Agro-ecological of Cameroon characteristics, geographical features, rainfall patterns and major crops cultivated and animal species reared (source: authors compilation).
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5749",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Echinococcosis",title:"Echinococcosis",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Echinococcosis is an important zoonotic helminth disease all over the world, since some forms may be fatal. The most common species leading to echinococcosis are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis, Echinococcus vogeli, and Echinococcus oligarthrus. Although it has been known for many years, it keeps its interesting features. In this book, we aimed to update our knowledge on echinococcosis, focusing on current research advances, new horizons for drug therapy, and surgical management including surgical complications. I cordially believe that this book on echinococcosis will also motivate the future scientists to accomplish more studies on this issue.",isbn:"978-953-51-3592-0",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3591-3",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4609-4",doi:"10.5772/65181",price:100,priceEur:109,priceUsd:129,slug:"echinococcosis",numberOfPages:80,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"3ae6911bce724df0df0b3fe156160896",bookSignature:"Tonay Inceboz",publishedDate:"November 15th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5749.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6780,numberOfWosCitations:7,numberOfCrossrefCitations:9,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:14,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:30,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 14th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 8th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 16th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 16th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 16th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1046",title:"Infectious Diseases",slug:"infectious-diseases"}],chapters:[{id:"56813",title:"Introductory Chapter: Overview on Echinococcosis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70583",slug:"introductory-chapter-overview-on-echinococcosis",totalDownloads:1513,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Tonay Inceboz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56813",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56813",authors:[{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz"}],corrections:null},{id:"55085",title:"Current Research Advance on Echinococcosis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68286",slug:"current-research-advance-on-echinococcosis",totalDownloads:1363,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Echinococcosis is caused by infection with larva (metacestode) of the tapeworms of the genus Echinococcus. Within genus Echinococcus, two species are known as public health concern worldwide: Echinococcus guanulosus causing cystic echinococcosis (CE) and Echinococcus multilocularis causing alveolar echinococcosis (AE). The co-evaluation due to the interaction between parasites and their hosts has been well known to be able to allow tolerating to maintain parasitism as long as possible. With many research advanced findings, scientists have been much interested in using either those molecules from parasites producing due to invading and surviving or those cytokines from hosts responding due to defenses to carry out immunotherapeutic practice that is not only against parasitic infection but also for cancer or other immunological related disorders. Taken advance of knowledge on Echinococcus genome research outcomes, recent attentions regarding the discoveries of targeting antiparasitic drug and/or vaccine were extensively discussed in this review.",signatures:"Shukun Yang, Yumin Zhao, Don Peter McManus and YuRong Yang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55085",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55085",authors:[{id:"174906",title:"Dr.",name:"YuRong",surname:"Yang",slug:"yurong-yang",fullName:"YuRong Yang"},{id:"205243",title:"Dr.",name:"Shukun",surname:"Yang",slug:"shukun-yang",fullName:"Shukun Yang"},{id:"205244",title:"Dr.",name:"Yumin",surname:"Zhao",slug:"yumin-zhao",fullName:"Yumin Zhao"},{id:"205245",title:"Prof.",name:"Donald",surname:"McManus",slug:"donald-mcmanus",fullName:"Donald McManus"}],corrections:null},{id:"57205",title:"Surgical Management of Hydatid Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70136",slug:"surgical-management-of-hydatid-disease",totalDownloads:1283,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Management of hydatid disease carries a substantial risk of complications and recurrence. The ultimate goal of surgery is to kill the parasites, evacuate the cyst, remove the germinal layer, and obliterate the residual cavity all while preserving the healthy liver tissue. In endemic areas, a conservative approach is preferred. The open surgeries have a substantial risk of complications, such as bile leakage, parasite contamination, and presence of dead spaces, in which an abscess can form. These complications then have to be managed with more radical surgical approaches. The most commonly used surgical approaches are pericystectomy, partial pericystectomy, and even hepatic resection. With the right indications, subadventitial cystectomy has low postoperative complication, mortality, and recurrence. The condition of the cyst and the patient, the general status of the patient and the cyst size, location, and pathology are factors that indicate the optimal surgical approach.",signatures:"Angeliki Vidoura, Mariana Parisidou, Christina Chatedaki and\nDimitris Zacharouli",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57205",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57205",authors:[{id:"199038",title:"Ms.",name:"Angeliki",surname:"Vidoura",slug:"angeliki-vidoura",fullName:"Angeliki Vidoura"}],corrections:null},{id:"55795",title:"Biliary Complications of Hepatic Hydatid Cyst Surgery and Prevention Methods",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69031",slug:"biliary-complications-of-hepatic-hydatid-cyst-surgery-and-prevention-methods",totalDownloads:1392,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cystic echinococcosis is still one of the main reasons for liver surgery especially in endemic areas. The most common complication of liver hydatid cyst is cystobiliary communication (CBC). Preoperative or intraoperative diagnosis of CBC is essential for the treatment, since it leads to postoperative bile leakage and fistula formation eventually without intervention. Predictive factors such as cyst size, history of jaundice, and degenerated cysts are described for preoperative evaluation. Further preoperative study can be performed for diagnosis in their presence. At the intraoperative phase, every effort should be performed for diagnosis. There are several methods for the investigation of CBC. When a CBC is found, it is also essential to evaluate the biliary system as well. By this way, postoperative complication rates can be lowered. Biliary leakage and fistula formation are the most common postoperative complication of liver hydatid surgery and they are the main reasons of morbidity and mortality. Their rates can be lowered by knowing how to interfere for the treatment. As a result, every effort should be made to detect and prevent these complications during the evaluation and management of cystic echinococcosis.",signatures:"Can Konca and Deniz Balcı",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55795",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55795",authors:[{id:"195902",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Deniz",surname:"Balci",slug:"deniz-balci",fullName:"Deniz Balci"},{id:"207202",title:"Dr.",name:"Can",surname:"Konca",slug:"can-konca",fullName:"Can Konca"}],corrections:null},{id:"55110",title:"Medical Treatment of Echinococcus multilocularis and New Horizons for Drug Discovery: Characterization of Mitochondrial Complex II as a Potential Drug Target",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68565",slug:"medical-treatment-of-echinococcus-multilocularis-and-new-horizons-for-drug-discovery-characterizatio",totalDownloads:1229,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"As an efficient drug for alveolar echinococcosis (AE) is still not available, new chemotherapy targets are necessary. The mitochondrial respiratory chain may be a good drug candidate because parasite respiratory chains are quite different from those of mammalian hosts. For example, Ascaris suum possesses an NADH‐fumarate reductase system (fumarate respiration) that is highly adapted to anaerobic environments such as the small intestine. It is composed of mitochondrial complex I (NADH‐ubiquinone reductase), complex II (succinate‐ubiquinone reductase), and rhodoquinone. We previously demonstrated that fumarate respiration is also essential in E. multilocularis. Quinazoline, a complex I inhibitor, inhibited growth of E. multilocularis larvae in vitro. These results indicate that fumarate respiration could be a target for E. multilocularis therapy. In the current chapter, we focused on complex II, which is another component of this system, because quinazoline exhibited strong toxicity to mammalian mitochondria. We evaluated the molecular and biochemical characterization of E. multilocularis complex II as a potential drug target. In addition, we found that ascofuranone, a trypanosome cyanide‐insensitive alternative oxidase inhibitor, inhibited E. multilocularis complex II at the nanomolar order. Our findings demonstrate the potential development of targeted therapy against Echinococcus complex II.",signatures:"Shigehiro Enkai, Kimitoshi Sakamoto, Miho Kaneko, Hirokazu\nKouguchi, Takao Irie, Kinpei Yagi, Yuka Ishida, Jun Matsumoto,\nYuzaburo Oku, Ken Katakura, Osamu Fujita, Tomoyoshi Nozaki and\nKiyoshi Kita",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55110",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55110",authors:[{id:"173425",title:"Prof.",name:"Kiyoshi",surname:"Kita",slug:"kiyoshi-kita",fullName:"Kiyoshi Kita"},{id:"206152",title:"Dr.",name:"Shigehiro",surname:"Enkai",slug:"shigehiro-enkai",fullName:"Shigehiro Enkai"},{id:"206153",title:"Dr.",name:"Kimitoshi",surname:"Sakamoto",slug:"kimitoshi-sakamoto",fullName:"Kimitoshi Sakamoto"},{id:"206154",title:"Dr.",name:"Miho",surname:"Kaneko",slug:"miho-kaneko",fullName:"Miho Kaneko"},{id:"206155",title:"Dr.",name:"Hirokazu",surname:"Kouguchi",slug:"hirokazu-kouguchi",fullName:"Hirokazu Kouguchi"},{id:"206156",title:"Mr.",name:"Takao",surname:"Irie",slug:"takao-irie",fullName:"Takao Irie"},{id:"206157",title:"Dr.",name:"Kinpei",surname:"Yagi",slug:"kinpei-yagi",fullName:"Kinpei Yagi"},{id:"206158",title:"Dr.",name:"Jun",surname:"Matsumoto",slug:"jun-matsumoto",fullName:"Jun Matsumoto"},{id:"206159",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuzaburo",surname:"Oku",slug:"yuzaburo-oku",fullName:"Yuzaburo Oku"},{id:"206160",title:"Prof.",name:"Ken",surname:"Katakura",slug:"ken-katakura",fullName:"Ken Katakura"},{id:"206161",title:"Dr.",name:"Osamu",surname:"Fujita",slug:"osamu-fujita",fullName:"Osamu Fujita"},{id:"206162",title:"Prof.",name:"Tomoyoshi",surname:"Nozaki",slug:"tomoyoshi-nozaki",fullName:"Tomoyoshi Nozaki"},{id:"207576",title:"Ms.",name:"Yuka",surname:"Ishida",slug:"yuka-ishida",fullName:"Yuka Ishida"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"825",title:"Current Topics in Tropical Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef65e8eb7a2ada65f2bc939aa73009e3",slug:"current-topics-in-tropical-medicine",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. 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It is known to cause serious diseases in mammals and humans, most notably tuberculosis. It can be found in water, soil, and dust, and some can contaminate medications and products, including medical devices. Mycobacterium can be classified into several major groups for the purpose of diagnosis and treatment. Several species have been identified to cause a clinical threat to human beings and mammals.
\r\n\r\n\tSome species were identified as non-pathogen and pathogens to humans and animals. If left undiagnosed and untreated may lead to major diseases that are a threat to global health—practicing healthy habits such as handwashing, cooking, and boiling water before use were observed as the best way of reducing the risk of spreading diseases caused by the pathogenic mycobacterium species. Antibiotics have been developed to treat diseases caused by this species. Most antibiotics treat the diseases well without any complications, but some can cause drug resistance if not taken properly. Adherence to medication is very important. Patients must be educated about the various diseases and medications to avoid and limit antimicrobial resistance – a major global problem.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book will provide an up-to-date update of these developments in the pathogenicity and immunology of Mycobacteria, coupled with allied advances in diagnosis and treatment, including the use of molecular techniques, pharmacogenomics, and genomics.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-051-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-050-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-052-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"aa972af90c14eb4ef39b6dc71911f623",bookSignature:"Dr. Awelani Mutshembele",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11634.jpg",keywords:"Microbiologic Characteristics, Pathogenicity, Diagnosis, Transmission, Treatment, Antimicrobial Resistance, Pharmacogenomics, Drug Metabolizing Enzymes, Tuberculosis, Multidrug-Resistance, Molecular Biology Techniques, Genomics",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 12th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 12th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 10th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 29th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 28th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Mutshembele is a Specialist Scientist at the Tuberculosis Platform, where she manages a portfolio of projects in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. She has a Diploma in Biotechnology from Durban University of Technology, South Africa, and was a Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the University of Pretoria. Her current research interest is the molecular epidemiology of Mycobacterium TB. She led a project on“The role of region-specific SNPs in virulence genes in Mycobacterium tuberculosis drug resistance.”",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"468847",title:"Dr.",name:"Awelani",middleName:null,surname:"Mutshembele",slug:"awelani-mutshembele",fullName:"Awelani Mutshembele",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/468847/images/system/468847.png",biography:"Dr. Mutshembele is a Specialist Scientist who joined the Tuberculosis Platform of SAMRC, South Africa as an Intramural Postdoctoral Research Fellow in 2017. 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The visual system is inevitable for the way we interact with our surroundings as majority of our impressions, memories, feelings are bound to the visual perception. Millions of cortical neurons are implicated and programmed specifically to frame this incredible interface (perception) for us to interact with the world. Neurons in the visual cortex respond essentially to the variations in luminance occurring within their receptive fields, where each neuron fires maximally by acting as a filter for stimulus features such as orientation, motion, direction and velocity, with an appropriate combination of these properties [1-5].
