IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\n
Designed to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\n
After a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\n
Our innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\n
\n\t
Topic Focused Publications - Each topic showcases high impact subject areas
\n\t
Renowned Editorial Expertise - Series Editors, Topic Editors, and a team of international Board Members that permanently support each Book Series
\n\t
Fast Publishing - quick turnaround which is unique for book publishing
\n\t
The benefit of ISSN and ISBN for increased citation and indexing possibilities
\n
\n\n\n\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\n
IntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
We invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\n
Note: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6690",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Arsenic - Analytical and Toxicological Studies",title:"Arsenic",subtitle:"Analytical and Toxicological Studies",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Arsenic - Analytical and Toxicological Studies is a collection of original works focused on arsenic occurrence and chemistry, methods for arsenic determination and removal and arsenic toxicity and health risks. The most commonly used techniques for arsenic quantification and speciation, such as atomic absorption spectrometry, inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry, and inductively coupled plasma-emission spectrometry, among others, and the various procedures applied for arsenic separation and removal are exhaustively described. The mechanism of arsenic-induced toxicology, involving arsenic interaction with critical thiols in proteins and the health risks associated with exposure to arsenic, is also discussed.",isbn:"978-1-78923-517-3",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-516-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-646-9",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72058",price:100,priceEur:109,priceUsd:129,slug:"arsenic-analytical-and-toxicological-studies",numberOfPages:90,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"5d829bc54fef4d7062ab1d4c403a0895",bookSignature:"Margarita Stoytcheva and Roumen Zlatev",publishedDate:"July 25th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6690.jpg",numberOfDownloads:7518,numberOfWosCitations:15,numberOfCrossrefCitations:12,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:21,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:48,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 7th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 28th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 27th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 17th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 16th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"170080",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarita",middleName:null,surname:"Stoytcheva",slug:"margarita-stoytcheva",fullName:"Margarita Stoytcheva",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/170080/images/system/170080.jpg",biography:"Prof. Margarita Stoytcheva graduated from the University of Chemical Technology and Metallurgy of Sofia, Bulgaria. She has a Ph.D. and DSc in Chemistry and Technical Sciences. She has been a researcher and teacher at several universities in Bulgaria, Algeria, and France. From 2006 to the present, she has participated in activities of scientific research, technological development, and teaching at the Institute of Engineering, University of Baja California, Mexicali, Mexico, as a full-time researcher. Since 2008 she has been a member of the National System of Researchers of Mexico, and since 2011 she has been a regular member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences. Her interests and areas of research are electroanalytical chemistry and biotechnology.",institutionString:"Autonomous University of Baja California",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"128534",title:"Dr.",name:"Roumen",middleName:null,surname:"Zlatev",slug:"roumen-zlatev",fullName:"Roumen Zlatev",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/128534/images/system/128534.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Zlatev obtained his master’s degree from the University of Chemical Technology and Metallurgy of Sofia, Bulgaria, and his Ph.D. from the Grenoble Institute of Technology, France. After his work as a researcher at the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Dr. Zlatev began working as a senior researcher and laboratory head at the Institute of Engineering, University of Baja California, Mexicali, Mexico. He is a regular member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences and the Mexican National System of Researchers. Dr. Zlatev has authored more than 110 publications in prestigious scientific journals and holds 10 patents in analytical and electroanalytical chemistry, spectroscopy, corrosion, and analytical instrumentation.",institutionString:"Autonomous University of Baja California",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"489",title:"Bioinorganic Chemistry",slug:"bioinorganic-chemistry"}],chapters:[{id:"61840",title:"Introductory Chapter: Arsenic",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78399",slug:"introductory-chapter-arsenic",totalDownloads:1210,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Margarita Stoytcheva and Roumen Zlatev",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61840",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61840",authors:[{id:"170080",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarita",surname:"Stoytcheva",slug:"margarita-stoytcheva",fullName:"Margarita Stoytcheva"}],corrections:null},{id:"61143",title:"Arsenic in Water: Determination and Removal",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75531",slug:"arsenic-in-water-determination-and-removal",totalDownloads:2081,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Depending on the physical, chemical and biogeochemical processes and condition of the environment, various arsenic species can be present in water. Water soluble arsenic species existing in natural water are inorganic arsenic (iAs) and organic arsenic (oAs) species. All acidic species, according to the chemical equilibrium, have