Morphophysiological response of perennial ryegrass under drought stress.
\r\n\tThe properties of metamaterials are designed not from the properties of their base materials, but rather from the metamaterial's newly designed structures. The precise shapes, geometries, sizes, orientations, and arrangements of metamaterial composing elements render metamaterials versatile ‘smart’ properties related to manipulating electromagnetic waves, by blocking, absorbing, enhancing, or bending waves of specific wavelengths. This allows achieving benefits extending far beyond what could be achieved by employing conventional materials.
\r\n\tMetamaterials have broad and diverse potential applications including optical filters, medical devices, remote aerospace devices and materials, sensors, infrastructure monitoring, highly effective management of solar power, high-frequency battlefield communication, lenses for high-gain antennas, shielding structures to prevent earthquake damage, acoustic materials, etc. Metamaterial research area is highly interdisciplinary: it involves electrical engineering, electromagnetics, classical optics, studies in the solid-state physics field, antenna engineering, optoelectronics, material science, nanoscience and nanotechnology, semiconductor design, and even can involve computational chemistry.
When talking about industrial robotics, one of the first associated thoughts is about the serial robots that are highly applicable to this field; however, parallel robots also have a great importance and range of applications in this environment. Among its most important characteristics, its high load/power ratio is distinguished. In the case of the Stewart-Gough platform, this characteristic lies in its possibility of distributing the load in approximately six equal parts, whereby the total load capacity of the parallel robot approximates six times the load capacity of each actuator individually.
\nThe Stewart platform is a parallel type manipulator that involves a configuration of six degrees of freedom, and each degree of freedom corresponds to an actuator. The six actuators can be linear or angular and join the bottom of the robot, which has no mobility, called a base with the part that does have mobility, the final effector. Due to this configuration, the Stewart-Gough platform has high rigidity, which can be translated into greater precision.
\nThe final effector is the most interesting part of the robot, since its position and even orientation are the characteristics that determine if the robot is able to meet the precision necessary to implement and satisfy a need, whether industrial, educational, research, etc. It can have different applications, for example, orientation of satellites, flight simulators, and shakers (or also called agitators that are part of the chemistry laboratory instruments), among others.
\nThis document explains the design, construction, and implementation of a discrete PID control to a Stewart-Gough platform.
\nTo enter into definition of what control is, we begin by explaining what a process is, which is referred to as a set of equipment or devices attached or implemented to perform operations that help fulfill a task [1]. To enforce this task, a series of additional devices are needed that regulate the process in general, which are called a control system as a whole [1].
\nOgata [2] mentions four methods (belonging to the classical control or also called conventional control) for the design of a controller. These are the following:
Root place
Frequency response
PID controllers
Modified PID controllers
In general, a control system needs a mathematical model that describes its behavior when receiving inputs [2]. For the Stewart platform, it can be determined by inverse kinematics [3].
\nThe PID controller is the most common form of feedback, was an essential element of the first governors, and became a model or standard tool when process control emerged in the 1940s [4]. Consider a control loop of an input and an output. The block diagram [5] is shown in \nFigure 1\n.
\nSISO system block diagram.
Of the PID control family, there are members that involve the three actions: proportional (P), integral (I), and derivative (D) [5].
\nThere are two control design techniques that are analog and digital, and for this they work with continuous time and discrete time systems, respectively. Many of the systems are described by differential equations, and analog control design techniques have become popular. Also most of the controllers are made of digital systems [6]. You can also discretize analog controllers to obtain digital controllers. Next, characteristics of control systems are mentioned, analog and digital [7]:
Analog
Noise is a problem in all signal transmissions.
Digital
They have the ability to reject noise.
It is easy to implement and modify digital controllers simply by changing the coefficient values.
A digital or discrete time system is a dynamic system in which one or more variables may vary only at certain times called sampling indicated by kT (k = 0,1,2, ..., n) [8].
\nThe block diagram of a digital control system is shown in \nFigure 2\n [9].
\nBlock diagram of a digital control system.
The term parallel robot, also known as closed-chain robot or parallel manipulator, basically consists of a fixed base attached to an end effector or mobile base which can perform its movement based on the movement of the actuators that are located in such a way that they close the kinematic chain between both bases [9]. The principle of operation initially arose with James E. Gwinnett, who designed a platform for the entertainment industry in the 1928 patent application [10]. However, it was not until 1940 when W. Pollard designed the first industrial sparallel robot for spray painting processes [11] (\nFigures 3\n and \n4\n).
\nJames E. Gwinnett patent (industrial entertainment platform).
First parallel robot designed by W. Pollard.
After the first advances of the Stewart platforms applied to industrial processes, some companies began to make variants of these platforms, such as the case of the Redifon company that was asked by Lufthansa German Airlines to produce a simulator of flight, with the initial model designed for its then new Boeing 727 fleet. This simulator model included three axes, which gave the mechanism the mobility needed to recreate the behavior of the aircraft. Redifon is currently in service since its commissioning in 1949, when it began with the production of flight simulators, trainers, and the development of new techniques [12] (\nFigure 5\n).
\nFlight simulator developed by Redifon for the Boeing 747 model.
Inverse kinematics is a mathematical modeling of a manipulator, either serial (open kinematic chain) or parallel (closed kinematic chain). Such modeling requires as input parameters the position of the final effector in order to calculate the angles that exist between links and thus determine the position of each actuator in the reference \n
The fixed coordinates (\n
Isometric and top view of the platform with coordinate systems and actuator junction points.
Points \n
And for points \n
As mentioned in the previous chapter, reverse kinematics needs the position of the final effector as input parameters to calculate the angles between links of the robot. So, the direct kinematics is the counterpart of inverse kinematics, since its initial data are the angles established between each actuator and what is calculated is the position of the final effector. A very common method of using is Denavit-Hartenberg, explained by Barrientos, which follows a 16-step algorithm to get a single homogeneous transformation matrix from the premultiplication of submatrices of homogeneous transformation. The steps of this methodology are the following [14]:
\nDH1. Number the links starting with 1 (first mobile link in the chain) and ending with \n
DH2. Number each joint starting with 1 (the one corresponding to the first degree of freedom) and ending in n.
\nDH3. Locate the axis of each joint. If this is rotary, the axis will be its own axis of rotation. Yes it is prismatic, it will be the axis along which the displacement occurs.
\nDH4. To \n
DH5. Place the origin of the base system \n
DH6. For \n
DH7. Place \n
DH8. Position \n
DH9. Position the system \n
DH10. Get \n
DH11. Get \n
DH12. Obtain \n
DH13. Get \n
DH14. Obtain the transformation matrices \n
One of the main parameters to be defined within the control system implementation is the sampling period T, which is a design element that allows different components to be selected among the most important ones such as the microcontroller. There are several methods for obtaining it; however, for this project the selection has been considered using the method described in [8] which selects the period based on the commitment between the following factors:
The calculation time of the processor
Numerical precision in the implementation
Loss of information in the sampling
Response to disturbances
In general, the sampling period must be selected in compromise between a range of time that avoids the deterioration of the quality of the control that can produce a high value of T and the amount of calculations necessary to execute the control algorithm with small values that can produce information loss and frequency overlap (aliasing).
\nIn these, three cases are considered, which can be monitored based on the available elements, the ease of calculation, and the nature of the project.
\n
\n
\n
Once the method is defined, the component that requires the highest working frequency is selected. For the selection, the actuators are directly discarded, because they only require a PWM pulse that varies depending on the desired position that does not exceed 1.25 ms, which is why the components to be considered will be the gyroscope sensors and the resistive panel that will measure the external forces applied to the final effector and the external movements applied to the platform in inclined planes.
\nLater, the selected sensors and their detailed characteristics will be described; however, in this section, only the basic principle of their operation will be seen, which will follow up the methodology described above to obtain the sampling time.
\nThe sensor placed at the top of the final effector and responsible for measuring the movements of moving objects will be a five-wire resistive panel (can be found in 4, 5, or 8 wires), which consists of a partially conductive layer (resistive) that is applied evenly to the panel. Conductive bus bars are protected with a silver paint through the opposite edges of the panel. Rigid and flexible panels are mounted with bus bars perpendicular to each other as shown in \nFigure 7\n. The sensor measurement is done by applying a force on the ITO layer which generates a voltage gradient across one of the layers and measuring the tension in the other layer. This gradient is normally produced by grounding a bus bar and applying +5 V on the other bar, which produces a voltage gradient on the axes that cross the panel; this applies only to one layer, the rigid layer, while the other layer is the sensitive one in both measurements.