The seminal work of Hubel and Wiesel on the visual cortex of cat [1, 2, 6-8], has been instrumental in establishing the anatomical and physiological aspects of the visual cortex. Many studies by various investigators on the visual cortex of different animals, thereafter, have been phenomenal in understanding the brain in general and the vision in particular; yet, neuronal mechanisms involved in processing of stimuli still elude our complete understanding of cortical functioning. These findings have been crucial in unravelling the organization of the visual cortex. The visual cortex reorganises itself in the postnatal development, within a specific period called ‘the critical period’ [9], which is a period characterised with pronounced brain plasticity. In recent years, the focus of the research has been to comprehend the ‘reorganization’ of neuronal framework, especially after the so called ‘critical period’ [10-12] in response to various conditions and its ability to adapt accordingly. This amazing tendency of brain to change its neuronal connections and properties is termed ‘plasticity’ [13]. Two common approaches to study the reorganization of visual cortex are frequently applied: deprivation and induced adaptation. Deprivation refers to the removal of sensory inputs, whereas induced adaptation refers to the forceful application of a sensory input. Consequently, neurons communicate dynamically with each other in a specific way self-assembling, auto-calibrating, memorizing and adapting to different stimuli properties, thus responding accordingly to several experiences [14-16].
The aim of this chapter is to primarily focus on how the linkage between cells changes following plastic modifications of cortical neuronal properties, that is, how the reorganization of the cortical network is modulated following adaptation-induced plasticity, as it is inferred by cross-correlating the action potentials of the neurons in the primary visual cortex. We begin with the general architecture of visual cortex (particularly cat visual cortex), followed by a brief introduction to plasticity and adaptation. Then, we cite an example of modification of the neuronal connections before and after adaptation as revealed by cross-correlation method. Based on this example, we propose a model for changing functional connections prior and post adaptation and conclude with how neurons change their functional relationships when forcefully adapted to a non-optimal stimulus.
Visual area constitutes about 25 % of the cortex in humans with approximately 5 billion neurons. The study of the visual cortex has revealed many of these visual regions such as V1, V2, V3, V4 and MT on the basis of their anatomical architecture, topography and physiological properties [17, 18]. These regions are involved in processing of multitude of informations (shape, orientation, color, movement, size etc) resulting from the visual pathways, thus making up an image applied to retina.
The cortical area of higher mammals such as cats, monkeys and humans is generally divided into modules of selectivity (e.g. the visual cortex is divided into areas of selectivity called orientation columns). Several characteristics of the visual system of mammals appear to be common to many species [19, 20], though the neurons are distributed in a salt and pepper fashion in the visual cortex of lower animals such as rats and mice, lacking the orientation domains [21, 22]. Research on animal models is used on a large scale to study and investigate the structure and function of the visual system. Monkeys, cats, and mice are commonly used in neurophysiological experiments for understanding cortical mechanisms in general and visual pathways in particular [23].
Visual perception begins in the retina where the received light is transformed into electrical signal by a biochemical cascade produced in the rods and cones. The retinal ganglion cells relay the message to the lateral geniculate body (LGN) which consists of six layers [24]. Each layer receives information from the retinal hemi-field of one eye. The axon terminals of ganglion cells which project on each layer form a precise retinotopic map. This retinotopy denotes the spatial organization of neuronal responses to visual stimuli. Indeed, in many parts of the brain, neurons that respond to stimulation from a given portion of the visual field are located right next to the neurons whose receptive fields cover adjacent portions. Therefore, all the neurons in these brain regions form a topographical map of the visual field from its projection onto the retina.
From the LGN, axons are organized into thalamocortical fibres forming the optic radiations. These optic radiations project onto the cortex in specialized visual areas. The distribution of fibres in the cortex can reproduce the visual field on the cortical layer, and the stimulation of a small cortical area leads to the appearance of bright spots called ‘phosphenes’ [25] in a specific location of the visual field. Visual areas begin in the occipital lobe, and the primary visual cortex or area 17 is the main entrance to cortex for thalamic relay cells [24]. The primary visual cortex is organized into functional modules. Neurons with similar receptive fields are organized into columns [26, 27]. Visual neurons have other fundamental properties, such as the direction selectivity of cells in the layer IVβ, and the selectivity for speed [3, 6]. There is another system of alternating columns, which corresponds to the separation of afferents from both eyes. These are the ocular dominance columns. The ocular dominance columns represent bands of cortical tissue alternately occupied by afferents from the left eye or right eye [28-30]. These bands are particularly pronounced at the cortical layer IV, which receives the afferent endings of the lateral geniculate nucleus. Thus the visual cortex is organized into functional maps of orientation, spatial frequency, ocular dominance, temporal frequency which are interrelated to each other [31-33].
Parallel organization of the visual system
Many findings have led to the discovery of thirty different cortical areas that contribute to visual perception. The primary areas (V1) and secondary areas (V2) are surrounded by many other tertiary or associative visual areas such as V3, V4, V5 (or MT) involved in processing various attributes of trigger features [18, 34]. Areas V3 and V3A are selective to the form of stimuli [35], and neurons of area V4 are selective to colors [36]. Area V5 or MT (middle temporal) is an area where majority of cells are sensitive to motion and direction, and none of which are selective to color [37].
Moreover, the parallel organization of visual system is involved in the establishment of two major visual pathways: Ventral and dorsal pathways which are indispensable for the object recognition [38, 39]. Figure 1 illustrates the parallel organization of visual system, two major pathways: Green part corresponds to the ventral pathway in the cortex ending in the temporal lobe [38, 40]. It is involved in the processing of information on the characteristics of the objects (shapes, colours, materials), that is, object recognition including faces. Orange part corresponds to the dorsal pathway in the cortex ending in the parietal lobe [38, 40]. This path is associated with spatial vision (action / location) of objects, and is involved in processing of action in space.
The grey matter in the primary visual cortex is divided into six layers namely I, II, III, IV, V, VI (Figure 2) which comprise of different types of neurons [41, 42]. Two types of neurons are mainly observed: pyramidal cells and interneurons which can be physiologically separated and are the focus of interest in this chapter, that is, how they modify their properties and change linkage with each other post-adaptation. Pyramidal cells are excitatory neurons projecting onto other brain regions [43, 44] whereas stellate cells which are the recipient cells from the relay cells of the LGN correspond to the local excitatory interneurons [45]. In addition, there are interneurons that are inhibitory in nature [45]. Figure 2 illustrates the layers and cell types in primary visual cortex. Each layer has specific cell types and connectivity in primary visual cortex. Layer IV contains many stellate cells, small neurons with dendrites arranged radially around the cell body. Pyramidal cells are found in layers II-III, V and VI and are the only type of neurons that send axons outside the cortex. These neurons exhibit two levels of their dendritic extension: basal level close to the cell body and relatively long apical dendritic branches extending sometimes over the entire thickness of the cortex.
Classically, spike waveforms allow cells’ distinction into two functional cell-groups, that is, excitatory pyramidal cells and inhibitory interneurons [11, 46, 47]. Figure 3 illustrates a typical example of cells distinguished based on their waveforms: fast spike and regular spike. Figure 3a corresponds to a fast spike with steeper ascending slope of the action potential and represents the putative interneuron [11], whereas Figure 3b corresponds to a regular spike which exhibits a slower ascending slope and represents the putative pyramidal cell [11].
Organization of the primary visual cortex
Spike waveforms for putative interneurons (a) and putative pyramidal cells (b)
Visual information from the LGN cells firstly projects onto the stellate interneurons in layer IV, which have concentric receptive fields similar to those of LGN neurons [24, 48]. Neurons of layer IV project vertically onto other cortical layers. In layers II / III, cortical cells exhibit a radical transformation of the receptive field organization, where cells respond preferentially to stimuli with properties such as a bar or an edge that has specific characteristics namely orientation, direction, length, width, and motion [3, 6, 49].
Cells in these layers are classified into simple, complex and hypercomplex cells based on their dark or light-edge properties [6]. Simple cell is a cell which has an ON-OFF sub field, that is, it responds to ON or OFF stimuli in the receptive field and has adjacent excitatory and inhibitory areas [6]. Complex neurons have receptive fields larger than those of simple neurons. They are also selective for orientation, but the precise position of the stimulus within the receptive field is less critical because they have no defined ON or OFF sub-areas. That is why a movement of the stimulus through the receptive field is a potent stimulus for some complex neurons [6, 50, 51]. A complex cell does not have adjacent excitatory and inhibitory areas in the receptive field and responds to whole of the receptive field regardless of the exactitude of the stimulus area, though complex cells can be direction-specific [6]. A hypercomplex cell appears to result, when the axons of complex neurons with different orientations converge on it. A hypercomplex cell is selective to lines of a defined length, and if the stimulus exceeds this length the response is diminished due to inhibitory extremities in addition to antagonistic flanks [6].
Neurons in primary visual cortex are connected laterally and vertically to each other. Lateral or horizontal connections are specified as long range connections between neurons preferring similar stimulus features [52, 53] which are functionally connected to each other at large distance [54, 55]. Vertical connections are specified as inputs to layers II and III from layer IV of the visual cortex [56, 57] which receives its inputs from LGN [58]. From layers II and III, the connections descend to layers V and VI [57].
Cats have a high performance visual system close to that of primates, making it a very coveted subject for researches to reveal the functional aspects of this complex system [59, 60]. Approaches to study the visual system are based on functional electrophysiology, where animals are anaesthetized and paralyzed for electrophysiological recordings by lowering microelectrodes into regions of interest within the visual area and visually stimulating the neurons [6, 11, 49, 61].
Neurons in the mammalian visual cortex are tuned to respond to visual stimuli such as contour orientation, motion, direction, and speed [3, 6, 59]. Preference for orientation in orientation columns is considered relatively stable in the primary visual cortex (V1) as an emergent property that is established early in the life, following the so-called critical period [9].
Studies from various laboratories have shown that in a fully mature brain, neuronal network restructures itself beyond the postnatal critical period that follows birth [11, 49, 61-65]. Recent investigations revealed the ability of visual neurons to respond to different stimuli conditions (deprivation or imposition) by changing their optimal properties acquired after birth. This adaptation of neurons for visual perception suggests the existence of neuronal plasticity in adults, hence a mature brain.
Adaptation-induced-plasticity of orientation in primary visual cortex is characterized by authors as the ability of cortical neurons to change their preferred orientation following a long [11, 61, 63] or short [62, 65] exposure to a non-preferred orientation for the primary visual cortex neurons in cats, e.g. Long adaptation leads to the shift of orientation tuning towards attractive direction [61]. In a similar fashion, repetitive adaptation to a non-preferred spatial frequency reveals the spatial frequency tuning shifts in cat visual cortex [49]. In general, imposing a particular stimulus induces instructive process to modify neuronal properties, for example, when in the visual cortex of awake mice a single orientation grating stimulus is repeatedly presented; it leads to augmentation of responses evoked exclusively by testing stimulus, that is, the experience led to enhancement of response [66]. In experiments where animals are anaesthetized (e.g. a cat in the experiment described later on) the shifts of peaks of tuning curves following adaptation (described in figure 4) are not attributed to attention modulations. Consequently, these shifts result from basic neuronal processes outside the frame of attentional processes that might impact response magnitudes.