well-recognized molecular and ionic forms in water. The distribution of iAs and oAs species is a function of pH value of water traces of arsenic that are found in groundwater, lakes, rivers and ocean. The WHO provisional guideline value for arsenic in drinking water is 10 μg L−1. The most selective and sensitive methods for determination of total arsenic and its species in water are coupled techniques including chromatography, optical methods and mass spectrometry. Determination of arsenic species is of crucial importance for selection of arsenic removal technology. Best available technologies are based on absorption, precipitation, membrane and hybrid membrane processes. Adsorption is considered to be relatively simple, efficient and low-cost removal technique, especially convenient for application in rural areas. Sorbents for arsenic removal are biological materials, mineral oxides, activated carbons and polymer resins.",signatures:"Ljubinka Rajakovic and Vladana Rajakovic-Ognjanovic",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61143",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61143",authors:[{id:"141214",title:"Prof.",name:"Vladana",surname:"Rajakovic-Ognjanovic",slug:"vladana-rajakovic-ognjanovic",fullName:"Vladana Rajakovic-Ognjanovic"},{id:"235766",title:"Prof.",name:"Ljubinka",surname:"Rajakovic",slug:"ljubinka-rajakovic",fullName:"Ljubinka Rajakovic"}],corrections:null},{id:"59176",title:"Bio-adsorbents for the Removal of Heavy Metals from Water",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73570",slug:"bio-adsorbents-for-the-removal-of-heavy-metals-from-water",totalDownloads:1551,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The work represents the bio-adsorption of arsenic(III) from standard solutions and real water samples using a powdered avocado seed as a bio-adsorbent. The adsorbent was synthesized, demineralized, and characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscope coupled with energy dispersive spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), Fourier transformation infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) theory. Batch adsorption studies were carried out by using avocado seed, and AsIII was analyzed by using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICPOES) after optimizing the following parameters: pH 6, analyte concentration 2 mg L−1, bio-adsorbent dosage 0.8 g, contact time 120 min between analyte and adsorbent, and temperature from 22 to 40°C. The adsorption capacity of 93.75 mg/g was obtained, and the Langmuir isotherm was adopted by the adsorbent due to the chemisorption that occurs on the surface between the functional groups of the bio-adsorbent and AsIII.",signatures:"Khathutshelo Catherine Mqehe-Nedzivhe, Khathutshelo Makhado,\nOluwasayo Folasayo Olorundare, Omotayo Ademola Arotiba,\nElizabeth Makhatha, Philiswa Nosizo Nomngongo and\nNonhlangabezo Mabuba",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59176",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59176",authors:[{id:"224992",title:"Dr.",name:"Nonhlangabezo",surname:"Mabuba",slug:"nonhlangabezo-mabuba",fullName:"Nonhlangabezo Mabuba"}],corrections:null},{id:"62146",title:"Food and Water Security as Determinants of the Mitigation of Health Risks Due to Exposure to Arsenic in Water",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76977",slug:"food-and-water-security-as-determinants-of-the-mitigation-of-health-risks-due-to-exposure-to-arsenic",totalDownloads:1093,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Exposure to arsenic is a global public health problem, and the effects on health are several from cancer to metabolic diseases such as diabetes and hypertension. The metabolism and excretion depends on having a good nutritional status and the latter of an adequate diet. It is known that the consumption of certain trace elements and nutrients intervene in the metabolism, in the excretion and in the protection of the adverse effects that the metalloid has on the organism. The amount of proteins consumed, the type of amino acids such as cysteine, methionine; vitamins such as C, thiamin, vitamin B12, folic acid, minerals such as calcium and other nutrients such as fiber have been studied and associated with a lower concentration of As in blood and urine, as well as minor dermatological lesions as well as other organs and systems. A study by Monroy-Torres et al. (2018, in press), in adolescents exposed to As in water, found greater excretion of As with a 4-week vitamin supplementation, increasing iron levels, after the intervention. Reason for which this chapter, shows a review of the main evidence of health impact indicators that can lead to mitigate the effects of exposure to As across to promote food security, access to cleaner drinking water and good nutrition.",signatures:"Rebeca Monroy-Torres",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62146",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62146",authors:[{id:"234173",title:"Dr.",name:"Rebeca",surname:"Monroy-Torres",slug:"rebeca-monroy-torres",fullName:"Rebeca Monroy-Torres"}],corrections:null},{id:"60425",title:"Mechanisms of Arsenic-Induced Toxicity with Special Emphasis on Arsenic-Binding Proteins",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74758",slug:"mechanisms-of-arsenic-induced-toxicity-with-special-emphasis-on-arsenic-binding-proteins",totalDownloads:1585,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The importance of different arsenic forms in public health is well recognized owing to its distinct physical characteristics and toxicity. Chronic arsenic exposure has left a trail of disastrous health consequences around the world. However, the mechanisms behind the toxicity and the consequential diseases occurring after acute or chronic exposure to arsenic are not well understood. The toxicity of trivalent arsenic primarily occurs due to its interaction with cysteine residues in proteins. Arsenic binding to protein may alter its conformation and interaction with other functional proteins leading to tissue damage. Therefore, there has been much emphasis on studies of arsenic-bound proteins, for the purpose of understanding the origins of toxicity and to explore therapeutics. This book chapter illustrates the molecular mechanisms of arsenic toxicity with a special emphasis on arsenic binding to proteins and