\nConfiguration of the layers of a resistive panel
The measurement is done sequentially in which the events are presented with the voltage gradient on the x-axis and the voltage in the sensor layer is measured; followed by this, the voltage gradient is switched to the y-axis, and another measurement is taken of the same sensor layer. To determine the sampling rate of the resistive panel, the use that will be given must be considered, for example, if it is to be used as a human interface where the contact will be a finger, the necessary resolution is not very high. Being a 6-inch-long panel and the contact resolution is 2 in (average finger size), then the analog-to-digital converter (ADC) must represent 30 points. With 5 bits, 32 points can be represented, so an ADC converter of 8 to 12 bits is sufficient in this case and a sampling rate of 10 samples per second is sufficient. In the case of wanting to make a more accurate representation in the panel using pens or objects of greater precision, the touch screen should have a resolution of at least 320 points. This gives a converter of at least 9 bits (29 = 512 levels).
\nThe sampling rate of the touch screen controller in this case must be higher so as not to lose information on the movements being captured; therefore, a speed of 100 samples per second would suffice. For the actual position in movements on the inclined plane, the MPU-6050 model is contemplated within the gyroscope selection with something important to point out, and among its main features is the precise capture of fast and slow movement; it has a scale range of 250/500/1000/2000 °/s. That is why, by requiring a greater sampling range per second than the resistive screen, this gyroscope will be selected as the component with the highest working frequency and which will be used to monitor the sampling time selection process. To measure the movements of the final effector, it is not considered necessary to work at the maximum capacity of the gyroscope because the maximum angle of action in warping and pitching will be \n
Gyroscope sensor and accelerometer MPU-6050.
Despite having sufficient sampling time, the case in which the sensor configured at its maximum capacity of 2000/s will be used (in which case the movements made on it should be 0.0005 seconds, this value is higher to the tests to which it will be subjected) to have an extra safety factor in the selection of the sampling; this leads to the next step, which mentions the cases in which overlaps (aliasing) or loss of information with a too large period may occur (\nFigures 9\n and \n10\n). To prevent these problems from large sampling periods, the Nyquist theorem [22] is applied, which dictates that the sampling frequency Ws, defined as \n
Signal overlap (aliasing).
Signal sampled by Nyquist theorem.
From this, it is mentioned in [8] that it should be considered as a general rule that the system must be sampled between 8 and 12 times during a cycle of the dampened frequency of the transient response if the system is under-absorbed or between 8 and 12 times during the time of establishment of the response if the system is overdamped. In which case, the minimum of this factor will be taken because it is desired to obtain a system with an under-absorbed or over-absorbed response.
\nOnce the gyroscope is selected as the component with the highest frequency within the system, the largest measuring range provided by this device is taken as a reference, and as already mentioned, the sensor has a capacity to measure 2000/s and deliver it. A digital signal by I2C protocol, however, although this sampling configuration will not be required when incorporated into the system (since it exceeds the value of the speed performed by the actuators, in addition to requiring an ADC with higher resolution than even would be exceeded because the workspace of the platform is limited and does not exceed 100) is considered as the base sampling frequency because it is considering the critical case in which you want to obtain the highest frequency required for. The processor fulfills this task.
\nIt is important to note that \n
Once an estimated time is defined for the sampling period, the microcontroller options (or microprocessor with minimum system) that meet these requirements are searched. Likewise, some of the main characteristics that they present and are required by other system components are compared, such as PWM peripherals for the six actuators, the I2C communication ports for the gyroscope, the ADC channels for the resistive panel, as well as its resolution and an extra feature that would be the type of assembly due to the didactic purpose of the platform, since when pretending to be manipulated by students of the institution, against any problem that may arise, the components are easy to replace.
\nIt is currently considered the best candidate for the ATMega328P microprocessor, either with a minimum system implemented or using the nomadic development card Pro + that incorporates it, and being a THT type assembly is easy replacement, as well as being economical and accessible. The microprocessor incorporates six ADC channels, of which one will be destined for the resistive panel and the other two directly coincide with the SCL and SDA channels through which I2C communication is performed. In addition, six PWM channels (one channel for each actuator) that are distributed in ports B and D are required for actuator control (\nFigure 11\n).
\nATmega328P microprocessor peripherals incorporated in NomadaPro + development card.
The Stewart platform mechanism, until the mid-1980s, mostly maintained the design of the triangular platform connected by spherical joints to three linear actuators adjustable in length. This configuration linked the base (whose design can vary between a triangular and hexagonal shape) with the final effector (which maintains its triangular shape) by means of the actuators coinciding two by two at the vertices of the final effector with a total of six different points contained in the base plane. These configurations are denoted as 3-3 Stewart platform and 6-3 Stewart platforms [23], respectively, as can be seen in \nFigure 12\n.
\nDifferent configurations of the Stewart-Gough platform [23].
Considering a point of coincidence in spherical joints in the triangular platform, it restricted the mobility in the manipulator, producing overstrain and a reduced workspace; from this, the configuration is obtained whose base retains the regular or semi-regular hexagonal shape and the final effector is generated from an equilateral triangle with the trimmed vertices known as 6-6 Stewart platform. The said design allows some parameters and components to be varied according to the needs and/or specifications, such as the actuators that can go from being linear to angular by means of a crank-crank type conditioning mechanism. Likewise, the type of joint can be modified, in which as is the case, spherical and non-universal joints will be used. Once the different configurations of the structure of the Stewart-Gough platform are present, the configuration 6-6 Stewart platform was selected, which allowed a better manipulation of the final effector, which avoids as much as possible the efforts by singularities, and given the application, a large workspace is not necessary as it is proposed to carry out movements that are not so abrupt for the stabilization of objects that move on the surface, application of external forces, or movements on the inclined plane.
\nFrom this, it is observed that there is a wide variety of mechanical configurations for this type of manipulator with the 6-6 Stewart platform kinematic chain according to the previous selection. This kinematic structure considers a variant known as 6-SPS that is observed in \nFigure 13\n, where 6 refers to the number of degrees of freedom of the robot and SPS comes from the English spherical-prismatic-spherical referring to the leg from point to point, where the joints at the ends are prismatic and the link between them is a prismatic joint [23]. Once this configuration is selected that allows spherical joints to be placed on both sides of each actuator, a modification is made to the actuators such that instead of a prismatic joint between the joints relative to the linear actuator, it is replaced by a link element between both unions and the extension movement is generated by a configuration with angular actuators, as will be seen later in the left, thus remaining a configuration like the one presented in \nFigure 14\n. Using the Grubler criterion [13], the number of degrees of freedom on a 6-SPS type platform can be determined using the equation:
\nwhere: \n
Stewart 6-SPS platform [23].
Stewart 6-SPS platform with angular actuators [
\n\n
\n\n
\n\n
\n\n
\n\n
Substituting Eq. (5), you have:
\nThe workspace, also known as the field of action, is the area or spatial volume that the robot can describe when it reaches extreme points. This described volume is determined by the dimensions, shape, and movement of the joints that make it up, as well as the degrees of freedom (depending on the configuration and type of robot), and on some occasions the applied control system can also influence [15].
\nAlthough the robot has a defined workspace, it is not confirmed that such space can be described in any orientation. There are a number of points, usually the most extreme and the closest to the origin that can be accessed only with certain configurations, and some others can be reached in any orientation. This as already mentioned depends a lot on the type of configuration of the robot.
\nOne of the disadvantages that parallel robots have over serial ones is the limited description of the workspace; this is due to the restrictions that one joint has over another in the closed kinematic chain. In the case of the Stewart-Gough platform, you can make the proposal of a workspace described by the final effector from which the dimensions of the different elements that make up the parallel robot (base, joints, platform) are obtained, legs, actuators, and horn. On the other hand, you can obtain a supposed workspace based on the selection of components to evaluate at each point of the joints, the actuators, and links, the possible interferences that can be caused between them, as well as the possible restrictions of each meeting [16].