Adaptation studies in recent years have presented a more complex picture where prolonged exposure to a non-preferred orientation has shown modifications in neurons’ preferred orientations. After adaptation to a non preferred orientation, obtained tuning curve for the new preferred orientation (after adaptation) can shift in two directions relative to the original preferred orientation: attractive or repulsive [11, 61, 63, 64]. An attractive shift is a shift of the tuning curve towards the adapting orientation. On the other hand; a repulsive shift is a shift of the tuning curve in the opposite side of the adapting orientation. Figure 4 illustrates types of shifts post-adaptation. Figure 4a corresponds to an attractive shift, in which blue tuning curve represents control optimal orientation (before adaptation), and red tuning curve represents new optimal orientation (after adaptation).The tuning curve shifted towards the adapting orientation. Figure 4b corresponds to the repulsive shift, in which blue tuning curve represents control optimal orientation (before adaptation), and red tuning curve represents new optimal orientation (after adaptation). The tuning curve shifted away from the adapting orientation. Red arrows depict adapting orientation (non-preferred orientation in control).
Types of shifts post-adaptation
Attractive shifts are more frequent than repulsive shifts in longer adaptation durations (≥ 6 min) [11, 61]. Repeated or prolonged exposure to an adapter diminished neuronal responses evoked by the original optimal properties, furthermore in parallel, if it is the neuron’s preferred stimulus [61]. Optical imaging investigations in recent years have also revealed the impact of adaptation-induced-plasticity, showing that orientation maps in V1 can be modified by imposing one particular orientation [62, 65, 67].
As reviewed above [11, 49, 61-65], adaptation- induced studies on visual cortex can reveal a great deal about the functioning of the visual cortex. Crosscorrelogram analysis is an efficient tool to establish the functional connectivity between neurons. Ever since the crosscorrelogram approach was introduced [68], it has proved to be an invaluable tool to determine how specific neurons interact with each other. A crosscorrelogram is a histogram used to infer the connectivity between two neurons, where one neuron is reference and other target. The histogram shows us when the spikes of target neuron are related in time to the spikes of reference neuron. The technique has been instrumental in revealing widespread incidences of neuronal synchrony and neuronal time-relationships among various cortical areas [64, 70-78]. For instance, as revealed by crosscorrelogram analysis, synchrony has been reported to be strong between cells with similar preferred parameters due in part to specific connections between cortical domains having similar tuning properties. Thus, based on the crosscorrelogram analysis, the functional network connections can be established between the neurons [58, 71, 79-81].
Crosscorrelograms between two neurons (reference and target)
A typical crosscorrelogram between two neurons to interpret the relation between them is obtained by keeping one of the neurons as reference and calculating the spikes of the other neuron with reference to it. An investigator generally is interested in one of the following patterns as illustrated in figure 5, while he is interpreting crosscorrelograms. Figure 5 illustrates the time relations between two neurons as revealed by shifted and corrected crosscorrelograms when one neuron is reference and other target. A shifted crosscorrelogram is a histogram obtained, when the spikes of the reference cell are shifted by one or two cycles of stimulation. This eliminates the possibility of stimulus-induced-relationship between two neurons. After this the shifted crosscorrelogram is subtracted (corrected) to remove the stimulus-locked -component. Figure 5a corresponds to target cell projecting onto the reference cell. Target neuron fires few milliseconds before the reference cell since the peak of the crosscorrelogram appears few milliseconds before zero, that is, offset from zero, within 5ms. This means there is an excitation from target to the reference cell [79, 81]. Figure 5b corresponds to the reference cell projecting onto the target cell. Target neuron fires few milliseconds after the reference cell since the peak of the crosscorrelogram appears few milliseconds after zero, within 5ms. This means the excitation is from reference cell to the target cell [79, 81]. Figure 5c corresponds to the synchrony between two neurons, as the peak straddles zero [73, 82]. This means there is a common excitatory input to both neurons most likely from other neuron or neurons. Though, various time windows have been taken into consideration ranging from 3ms to 10 ms [72, 79] to reveal the functional connections between the involved neurons, but a time window within 5ms is most frequently used.
Differential effects of adaptation on synchrony for responses evoked by original orientation and adapting orientation
Figure 6 corresponds to differential effects of adaptation on synchrony for responses evoked by original orientation and adapting orientation. Figure 6a represents respective spike-waveforms for cell 1 and cell 2. Figure 6b shows crosscorrelograms between cell 1 and cell 2 before adaptation (control). The centered peak corresponds to synchrony. Fig 6c represents crosscorrelograms between cell 1 and cell 2 after adaptation. Synchrony disappeared for original optimal orientation while it persists for responses evoked by adapter. Figure 6d shows respective Peri-Stimulus Time Histograms (PSTH’s) for cells in control (before adaptation). Figure 6e corresponds to respective Peri-Stimulus Time Histograms (PSTH’s) for cells after adaptation. The downward black arrows indicate onset of the drifting sine-wave patch positioned in the receptive field.
Since adaptation modifies the optimal properties of neurons, whether orientation, direction or spatial frequency, it seems reasonable to postulate that these modifications following adaptation induce a rapid reorganization of the inter-neuronal relationships, as revealed by crosscorrelogram analyses. For instance, a recipient neuron programmed since birth to be connected to a specific neuron that responds optimally to one specific property, all of a sudden starts responding optimally to another stimulus, and begins participating in a different network with other neuron- as if breaking its allegiance to the neuron it is programmed to be connected since birth.
Neurons do not respond in isolation to the trigger features, but in coordination with surrounding neurons. Thus, they encode stimuli features by forming cell assemblies, where in the involved neurons are time related with each other. Recent investigations have revealed the ability of visual neurons to respond to different stimuli conditions by changing their optimal properties acquired after birth. Most of these studies have been done by visual deprivation [9, 83-86], whereas only a few have centered on induced adaptation [11, 62, 64, 87]. This adaptation of neurons to non-optimal stimuli suggests the adaptability of neuronal code to visual stimuli.
Neuronal connections in the cortex generally occur locally [79, 88]. Visual cortex is a highly specialized functional area where the neurons coordinate locally to encode the visual scenes [89, 90, 91]. To reveal how this local circuitry of different neurons in visual cortex is set up and modulated in response to different visual stimuli is of prime importance to understand the mechanisms of information processing. Crosscorrelogram strategy discussed above can be effectively applied to form a neuronal network in response to visual stimuli. Thus, it can be an efficient tool in deciphering the changes in the neuronal code post-adaptation, hence, the mechanisms of plastic modifications can be revealed.
For example, in the Figure 7 we show the network of connections prior and post adaptation between three neurons recorded simultaneously from the same electrode lowered into the primary visual cortex of an anaesthetized cat. In this experiment, a stimulating sine-wave drifting grating was set to excite cells optimally. Shifted and corrected crosscorrlegrams between all the involved neurons were obtained. A time window of 5 ms before or after the zero in the shifted and corrected crosscorrelogram is taken into account for the projection to be valid. The physiological connectivity (synaptic connections, common input) between cells occurs on very small time scales, less than 3 ms [79, 81]. Since we consider a time window of 10 ms in crosscorrelograms for establishing connections, therefore, this connectivity only reflects that the cells function (irrespective of physical connectivity) in coordination with each other in a time-window of 10 ms following a presented stimulus. Figure 7a illustrates the functional connections between three neurons as revealed by their respective crosscorrelograms (shifted and corrected). White projections correspond to established connections before adaptation. Figure 7b illustrates the new functional connections between same neurons as revealed by their respective crosscorrelograms (shifted and corrected). Yellow projection corresponds to the new connection established after adaptation. Dotted gray projection represents the disappeared projection. PC corresponds to the probability coefficient of the connections. Solid green pyramid represents a pyramidal cell and the solid red sphere represents an interneuron. Red curve line indicates 95% significance level.
Functional relationships between simultaneously recorded cells before and after adaptation
This changing of connections indicates that the functional relationships between neurons are modified depending on the stimulus features. For instance, following the forceful presentation of a particular stimulus (in this example a different orientation) results in disappearance of some relationships, and appearance of new relationships.
Based on the above example, we hypothesize and propose a model how the network of neurons is modulated prior and post adaptation as revealed by the functional time-relationship of neurons between them. Figure 8 depicts the functional connections between the same neurons before and after adaptation. White projections in figure 8a show the projections that cells have onto each other before adaptation, whereas figure 8b depicts how the network changes in the same group of neurons after adaptation. Some of the connections between the cells remain distinct (white projections) whereas some connections disappear (dotted gray arrows) with appearing new connections (yellow projections).
Network model before and after adaptation
This chapter reviewed the changes in the cellular properties post-adaptation. Indeed, the optimal trigger features may change following the prolonged application of a stimulus to which the cell responded feebly before adaptation. This phenomenon has been virtually observed in all mammals which have been tested so far. Also in parallel, following adaptation the inter-neuronal relationships are modified. This suggests that the entire cortical network reorganises itself post adaptation, that is, a new cortex is formed, as if designed for changed properties.
To sum it up, it is of prime importance to understand the plastic modifications of brain for various fundamental and medical reasons. This chapter underlined the importance of imposed adaptation studies within brain, particularly in primary visual cortex based on the crosscorrelogram analysis, framing a premise to better understand the functional connectivity [79, 92] and mechanisms in local neuronal circuits between various identified neurons, at least between the pyramidal cells and interneurons before and after adaptation. and post adaptation, thus, could help us to decipher the mechanisms of information processing, hence the neuronal codes governing them.
The purpose of this research was to gather relevant information concerning the sources, practices and intoxications resulting from the use of insecticides in Cameroon. It was also to collect information on different options that can replace synthetic insectides and finally to give recommendations that will help foster best practices and minimize cost of production to users as well as minimize effects to human health and the environment.
To meet our purpose, we carried out mainly desk study that allowed us to collect, analyze and summarize information from different sources such as internet search engines (mainly www.google.com), library of the Institute of Agricultural Research for Development—IRAD and that of the African Research Centre on Bananas and Plantains—CARBAP), consultation of some national experts especially those at the Phytosanitory Department of the Ministry of Agriculture & Rural Development (MINADER), and Whatsapp groups of related professionals. The information collected were mainly primary research (peer-reviewed manuscripts published in journals) as well as scientific reports or articles in conference proceedings or annual reports. We also carried out secondary literature review from news bulletins, magazines, and books. Review focus on all these sources was on the following aspects; the agricultural sector, sources of insecticides, registration procedure & list of registered insecticides, insecticide application methods & associated Malpractices, different intoxications or poisonings resulting from malpractices, and alternatives to the use of synthetic insecticides.
Cameroon is a country located at the crossroads of West and Central Africa with a surface land size of 475,440 km2 [1] and a population of about 22.71 million inhabitants. It is bordered by Nigeria, Chad, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and Republic of Congo to the West, Northeast, East, and South respectively. Cameroon lies on the Bight of Bonny coastline, which is part of the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean [1]. Cameroon is called ‘
The southern forest (including the regions of Centre, East, Littoral, South and South West) is situated in the maritime and equatorial zones
The western highlands charatristize (covering the regions of West and North West)
The Sudano-sahelian north (covering Adamawa, North and Far North) (Figure 1)
Different regions (a) and agroecological zones (b) in Cameroon.
The natural regions in Cameroon are divided into five agro-ecological zones (Table 1 and Figure 1) each characterized by dominant physical, climatic, and vegetative features.