its consequences in alteration of tissue homeostasis.",signatures:"Afaq Hussain, Vineeth Andisseryparambil Raveendran, Soumya\nKundu, Tapendu Samanta, Raja Shunmugam, Debnath Pal and\nJayasri Das Sarma",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60425",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60425",authors:[{id:"56752",title:"Dr.",name:"Jayasri",surname:"Das Sarma",slug:"jayasri-das-sarma",fullName:"Jayasri Das Sarma"},{id:"237283",title:"Mr.",name:"Afaq",surname:"Hussain",slug:"afaq-hussain",fullName:"Afaq Hussain"},{id:"242002",title:"Mr.",name:"Vineeth",surname:"A R",slug:"vineeth-a-r",fullName:"Vineeth A R"},{id:"242003",title:"MSc.",name:"Soumya",surname:"Kundu",slug:"soumya-kundu",fullName:"Soumya Kundu"},{id:"242004",title:"MSc.",name:"Tapendu",surname:"Samanta",slug:"tapendu-samanta",fullName:"Tapendu Samanta"},{id:"242005",title:"Dr.",name:"Raja",surname:"Shunmugam",slug:"raja-shunmugam",fullName:"Raja Shunmugam"},{id:"242006",title:"Prof.",name:"Debnath",surname:"Pal",slug:"debnath-pal",fullName:"Debnath Pal"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5725",title:"Applications of the Voltammetry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"36586695f01005ffab50415baba4de15",slug:"applications-of-the-voltammetry",bookSignature:"Margarita Stoytcheva and Roumen Zlatev",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5725.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"170080",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarita",surname:"Stoytcheva",slug:"margarita-stoytcheva",fullName:"Margarita Stoytcheva"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5182",title:"Lab-on-a-Chip Fabrication and Application",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f4c8e226ea2612f5ecceb7e6311581d4",slug:"lab-on-a-chip-fabrication-and-application",bookSignature:"Margarita Stoytcheva and Roumen Zlatev",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5182.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"170080",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarita",surname:"Stoytcheva",slug:"margarita-stoytcheva",fullName:"Margarita Stoytcheva"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9012",title:"Applications of Nanobiotechnology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8412775aad56ba7350a6201282feb1ec",slug:"applications-of-nanobiotechnology",bookSignature:"Margarita Stoytcheva and Roumen Zlatev",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9012.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"170080",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarita",surname:"Stoytcheva",slug:"margarita-stoytcheva",fullName:"Margarita Stoytcheva"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6242",title:"Hydroxyapatite",subtitle:"Advances in Composite Nanomaterials, Biomedical Applications and Its Technological Facets",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6a18a9b6617ae6d943649ea7ad9655cc",slug:"hydroxyapatite-advances-in-composite-nanomaterials-biomedical-applications-and-its-technological-facets",bookSignature:"Jagannathan Thirumalai",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6242.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99242",title:"Prof.",name:"Jagannathan",surname:"Thirumalai",slug:"jagannathan-thirumalai",fullName:"Jagannathan Thirumalai"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5891",title:"Descriptive Inorganic Chemistry Researches of Metal Compounds",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7201c7d0481358aa6aabe036eb9ff095",slug:"descriptive-inorganic-chemistry-researches-of-metal-compounds",bookSignature:"Takashiro Akitsu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5891.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"147861",title:"Dr.",name:"Takashiro",surname:"Akitsu",slug:"takashiro-akitsu",fullName:"Takashiro Akitsu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6176",title:"Ligand",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6898acb82ecb8861ebf01d7c8b043062",slug:"ligand",bookSignature:"Chandraleka Saravanan and Bhaskar Biswas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6176.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196005",title:"Dr.",name:"Chandraleka",surname:"Saravanan",slug:"chandraleka-saravanan",fullName:"Chandraleka Saravanan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6255",title:"Ozone in Nature and Practice",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0b160c6c458f2da2a2780bb1974faf64",slug:"ozone-in-nature-and-practice",bookSignature:"Ján Derco and Marian Koman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6255.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"80852",title:"Prof.",name:"Jan",surname:"Derco",slug:"jan-derco",fullName:"Jan Derco"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9206",title:"Importance of Selenium in the Environment and Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e21bd2a386a2d078fe53a4d1658e44bf",slug:"importance-of-selenium-in-the-environment-and-human-health",bookSignature:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman, Abdullah Mohamed Asiri, Anish Khan and Inamuddin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9206.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Muzibur",surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-muzibur-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"79597",slug:"corrigendum-to-dry-hydrogen-peroxide-for-viral-inactivation",title:"Corrigendum to: Dry Hydrogen Peroxide for Viral Inactivation",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/79597.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79597",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79597",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/79597",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/79597",chapter:{id:"78994",slug:"dry-hydrogen-peroxide-for-viral-inactivation",signatures:"Chris Lee and John R. Henneman",dateSubmitted:"August 18th 2021",dateReviewed:"September 14th 2021",datePrePublished:"October 21st 2021",datePublished:"May 18th 2022",book:{id:"11006",title:"Disinfection of Viruses",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Disinfection of Viruses",slug:"disinfection-of-viruses",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",bookSignature:"Raymond W. Nims and M. Khalid Ijaz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11006.