\nThere are several methods to obtain the measurements of each element of the Stewart-Gough platform either by describing trajectories as they do in [19] or generating a proposal from a radius of action; this is because the said platform has a design focused on minimally invasive coronary bypass surgery. The proposal of measures can also be made based on the generation of algorithms by a method observed in [17]. Several of these methods to describe the workspace of a Stewart-Gough platform in a graphic form are based on the discretization of the Cartesian space and then evaluate the length of the links according to the actuators and thus determine that they are within the range and detect interference between actuators and/or meetings and the possible restrictions of each meeting. This method can also include simulations by implementing and evaluating the Jacobian matrix to define a movement and joint capacity [18]. Despite the variations between models of the Stewart-Gough platform, the inverse kinematics and the workspace in general have the same behavior and the same description of trajectories, as mentioned in the calculation of the inverse kinematics. The same can be used for all regardless of the type of actuators. This of course may vary slightly according to the dimensions, configuration, and/or elements used for its elaboration; however, the shadow described by the said workspace is projected with a great similarity between them. Using the methodology outlined in [19], \nFigure 15\n is generated, which corresponds to the definition of dimensions of the Stewart-Gough platform, making the consideration that the servomotors are located parallel to each other. For this, it is based on the definition of the base, that when the Stewart-Gough Platform was previously proposed with approximate dimensions at a volume that encloses it from 30 to 35 cm, an internal diameter coincides with the axis of the servos is established, it has a measure of 25 cm because the standard digital servomotors have a depth of approximately 5 cm (\nFigures 16\n and \n17\n).
\nDescription of the trajectory of the Stewart platform for CABG surgery [
Workspace described by the Stewart-Gough platform using the Jacobian matrix [
Workspace of the Stewart-Gough platform in isometric view [
Once the base is defined, the required workspace is raised. In principle, the design of the platform is not required to describe paths with too much depth or around a radius as is done in [19]; in this case the important data to consider would be the angles of warping and pitching inclination, since they will be intended for stabilizing sliding objects on the surface of the platform.
\nFor this situation, one of the conditions of the state space is proposed, which would be described by the yellow line in \nFigure 15\n, where the inclination angle is proposed of 20 present in most Stewart platforms with documented angular actuators and which is considered sufficient inclination for the stabilization of objects sliding on the surface as can be seen in [15]. It is worth mentioning that this is an extreme reach position that is physically not possible to achieve and would cause singularities, which is why it is recommended not to bring the final effector to these horizons in which the platform would lose stability and control may lose efficiency in its execution.
\nFinally, the possible restrictions generated by the articulation of the spherical joint are added (\nFigure 15\n) since according to the table in Annex F, the working angle (depending on the size of the joint) is between \n
The parts that move the platform itself are called legs and are composed of a rod, threaded at each end, so that two kneecaps (upper and lower) are placed (\nFigures 16\n–\n18\n).
\nDimensions of the Stewart-Gough platform according to workspace. (a) Platform in front view with actuators parallel to each other. (b) Leg with spherical joints in side view.
The lower ball joints connect each of the rods with their respective actuator (in this case it is the servomotor) by means of what will be referred to as horn or actuator arm. Servomotors are considered part of the “fixed base” or simply called a base [20].
\nTo facilitate the reader’s understanding, the parts just explained on the CAD model designed for this project are presented in \nFigure 19\n. The arms have a hole in their geometric center used to join each arm with the axis of their respective servomotor. At the end of the horn, the lower kneecaps are coupled to create a joint and join the horn with the rod (also called link), so that it allows the movement to be transmitted.
\nParts of the base. Ball joints (red ovals), rods (yellow lines), actuator arms or horns (blue line) and servomotors (green arrows).
Such movement is a conversion of angular movement to linear movement; this is a distinguishing feature of this project to the configuration that has the classic Stewart platform.
\nAt the upper end of each of the rods, there is a joint to another kneecap, similar to the lower part of the rod.
\nOn the other hand, there are a total of six other ball joints on the platform, connecting the closed kinematic chain to the platform. The platform is also often called the final effector, and this is the most interesting part of any serial or parallel robot.
\nBecause the inverse kinematics is unique for parallel manipulators, the same inverse kinematics calculated on the Stewart platform [16] will be taken using the same views and changing some labels.
\nThe coordinate systems \n
\n\nFigure 20\n presents the schematic diagram of the reference systems: Look at \nFigure 21\n, this indicates the joint positioning diagram, assuming that the \n
Schematic diagram of new reference systems.
Joint positioning diagram.
To obtain results closer to reality, each element of the general assembly was assigned its respective material, as already mentioned, estimating the specific polymer or alloy of each metal. Starting with the bases and the final effector, in which case it was assigned an ABS plastic since, for practicality and speed, the options of laser cutting or 3D printing are currently considered, likewise, the servomotors are also considered in ABS. For the joints and links, the majority of suppliers handle metallic products for RC cars; therefore, a galvanized metal was assigned for its relative low cost and ease of machining. Finally, aluminum is mostly used for the servomotor horn, and therefore 1060 alloy aluminum is assigned.
\nOnce each material is determined, the rest of the simulation conditions are defined starting with each restriction of the mechanism, and once all its position relationships are defined, the only geometric restriction will be the base on its lower face simulating that said platform is embedded on a regular horizontal surface. For the application of applied forces, an estimation of distributed load on the final effector is made considering that on average each actuator (depending on the manufacturer) can bear nominally 15 kg/cm of torque, and being the 3 cm servo horns, it is considered that each actuator supports a total of 5 kg at its end, for which a total force of 30 kg is applied. In the previous figure, it can be seen that within the mechanism in general, most of the effort is generated in the legs of the platform, while the largest almost imperceptible concentrator is at the junction between the leg and the servomotor horn, just where applies the highest torque due to the use of angular actuators. Despite this, it can be seen within the graph that there is no critical effort that may represent a risk of rupture (\nFigure 22\n).
\nvon Mises stress study.
For the following study, the deformation in each part of the platform is contemplated; note that in both the stress study and the deformation study, the elements corresponding to the base do not undergo significant changes, however, the platform and the links deform from considerable way especially the part of the final effector that can become almost completely deformed. However, it is worth mentioning that CAD design software mostly exaggerates the results obtained from the simulation; this is to clearly appreciate the effects of the applied conditions, since in a real case the materials would tend to fracture rather than deform due to its low ductility. In which case, the greatest deformation present is only 32.2 mm. From the previous points, the safety factor is studied, where you can clearly see the elements of the mechanism where it is applied without considering the elements of the base, which, as observed in previous studies, has no tendency to break due which is contemplated embedded in a fixed surface and reinforced with each other. Therefore, in the legs, which are important for the performance of the mechanism, a safety factor of 3.4 is presented, which for the application that will be given to the Stewart-Gough platform is an acceptable value (\nFigure 23\n). Finally, the study of applied efforts is carried out in the situation where the platform has a maximum load applied to the resistive screen in one of its vertices; this is mainly contemplated (a little ahead of the selection of components) to know how much you can resist the screen to the point of rupture which in which case would be the element on the platform with greater fragility. As shown in \nFigure 24\n, the safety factor remains low at 0.45 and has a deformation of 1.12 cm, in which case, the CAD software deforms the part to demonstrate the displacement; however, in reality the panel would tend to fracture before having such deformation.
\nDeformation study.
Study of the safety factor.
The present document set out the objectives and the description of the partial result; from this, a favorable product was obtained regarding the characteristics of the system and the definition of its components.
\nThroughout the document the different points that led to the determination or adaptation of certain elements or characteristics of the work to be carried out are observed, this (as initially mentioned in the problem statement) was subject to change as more in The theme with the purpose of bringing the system closer to the desired characteristics, is by means of this method that it was possible to determine the components that would allow the generation of the CAD design and the electronic design sketch.
\nOne of the proposed objectives was the calculation of inverse kinematics. When investigating more about the subject, it was concluded that it is possible to use the same one as described in [1], because for parallel manipulators with the same configuration, it is unique. Despite having replaced the linear actuators with angular ones, it has no impact on the calculation of the same, since the distance of interest is the vector that describes the collinear extension between the axis of the servomotor and its respective point of coincidence on the platform (upper kneecap) as shown in \nFigure 25\n.
\nDeformation and stress study of the Stewart-Gough platform applied to the resistive panel.
The maximum position and orientation parameters of a Stewart-Gough platform depend on the application given to this device. Since this project requires bringing a sliding object on the resistive panel to a desired position, it was determined that the suitable angle for this system is 20 for warping and 20 for pitching. To arrive at this characteristic, an estimation of measures was implemented based on the desired workspace, and the geometric and articular parameters were checked by simulations.