Agro-ecological zones | Regions | Altitude (m) | Rainy days/year | Rainy months/year | Rainfall (mm) | Mean annual temperature (range) | Main crop and animal production |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sudano-Sahelian | North and Far North | 250–500 | 90–120 | 3–5 | 500- 900 | 28°C (7.7) | Maize, millet-sorghum, rice, cowpea, soybean, onion, sesame, fruits, cotton, cattle and small ruminants |
Sudano-Guinean (high Guinea savannah) | Adamawa | 500–1500 | 110–150 | 7 | 1500–1800 | 23°C (6.4) | Maize, yam, cassava, sweet potatoes, rice, cotton, cattle, pig, small ruminants, poultry birds |
Western highlands | West and North West | 1500–2500 | 175–220 | 7–9 | 1800–2400 | 21°C (2.2) | Maize, beans, potatoes, rice, sweet potatoes, vegetables, coffee, pig, poultry, cattle, small ruminants, fisheries |
Humid forest (monomodal rainfall) | Littoral and South West | 0–500 | 180–240 | 9–12 | 2000–11,000 | 26°C (2.8) | Banana, plantain, cassava, cocoyam, sweet potatoes, maize, vegetables, cocoa, coffee, oil palm, rubber, fruits, poultry, pig, poultry birds, small ruminants, fisheries |
Humid forest (bimodal rainfall) | Centre, East and South | 400–1000 | 125–175 | 7–9 | 1500–2000 | 25°C (2.4) | Plantain, cassava, banana, maize, cocoyam, sweet potatoes, cocoa, oil palm, rubber, coffee, maize, cocoa, oil palm, fruits, poultry, pig, fisheries, small ruminants |
Agro-ecological of Cameroon characteristics, geographical features, rainfall patterns and major crops cultivated and animal species reared (source: authors compilation).
The economy of Cameroon relies mainly on agriculture, with main export crops such as cocoa, coffee, cotton and banana. On an average about 47 million hectares of Cameroon’s land are used for the agricultural sector [2]. It estimated to be less than 5% of the entire territory; moreover, the exploitation of forestry, mining and fisheries represent an additional contribution to the economy of the country. Agriculture in Cameroon is currently employing about 70% of its workforce and providing 44% of its gross domestic product and 30% of its export revenue [1]. The different production systems practiced in the country are:
These are commonly practiced in the western highlands of Cameroon. Terracing is practice across steep-slop banks on the western highlands with main crops cultivated such as plantains, yams, and potatoes. Dry farming system is practiced along the few fertile gentle slopes and in localities of undulating reliefs [3].
These are practiced mainly by smallholder farmers. The practices differ from one agro-ecological zone to another but many characteristics of these practices are the same nationwide. Intercropping/mixed farming is mostly carried out on small farm sizes, generally those <2 hectares. Most of the intercrop mixes contain one leguminous crop. Crops intercrops are selected based on their importance for household consumption and market. While there are cases where food crops are intercropped with cash crops, the practice is predominantly carried out by food crop farmers [4]. Some of the farmers grow more than two crops on the same land during one growing season, especially those cultivating on a land size <1 hectares [3]. Some of such farms also have one or more livestock.
This is the practice of planting different crops sequentially on the same land to reduce the spread and rapid attack of crops by pests and diseases. The crops also differ from one agro-ecological zone to another.
This is commonly practiced by large scale farmers >5 hectares. This cropping system is mostly industrial agricultural institutes such as CDC, PAMOL, SOCAPALM, Tole tea etc. where they cultivate crops like palms, banana, tea, rubber etc.
Like most developing countries, the agricultural sector in the country faces lots of constraints; (i) poor farm-to-market roads, (ii) insufficient access to finance, (iii) most are small farms still using rudimentary tools, (iv) most of the smallholder farmers have not been trained on good agricultural practices, (v) insufficient links to market and market information, (vi) insufficient and low standard transformation/processing of commodities, (vii) pests and diseases are a major constraint, (viii) most of the smallholder farmers misusing agrochemicals.
Biotic constraints (pests and pathogens) are seriously hindering the crop production, resulting to pre-harvest losses, post-harvest losses and lower yields. Arthropod pests especially insects are the most common and serious group causing damage to crops. Most damaging insect Orders are Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Hemiptera, and Diptera. Most mentioned group of disease-causing agents are fungi and viruses. Severity of the pests and diseases varies with the crop and crops hardest hit by diseases are cocoa, tomatoes, banana/plantain, onions, sorghum, maize, pineapple, cucumbers, pepper and water melons while those hardest hit by pests are cocoa, tomatoes, maize, groundnuts, bananas/plantains, sorghum, millet, cotton, pineapple, coffee and cucumbers.
The different agro-ecological zones are faced with biotic and abiotic constraints that affect the agricultural productivity. Pests are mainly from the arthropod, vertebrate, mollusk, weeds and nematode groups of living things. Disease-causing pathogens are mainly fungi, viruses and bacteria. For cocoa, black pod; capsids; rodents and primates reported as the main pests/diseases. Corm borer weevils, mealy bugs, aphids, snails, black sigatoka, banana bunchy top disease and Banana streak virus for bananas/plantains; blight, fruit flies, white flies, aphids and mole crickets for tomatoes, peppers, and African nightshade; fall army worm, stem borers, snails, rust and maize weevil for maize; boll worm for cotton; bruchids for cowpea; thrips and mildew for onions, leaf miners for oil palm, grasshoppers, caterpillars, aphids and whiteflies also attack lots of traditional African vegetables.
Insecticides are agrochemicals in the pesticide family used to control insects by killing them or preventing the establishment or proliferation of those considered harmful. They play an important role in agriculture and public health by improving the yield and productivity of crops caused by pests and by reducing the rate of vector-borne diseases by killing or affecting growth and development of vectors such as mosquitoes, houseflies, tse tse flies, sand flies, cockroaches, etc. They are pesticides formulated essentially for repelling, killing, harming or mitigating insects from crops and other agri-food sources such as ranches, poultry farms, etc. Insecticides work differently based on their mode of actions; some disrupt the nervous system, whereas others damage the exoskeletons, others repel or control them. Insecticides application helps in managing and mitigating insects; thereby guaranteeing crop protection and preventing yield loss, they are the main weapons against insects in Africa. Insecticides are widely used in Cameroon by farmers and traders to protect their plants and products during production and post-harvest storage [5].
There are two main supply routes in Cameroon—a legal and an illegal supply chain. Pesticides (including insecticides) are imported mainly from France (30.9%), Switzerland (14.0%), Norway (5.7%) and the USA (5.1%). Other countries (such as Germany, China, and India) supply 16.6% while 27.7% were of unidentified sources. Pesticides are imported by local companies to large distributors and then distributed to chemical retailers (95% of all pesticides) or to farmers’ societies (5%) [6].
Cameroon does not currently produce any insecticides for crop protection, timber protection and public health uses, but repackaging is practiced by some distributors [7]. Consequently, all national demand for insecticides is met by imports. In Cameroon, the quantities of pesticides imported are undergoing a clear evolution; from 960 tons in 2015 to 1163 tons in 2019 [8].
There are about 13 recognized large companies that carry out the majority of insecticide and other agrochemical imports into Cameroon although the major companies are: FIMEX International SA, AGROCHEM, ARYSTA Life Science, JACO, AFRICAWARE, ADER, BASE-F, Syngenta and YARA (Ministry of Agriculture & Rural Development). These main private companies operating in the phytosanitary business are mostly grouped within the association CropLife Cameroon, an international association of pesticide companies whose mission is to promote the availability of quality pesticides within the country. CropLife’s advocacy role involves financial support and regular sensitisation of pesticide import and distribution companies to conduct their activities in a manner that takes into account national and international regulatory requirements in order to ensure the promotion of appropriate health, safety and environmental protection measures for all those who may be directly or indirectly affected by their activities.
The responsibility of the distributor is his/her obligation to answer for the act of making available to the end user plant protection products that have safety and quality standards. Law No. 2003/003 of 21 April 2003 on plant protection stipulates that the distributor must verify that the plant protection products are registered or have a valid Provisional Sales Authorization (PSA) in Cameroon. In order to meet this expectation, he must confirm that the product of standard (formulation, mode of action and type or family of products, he must be able to distinguish the products, which means he must know how to read the label and has adequate training). The regulations stipulate that the technician in charge of pesticide distribution must have been trained by an approved agricultural training institution. Although the distribution of phytosanitary products is an economic activity, the technician must be able to give technical advice to his clients.
The distribution of pesticides is subject to strict rules and the distributor must be registered in the MINADER database. Article 24:(1) of Law No. 2003/003 of 21 April 2003 on plant protection stipulates that the marketing of plant protection products in bulk or on display is prohibited. The same applies to the possession of obsolete plant protection products [9]. Small scale distributors or retailers buy from the large companies. Some of these large companies put in place measures that allow the retailers to be registered before being allowed to get products. Sellers mainly buy their supplies from large authorized distributors. In addition to vendors, permanent retailers operate agricultural input sales outlets in the main markets of Cameroon. In addition to permanent retailers, hawkers do sell in several markets at once, traveling from one market to another.
In 2017, a pilot study on the harmful effects of agricultural pesticides on human health and the environment in some regions of Cameroon, carried out in five different zones representing the main agricultural production basins of the 5 agro-ecological zones indicated that although all the retailers claim to get their supplies preferentially from approved distributors, the majority of pesticide sellers found in the markets do not have any sales authorization as required by the Law and are not listed in MINADER’s data base. This creates an informal market for agricultural pesticides (including insecticides). Some of them sell in bulk and on stalls. This creates a situation where unregistered and expired products are found in the markets (Figure 2) [10].
Photo of a typical store where pesticides are sold. (a) and (b) Pictures of pesticides of retailers salers. (c) Picture of typical store where pesticides are sold (source: Pouokam, 2016; Cameroon Tribune 2021).
Insecticides are widely used in the country by chemical retailers, farmers’ organizations, farmers and post-harvest traders to protect their plants and products during production and post-harvest storage. The importance of plant protection products in agriculture is justified by their impact on increasing crop yields (cereals, banana and plantain, pineapple, tomato, rubber, cocoa, wood, vegetable and fruit crops, cotton, sugarcane, carrots, rice, oil palm, maize, coffee, logs, stocks, cabbage) by an average of 30–40%, reduction of damage caused by pests and diseases which can reach 30–50% of losses in the field or after harvest [11, 12].
Insecticides are applied to the environment to reduce the population and damage caused by insect pests below a level that cannot cause economic damage. They therefore play an important role in agriculture and public health. In Cameroon, public health, insect pests and/or vectors of importance include mosquitoes, house flies, cockroaches, bed bugs, midges. Insecticides are also used to control urban pests such as beetles and termites destroying ceilings and other furniture of houses. The use of insecticides has an advantage in terms of economic efficiency and improved human health and welfare (Figure 3).
Sample damage caused by pests and diseases: photos of bed bug and its effects on humans, fall army worm on maize leaves, cocoa black pod disease and mold on maize cobs.
In Cameroon, laws exist that guide the distribution and appropriate use of agrochemicals especially synthetic pesticides. These laws concern the use or misuse of pesticides and align with certain international conventions (e.g. Stockholm, Rotterdam, International Plant Protection) of which Cameroon is a signatory. One important law is No. 2003/003 of April 2003 concerning phytosanitory measures or crop protection practices. According to this law, pesticides are substances or group of substances (example insecticides) used to destroy or control below threshold levels crop pests, disease vectors, species that are undesirable to plants and animals or negatively affect the entire value chain of agricultural products. Pesticides can cause harm to humans, animals or the environment if not properly used or disposed.
Also, some pesticides residues or phytosanitary products may accumulate in organisms after repeated applications andthis may cause diseases and subsequently death. For this reason, laws and decrees are usually published to regulate the sale, storage and use of all phytosanitary products that enter the Cameroonian markets. In relation to this, some products or active ingredients that are identified as toxic by the competent authorities have been banned and removed from the market. This Law documents the principles and rules governing plant protection in Cameroon. Generally, pest control is carried out through (i) the development, adoption and adaptation of standards, (ii) the prevention and fight against pests of plants and plant products, (iii) theuse of pesticides that are safe to human and animal health and for the environment, (iv) the dissemination and popularization of appropriate techniques for plant protection, (v) control of the import and export of pesticides.