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"104702",title:"Dr.",name:"Raymond W.",middleName:null,surname:"Nims",slug:"raymond-w.-nims",fullName:"Raymond W. Nims"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"414666",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Chris",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",fullName:"Chris Lee",slug:"chris-lee",email:"chris96lee@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"415444",title:"MSc.",name:"John R.",middleName:null,surname:"Henneman",fullName:"John R. Henneman",slug:"john-r.-henneman",email:"jrh78@bri.ksu.edu",position:null,institution:{name:"Kansas State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]}},chapter:{id:"78994",slug:"dry-hydrogen-peroxide-for-viral-inactivation",signatures:"Chris Lee and John R. Henneman",dateSubmitted:"August 18th 2021",dateReviewed:"September 14th 2021",datePrePublished:"October 21st 2021",datePublished:"May 18th 2022",book:{id:"11006",title:"Disinfection of Viruses",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Disinfection of Viruses",slug:"disinfection-of-viruses",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",bookSignature:"Raymond W. Nims and M. Khalid Ijaz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11006.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"104702",title:"Dr.",name:"Raymond W.",middleName:null,surname:"Nims",slug:"raymond-w.-nims",fullName:"Raymond W. Nims"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"414666",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Chris",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",fullName:"Chris Lee",slug:"chris-lee",email:"chris96lee@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"415444",title:"MSc.",name:"John R.",middleName:null,surname:"Henneman",fullName:"John R. Henneman",slug:"john-r.-henneman",email:"jrh78@bri.ksu.edu",position:null,institution:{name:"Kansas State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},book:{id:"11006",title:"Disinfection of Viruses",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Disinfection of Viruses",slug:"disinfection-of-viruses",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",bookSignature:"Raymond W. Nims and M. Khalid Ijaz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11006.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"104702",title:"Dr.",name:"Raymond W.",middleName:null,surname:"Nims",slug:"raymond-w.-nims",fullName:"Raymond W. Nims"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11946",leadTitle:null,title:"Field-Programmable Gate Arrays",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tField programmable array (FPGA) is a programmable device that uses prebuilt logic blocks and routing resources to implement the system without adding additional fabrication steps. The reconfigurable system has applications in computational acceleration and prototyping application-specific integrated circuits (ASIC). The final design of ASIC or processor using FPGA will be continue reprogrammed until we have a bug-free design. The demand for FPGA is expected to increase continuously due to increased adoption of FPGA in areas of enterprise businesses as well as ASIC design because they can be dynamically reprogrammed. The optimized FPGAs are more power-efficient than running equivalent workloads on a CPU. The combination of versatility, efficiency, and performance of FPGAs make the design process more data at a lower total cost of ownership (TCO). Seeing the numerous application of FPGAs irrespective of the domain, it is necessary to understand FPGA in-depth in terms of architecture and applications.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-675-7",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-674-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-676-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"d23889b993e9babdb668001a673adb9a",bookSignature:"Dr. Ajay Kumar Singh",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11946.jpg",keywords:"Field Programmable Array, Architecture, Algorithm, Logic Design, Validation, Logic Simulation, Logic Gate, Challenges in FPGA Design, Power-Efficient, Energy Conversion, Embedded System, Low Power Applications",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 22nd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 1st 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 31st 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 19th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 18th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Singh's areas of interest are modeling of submicron MOS devices, Low power VLSI circuit design, Nanotechnology, and Renewable energy sources. He has published more than 95 research papers in various International Journals and conferences and reviewed many research papers submitted to various international journals. He has more than 27 years of teaching experience for graduate and undergraduate students. Dr.Singh is a Senior Member of IEEE and Fellow IETE-India.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"192404",title:"Dr.",name:"Ajay",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"ajay-singh",fullName:"Ajay Singh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192404/images/system/192404.jpg",biography:"Dr Singh is working as Professor in the Electronics and Communication Engineering of NIIT University-Neemarana Rajasthan India. Prior to joining this Unversity, he was Associate Professor in Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Multimedia University-Melaka Malaysia. He has more than 27 years of teaching experience for graduate and undergraduate students. He has successfully supervised 4 PhDs and 7 Master thesis. His areas of interest are modeling of submicron MOS devices, Low power VLSI circuit design, Nanotechnology and Renewable energy sources. He has published more than 95 research papers in various International Journals and conferences and reviewed many research papers submitted to various international journals. He is associated with many research journals in their editorial board. Dr Singh has contributed two chapters in edited book and authored three books.",institutionString:"NIIT University-Neemarana Rajasthan",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"453622",firstName:"Tea",lastName:"Jurcic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",email:"tea@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10198",title:"Response Surface Methodology in Engineering Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1942bec30d40572f519327ca7a6d7aae",slug:"response-surface-methodology-in-engineering-science",bookSignature:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10198.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"321730",title:"Prof.",name:"Palanikumar",surname:"Kayaroganam",slug:"palanikumar-kayaroganam",fullName:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"38907",title:"A Survey of Equations of State for Polymers",doi:"10.5772/48391",slug:"a-survey-of-equations-of-state-for-polymers",body:'