\nUrban green areas have important various functions contributing to the quality of human health. Well-kept lawns enhance the esthetic value of the entire city and are involved in phytoremediation, leading to an improvement in the quality of the air and soil [1, 2, 3, 4]. Perennial ryegrass (
In fields, the growth and development process of plants needs to counteract various environmental stresses such as salinity, drought, cold, heat, and heavy metal [11, 12, 13]. Harsh environmental conditions may result in growth inhibition, cell structure damage, and metabolic dysfunction [14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20]. Moreover, stresses will further be intensified for the potential impact of climate change in future. Thus, maintaining proper growth of turfgrass with minimal inputs under abiotic stress conditions is a great challenge for turfgrass industry. This challenge could be addressed through improving the stress tolerance of turfgrass [14, 21]. Understanding morphological and physiological mechanisms of turfgrass adaptation to various abiotic stresses is a key step for the development of stress-tolerant ability and cost-effective and efficient management practices [13]. Morphophysiological mechanisms of turfgrass in abiotic stresses tolerance involve phenotypic changes, multiple physiological and biochemical response, and complex metabolic processes, such as water and nutrient relations, carbohydrate metabolism, protein metabolism, hormone metabolism, as well as antioxidant defenses [22, 23]. Current studies on morphophysiological mechanism controlling turfgrass adaptations to various growth conditions have provided important information for production of abiotic stress-tolerant germplasms and the further understanding of regulation mechanism of turfgrass response to abiotic stresses [13, 24, 25]. However, the mechanisms of the adaptive responses are integrated but are not necessarily the same [14]; thus, studies on how perennial ryegrass adapts to stress conditions will become more important with the increasing pressure of utilizing both ecological and economical strategies in the turf management. Furthermore, insights into mechanisms of stress resistance in perennial ryegrass will aid in identifying important characteristics for selecting the criteria of improving stress tolerance and will ultimately lead to better selection of new cultivars adapted to adverse environments. This chapter, therefore, focuses on an extensive overview of the current understanding of changes in physiology and growth/development of perennial ryegrass under various abiotic stresses. In addition, strategies for improving the stress tolerance of perennial ryegrass are also presented. This review can contribute to the better understanding of the mechanisms of perennial ryegrass response to environmental stresses and can provide valuable information for improving resistance characteristics of perennial ryegrass by breeding. Moreover, enhancing our understanding of physiological effects of abiotic stresses can provide guidelines for the practical management strategies of the maintenance of high-quality turf under limited resource availability.
Abiotic stresses are major environmental conditions that reduce plant growth, productivity, and quality. Plants have evolved mechanisms to perceive these environmental challenges, transmit the stress signals within cells as well as between cells and tissues, and make appropriate adjustments in their growth and development for survive and reproduce [26, 27, 28, 29]. The morphological and physiological changes of perennial ryegrass under abiotic stress will be discussed in this chapter.
Growth and development processes are inhibited when plant is exposed to drought stress [30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36]. Morphological adjustments, such as biomass allocation and leave changes, have been proposed as the key mechanisms used by turfgrass to enhance survival under drought [37]. There is a series of morphology changes in perennial ryegrass under drought stress. Drought stress reduced the turf quality (TQ), number of live tillers and dry-matter yield [38, 39, 40]. Moreover, drought significantly enhanced root to shoot ratio (R/S) in perennial ryegrass to an less extents, depending on the intensity, the reason may be that perennial ryegrass in drought stress develop a large R/S to maintain water and nutrient uptake [39]. The leaves of perennial ryegrass under drought stress were also dramatically different from that of nonstressed perennial ryegrass, for example, under drought stress, the diurnal variation in the rate of leaf extension was smaller but the leaves tended to grow faster at night compared to normal irrigation controls; however, water stress ultimately reduced the rate of leaf extension and leaf area in perennial ryegrass [40]. Furthermore, the leaves’ epidermis of perennial ryegrass under drought reduced the stomatal size and increased the numbers per unit leaf area. Drought also resulted deeper ridging on leaf ad-axial surface, smaller epidermal cells and bigger ridge angle [40]. Under drought stress, leave stomata of perennial ryegrass began to close to reduce their evapotranspiration rate (ET), at leaf water potentials below—13 bars [40].
Drought stress causes significant physiological changes, including photosynthesis, osmotic adjustment substances, proteins, and antioxidant metabolism, in perennial ryegrass. For instance, the content of leaf total nitrogen and leaf relative water content (RWC) were tested to decrease, on the contrary, antioxidant activity including ascorbate peroxidase (APX), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione reductase (GR), glutathione S-transferase (GST), amino acids such as aspartic acid, threonine, serine, glutamic acid, abscisic acid (ABA) concentration, and proline content increased under drought stress [41]. Photosynthesis is the primary process controlling plant growth and adaption to drought stress [42]. The canopy photosynthesis of perennial ryegrass at saturating light intensity was reduced by about half in the stressed field swards and by more than 80% in the stressed simulated swards [38]. Drought stress inhibits photosynthesis, which may be the result of low CO2 availability caused by stomatal closure and/or the inhibition of photochemical reactions and carbon assimilation metabolism [43]. In addition to the photosynthesis, starchis also considered as a buffer for imbalance between acquisition by photosynthesis and C-sink activities such as growth and respiration resulted from drought, also stress due to the excessive use of inorganic fertilizer [44]. However, use of green manure also has risk of xenobiotic contamination [45, 46, 47], and the soluble sugars, including sucrose, fructose and glucose, are involved in multiple physiological functions such as respiration, turgor maintenance, signaling and defense. Under drought conditions, starch of perennial ryegrass significantly decreased in shoots, but did not change in roots, which indicated that perennial ryegrass in drought condition preferentially allocates carbon not only to root growth, but also to root storage, while soluble sugars were enhanced in both shoots and roots. Accumulation of soluble sugars has been widely reported for plants upon water stress as a means to provide osmotic protection [39], which suggested that increasing of soluble sugars was benefit to plants to maintain growth and active metabolic activities under water deficit.
It is generally accepted that there is a noticeable genotypic variation in perennial ryegrass for drought stress responses. The research showed that one self-pollinating genotype “S10” showed higher RWC, shoot dry weight (SDW), proline, ABA, nitrogen and amino acid contents, and antioxidant enzymes activities in comparison with two commercial genotypes of “Vigor” and “Speedy” [41]. Proteins involved in carbon and energy metabolism, photosynthesis, tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA) cycle, redox, and transport categories were upregulated in the two commercial genotypes of “Vigo” and “Speedy,” while the protein profile of the “S10” changed slightly under drought stress, and the reason may be that self-pollination in the genetic background of the “S10” genotype may have a lower variation in response to drought stress conditions [41]. Additionally, other research indicated that tetraploid perennial ryegrass exhibited a greater biomass under severe drought, whereas diploids had a greater biomass under the current rainfall [48, 49]. Moreover, tetraploid perennial ryegrass populations were able to develop more shoot and root dry matter than diploid populations in following the application of drought stress [50].
The above researches showed that drought stress caused significantly physiological and morphological changes in perennial ryegrass (Table 1) [55, 56]. Thus, the growth of perennial ryegrass is severely restricted by soil water deficits [57]. Increasing drought tolerance of perennial ryegrass via strategies is importance for both water conservation and maintaining growth in water limiting environments. For example, the grass-Epichloë endophytic improved water utilization and drought tolerance in perennial ryegrass [58]. Moreover, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) + Epichloë treatments increased phosphorus (P) uptake, net photosynthetic rate (Pn), root activity, soluble sugar concentration, peroxidase (POD) activity, and decreased malonyldialdehyde (MDA) concentration in perennial ryegrass under drought stress, the reason may be that Plant-AMF-Epichloë symbiosis alleviated the damage caused by drought stress by promoting P uptake, photosynthesis, and the accumulation of osmoregulatory substances [59]. Additionally, application of plant growth regulators (PGRs) have been reported to be a promising way of reducing drought stress impacts [60]. The study manifested that trinexapac ethyl (TE) treatment increased chlorophyll content, proline content, the RWC, soluble sugar content, antioxidant enzymes activities, decreased MDA and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) contents in perennial ryegrass under drought stress, while Paclobutrazol (PAC)- and ABA-treated perennial ryegrasses were all effective in mitigating physiological damages resulting from drought stress [52]. Furthermore, overexpression of some drought-related genes has been shown to effectively improve drought tolerance of plants [61]. According to Patel et al. [53], overexpression of
Morphological responses | Physiological responses | Strategies |
---|---|---|
• Decreased turf quality • Enhanced R/S • Decreased leaf area • Reduce the number of live tillers • Had smaller stomata and epidermal cells • Had bigger ridge angle • Controlled stomatal opening [38, 39, 40] | • Decline biomass • Decline photosynthetic rate • Increased osmotic adjustment substances • Increased antioxidant activity • Increased amino acid content [39, 41, 51] | • Application of plant growth regulators (PGRs) • Selected drought resistance cultivars from different cultivars • Using endophytes • Using transgenic technology [52, 53, 54] |
Morphophysiological response of perennial ryegrass under drought stress.
