",name:"Elmer P.",middleName:"P.",surname:"Dadios",slug:"elmer-p.-dadios",fullName:"Elmer P. 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(Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. 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