1. Introduction
The thermodynamics of polymeric systems play an important role in the polymer industry and are often a key factor in polymer production, processing and material development, especially for the design of advanced polymeric materials. Many polymeric products are produced with a solvent or diluent (or a mixture of them) and often with other low molecular weight compounds (plasticizers, among others). A problem which often arises is how to remove the low molecular weight constituent(s) from the final product (polymer). The solution to this problem involves, among other tasks, solving the vapor-liquid equilibrium (VLE) and/or the vapor-liquid-liquid equilibrium (VLLE) problem. Other applications of polymer thermodynamics directly involve the polymerization processes. For example, several processes such as the production of PET (polyethylene terephthalate) are carried out in two-phase (vapor-liquid) reactors. Phase equilibrium compostions of the reacting components will determine their phase concentrations and thus the outcome of the polymerization reaction. Another example is the case of LDPE (Low Density PolyEthylene) made in autoclave reactors where it may be desirable to perform the polymerization reaction nearby but outside the two-liquid phase region, but close to it, which makes accurate liquid-liquid equilibrium (LLE) information at high pressure essential. During PE (polyethylene) or PP (polypropylene) industrial processing, for example, deposition of the polymer on the reactor surface, heat exchangers and flash drums frequently occurs and this can cause clogging in pipelines. Modeling solid-liquid equilibrium (SLE) is a useful basis from which to gain a better understanding of these industrial polymer problems and thus to avoid their occurrence.
Analogous to the modeling of conventional phase equilibrium, there are two basic approaches available to describe phase equilibrium of polymer-solvent mixtures: activity coefficient models and equations of state (EOS). There are several drawbacks to the activity coefficient approach, for example: it is hard to define standard states, especially for supercritical components; the parameters of the activity coefficient models are very temperature dependent, and critical phenomena are not predicted because different models are used for the vapor and liquid phases. Furthermore, other thermodynamic properties such as densities, enthalpies, entropies, among others, cannot usually be obtained from the same model because the excess Gibbs free energy is rarely known as a function of temperature and pressure.
EOS are powerful tools for investigating thermodynamic properties and phase behavior of pure fluids and their mixtures. There are many well-tested EOS available for fluid mixtures of conventional substances. For mixtures of polymers with solvents, on the other hand, problems arise due to the different characteristics of the components. To address these many polymer-specific EOS have been proposed, which focus on the polymer component(s) of the mixture. Efforts to represent conventional systems with these EOS have not always been very successful; indeed some of these models perform less successfully than traditional cubic EOS in this regard. This may be a handicap when these models are used for the VLE of the polymer-solvent mixtures. In such cases, little or no polymer is present in the vapor phase and the solvent compressibility plays an important role in the phase behavior. Consequently, there is a strong incentive to extend the conventional EOS developed for small molecules to polymers.
There are two basic issues in extending cubic EOS to apply to polymers and their use. The first issue is the description of the pure component EOS parameters for polymers. To obtain these parameters, various techniques have been suggested. The second issue in extending cubic EOS to apply to polymers is the selection of mixing rules (MR) for the EOS parameters. The classical mixing rules of van der Waals (vdW) have already been tested for polymer solvent mixtures, however, it has been observed that, in order to fit the experimental data, some unrealistic values are necessary for the binary interaction parameters (BIP).
The use of equations of state in phase equilibrium modeling instead of activity coefficient models is mainly a result of the recent development of a class of mixing rules that enable the use of liquid activity coefficient models in the EOS formalism. The implication of this change is far-reaching as an EOS offers a unified approach in thermodynamic property modeling. With this approach, the applicability of simple cubic EOS has been extended to complex systems, such as polymeric systems, if coupled with the appropriate activity coefficient model. Therefore, there is much interest in mixture EOS models capable of describing higher degrees of nonideality than that possible with the van der Waals one-fluid model and its modifications.
Future development of EOS for polymer mixtures is unclear and some contradictory statements can be found in the literature. Some authors indicate that cubic equations can be extended to correlate and predict VLE in polymer mixtures accurately. On the other hand, others state that, considering the complexity of this type of mixture, simplicity is not a necessary requirement for an EOS, as the calculation of parameters for the mixture components is more important. There is agreement, however, on the fact that future development of EOS for polymer mixtures must emphasize the study of mixing rules and that EOS input parameters should be related to the commonly measured properties of the polymers.