Perennial ryegrass can grow throughout the year, and the major constraint on growth is temperature [51, 62]. Perennial ryegrass has an optimal growth temperature of about 20°C, and it is sensitive to high (30–40°C) and low (−20 to 0°C) temperatures [63, 64]. Common perennial ryegrass germinates quickly and can be used as a temporary ground cover while the slower growing bluegrass plants take hold in cool temperate region. In warm climates, it is used as an overseed to maintain winter green in the lawn after the warm season grasses go dormant. However, populations of perennial ryegrass will not survive the summer heat. Severe heat stress (40/35°C day/night) caused significant physiological damages, including declining in TQ , RWC, CAT activity, and enhancing in electrolyte leakage (EL) of leaves and MDA content, in perennial ryegrass [65]. Moreover, heat stress decreased plant height (HT), leaf fresh weight (LFW) and leaf fresh dry (LFD), and increased cytokinin and auxin at 35/30°C (day/night) of temperature [66]. Moreover, low temperature is one of the main factors that limit the persistence of perennial ryegrass-dominated grasslands in northern regions. Cold stress decreased TQ , regrowth, dry weight, and tiller density in perennial ryegrass when the winters were mild with short (2–6 weeks) periods of lower than −10°C temperatures and no permanent snow cover [67]. Furthermore, cold stress decreased RWC and increase EL in leaves and roots when perennial ryegrass was exposed to −15 or −25°C [68]. To resolve these problems and maintain high visual quality of perennial ryegrass through the year, it is important to found new cultivars to adapt to temperature stress. Variations of heat- or cold- resistance were also found among different perennial ryegrass cultivars. Thus, selection cold- or heat-tolerant cultivars during perennial ryegrass genotypes can be an effective method for temperature tolerance improvement in perennial ryegrass. The research tested the heat tolerance of 58 cultivars collected from seed companies and research centers in U.S.A., New Zealand, and Europe, the result showed that distinct heat tolerance was found among the cultivars at all the temperature regimes, and the least and most tolerant cultivars were “JPR005” and “JPR178,” respectively [69]. The other research indicated that changes of morphology and physiology were different for heat-tolerant accession “PI265351” and sensitive accession “PI225825” [66]. Similarly, the heat-tolerant populations of perennial grass showed significantly lower degree damage in efficiency of photosystem II and cell membrane stability than the sensitive ones at different levels of stress [70]. Additionally, the study showed that 21 accessions sampled from a larger set of 300 accessions with known winter hardiness, the result showed that the degree of semi-lethal temperature in 21 ryegrass varieties varies from −10.31 to −13.95°C, with 3 accessions possessing significantly greater freezing tolerance than the most freeze-tolerant check “NK200” [71]. Moreover, tetraploid genotypes of perennial ryegrass demonstrated higher tolerance to cold stress conditions, better spring growth, and regrowth after cuts, and higher dry matter yield compared to diploid genotypes [67].
The studies indicate that temperature stress caused the morphological and physiological damage in plant, and the response of genotypes to temperature stress was different [72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80]. Therefore, founding some strategies which could improve cold- or heat-tolerant of perennial ryegrass is important. It was also reported that 24-epibrassinolide promoted carbohydrates accumulation in crowns of perennial ryegrass during cold acclimation by regulation of gene expression and enzyme activities, and which resulted in increased frost tolerance [81]. Moreover, drought preconditioning increased in crown fructans, proline, and total soluble protein content for “Buccaneer” and “Sunkissed” during cold acclimation, which suggested a synergistic effect between drought exposure and low temperature, and drought preconditioning resulted in an improvement in freezing tolerance of perennial ryegrass [82]. Additionally, previous studies have shown that the enzyme activity level and gene expression of antioxidants are associated with cold and heat tolerance in a cool-season perennial grass species [83, 84]. For instance,
Salinity stress has become a more significant problem in turfgrass management in many areas [13]. Responses of plants to salinity stress occur mainly through two distinct phases over time: osmotic-changing and ion specific phases [87, 88, 89]. Like other turfgrasses, salt stress caused morphology, physiology, molecular changes in growth and development of perennial ryegrass, such as TQ LFW, LED, and RWC of perennial ryegrass decreasing after exposure to salinity [89, 90]. The alterations of morphological characteristics of turfgrass under salt stress are derived from the changes of physiological traits such as cell membrane stability [14]. It was reported that MDA content and EL enhanced by NaCl concentration in perennial ryegrass [54]. Simultaneously, superoxide radical (O2−), H2O2, and singlet oxygen (O2) concentration increased observably in perennial ryegrass after salt stress treatment [54, 91]. To scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS), salt-stressed leaves of perennial ryegrass exhibited greater activities of SOD, APX, and CAT at the initial stage of salt stress, but lower levels of enzyme with the extension of salt stress [89]. Salt stress also negatively affected on the total chlorophyll (Chl), Chl a and Chl b, in perennial ryegrass [89], which showed that salt stress induced Chl decomposition in leaves. Moreover, a further research of PSII changes in perennial ryegrass discovered that quantum yields, efficiencies, and energy fluxes were impacted after salt stress treatment [92, 93]. Additionally, a vast amount of Na+ accumulated in plants could induce ionic imbalance in the cells. It was reported that Na+ concentration accumulated rapidly and other ion concentrations including K+, Ca2+ and Mg2+ were decreased in response to salt stress in perennial ryegrass [89].
Salt stress causes dramatically changes in morphology and physiology of perennial ryegrass as showed above and summaries in Figure 1. However, these responses varied greatly among different genotypes. The research compared the salt tolerance in 10 accessions of perennial ryegrass, and determined that “PI275660” and “BrightStar” showed the best tolerance to salt stress, while “PI231595” and “PI251141” were the most sensitive accessions [5]. The other research reported that the effect on parameters of photosynthetic efficiency in perennial ryegrass “Roadrunner” was less than that in “Nira” under salt stress condition [6]. Moreover, the highest salt tolerance accessions were from the European group, wild accessions and exhibited more variation in functional traits and salt tolerance than commercial cultivars [90]. Some other strategies can also improve the salt-tolerance in perennial ryegrass. Salt-tolerant transgenic perennial ryegrass could be obtained by
Morphophysiological response and strategies for salt stress in perennial ryegrass.
The continuing industrialization has led to extensive environmental problems worldwide [96, 97, 98]. Heavy metals produced from industry are released to soil. Thus, high accumulation of heavy metal in soil can induce environmental stress on plants [14]. Research on the response of perennial ryegrass to heavy metal stress has also progressed in recent years. It has been proved that heavy metals can induce damage and affect metabolic processes in perennial ryegrass [98, 99, 100]. For example, perennial ryegrass had characters in yield reduction and visible symptoms of phytotoxicity under cadmium (Cd) and zinc (Zn) stress [98]. Moreover, the cellular membrane system was damaged because of elevated MDA and EL contents when perennial ryegrass was exposed to salt condition [101]. According to studies, a dramatic inhibition of root and shoot growth was detected in perennial ryegrass after heavy metals treatment [101, 102, 103]. Moreover, the composition of the leaves of perennial ryegrass, including apparently opposite effects on the calcium (Ca), potassium (K) and P levels, was changed under the aluminum (Al) stress [104]. Additionally, ROS bursts occurred in perennial ryegrass under heavy mental stress conditions. For instance, H2O2 and O2− were significantly accumulated in perennial ryegrass under Cd stress [105]. Hence, the protection mechanisms in perennial ryegrass such as the antioxidant system were triggered under heavy stress, resulting in the increase of SOD, CAT, and POD activities and their corresponding genes [106]. Moreover, content of fructan, sugar, and starch showed an increasing trend in perennial ryegrass after heavy metal stress [98]. However, certain concentrations of heavy metal were beneficial for the growth of perennial ryegrass [107]. Heavy metal stresses not only induce physiological damage, but also inhibit germination and growth of perennial ryegrass [108].
To improve the heavy metal stress tolerance of perennial ryegrass, several investigations were conducted in recent years. It was reported that signal messengers such as nitricoxide (NO) and glycine betaine (GB) play crucial roles in alleviating Cd and Cu-induced damages in perennial ryegrass [109, 110]. Moreover, the exogenous P was testified to improve the Cd tolerance of perennial ryegrass, the reason may be that exogenous P facilitates chelation-mediated Cd detoxification processes [105]. Similarly, a high dose of P amendment alleviated Mn-toxicity in Mn-sensitive genotype in perennial ryegrass [102]. Furthermore, the addition of biochar to a contaminated mine soil improved the nutrient status of this mine soil and contributed to a better establishment of perennial ryegrass [100]. Additionally, AMF enhance both absorption and stabilization of Cd by perennial ryegrass in a Cd-contaminated acidic soil [96], and ethylene diamine tetra acetate (EDTA) enhanced phytoremediation of heavy metals from municipal waste compost and sludge soil by perennial ryegrass [99, 111, 112].