Furthermore, chemical treatments are applied in accordance with good agricultural practices issued by the competent authority in order to protect human and animal health and protect the environment from hazards arising from the presence or accumulation of pesticide residues. Any natural or legal person wishing to perform phytosanitary treatments in a professional capacity must first be approved by the competent authority. In addition, only registered pesticides or those with a provisional sales authorization must be imported, distributed, packaged or used in Cameroon. All plants, plant products, soil or growing medium, bodies and biological pest control products are subject to: phytosanitary inspection regardless of their place of production, multiplication and storage and their mode of transport; control during their manufacture, import, export, packaging, distribution and use.
The procedure for registration of pesticides in Cameroon is almost the same for the countries in the Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS) region although there might be some slight differences. This procedure has been endorsed by the Central African Pesticides Committee (CPAC) in collaboration with all the ECCAS countries [13]. The procedure involves three main steps:
Step 1: Submission of a complete registration application file to the Permanent Secretariat of the Central African Pesticides Registration Committee (CPAC) together with payment of an examination fee. The file is then forwarded to experts for examination.
Step 2: After examination of the file, CPAC may decide to either (i) register the pesticide in Central Africa region for 10 years; (ii) grant a Provisional Sale Authorization (PSA) for a two-year period pending further studies; (iii) retain the file under study pending additional information or (iv) refuse to register the pesticide. A registered pesticide is issued a unique number that is valid for all CPAC member states.
Step 3: The CPAC Permanent Secretariat transmits the results of the deliberation to the applicant and to the member states, and publishes the list of registrations and PSA in CPAC periodical.
The pesticide registration application file comprises all information necessary to assess the efficiency of the pesticide and the potential hazards that such a pesticide might pose to humans, non-target organisms and the Central African environment as a whole. It includes all information on the identification and the physico-chemical properties of the product and the active ingredient, toxicology, effects on the environment and wildlife, the residues as well as information on the safety measures on the use of the product [13]. The file includes the following items submitted in French or English:
An application for the registration of a commercial product;
A specification sheet;
A technical package;
An analytical file;
A toxicology file;
The original label or scale model;
A reference sample of the active ingredient(s) contained in the commercial product and a sample of the commercial product;
A registration certificate in the country of origin.
The registration criteria comprise of:
an administrative information (name and address of applicant, patent holder, manufacturer of formulation and manufacturer of active ingredients);
identity of the formulation (brand name of the formulation, names and proportion of active ingredients, etc.);
identity of the active ingredients (ISO, purity, proportions of additives, etc.);
intended uses (type of pesticide, target crops, countries with similar ecologies where the formulation is registered).
The files include physico-chemical, biological efficacy, analytical, toxicology, environmental, residue and packaging and labeling files. The files shall comprise only abstracts of these studies. The complete studies is made available to CPAC on request.
Labeling of pesticide containers is designed as a means of attaining a high level of communication between the pesticide dealer and the user. Therefore, it should be clear and concise and should contain fundamental data for the use of pesticide in complete safety and with guaranteed efficiency throughout its life span. The label should describe the content, present a clear visible indication of the hazard, direction for the sound use of the content, name and address of manufacturer as well as manufacture and expiry dates. Additionally, a specification sheet or technical notice should be enclosed to supplement information on the description of active ingredients, direction for use and necessary precautions.
The importation, sale and use of pesticides in Cameroon are regulated by Law No. 2003/003 of 21st of April 2003 regarding phytosanitary protection, particularly in section 1 of chapter III of the law. Here, it is clearly stated that only registered phytosanitary products or products that have a Provisional Sale Authorization (PSA) could be imported, distributed, conditioned or used in Cameroon. These products are supposed to be marketed and used only in their original packaging material. In addition, equipments used for the application of pesticides are supposed to respect specific norms. To this, their production, importation and distribution in Cameroon are regulated by the law. Interested persons are supposed to submit an application file for certification of the equipment to the National Commission for Homologation of Pesticides and the Certification of phytosanitary equipment (CNPHCAT) and must pay an evaluation fee. Registration is a process at the end of which a competent authority approves the importation, distribution and use of a product after results of scientific analysis indicate that the product is effective, does not present any risks or danger to humans, animals or the environment when used as recommended.
The regulation binding the registration of pesticides in Cameroon is the same for the countries in the ECCAS. This regulation was put in place by CPAC in collaboration with all the ECCAS. The regulation clearly indicates that a pesticide may not be homologated unless its formulation conforms to the following criteria:
It is sufficiently effective against the target organism; has no phytotoxic effect, it is not harmful to humans and wildlife not initially targeted and has no negative effects on the environment.
It has acceptable biological efficacy.
Established experimental and analytical methods can determine the components, impurities and residues of the pesticide.
Maximum residue limits for agricultural products intended for human consumption and subject to homologation.
Where most of the above criteria are respected, a Provisional Sale Authorization (PSA) is granted, which will be valid for a limited period of 2 years nonrenewable.
Registration of a product involves the following:
Chemical analysis of a sample of the product conducted in an accredited laboratory;
Biological efficacy tests conducted by a research institute during one or two cropping seasons;
Pre extension tests conducted by plant protection services of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development over at least one cropping season;
Combined tests of bio-efficacy and pre extension for at least one cropping season.
Individuals or group of persons who intend to submit a phytosanitary product for registration are supposed to deposit an application file to the National Commission for Homologation of Pesticides and the Certification of phytosanitary equipment (CNPHCAT) and must pay an examination fee. This commission is created in MINADER but includes one or two members from other government ministries such as Ministries of Scientific Research and Innovation, Higher Education, Public Health, Animal Husbandry and Fisheries, Environmental Protection and Nature Protection among others. The chair of the commission is the Minister of Agriculture and Rural Development as stated in chapter IV of the Prime Ministerial Decree no. 2005/0772/PM of 06 April 2005. This decree also provides details on procedure for submission of a phytosanitary product for homologation in its chapter II.
The list of pesticides registered in Cameroon as of 04 March 2021 by the National Commission for the Homologation of Phytosanitary Products and Certification of Treatment Equipment housed within the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development for the control of crop and wood pests and for public health uses is estimated at nearly 900 pesticides, 90% of which are pesticides and 10% growth regulators [14, 15]. Of this list, insecticides represent about 34% of the total registered pesticides. It is subject to periodic renewal, but provides a framework that is binding on all at the national level. The toxicological class of insecticides according to the World Health Organization classification, indicate that 2% are in Class Ia (extremely dangerous) for use in food storage; 3% of registered insecticides are in Class Ib (very dangerous), including insecticides and nematicides used to treat cotton, tomatoes, plantains, vegetables; 32% in Class II (moderately dangerous); and 63% in Class III (slightly dangerous) [14].
Of the 311 insecticides registered by March 2021, mostare registered for use on cotton (24.4%), tomatoes (22.5%), cocoa (21.9%), and public health (13.2%) (Figure 4). Table 2 shows the different sectors on which insecticides are registered, major group of insecticides and their percentages, target pests and examples of main active ingredients.
Distribution of insecticides registered in Cameroon.
Sector | Target pest | Major groups of insecticide | Percentage of the group | Example of most registered active ingredient of the group |
---|---|---|---|---|
Banana/plantain | Corm borer weevils Nematodes | Neonicotynoid | 37.5 (6/16) | Imidaclopride Thiametoxam |
Woods | Xylophage insects | Different types mainly combinations | — | Thiacloprid Boric acid Magnesuim phosphide |
Cocoa | mirids | Neonicotynoid | 80.9 (55/68) | Imidaclopride Thiametoxam Acetamiprid |
Coffee | Coffee berry borers | Neoticotynoid | 100 (1/1) | Imidacloprid Lamda cyahothrine |
Sugarcane | Termites | Pheny pyrazole | 100 (1/1) | Fipronil |
Cabbage | Caterpillars | Microbial | 100 (1/1) | |
Cotton | Boll worm | Ivermectine Pyrethroid | 60.5 (46/76) | Emamectine benzoate Cypermethrine |
Vegetable crop | White flies Thrips | 100 (1/1) | Abamectine | |
Stored crops | Store pests | Organophosphates in combination | 83.3 (10/12) | Pyrimifos-methyl Permithrine Aluminum phosphide |
Public health | Mosquitoes Midges | Pyrethroid | 70.7 (29/41) | Transfluthrine Lamda cyahalothrine Alpha cypermethrine |
Maize | Fall army worm Stem borers | Ivermectine | 42.9 (6/14) | Emamectine benzoate |
Oil palm | Leaf miner | Organophosphafe | 100 (1/1) | Thioryclam hydrogenoxalate |
Tomato | Fruit flies White flies | Pyrethroid | 77.3 (58/75) | Cypermethrine Lamda cyahalothrine |
Target pests and major group of insecticides and active ingredients registered for different sectors in Cameroon.
From Table 3, 11 commercial insecticides are registered with characteristics of highly hazardous pesticides (HHPs) comprising 07 active ingredients according to World Health Organization. These HHPs are registered only for banana/plantain, woods, cotton, stored products, and tomato. Cocoa with 68 registered insecticides has no active ingredient which is HHP.
Sector | Commercial name | Active ingredients | Toxicological class* |
---|---|---|---|
Banana/plantain | Counter 15 FC Moking 10 G Vykingran 10 G | Terbufos 150 g/kg Ethoprofos 100 g/kg Oxamyl 50 g/kg | Ia Ib Ib |
Woods | Magtoxin | Magnesium phosphide 660 g/kg | Ib |
Cotton | Almec 036 EC | Abamectine 36 g/L | Ib |
Stored products | Aladin Magtoxin Phostoxin | Aluminum phosphide 56% Magnesium phosphide 660 g/kg Aluminum phosphide 56% | Ia Ib Ia |
Tomato | Abamet 18 EC Tetrakill 20 EC Furadent Super 10 G | Abamectine 18 g/L Abamectine 20 g/L Oxamyl 10% | Ib Ib Ib |
List of highly hazardous insecticides registered in Cameroon.
According to World Health Organization.
Only four biocontrol agents have been registered (
The mode of application of insecticides is very important for optimizing their functions especially as less than 1% of these applied insecticides get to their target organisms [16, 17]. The over-reliance on chemical pesticides in combating pests throughout the world cannot be emphasized, yet it remains the most efficient, cheap and most accessible control mechanism in controlling pests [18]. Danquah et al. [19] reports cases of organochlorine insecticides residues in Cameroon, Ghana and India within vegetable cultivation, water resources and soil sediments which results largely due to application malpractices.
The desired results of any insecticides can be achieved based on the appropriate methods used and also respecting the time factor. Methods of application varies depending on the nature of the insecticide, their formulation, the soil characteristics, the pests and the availability of clean water [20]. The applications of insecticides is basically for seed treatment, soil treatment or foliar treatment. Insecticides come either in solid, liquid or powder forms, and it is these forms that dictate the methods and appliances used.
Numerous studies show that in Cameroon and Africa, more than 70% of farmers use sprayers which ranges from knapsack, to motorized knapsack sprayers and others in applying pesticides [19, 21, 22]. It is the most widely used method in the application of insecticides that comes in both powder and liquid forms requiring mixing with water before usage.
As observed with most small scale farmers, the mixing of the insecticides with water is carried out with plastic buckets ranging from 10 to 15 liters while others use their knapsacks, fetching water from nearby streams and using teaspoons, table-spoons or corks of bottles as their measuring units. These are all incorrect estimation measures that lead to either over-dosage or under-dosage of insecticides.
As reported by Christos et al. [22] some resource-poor farmers often improvise by using brooms, mesh and leaves on a wooden short stick in sprinkling pesticides mixed in buckets (Figure 5).
Using manual knapsack sprayer on sweet potatoes and fuel-powered sprayer on maize at Ekona, South West Region, Cameroon.