The most apparent progress toward EOS with the ability to describe phase behavior with polymers has been made by applying statistical mechanics. Some early models derived from statistical thermodynamics assumed molecules to be arranged in a lattice, whereas many of the more recent theories picture molecules to be moving freely in continuous space. In lattice models, the molecules are assumed to have one or more segments, and the partition function of the system can be obtained by counting the possible configuration when these segments are arranged in hypothetical cells which are like the lattices in solid materials. Then the thermodynamic quantities can be calculated from the partition function on the basis of statistical mechanics.
A huge amount of work has been done on the understanding of phase behavior in polymeric mixtures, either from an experimental or theoretical point of view. As well as supplying important data, experiments enable the evaluation of EOS models for the correlation and/or prediction of phase behavior. A model, on the other hand, takes much less experimental effort and can guide the researcher/analyst in the right direction.
A detailed review of the different lines of developing equations of state for the calculation of fluid phase equilibria is given by [1]. Recently [2] presented and discussed in depth both classical and novel thermodynamic models, which have been developed and can potentially be used for industrial applications. A review of the use of some equations of state (EOS) for LDPE process simulation can be found in Orbey et al. [3] and Valderrama [4].
Although there have been some analyses on equations of state that can describe the phase equilibria involving polymers, additional assessments are necessary. In general, the available works concern a specific approach, not taking into account others. In addition, these reviews and surveys focus on detailed model theory or theoretical possibilities of model variations, with a few quotes from practical applications. This chapter therefore presents an overview of the progress on EOS models for polymer systems considering the following approaches:
Cubic EOS (mixing rules incorporationg excess Gibbs free energy models)
Lattice models [Sanchez-Lacombe (SL) equation of state]
Perturbation theory (SAFT equation: the original version and its variants)
In EOS applications only works dealing with phase equilibrium are discussed, other types of applications, such as solvent absorption and/or polymer swelling, are not addressed. The timeline diagram in Figure 1 shows some of the key developments and outstanding papers related to the development of equations of state for polymer systems, which are discussed in this chapter. The following notation is used:
Cubic Equations of State [Huron and Vidal (HV) Mixing Rule (MR); Sako-Wu-Prausnitz (SWP) Equation; Wong and Sandler (WS) MR; vdW Applied to Polymer Solutions (vdW-P) by Kontogeorgis, Harismiadis, Fredeslund and Tassios; Linear Combination of Vidal and Michelsen (LCVM) Mixing Rules by Boukouvalas, Spiliots, Coutsikos, Tzouvaras and Tassios; Zhong and Masuoka (ZM) MR]
Lattice Models [Flory-Huggins (FH); Sanchez and Lacombe (SL) equation; key Modifications and Applications (MA) of SL by KIeintjens and KoningmeId, Panayiotou and Vera, Kiran and Xiong and Zhuang, Koak and Heidemann, Gauter and Heidemann, Krenz and Heidemann and de Loos]
Perturbation theory [Wertheim Thermodynamic Perturbation Theory (TPT); Statistical Associating Fluid Theory (SAFT) by Chapman, Gubbins, Jackson, Radosz; Chen and Kreglewski [5] SAFT (CK-SAFT) by Huang and Radosz; Perturbed-Chain SAFT (PC-SAFT) by Gross and Sadowski; Simplified PC-SAFT (sPC-SAFT) by von Solms, Michelsen and Kontogeorgis]
Figure 1.
Timeline of some Key Model Developments Addressed in this Chapter from van der Waals (vdW) Equation in 1873.
2. Cubic equations of state and mixing rules
The first group of models to describe the phase behavior (by calculating the equilibrium constant) corresponds to the van der Waals equations of state, known as cubic equations, in either the original version or variants thereof. They are extremely simple and efficient for experimental data correlation. In this group, modifications of the Redlich-Kwong equation stand out, especially the Soave-Redlich-Kwong (SRK) [31] and the Peng-Robinson (PR) [32], which can calculate, often successfully, the vapor-liquid equilibrium for normal fluid and mixtures. However, application of the cubic equations of state for polymeric blends is not immediately obvious as this application does not follow standard procedures. The conventional method for calculating the pure parameters in cubic equations of state requires components\' critical properties and vapor pressure, which do not exist for polymers. Therefore, two basic issues should be addressed when extending cubic equations of state for polymers and their mixtures. The first, presented in the following paragraphs is the description of the parameters of pure components, and the second is the choice of the mixing rule, which will be discussed later in sections 2.1-2.3.