Significant progress has been made in the understanding of morphological and physiological mechanisms associated with perennial ryegrass tolerance to drought, salinity, temperature, and heavy mental stresses. Harsh stress conditions inhibit the growth and development and decrease TQ , root length, and dry weight in perennial ryegrass. Moreover, physiological response to abiotic stress in perennial ryegrass displays changes of the cell membrane, photosystem, metabolites, and antioxidant system. The contents of MDA and EL are increased, while Chl content and photosynthesis are decreased under stress conditions. To regulate the osmotic potential of the cell after stress treatment, some metabolites such as proline, soluble sugars, and proteins accumulate. Meanwhile, antioxidant enzymes’ activities increase in perennial ryegrass for scavenging ROS. Perennial ryegrass has protective responses against unfavorable conditions, but there is a threshold to these physiological changes. To understand the response to abiotic stress and resistance attributes in perennial ryegrass will be beneficial to breeding in future.
For improving the stress tolerance of perennial ryegrass, some practical strategies are exploited currently, such as application of phytohormones, endophytes, and chemical compounds. Further research on increasing perennial ryegrass stress tolerance should pay more attention to transgenic technology to identify effective genes for modifying stress-tolerance ability.
IntechOpen implements a robust policy to minimize and deal with instances of fraud or misconduct. As part of our general commitment to transparency and openness, and in order to maintain high scientific standards, we have a well-defined editorial policy regarding Retractions and Corrections.
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\\n\\nA Statement of Concern detailing alleged misconduct will be issued by the Academic Editor or publisher following a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct when:
\\n\\nIntechOpen believes that the number of occasions on which a Statement of Concern is issued will be very few in number. In all cases when such a decision has been taken by the Academic Editor the decision will be reviewed by another editor to whom the author can make representations.
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\\n\\nA Correction will be issued by the Academic Editor when:
\\n\\n3.1. ERRATUM
\\n\\nAn Erratum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter originates from the production process handled by the publisher.
\\n\\nA published Erratum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\\n\\n3.2. CORRIGENDUM
\\n\\nA Corrigendum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter is a result of an Author’s miscalculation or oversight. A published Corrigendum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\\n\\n4. FINAL REMARKS
\\n\\nIntechOpen wishes to emphasize that the final decision on whether a Retraction, Statement of Concern, or a Correction will be issued rests with the Academic Editor. The publisher is obliged to act upon any reports of scientific misconduct in its publications and to make a reasonable effort to facilitate any subsequent investigation of such claims.
\\n\\nIn the case of Retraction or removal of the Work, the publisher will be under no obligation to refund the APC.
\\n\\nThe general principles set out above apply to Retractions and Corrections issued in all IntechOpen publications.
\\n\\nAny suggestions or comments on this Policy are welcome and may be sent to permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2017-09-11
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen’s Retraction and Correction Policy has been developed in accordance with the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) publication guidelines relating to scientific misconduct and research ethics:
\n\n1. RETRACTIONS
\n\nA Retraction of a Chapter will be issued by the Academic Editor, either following an Author’s request to do so or when there is a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct. Upon receipt of a report by a 3rd party, the Academic Editor will investigate any allegations of scientific misconduct, working in cooperation with the Author(s) and their institution(s).
\n\nA formal Retraction will be issued when there is clear and conclusive evidence of any of the following:
\n\nPublishing of a Retraction Notice will adhere to the following guidelines:
\n\n1.2. REMOVALS AND CANCELLATIONS
\n\n2. STATEMENTS OF CONCERN
\n\nA Statement of Concern detailing alleged misconduct will be issued by the Academic Editor or publisher following a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct when:
\n\nIntechOpen believes that the number of occasions on which a Statement of Concern is issued will be very few in number. In all cases when such a decision has been taken by the Academic Editor the decision will be reviewed by another editor to whom the author can make representations.
\n\n3. CORRECTIONS
\n\nA Correction will be issued by the Academic Editor when:
\n\n3.1. ERRATUM
\n\nAn Erratum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter originates from the production process handled by the publisher.
\n\nA published Erratum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\n\n3.2. CORRIGENDUM
\n\nA Corrigendum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter is a result of an Author’s miscalculation or oversight. A published Corrigendum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\n\n4. FINAL REMARKS
\n\nIntechOpen wishes to emphasize that the final decision on whether a Retraction, Statement of Concern, or a Correction will be issued rests with the Academic Editor. The publisher is obliged to act upon any reports of scientific misconduct in its publications and to make a reasonable effort to facilitate any subsequent investigation of such claims.
\n\nIn the case of Retraction or removal of the Work, the publisher will be under no obligation to refund the APC.
\n\nThe general principles set out above apply to Retractions and Corrections issued in all IntechOpen publications.
\n\nAny suggestions or comments on this Policy are welcome and may be sent to permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2017-09-11
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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The Gram-positive pathogen is armed with battery of virulence factors that facilitate to establish infections in the hosts. The organism is well known for its ability to acquire resistance to various antibiotic classes. The emergence and spread of methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) strains which are often multi-drug resistant in hospitals and subsequently in community resulted in significant mortality and morbidity. The epidemiology of MRSA has been evolving since its initial outbreak which necessitates a comprehensive medical approach to tackle this pathogen. Vancomycin has been the drug of choice for years but its utility was challenged by the emergence of resistance. In the last 10 years or so, newer anti-MRSA antibiotics were approved for clinical use. However, being notorious for developing antibiotic resistance, there is a continuous need for exploring novel anti-MRSA agents from various sources including plants and evaluation of non-antibiotic approaches.",book:{id:"5471",slug:"frontiers-in-i-staphylococcus-aureus-i-",title:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus",fullTitle:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus"},signatures:"Arumugam Gnanamani, Periasamy Hariharan and Maneesh Paul-\nSatyaseela",authors:[{id:"192829",title:"Dr.",name:"Arumugam",middleName:null,surname:"Gnanamani",slug:"arumugam-gnanamani",fullName:"Arumugam Gnanamani"},{id:"204388",title:"Dr.",name:"Periasamy",middleName:null,surname:"Hariharan",slug:"periasamy-hariharan",fullName:"Periasamy Hariharan"},{id:"204389",title:"Dr.",name:"Maneesh",middleName:null,surname:"Paul-Satyaseela",slug:"maneesh-paul-satyaseela",fullName:"Maneesh Paul-Satyaseela"}]},{id:"53782",doi:"10.5772/66645",title:"Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in Food- Producing and Companion Animals and Food Products",slug:"methicillin-resistant-staphylococcus-aureus-mrsa-in-food-producing-and-companion-animals-and-food-pr",totalDownloads:2743,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has become a growing concern in companion and food-producing animals. The presence of multidrug-resistance with a wide range of extracellular enterotoxin genes, virulence factors, and Panton-Valentine leukocidin (pvl) cytotoxin genes confer life-threatening traits on MRSA and makes them highly pathogenic and difficult to treat. Clonal complex 398 (CC398), a predominant clonal lineage of livestock-associated-MRSA in domestic animals and retail meat, is capable of infecting humans. In order to monitor and prevent MRSA contamination, it is critical to understand its source and transmission dynamics. In this review, we describe MRSA in food-producing animals (pig, cattle, chicken), horses, pet animals (dogs, cats), and food products (pork, beef, chicken, milk, and fish).",book:{id:"5471",slug:"frontiers-in-i-staphylococcus-aureus-i-",title:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus",fullTitle:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus"},signatures:"Jungwhan Chon, Kidon Sung and Saeed Khan",authors:[{id:"189634",title:"Dr.",name:"Kidon",middleName:null,surname:"Sung",slug:"kidon-sung",fullName:"Kidon Sung"},{id:"190400",title:"Dr.",name:"Jungwhan",middleName:null,surname:"Chon",slug:"jungwhan-chon",fullName:"Jungwhan Chon"},{id:"190401",title:"Dr.",name:"Saeed",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"saeed-khan",fullName:"Saeed Khan"}]},{id:"52755",doi:"10.5772/65978",title:"Bee Products and Essential Oils as Alternative Agents for Treatment of Infections Caused by