This is the application of powder insecticides without diluting in water, usually using a duster [22]. In Cameroon very few farmers actually know and use dusters in the application of insecticides. From observation and sampling a handful of tomatoes farmers around Buea, just one in ten farmers know about the dusting techniques and also these few could not afford the duster. These farmers improvise by mixing these insecticides with water and spray. Some farmers apply these powder insecticides with hands upon wearing gloves, without any protective equipment especially for their nostrils and mouth. This practice leads to either over-dosing or under-dosing of plants often resulting in environmental contamination and pollution. Also, farmers have been reported using their bare hands to mix wood ash and terbufos and thereafter apply the mixture on leaves of maize and vegetables such as African nightshade (
These are insecticides designed in the forms of solid granules which are made to last longer with the gradual release of the active ingredients slowly upon contact with the soil or roots of plants. In Cameroon more than 70% of the farmers interviewed apply granular pesticides with their hands without any protective, with some using empty tomato tins in spreading them upon the soil.
Most often, these tomato tins serve as their measuring instrument, and depending on the plants, some apply a tin per plantain or banana but for smaller plants like tomatoes, they use a tin for 5–10 plants.
Besides using sprayers, sprinklers and dusters, using of broomsticks and bundles of leaves and brushes attached to sticks and dipping in a bucket of mixed insecticides is the usual practice in Cameroon and in most other African countries [19, 21]. This leads to ineffective application of insecticides resulting in wastage and environmental pollution.
In Cameroon, applying pesticides without all the required PPEs is a common practice by a majority of small-scale farmers especially as no monitoring mechanism is in place to enforce usage of PPEs. In a studies conducted in Buea by Christos et al. [21] about 76.4% tomatoes farmer use inappropriate or no PPEs during the application of insecticides, while Asongwe et al. [23] shows that 95% of farmers in Bamenda Municipality do not protect themselves during pesticide applications. Rugalema and Mnyone [18] reported scenarios of insecticides sprinkling at homes with the hands.
Farmers in Cameroon use teaspoons, corks of beer bottles, or corks of containers, together with empty liters as their measuring units for insecticides. Using these listed items as their measuring units most often results in inappropriate measurement of pesticides that automatically results in environmental pollution and possible the contamination of farmers themselves.
Usually water is fetched in any nearby stream or river irrespective of the source or quality and more recently farmers have dug wells where they fetch water for watering their crops especially during the dry seasons with the same buckets used in mixing the insecticide.
Different concentration of different insecticides with varying active ingredients are usually mixed and used in managing insecticides, especially when the pests affecting the plants is unknown. According to Tarla et al. [24], during the rainy seasons farmers in Foumbot apply pesticides as often as twice a week and when the rains are at their peak, their fields are treated thrice a weak. These frequency of treatment overloads the environment and compromises on the quality of the plant with residues.
It is without doubts that pesticides have greatly increased crop productivity and simultaneously contaminated and polluted our soils and water resources, and also affecting our health. The technology used for their application remains hugely remote and archaic in most parts of Africa, particularly Cameroon, and it is the cost for the massive wastage and unnecessary environmental pollution. Some of the main factors affecting insecticides application malpractices include;
Many of the malpractices surrounding the safe usage and handling of pesticides is due to the fact that a majority of farmers including vendors have not had any formal training or technical support on the judicious use and safe handling of pesticides; Sonchieu and Blandine et al. [25, 26] pointed out that educational levels is the factor affecting knowledge, attitude and overall practices about pesticides usage.
Generally, spraying equipments in use are often in poor conditions due to lack of proper maintenance and the cost of buying original of these equipment or their parts is expensive for majority of these farmers. As reported by Abhilash and Singh [27] a large number of farmers never change sealing washers in their equipment and this is equally true for Cameroon, where most farmers share equipment without any maintenance knowledge on these equipment besides controlling the nozzles for faster application which does not necessarily lead to efficiency.
In Cameroon, using of pesticides without labels is a practice by vendors for selling banned products [21, 26]. In some cases, repackaging of pesticides in small quantities is to meet customer’s demand due to the high cost in purchasing the entire container that is usually more than the amount required, thereby resulting to packaging in smaller containers without labels.
There are also products that are package in the Chinese and French, with little or no English language making it difficult for the farmers to follow the instructions and without proper guidance on usage there is bound to be malpractice.
In order to maximize the best results possible from pest control mechanisms, accurate timing in pesticides application is paramount [27]. Unfortunately, Cameroon does not have reliable meteorological stations to provide farmers with information related to weather conditions and this situation has been compounded by the changing climates. This makes it difficult for small-scale farmers to accurately apply insecticides in a timely manner that will be most beneficial for plant growth. According to Balasha and Nsele [28], about 60% of farmers apply insecticides during the early mornings and late evenings from about 4–6 pm, with a handful applying irrespective of the time as it is the case observed in Wotutu area where farmers apply more pesticides after the rainfall had washed the previous pesticides about an hour after application.
In Cameroon, farming is looked upon as the last resort for many people especially cultivation of vegetables like tomatoes, cucumbers, and watermelons so as to make some fast profit. Yet in order to achieve optimum results these respective endeavors it requires mastery, so most Cameroonians believe more utilization of pesticides and chemicals automatically translates to high yields; thereby over-reliance and abusive use of pesticides is practiced, as it is the case reported by Tarla et al. [24] that pesticides use does not always adhere to recommended safe practices [29].
Any desired results with regards to pesticides can only be guaranteed by properly respecting the guidelines of the producer and timing too is of the essence. Unfortunately application methods still depends on many variables such as the nature of the insecticide, its formulation, pests to be controlled, application site, water availability and training of the farmer, without of any these factors in place malpractice is most likely to occur.
Intoxications or poisonings resulting from insecticides are mainly the result of malpractices at the level of agrochemical companies, retailers, and farmers [24, 30]. Highest poisoning cases reported for Littoral and followed by South West Region. These are then followed by North West, West and Centre Regions while the least is from the Northern Regions (Adamawa, North and Extreme North). Highest cases from Littoral and South West is not surprising because very large cocoa and banana plantations are found in these Regions and these two crops are noted for their intensive use of pesticides especially insecticides and fungicides. In addition, there are also many vegetable farmers who cultivate to meet the demands of Douala—the economic capital found in the Littoral Region and near to the South West Region. To have high yields and high quality crops, these farmers use much insecticides and therefore possibilities of misuse and ultimately intoxications.
The crops most implicated for these poisonings are tomato, cotton, banana, cabbage, lettuce, onion, African nightshade, and cocoa while the most implicated insecticides are terbufos (Class Ia), ethoprofos (Class Ia), cypermethrine (Class II & III), chlorpyriphos-ethyl (Class II), combination of lambda cyhalothrine & imidacloprid (Class II). Although the signs/symptoms of intoxications vary with the different implicated active ingredients, the common signs and symptoms of acute intoxications reported are vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea, skin irritations, headaches, blurred visions, convulsions as well as rare cases of immediate death, most of which are accidental and occupational. The most common routes of exposure is the skin and respiratory tract. Most of the health personnel have no training or knowledge on recognizing and managing intoxications. From their responses, except for one case of suicide attempt, all cases of intoxications mentioned in the health centres or hospitals are accidental.
Apart from their cost, pesticides have a significant impact on human health, wildlife (terrestrial and aquatic) and the environment (soil and water pollution, etc.). Pesticides are often of poor quality or illegal, due to the low level of control of sales and distribution channels, and are generally misused because farmers are poorly trained in their use and have little knowledge of pest biology and ecology. Cameroon produces several agricultural commodities for export and domestic consumption hence this has increased the rate of application of inputs such as pesticide to help protect the crops from pests and diseases. Chemicals continue to be the main tools to protect crops during field and storage in spite of the deleterious effects as a result of malpractices.
Generally, the pest management practices reported by researchers and farmers include mainly use of synthetic pesticides and their alternatives such as cultural practices, botanical pesticides, use of biological control agents and the use of resistant/tolerant varieties. Of all the alternative pest management techniques, cultural practices and use of plants with insecticidal properties are the most common. Use of botanical insecticides is very common for cocoa, tomatoes, and stored products (e.g. maize, beans, cowpea). Sanitation, manual weeding, use of traps, and pruning are the most common cultural practices for field crops while use of containers with tight-fitting lids or bags is most common practice to protect stored products such as grains of maize, beans and cowpea.
In Cameroon, farmers depend on the use of synthetic insecticides to reduce crop losses due to insect pest, increase crop production, and urge to meet up with the high demand for agricultural products [25, 31]. However, over dependence and inappropriate applications of synthetic insecticides has led to harmful effects on the environment and human health [32]. These effects are numerous such as disruption of the normal functioning of the ecosystem, toxicity for a wide range of non-target organisms including humans and a high tendency to accumulate in the environment [33]. In addition to these, there is also the problem of pest ecological backlashies such as resurgence, replacement, and resistance. Most insecticides easily become ineffective due to the development of resistance by the insect pest. In order to minimize or completely eliminate the challenges posed by these chemicals, many researchers have carried out a number of researches in an attempt to find sustainable alternatives to replace synthetic insecticides [32]. Numerous efforts have been undertaken by IRAD, CARBAP, Universities and some International organizations like IITA and CIRAD to search and evaluate efficacies and effectiveness of alternatives to synthetic insecticides for the management of insect pests. Alternatives to synthetic insecticides include techniques such as:
Crop rotation
Host plant resistance
Physical and mechanical control
Botanical insecticides
Biological control agents
Cultural techniques for pest management involves the manipulation of the environment or implementation of preventive practices with the aim to reduce pest population and their damages [32].
This is the practice of increasing crop diversity by growing more than one plant species in close proximity in a field to overcome insect pest outbreaks associated with monocultures [34]. Tanyi et al. [35] used this system of intercropping beans and maize together with use of extracts of Piper spp. to manage fall army worm in the Buea municipality. Most smallholder farmers have diverse cropping systems and therefore do not have much insect pest problem.
Although the use of synthetic pesticides is usually effective, most pesticides easily become ineffective due to the development of resistance by the weevils or insects [32]. Cultivation of plant varieties which are resistance to insect attack minimizes the need for insecticide applications [32, 34] For cocoa, resistant/tolerant varieties used are IMC60, Catongo Trinitario, Playa Alta2, SIC5, SNK614. For tomato, use of improved or tolerant varieties such as Dona F1, Heinz 1370, Fline Mecline and Mobo line. For bananas/plantains, use of tolerant varieties such as CRBP 039, FHIA 21. For cotton, use of Bt-Cotton, use of tolerant/resistant varieties such as NGT115, SARC-1-57-2, KVX-165-14-1, LORI, IT97K-556-6-IITA. The use of resistant/tolerant varieties such as the local variety VYA-Cowpea.
Biological control is an environmentally sound and effective means of reducing or mitigating pests and their effects without having to spray the plant with chemical insecticides but rather through the use of natural enemies. Biological control agents of insect pests are in three groups namely; predators, parasitoids and pathogens. There are three primary methods of using biological control agents in pest control programs which are the importation, augmentation and conservation methods.
Although not widely applied on agro-ecosystems in the country, some entomopathogens have been evaluated on research stations/sites.
In banana/plantain farms, some farmers encourage the trap-jaw ant (
Several plants with insecticidal properties (mortality, repellence, development disruptor, feeding and oviposition deterrence) have been identified and their efficacies tested in the laboratory and fields. A total of 29 plant species reported as plants having some pesticidal properties and use for one or more different pests and diseases. Based on journal publications on insecticidal plants in the country, there are 29 plant species belonging to 21 different plant families of which Fabaceae (19.1%), Amaryllidaceace (19.1%), and Meliaceae (14.3%) were the most reported. Most common parts used are seeds and leaves mainly as extracts or dry powders. These insecticidal plants are usually applied in the form of ash, essential oils, powder formulations and aqueous or alcohol extracts.
Ash is one of the most common product used by smallholder farmers especially in the rural and peri-urban areas. The ash collected from household kitchens or burnt wood [39]. Some use only the dry wood ash while others mix fine dry soil with wood ash. Some others mix their ash with conventional insecticides such as Mocap (ethoprofos or terbufos), cypermethrine or kerosene. Some mix the ash with water or kerosene and used as sprays [39].