There are four conditions to be satisfied when selecting the pure component parameters of a cubic equation of state. First, a polymer is non-volatile and therefore should not exhibit any vapor pressure. If there are oligomers in the mixture though, low vapor pressures might be considered. Therefore, critical properties may be assigned for the oligomers, treating them as conventional components. The second condition is that the equation of state should predict densities of molten polymers. The third condition requires that the parameters reflect the polymers\' basic characteristics such as the degree of polymerization. This is important because experimental data demonstrate that these polymer characteristics directly affect the vapor-liquid equilibrium in polymer-solvent mixtures. The fourth point, somewhat connected to the third, requires easily accessible and physical meaning characteristics as input parameters for calculating the parameters of the equation of state. As stated before, the SRK equation of state is expressed by:
P=R⋅TV−b−a(T)V⋅(V+b)E1
\n\t\t\t
and the PR equation is given by:
P=R⋅TV−b−a(T)V⋅(V+b)+b⋅(V−b)E2
\n\t\t\t
where T is temperature, V is molar volume, P is pressure and R is the universal gas constant. The parameter a is a measure of the attractive forces between molecules, and the parameter b is the co-volume occupied by these molecules.
The first attempt to apply a cubic equation to polymers was made by Sako et al. [7] in order to calculate the high pressure vapor-liquid equilibrium for a polyethylene-ethylene system. To overcome the problem of calculating the pure parameters for the polymer, Sako et al. [7] calculated the attractive parameter in the SRK equation using the London dispersion formula, and extrapolated the co-volume (b) values from n-alkane data. To take into account external degrees of freedom, they also added a third parameter c, whose values were fitted from density data. The SWP (Sako-Wu-Prausnitz) equation is a member of the cubic family:
P=R⋅T⋅(V−b+b⋅c)V⋅(V−b)−a(T)V⋅(V+b)E3
\n\t\t\t
The SWP equation was used with relative success by Tork et al. [33] when calculating the phase equilibria in binary and ternary systems of polyolefins. The calculations focused on the high pressure phase equilibrium for ethylene-polyethylene systems and for liquid-liquid equilibrium in systems containing either high density polyethylene or polyethylene-polypropylene copolymer. The results for the copolymer-solvent system were compared with those provided by the SAFT (Statistical Associating Fluid Theory) equation. The two equations of state can describe the UCST (Upper Critical Solution Temperature) and LCST (Lower Critical Solution Temperature) behavior as well as U-LCST, with similar precision. When using the SAFT equation, the binary interaction parameter is maintained constant, while in the SWP equation this parameter is expressed as a function of temperature. In addition, Sako et al. [7] investigated the influence of an inert gas on the LCST for the polyethylene-hexane system. The polydispersity of different polyethylene resins is considered when computing the phase equilibrium using pseudocomponents, chosen using the moments of experimental molecular weight distributions.
Kontogeorgis et al. [9] used the van der Waals equation of state to correlate vapor-liquid equilibrium data of polymer solutions. They proposed a method to calculate the interaction parameter a and co-volume b in the equation of state for polymers from two volumetric datasets at low pressure. Both parameters a and b (assumed to be independent of temperature) can be analytically expressed from two experimental molar volumes, each one at a different temperature. The pressure in the van der Waals equation is then considered equal to zero. The parameters a and b are linear functions of molecular weight. When dealing with polymer solutions, these parameters are obtained from van der Waals mixing rules as well as from the classic combination rules. Fitting only one binary parameter, the van der Waals equation of state is able to correlate the equilibrium pressure for various solutions of polyethylene and polyisobutylene accurately. However, large negative values for the binary interaction parameters, very different from typical values, are frequently required, indicating that this procedure, although empirically successful, does not have a significant physical basis. For almost athermic solutions, the Berthelot combining rule [34] is considered, and the binary interaction parameter is predicted by a simple function of the molecular weight of the solvent. Thus, satisfactory results are obtained.
The performance of cubic equations of state is directly related to the efficiency of mixing rules to represent the phase equilibria at high pressures. Basically, the mixing rules can be divided into two classes: van der Waals-type and those that incorporate excess Gibbs energy (GE).
2.1. van der Waals mixing rules
In order to extend the application of PR and SRK cubic equations of state for polymer-solvent systems, the conventional mixing rules employed are those from van der Waals (vdW) [34], which are expressed as:
a=∑i∑jxi⋅x⋅jaijE4
\n\t\t\t\t
b=∑i∑jxi⋅x⋅jbijE5
\n\t\t\t\t
where xi and xj are the mol fractions, aij is the cross-energy parameter and bij is the cross co-volume parameter.
It should be stressed that these rules are limited to non-polar fluids and therefore are unable to represent the highly non-ideal behavior of polar or associative fluids.
An empirical approach to overcome the shortcomings of the vdW mixing rule has been to simply add new parameters and composition dependence to the combination rule for parameter a, usually keeping the combination rule for parameter b. Some examples may be cited: Adachi and Sugie [35]; Panagiotopoulos and Reid [36] and Schwartzentruber et al. [37]. These modified rules usually aim to solve specific problems, and the number of binary interaction parameters is quite variable. There are many problems associated with these multiparametric combination rules which limit their use in process design for mixtures containing many components (such as mixtures of isomers). Among them, the dilution effect may be cited: as the number of components in a mixture increases, the molar fraction of any component becomes smaller. This leads to small contributions of the new added parameters and terms that are strongly composition dependent. Consequently, as the number of components increases, the mixing rule is effectively reduced to a quadratic dependence, as in the one-fluid van der Waals fluid theory [38].