S. aureus",slug:"bee-products-and-essential-oils-as-alternative-agents-for-treatment-of-infections-caused-by-s-aureus",totalDownloads:1916,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Bacteria of the genus Staphylococcus are important human and veterinary pathogens. A crucial characteristic for this group of bacteria is that they can easily acquire mechanisms of antibiotic resistance for a plethora of antibiotics currently in use for human and animal therapies. Therefore, there is a great need to find novel, non-antibiotic chemotherapeutics with marked antistaphylococcal activity. Promising but still underestimated group of potential antistaphylococcal chemotherapeutics constitute bee products: honey, pollen, royal jelly, fermented pollen and especially propolis. Another group of natural products that exhibit promising antibacterial activity is essential oils. Usefulness of bee products and essential oils in the treatment of infections caused by S. aureus has been confirmed by results of many investigations carried out by researches in different regions of the world. In this chapter, we have presented the review of publication in this area as well as perspectives and limitations of future applications of these two groups of natural products.",book:{id:"5471",slug:"frontiers-in-i-staphylococcus-aureus-i-",title:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus",fullTitle:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus"},signatures:"Piotr Szweda and Barbara Kot",authors:[{id:"117528",title:"Dr.",name:"Szweda",middleName:null,surname:"Piotr",slug:"szweda-piotr",fullName:"Szweda Piotr"},{id:"189685",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Barbara",middleName:null,surname:"Kot",slug:"barbara-kot",fullName:"Barbara Kot"},{id:"195004",title:"Dr.",name:"Barbara",middleName:null,surname:"Kot",slug:"barbara-kot",fullName:"Barbara Kot"}]},{id:"52875",doi:"10.5772/65761",title:"Bacteriophage Therapy: An Alternative for the Treatment of Staphylococcus aureus Infections in Animals and Animal Models",slug:"bacteriophage-therapy-an-alternative-for-the-treatment-of-staphylococcus-aureus-infections-in-animal",totalDownloads:1987,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Staphylococcus aureus causes hospital-acquired (HA), community-acquired (CA) and companion animal and livestock-associated (LA) infections. Molecular epidemiology studies suggest that although host specificity may be associated with specific genetic lineages, recent human-to-animal and animal-to-human transmissions related to mobile genetic elements have been described. Gene transfers include virulence and antibiotic resistance genes, thus making it difficult to control multidrug resistance S. aureus infections. Bacteriophages (phages) and endolysins, the enzymes responsible for bacterial lysis by phages, are alternatives to the use of antibiotics for the control of S. aureus infections. In this work, we review current advances in the development of phage therapy and the study and design of recombinant endolysins to treat S. aureus infections. Preliminary results of bacteriophage isolation based on molecular epidemiology knowledge show that bacteriophages are specific of genetic lineages and that this strategy may be used as an approach to isolate and evaluate new bacteriophages for therapy.",book:{id:"5471",slug:"frontiers-in-i-staphylococcus-aureus-i-",title:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus",fullTitle:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus"},signatures:"Claudia I. Barrera-Rivas, Norma A. Valle-Hurtado, Graciela M.\nGonzález-Lugo, Víctor M. Baizabal-Aguirre, Alejandro Bravo-Patiño,\nMarcos Cajero-Juárez and Juan J. Valdez-Alarcón",authors:[{id:"191123",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan José",middleName:null,surname:"Valdez-Alarcón",slug:"juan-jose-valdez-alarcon",fullName:"Juan José Valdez-Alarcón"},{id:"195005",title:"Mrs.",name:"Claudia Ibeth",middleName:null,surname:"Barrera-Rivas",slug:"claudia-ibeth-barrera-rivas",fullName:"Claudia Ibeth Barrera-Rivas"},{id:"195006",title:"MSc.",name:"Norma Anahí",middleName:null,surname:"Valle-Hurtado",slug:"norma-anahi-valle-hurtado",fullName:"Norma Anahí Valle-Hurtado"},{id:"195007",title:"MSc.",name:"Graciela M.",middleName:null,surname:"González-Lugo",slug:"graciela-m.-gonzalez-lugo",fullName:"Graciela M. González-Lugo"},{id:"195008",title:"Dr.",name:"Víctor Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Baizabal-Aguirre",slug:"victor-manuel-baizabal-aguirre",fullName:"Víctor Manuel Baizabal-Aguirre"},{id:"195009",title:"Dr.",name:"Alejandro",middleName:null,surname:"Bravo-Patiño",slug:"alejandro-bravo-patino",fullName:"Alejandro Bravo-Patiño"},{id:"195010",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcos",middleName:null,surname:"Cajero-Juárez",slug:"marcos-cajero-juarez",fullName:"Marcos Cajero-Juárez"}]},{id:"53377",doi:"10.5772/66225",title:"Staphylococcus aureus Bacteremia in Adults",slug:"staphylococcus-aureus-bacteremia-in-adults",totalDownloads:2097,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Staphylococcus aureus is an important cause of bacteremia, and S. aureus bacteremia constitutes a serious condition with high morbidity and mortality, secondary to multiple complications including infective endocarditis and embolization. The incidence of bacteremia with S. aureus is increasing with more frequent use of medications that lower immune system response, and with the utilization of more invasive medical procedures. In addition, the emergence of resistant S. aureus isolates is becoming more common and can negatively affect the outcome of an individual if not diagnosed and managed properly. Health care workers encounter S. aureus bloodstream infections on a routine basis, and in certain situations, it becomes a very challenging infection to control. Because of the impact this entity has on health care costs and the increased use of resources, it is necessary to highlight the causes, clinical presentation, associated complications, and treatment measures. In this chapter, we will cover each of these points, with somewhat more emphasis on methicillin‐resistant S. aureus that is prevalent in both community and hospital settings and is more commonly associated with worsening prognosis and higher mortality.",book:{id:"5471",slug:"frontiers-in-i-staphylococcus-aureus-i-",title:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus",fullTitle:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus"},signatures:"Dima Youssef and Kate Molony",authors:[{id:"190397",title:"Dr.",name:"Dima",middleName:null,surname:"Youssef",slug:"dima-youssef",fullName:"Dima Youssef"},{id:"195814",title:"Dr.",name:"Kate",middleName:null,surname:"Molony",slug:"kate-molony",fullName:"Kate Molony"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"54154",title:"Staphylococcus aureus: Overview of Bacteriology, Clinical Diseases, Epidemiology, Antibiotic Resistance and Therapeutic Approach",slug:"staphylococcus-aureus-overview-of-bacteriology-clinical-diseases-epidemiology-antibiotic-resistance-",totalDownloads:7155,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"Staphylococcus aureus is an important human pathogen that causes wide range of infectious conditions both in nosocomial and community settings. The Gram-positive pathogen is armed with battery of virulence factors that facilitate to establish infections in the hosts. The organism is well known for its ability to acquire resistance to various antibiotic classes. The emergence and spread of methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) strains which are often multi-drug resistant in hospitals and subsequently in community resulted in significant mortality and morbidity. The epidemiology of MRSA has been evolving since its initial outbreak which necessitates a comprehensive medical approach to tackle this pathogen. Vancomycin has been the drug of choice for years but its utility was challenged by the emergence of resistance. In the last 10 years or so, newer anti-MRSA antibiotics were approved for clinical use. However, being notorious for developing antibiotic resistance, there is a continuous need for exploring novel anti-MRSA agents from various sources including plants and evaluation of non-antibiotic approaches.",book:{id:"5471",slug:"frontiers-in-i-staphylococcus-aureus-i-",title:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus",fullTitle:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus"},signatures:"Arumugam Gnanamani, Periasamy Hariharan and Maneesh Paul-\nSatyaseela",authors:[{id:"192829",title:"Dr.",name:"Arumugam",middleName:null,surname:"Gnanamani",slug:"arumugam-gnanamani",fullName:"Arumugam Gnanamani"},{id:"204388",title:"Dr.",name:"Periasamy",middleName:null,surname:"Hariharan",slug:"periasamy-hariharan",fullName:"Periasamy Hariharan"},{id:"204389",title:"Dr.",name:"Maneesh",middleName:null,surname:"Paul-Satyaseela",slug:"maneesh-paul-satyaseela",fullName:"Maneesh Paul-Satyaseela"}]},{id:"53377",title:"Staphylococcus aureus Bacteremia in Adults",slug:"staphylococcus-aureus-bacteremia-in-adults",totalDownloads:2097,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Staphylococcus aureus is an important cause of bacteremia, and S. aureus bacteremia constitutes a serious condition with high morbidity and mortality, secondary to multiple complications including infective endocarditis and embolization. The incidence of bacteremia with S. aureus is increasing with more frequent use of medications that lower immune system response, and with the utilization of more invasive medical procedures. In addition, the emergence of resistant S. aureus isolates is becoming more common and can negatively affect the outcome of an individual if not diagnosed and managed properly. Health care workers encounter S. aureus bloodstream infections on a routine basis, and in certain situations, it becomes a very challenging infection to control. Because of the impact this entity has on health care costs and the increased use of resources, it is necessary to highlight the causes, clinical presentation, associated