Most farmers in Buea Sub-Division, South West Region, Cameroon believe that applying a combination of terbuphos (Counter 10G®) and ash (from rubber plants wood and oil palm bunch residue ash) as seed treatments helps to protect suckers from the banana weevil (
Essential oils from so many plant parts have been use as insecticide in Sub Saharan Africa especially in Cameroon. The essential oils are extracted from the seeds, leaves, bark and roots of the plant. Crude essential oils of
The insecticidal properties of formulations based on
Essential oils of
Essential oils from the leaves of
In Cameroon some of the method of application is through powder formulation where the plant parts are dried then later grind and may be sieve or not depending on the user. These powders are sometimes mixed with other materials such as wood ash or other plants. The application is done by band placement or broadcasting depending on the farmer. For example in the western highlands of Cameroon plant materials consisting of leaves, seed and/or roots;
The insecticidal properties of detergent-oil (mixture of liquid washing detergent and vegetable oil) emulsions of four plants (
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a concept that is widely used or documented in diverse literature related to agriculture, environment and pesticides. This concept is becoming more and more popular as people become more and more conscious of the detrimental effects of pesticides and other chemicals used in agriculture, forestry and public health. According to Norris et al. [56], IPM is defined as a decision support system for the selection and use of pest control tactics singly or harmoniously coordinated into a management strategy, based on cost-benefit analyses that take into account the interests of and impacts on producers, society, and the environment. Considering this definition IPM can simply be defined as the use of all available pest management techniques or options that are compatible, cost-effective and environment-friendly.
From several discussions (especially with farmers and agriculture officers and researchers), literature and rapid observational assessments, it is clear that on the part of most farmers in the rural areas and a few in urban/peri-urban areas they are applying IPM unknowingly. These farmers have been working for long on the same pieces of land and/or on the same crops. They therefore have some wealth of information about their agro-ecosystems (the behavior of the crops, the different pests and their population dynamics, etc.). With this knowledge, most of these farmers have learnt to apply two or more techniques for managing the pest or pest complexes in their farms. They commonly apply combinations of cultural, physical and chemical options. Those who are flexible have (with the help of agriculture extension workers and researchers) added a genetic component (the use of improved and/or tolerant/resistant varieties) to their management strategy.
In addition, most farmers that are closer to research stations and the large agro-industrial plantations are having extra advantage by considering them as their role models. The farmers cultivate the same crops and put every effort to implement the same IPM strategy that these research stations and the plantations use in their farms. Apart from these hands-on experiences, the farmers (some of which are workers in these research stations and plantations) benefit from the few seminars/workshops concerning IPM for specific crops and good agricultural practices or best management practices. Such seminars/workshops are very common for crops such as cocoa, bananas, maize, cotton, and vegetables in peri-urban zones or in areas where pesticide abuse and misuse are common practices.
For the agriculture technicians/extensionists, research technicians, agric/crop protection students, and research assistants/researchers, from time to time they benefit from seminars/workshops/trainings on best management options and good agricultural practices for specific crops or pests. Most of these trainings/workshops are usually organized and sponsored by the Ministries of Agriculture and Health and/or international organizations/research centers such as IITA, CIRAD, IRAD, World Vegetable Centre, FAO, and GIZ. These organizations have played an important role in the implementation of Farmers’ Field Schools (FFSs) in some rural areas of the country. For instance, GIZ in collaboration with the Delegations of Agriculture in the South West, Centre, South and Littoral Regions have organized and sponsored FFSs in the major cocoa producing areas. In these FFSs, farmers are taught and followed up in the farms on good agricultural practices and on using of pesticides only when absolutely necessary.
In addition, texts of certain decrees give some information on how biological control and IPM should be carried out. According to these texts, IPM is to be carried out with the following aim in mind; (i) reduce dependency on pesticides, (ii) effective control on the use of pesticides, (iii) reduce the risks resulting from abusive and inappropriate use of pesticides.
The decision to select a particular insecticide should be based on an assessment of the risks and benefits and the potential hazard to public health and the environment.
Legislation to control and regulate the manufacture, importation, distribution and sale of Insecticides should be strict. Only registered and recommended products should be used.
Urgent need for government regulatory authorities to monitor the use of agrochemicals in the country, to strengthen controls for effective implementation of pesticide bans and to implement rigorous control of obsolete pesticide stocks in Cameroon.
Raise awareness of the need for proper monitoring of insecticides in the country and develop strategies to reduce insecticide residues in food, and measures should be taken by regulatory authorities to manage the country’s stock of obsolete pesticides and regulate the use of agrochemicals in the country.
Training and intensive monitoring of farmers so as to effectively monitor the application of insecticides by the insecticides units.
Promoting safe and proper use of insecticides by producers and the general public.
The national pesticide registration committee should limit the registration of many commercial products with the same active ingredients and concentrations. In addition, it should also stop the registration of pesticides with Class I toxicity. Otherwise, sales and use of such insecticides should be done under strict measures.
The government should intensify monitoring of insecticides activities at all levels as well as ensuring sanctions to defaulters of laws, decrees or decisions.
Produce official and important pesticide documents in the English and French language as well as making these documents accessible to the public.
Set up agro-health centres for pesticides and related chemicals. Such centres to be charged with training on pesticides (use, safety measures, pesticide application management, recognizing and managing intoxications).
Introduce a course (Management of Pesticide Intoxications) in health/agriculture institutes/departments to teach students on pesticide basic classification, merits and demerits, use/misuse, safety measures/first aid, sign/symptoms of poisoning/intoxications, management of intoxications, international/national legislation).
Promote research and use of biofertilizers and biopesticides especially those made from local bioresources.
Agriculture is an important sector in Cameroon with significant contribution to the GDP. Biotic constraints (especially insects and pathogens0 play a major role in reducing the productivity of farmers and therefore most tend to rely on use of agrochemicals such as synthetic insecticides and fungicides. Improper use of these chemicals is not only increasing cost of production but also greatly affecting the health of farmers and consumers. Although there are several conventions and laws in the country to promote best practices in the use of pesticides, the implementation is weak and this needs to be strengthened by continuous monitoring, sensitization and training of stakeholders including health practictioners.
Institute of Agricultural Research for Development for help in providing some useful journal articles.
No conflict of interest.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. 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Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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In the current study, removal of heavy metal ions from water/wastewater and the use of response surface methodology (RSM) for experimental optimization were examined thoroughly. The objective of this work was to summarize the removal of heavy metal ions from water/wastewater using various chemical techniques and to emphasize the superiority of RSM in these studies.",book:{id:"9407",slug:"biochemical-toxicology-heavy-metals-and-nanomaterials",title:"Biochemical Toxicology",fullTitle:"Biochemical Toxicology - Heavy Metals and Nanomaterials"},signatures:"Muharrem Ince and Olcay Kaplan Ince",authors:[{id:"258431",title:"Prof.",name:"Muharrem",middleName:null,surname:"Ince",slug:"muharrem-ince",fullName:"Muharrem Ince"},{id:"266549",title:"Dr.",name:"Olcay",middleName:null,surname:"Kaplan Ince",slug:"olcay-kaplan-ince",fullName:"Olcay Kaplan Ince"}]},{id:"67269",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86213",title:"Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) and Their Influence to Some Aquatic Species",slug:"polycyclic-aromatic-hydrocarbons-pahs-and-their-influence-to-some-aquatic-species",totalDownloads:1256,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are ubiquitous environmental pollutants generated primarily during the incomplete combustion of organic materials (e.g., coal, oil, petrol, and wood). Many PAHs have toxic, mutagenic, and/or carcinogenic functions. PAHs are highly lipid soluble which lead to a fast absorption by the gastrointestinal tract of marine mammals. They are immediately distributed in a vast variety of tissues with a notable tendency for localization in body fat. Metabolism of PAHs is obtained via the cytochrome P450-mediated mixed function oxidase system with oxidation or hydroxylation as the first step. PAHs are environmental contaminants that pose significant risk to health of fish. The effect of PAHs on fish is a topic of rising attention in a lot of countries. Different studies using the bile metabolites separated by high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection were presented. The aim is to compare the levels of PAH metabolites in fish from different areas and fish species. The major metabolite present in all fish was 1-hydroxypyrene. The data confirm the importance of 1-hydroxypyrene as the key PAH metabolite in fish bile and suggest that the European eel is an ideal species for monitoring PAHs.",book:{id:"9407",slug:"biochemical-toxicology-heavy-metals-and-nanomaterials",title:"Biochemical Toxicology",fullTitle:"Biochemical Toxicology - Heavy Metals and Nanomaterials"},signatures:"Ayoub Baali and Ahmed Yahyaoui",authors:[{id:"288629",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ayoub",middleName:null,surname:"Baali",slug:"ayoub-baali",fullName:"Ayoub Baali"},{id:"293206",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Yahyaoui",slug:"ahmed-yahyaoui",fullName:"Ahmed Yahyaoui"}]},{id:"66089",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85159",title:"Water Resource Pollution by Herbicide Residues",slug:"water-resource-pollution-by-herbicide-residues",totalDownloads:1294,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Herbicides are frequently used in the chemical control of weeds in various crops in Brazil and worldwide, so they are more frequently detected outside the application areas, contributing to the risk of environmental contamination. The importance of knowledge of the physicochemical properties of the environment and the pesticide used in the agricultural area is in order to understand its effects on terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and the search for the prevention of future bioaccumulation potentials (bioconcentration and/or biomagnification) of molecules of pesticides in living nontarget organisms, minimizing their negative effects on the environment. The understanding of analytical techniques for measuring the quality of water resources as well as techniques for the remediation of contaminated water is essential to minimize the possible impacts caused by the application of pesticides to the environment.",book:{id:"9407",slug:"biochemical-toxicology-heavy-metals-and-nanomaterials",title:"Biochemical Toxicology",fullTitle:"Biochemical Toxicology - Heavy Metals and Nanomaterials"},signatures:"Kassio Ferreira Mendes, Ana Paula Justiniano Régo, Vanessa Takeshita and Valdemar Luiz Tornisielo",authors:[{id:"162791",title:"Prof.",name:"Valdemar",middleName:null,surname:"Tornisielo",slug:"valdemar-tornisielo",fullName:"Valdemar Tornisielo"},{id:"197720",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kassio",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira Mendes",slug:"kassio-ferreira-mendes",fullName:"Kassio Ferreira Mendes"},{id:"258779",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Paula",middleName:null,surname:"Justiniano Régo",slug:"ana-paula-justiniano-rego",fullName:"Ana Paula Justiniano Régo"},{id:"277330",title:"MSc.",name:"Vanessa",middleName:null,surname:"Takeshita",slug:"vanessa-takeshita",fullName:"Vanessa Takeshita"}]},{id:"70500",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89601",title:"Challenges for Assessing Toxicity of Nanomaterials",slug:"challenges-for-assessing-toxicity-of-nanomaterials",totalDownloads:1129,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"On the development of nano-world, nanotechnology provides enormous opportunities in daily routine products and further future sustainable innovations. The nanotechnology extends its benefits to various fields such as engineering, medical, biological, environmental, and communication. However, the exponential growth of nanomaterials production would lead to severe complications related to their hazardous effects to the human health and environment. Moreover, negative impact of nanomaterials toxicity on human health is one of the significant issues on exhausting nano-products. The most vulnerable situation is associated with the use of nanomaterials