complications, and treatment measures. In this chapter, we will cover each of these points, with somewhat more emphasis on methicillin‐resistant S. aureus that is prevalent in both community and hospital settings and is more commonly associated with worsening prognosis and higher mortality.",book:{id:"5471",slug:"frontiers-in-i-staphylococcus-aureus-i-",title:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus",fullTitle:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus"},signatures:"Dima Youssef and Kate Molony",authors:[{id:"190397",title:"Dr.",name:"Dima",middleName:null,surname:"Youssef",slug:"dima-youssef",fullName:"Dima Youssef"},{id:"195814",title:"Dr.",name:"Kate",middleName:null,surname:"Molony",slug:"kate-molony",fullName:"Kate Molony"}]},{id:"55253",title:"Clostridium difficile Infection Diagnosis by Biological Molecular Methods",slug:"clostridium-difficile-infection-diagnosis-by-biological-molecular-methods",totalDownloads:1978,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"In the past 15 years, the incidence of Clostridium difficile infection has emerged especially because of the new highly virulent strains. The classical diagnosis methods used to diagnose C. difficile infection take time and the enzyme immunoassay (EIA) test has demonstrated the lack of sensitivity. Even though new modern molecular methods have become available, the diagnosis of C. difficile in patients or healthy carriers remains a big challenge for both clinicians and laboratory staff. In the present chapter, we will list the main genotyping methods, stressing their advantages and disadvantages, as well. A brief presentation of the most useful kit (principle, sensitivity, specificity, benefits and disadvantages) to assess the impact of molecular methods in comparison with classical methods will offer support for future research in the present context of an increasing prevalence of C. difficile infection that represents worldwide, a real public health problem. To improve the patients’ quality of life, to limit hospital transmission, and to save money, we have tried to identify the best diagnosis algorithm as tool in C. difficile diagnosis and surveillance. This algorithm may differ depending on the capacities of the laboratories and on the socioeconomic level of the countries in question.",book:{id:"5831",slug:"clostridium-difficile-a-comprehensive-overview",title:"Clostridium Difficile",fullTitle:"Clostridium Difficile - A Comprehensive Overview"},signatures:"Luminiţa Smaranda Iancu, Andrei Florin Cârlan and Ramona\nGabriela Ursu",authors:[{id:"197809",title:"Prof.",name:"Luminiţa Smaranda",middleName:null,surname:"Iancu",slug:"luminita-smaranda-iancu",fullName:"Luminiţa Smaranda Iancu"},{id:"205531",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrei",middleName:null,surname:"Cârlan",slug:"andrei-carlan",fullName:"Andrei Cârlan"},{id:"205532",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramona Gabriela",middleName:null,surname:"Ursu",slug:"ramona-gabriela-ursu",fullName:"Ramona Gabriela Ursu"}]},{id:"53782",title:"Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in Food- Producing and Companion Animals and Food Products",slug:"methicillin-resistant-staphylococcus-aureus-mrsa-in-food-producing-and-companion-animals-and-food-pr",totalDownloads:2743,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has become a growing concern in companion and food-producing animals. The presence of multidrug-resistance with a wide range of extracellular enterotoxin genes, virulence factors, and Panton-Valentine leukocidin (pvl) cytotoxin genes confer life-threatening traits on MRSA and makes them highly pathogenic and difficult to treat. Clonal complex 398 (CC398), a predominant clonal lineage of livestock-associated-MRSA in domestic animals and retail meat, is capable of infecting humans. In order to monitor and prevent MRSA contamination, it is critical to understand its source and transmission dynamics. In this review, we describe MRSA in food-producing animals (pig, cattle, chicken), horses, pet animals (dogs, cats), and food products (pork, beef, chicken, milk, and fish).",book:{id:"5471",slug:"frontiers-in-i-staphylococcus-aureus-i-",title:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus",fullTitle:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus"},signatures:"Jungwhan Chon, Kidon Sung and Saeed Khan",authors:[{id:"189634",title:"Dr.",name:"Kidon",middleName:null,surname:"Sung",slug:"kidon-sung",fullName:"Kidon Sung"},{id:"190400",title:"Dr.",name:"Jungwhan",middleName:null,surname:"Chon",slug:"jungwhan-chon",fullName:"Jungwhan Chon"},{id:"190401",title:"Dr.",name:"Saeed",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"saeed-khan",fullName:"Saeed Khan"}]},{id:"55751",title:"Overview of Clostridium difficile Infection: Life Cycle, Epidemiology, Antimicrobial Resistance and Treatment",slug:"overview-of-clostridium-difficile-infection-life-cycle-epidemiology-antimicrobial-resistance-and-tre",totalDownloads:2735,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The use of antimicrobial agents and acquired resistances explains in part the emergence and spreading of epidemic strains of Clostridium difficile. Continued use of antimicrobial therapy still represents an acute danger in triggering the emergence and spreading of new resistant and multiresistant strains including against first-line antibiotics. We examine the pathway of peptidoglycan synthesis in this organism and associated resistances, as well as resistance to other classes of antibiotics. The life cycle of C. difficile involves growth, spore formation and germination. Spores endow the organism with a formidable capacity of persistence in the environment and in the host, resistance, dissemination and infectious potential. Highly resistant spores produced by antibiotic-resistant/multiresistant strains may be one of the most serious challenges we face in what concerns the containment of C. difficile. Finally, we review recent developments in the treatment and prevention of C. difficile infection.",book:{id:"5831",slug:"clostridium-difficile-a-comprehensive-overview",title:"Clostridium Difficile",fullTitle:"Clostridium Difficile - A Comprehensive Overview"},signatures:"Joana Isidro, Aristides L. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517",scope:"Paralleling similar advances in the medical field, astounding advances occurred in Veterinary Medicine and Science in recent decades. These advances have helped foster better support for animal health, more humane animal production, and a better understanding of the physiology of endangered species to improve the assisted reproductive technologies or the pathogenesis of certain diseases, where animals can be used as models for human diseases (like cancer, degenerative diseases or fertility), and even as a guarantee of public health. Bridging Human, Animal, and Environmental health, the holistic and integrative “One Health” concept intimately associates the developments within those fields, projecting its advancements into practice. This book series aims to tackle various animal-related medicine and sciences fields, providing thematic volumes consisting of high-quality significant research directed to researchers and postgraduates. It aims to give us a glimpse into the new accomplishments in the Veterinary Medicine and Science field. 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A dynamic career research platform which is based on the thematic areas of comparative vertebrate physiology, stress endocrinology, reproductive endocrinology, animal health and welfare, and conservation biology. \nEdward has supervised 40 research students and published over 60 peer reviewed research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Queensland",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"20",title:"Animal Nutrition",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. He teaches various degree courses in zootechnics, sheep production, and agricultural sciences and natural resources.\n\nDr. Ronquillo’s research focuses on the evaluation of sustainable animal diets (StAnD), using native resources of the region, decreasing carbon footprint, and applying meta-analysis and mathematical models for a better understanding of animal production.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"28",title:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/28.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"177225",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"rosa-maria-lino-neto-pereira",fullName:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9wkQAC/Profile_Picture_1624519982291",biography:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira (DVM, MsC, PhD and) is currently a researcher at the Genetic Resources and Biotechnology Unit of the National Institute of Agrarian and Veterinarian Research (INIAV, Portugal). She is the head of the Reproduction and Embryology Laboratories and was lecturer of Reproduction and Reproductive Biotechnologies at Veterinary Medicine Faculty. She has over 25 years of experience working in reproductive biology and biotechnology areas with a special emphasis on embryo and gamete cryopreservation, for research and animal genetic resources conservation, leading research projects with several peer-reviewed papers. Rosa Pereira is member of the ERFP-FAO Ex situ Working Group and of the Management Commission of the Portuguese Animal Germplasm Bank.",institutionString:"The National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research. Portugal",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:14,paginationItems:[{id:"82457",title:"Canine Hearing Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105515",signatures:"Peter M. 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She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. 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She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. 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