in the biomedical application. The several efforts have been ongoing to study the nanotoxicity and its interaction with the biomolecules. Nevertheless, it is hard to assess and validate the nanotoxicity in a biological system. This chapter aims to study the challenges in determining the toxicity of nanomaterials. The toxicity assessment and hurdles in determining the impact on biological systems are epoch making. In-vitro, in-vivo, and in-silico studies are summarized in this chapter in assessing the toxicity of engineered nanomaterials. The different approaches of toxicity assessment have their difficulties faced by researchers while characterizing nanomaterials in powder form, solution-based, and interacting with biological systems. The assessment tools and characterization techniques play a vital role in overcoming the challenges, while the cytotoxic assays involve nanoparticle shape, morphology, and size consideration.",book:{id:"9407",slug:"biochemical-toxicology-heavy-metals-and-nanomaterials",title:"Biochemical Toxicology",fullTitle:"Biochemical Toxicology - Heavy Metals and Nanomaterials"},signatures:"Akanksha Gupta, Sanjay Kumar and Vinod Kumar",authors:[{id:"309802",title:"Dr.",name:"Vinod",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"vinod-kumar",fullName:"Vinod Kumar"},{id:"311316",title:"Dr.",name:"Akanksha",middleName:null,surname:"Gupta",slug:"akanksha-gupta",fullName:"Akanksha Gupta"},{id:"311317",title:"Mr.",name:"Sanjay",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"sanjay-kumar",fullName:"Sanjay Kumar"}]},{id:"69211",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89299",title:"Formaldehyde Advantages and Disadvantages: Usage Areas and Harmful Effects on Human Beings",slug:"formaldehyde-advantages-and-disadvantages-usage-areas-and-harmful-effects-on-human-beings",totalDownloads:1330,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Formaldehyde, a simple but important member of aldehydes, is highly reactive due to its strong electrophilic properties. It is a colorless, pungent, low molecular weight poisonous gas that can rapidly pass into gaseous phase at room temperature, can burn, and can dissolve very well in water. Formaldehyde, which is found in the natural structure of the organism, is used in many places from industrial areas to household materials and from the production of coatings in dentistry to the determination of cadavers in laboratories. In addition to having such a wide range of uses, it has harmful effects on human health as it can react spontaneously with various cellular elements. In this review, which is based on various sources, detailed information about the definition, properties, usage areas, and harmful effects of formaldehyde will be given.",book:{id:"9407",slug:"biochemical-toxicology-heavy-metals-and-nanomaterials",title:"Biochemical Toxicology",fullTitle:"Biochemical Toxicology - Heavy Metals and Nanomaterials"},signatures:"Nuriye Tuna Subasi",authors:[{id:"279801",title:"Dr.",name:"Nuriye Tuna",middleName:null,surname:"Subaşı",slug:"nuriye-tuna-subasi",fullName:"Nuriye Tuna Subaşı"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"68822",title:"Heavy Metal Removal Techniques Using Response Surface Methodology: Water/Wastewater Treatment",slug:"heavy-metal-removal-techniques-using-response-surface-methodology-water-wastewater-treatment",totalDownloads:2218,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:"Advanced water/wastewater treatment techniques including ion exchange separation, filtration separation, and adsorption are essential in the removal of nonbiodegradable toxic wastes from water. In the current study, removal of heavy metal ions from water/wastewater and the use of response surface methodology (RSM) for experimental optimization were examined thoroughly. The objective of this work was to summarize the removal of heavy metal ions from water/wastewater using various chemical techniques and to emphasize the superiority of RSM in these studies.",book:{id:"9407",slug:"biochemical-toxicology-heavy-metals-and-nanomaterials",title:"Biochemical Toxicology",fullTitle:"Biochemical Toxicology - Heavy Metals and Nanomaterials"},signatures:"Muharrem Ince and Olcay Kaplan Ince",authors:[{id:"258431",title:"Prof.",name:"Muharrem",middleName:null,surname:"Ince",slug:"muharrem-ince",fullName:"Muharrem Ince"},{id:"266549",title:"Dr.",name:"Olcay",middleName:null,surname:"Kaplan Ince",slug:"olcay-kaplan-ince",fullName:"Olcay Kaplan Ince"}]},{id:"70615",title:"Few-Layered Hexagonal Boron Nitride: Functionalization, Nanocomposites, and Physicochemical and Biological Properties",slug:"few-layered-hexagonal-boron-nitride-functionalization-nanocomposites-and-physicochemical-and-biologi",totalDownloads:965,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN) is an analogue of graphite called “white graphene.” In the structure of h-BN, B and N atoms substitute C atoms. The boron and nitrogen atoms are linked via strong B-N covalent bonds and form interlocking hexagonal rings. h-BN is used in different areas due to its interesting physical and chemical properties, e.g., in electronics as an insulator and in ceramics, resins, plastics, and paints. Therefore, boron nitride (BN) is also a popular inorganic compound in cosmetic industry (the highest BN concentration up to 25% can be found in eye shadow formulation). It is also widely used in dental cement production (for dental and orthodontic applications). Boron nitride seems to be suitable for biomedical applications; therefore, the cytotoxicity in vitro and in vivo observations of h-BN nanoplates and novel few-layered h-BN-based nanocomposites are still needed. The short-time studies confirm their low cytotoxicity and suggest that BN can be used as a novel drug delivery system; however, medical application needs additional verification in long-term studies.",book:{id:"9407",slug:"biochemical-toxicology-heavy-metals-and-nanomaterials",title:"Biochemical Toxicology",fullTitle:"Biochemical Toxicology - Heavy Metals and Nanomaterials"},signatures:"Magdalena Jedrzejczak-Silicka, Martyna Trukawka, Katarzyna Piotrowska and Ewa Mijowska",authors:[{id:"186478",title:"Dr.",name:"Magdalena",middleName:null,surname:"Jedrzejczak-Silicka",slug:"magdalena-jedrzejczak-silicka",fullName:"Magdalena Jedrzejczak-Silicka"},{id:"231014",title:"Prof.",name:"Ewa",middleName:null,surname:"Mijowska",slug:"ewa-mijowska",fullName:"Ewa Mijowska"},{id:"312078",title:"MSc.",name:"Martyna",middleName:null,surname:"Trukawka",slug:"martyna-trukawka",fullName:"Martyna Trukawka"},{id:"312079",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarzyna",middleName:null,surname:"Piotrowska",slug:"katarzyna-piotrowska",fullName:"Katarzyna Piotrowska"}]},{id:"69211",title:"Formaldehyde Advantages and Disadvantages: Usage Areas and Harmful Effects on Human Beings",slug:"formaldehyde-advantages-and-disadvantages-usage-areas-and-harmful-effects-on-human-beings",totalDownloads:1329,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Formaldehyde, a simple but important member of aldehydes, is highly reactive due to its strong electrophilic properties. It is a colorless, pungent, low molecular weight poisonous gas that can rapidly pass into gaseous phase at room temperature, can burn, and can dissolve very well in water. Formaldehyde, which is found in the natural structure of the organism, is used in many places from industrial areas to household materials and from the production of coatings in dentistry to the determination of cadavers in laboratories. In addition to having such a wide range of uses, it has harmful effects on human health as it can react spontaneously with various cellular elements. In this review, which is based on various sources, detailed information about the definition, properties, usage areas, and harmful effects of formaldehyde will be given.",book:{id:"9407",slug:"biochemical-toxicology-heavy-metals-and-nanomaterials",title:"Biochemical Toxicology",fullTitle:"Biochemical Toxicology - Heavy Metals and Nanomaterials"},signatures:"Nuriye Tuna Subasi",authors:[{id:"279801",title:"Dr.",name:"Nuriye Tuna",middleName:null,surname:"Subaşı",slug:"nuriye-tuna-subasi",fullName:"Nuriye Tuna Subaşı"}]},{id:"66089",title:"Water Resource Pollution by Herbicide Residues",slug:"water-resource-pollution-by-herbicide-residues",totalDownloads:1293,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Herbicides are frequently used in the chemical control of weeds in various crops in Brazil and worldwide, so they are more frequently detected outside the application areas, contributing to the risk of environmental contamination. The importance of knowledge of the physicochemical properties of the environment and the pesticide used in the agricultural area is in order to understand its effects on terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and the search for the prevention of future bioaccumulation potentials (bioconcentration and/or biomagnification) of molecules of pesticides in living nontarget organisms, minimizing their negative effects on the environment. 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Venom contains zootoxins which is a highly modified saliva that is either injected via fangs during a bite or spitted. The modified parotid gland, encapsulated in a muscular sheath, present on each side of the head, below and behind the eye, have large alveoli which temporarily stores the secreted venom and later conveyed by a duct to tubular fangs through which venom is injected. Venoms are complex mixtures of more than 20 different compounds, mostly proteins and polypeptides, including proteins, enzymes and substances with lethal toxicity which are either neurotoxic or haemotoxic in action and exert effects on nervous/muscular impulses and blood components. 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That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"426586",title:"Dr.",name:"Oladunni A.",middleName:null,surname:"Daramola",slug:"oladunni-a.-daramola",fullName:"Oladunni A. Daramola",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Technology",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"357014",title:"Prof.",name:"Leon",middleName:null,surname:"Bobrowski",slug:"leon-bobrowski",fullName:"Leon Bobrowski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bialystok University of Technology",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"354126",title:"Dr.",name:"Setiawan",middleName:null,surname:"Hadi",slug:"setiawan-hadi",fullName:"Setiawan Hadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Padjadjaran University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"332603",title:"Prof.",name:"Kumar S.",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"kumar-s.-ray",fullName:"Kumar S. Ray",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Statistical Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"415409",title:"Prof.",name:"Maghsoud",middleName:null,surname:"Amiri",slug:"maghsoud-amiri",fullName:"Maghsoud Amiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Allameh Tabataba'i University",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"25",type:"subseries",title:"Evolutionary Computation",keywords:"Genetic Algorithms, Genetic Programming, Evolutionary Programming, Evolution Strategies, Hybrid Algorithms, Bioinspired Metaheuristics, Ant Colony Optimization, Evolutionary Learning, Hyperparameter Optimization",scope:"Evolutionary computing is a paradigm that has grown dramatically in recent years. This group of bio-inspired metaheuristics solves multiple optimization problems by applying the metaphor of natural selection. It so far has solved problems such as resource allocation, routing, schedule planning, and engineering design. Moreover, in the field of machine learning, evolutionary computation has carved out a significant niche both in the generation of learning models and in the automatic design and optimization of hyperparameters in deep learning models. This collection aims to include quality volumes on various topics related to evolutionary algorithms and, alternatively, other metaheuristics of interest inspired by nature. For example, some of the issues of interest could be the following: Advances in evolutionary computation (Genetic algorithms, Genetic programming, Bio-inspired metaheuristics, Hybrid metaheuristics, Parallel ECs); Applications of evolutionary algorithms (Machine learning and Data Mining with EAs, Search-Based Software Engineering, Scheduling, and Planning Applications, Smart Transport Applications, Applications to Games, Image Analysis, Signal Processing and Pattern Recognition, Applications to Sustainability).",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11421,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"111683",title:"Prof.",name:"Elmer P.",middleName:"P.",surname:"Dadios",slug:"elmer-p.-dadios",fullName:"Elmer P. Dadios",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/111683/images/system/111683.jpg",institutionString:"De La Salle University",institution:{name:"De La Salle University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Philippines"}}},{id:"106873",title:"Prof.",name:"Hongwei",middleName:null,surname:"Ge",slug:"hongwei-ge",fullName:"Hongwei Ge",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"171056",title:"Dr.",name:"Sotirios",middleName:null,surname:"Goudos",slug:"sotirios-goudos",fullName:"Sotirios Goudos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9IuQAK/Profile_Picture_1622623673666",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aristotle University of Thessaloniki",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"15895",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Takashi",middleName:null,surname:"Kuremoto",slug:"takashi-kuremoto",fullName:"Takashi Kuremoto",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLrqQAG/Profile_Picture_1625656196038",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nippon Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"125844",title:"Prof.",name:"Wellington",middleName:"Pinheiro Dos",surname:"Santos",slug:"wellington-santos",fullName:"Wellington Santos",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125844/images/4878_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Pernambuco",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:0,paginationItems:[]},publishedBooks:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"8737",title:"Rabies Virus at the Beginning of 21st 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