2.2. Mixing rules for excess free energy (GE) models
Like conventional phase equilibrium modeling, there are two basic modeling tools for dealing with polymer-solvent mixtures: excess Gibbs free energy (GE) models (or activity coefficient models) and equation of state models. There are plenty of models in each category and selecting the best model for a specific project can often be quite difficult. Furthermore, equation of state and activity coefficient models have varying abilities in extrapolating data beyond given ranges of temperature and pressure, which further hampers the choice of the best model. These models also behave differently when predicting vapor-liquid equilibrium from other measured properties, such as the infinite dilution activity coefficient for a polymer in solvent.
Over the last two decades several methods combining activity coefficient models with equations of state have emerged. These methods are useful for correlating/predicting the phase equilibria of conventional mixtures, and are promising for mixtures containing polymers. Moreover, they allow us to investigate an activity coefficient model in two ways: first as a conventional model (i.e. in the approach γ-φ); secondly as part of an equation of state. In general, activity coefficient models are considered more flexible to accommodate a highly complex phase behavior. Equation of state models, on the other hand, may take into account the effects of compressibility in a thermodynamically more consistent way, and are most useful at higher pressures.
Huron and Vidal [6], pioneers in this field, incorporated an excess Gibbs free energy model into a mixing rule. Their method is based on three assumptions: (i) the excess Gibbs free energy, calculated from an equation of state at infinite pressure equals the excess Gibbs free energy calculated from an activity coefficient model for the liquid phase (ii) the co-volume parameter b is set to the volume at infinite pressure (iii) the excess volume equals zero. Thus the mixing rule is written as:
αV=1q2⋅GER⋅T+∑ixi⋅αiE6
\n\t\t\t\t
where αV=a/(b⋅R⋅T) and q2=−ln2 for SRK equation. Huron and Vidal [6] showed that their mixing rule gives good results for non-ideal mixtures. Soave [39] showed that the Huron and Vidal rule represents an improvement over the classical quadratic mixing rules and can accurately correlate the vapor-liquid equilibrium for highly nonideal systems. The Huron and Vidal mixing rule has also been applied to several polar and asymmetric systems [40]-[42].
The Huron and Vidal mixing rule has some undesirable characteristics, such as: it does not reproduce the quadratic dependence of the second virial coefficient (QDSVC) with the composition at low pressure; it has no predictive value because the parameters of the activity coefficient model, estimated at low pressure, have to be re-estimated at high pressure; furthermore, these parameters are temperature dependent. Various proposals [43]-[44] have tried to cope with these constraints, however, they fail to succeed as discussed below.
Mollerup [45] suggested an alternative method to that of Huron and Vidal, assuming that the excess volume is zero at low pressure and that the excess Gibbs free energies calculated from an equation of state and from an activity coefficient model can be matched in this condition. Therefore, the activity coefficient parameters do not need be re-estimated if pressure and temperature conditions correspond to those at which they are fitted. However, since this theory cannot be applied to supercritical fluids, as well as the difficulty of computing roots (of the equation of state) for the liquid phase at zero pressure, its application is restricted.
Heidemann and Kokal [46], in accordance with Mollerup [45], also take the reference state at null pressure, attempting, however, to overcome the problem of calculating the root for the liquid phase at zero pressure. The major contribution of this method is to propose an extrapolation procedure from the system pressure, enabling calculation at temperatures near and above the critical point. Important to mention is that this method requires the solution of a transcendental equation when calculating the mixing rule. Comparative studies demonstrate a better performance of the Heidemann and Kokal rule when compared to the Huron and Vidal rule [6].
A method very similar to Heidemann and Kokal’s [46] was proposed by Michelsen [47]. The main difference between them lies in the extrapolation method used for supercritical components. The mixing rule in the Michelsen approach also requires the solution of a transcendental equation. The SRK-Wilson model (using SRK equation of state and Wilson activity coefficient model), obtained using this method, was tested to obtain the phase envelope, including the critical points, and to calculate the phase diagrams at high pressure, without re-estimating the parameters of the Wilson model. Good results were achieved.
Michelsen [48] modified his own method, considering an explicit mixing rule, i.e. avoiding the solution of the transcendental equation. The only drawback of this modification lies in the impossibility of ensuring the accurate reproduction of the GE model at low temperatures. Thus, imposing a linear mixing rule to the parameter a, an expression similar to the Huron and Vidal rule [6] was obtained, and therefore it is called the first-order Modified Huron and Vidal (MHV1) mixing rule.
Dahl and Michelsen [49] found out that replacing the linear approach (MHV1) by a quadratic approximation considerably improves the reproductibility of the GE model. The resulting mixture rule, a second-order modification of the Huron and Vidal rule, became known as the MHV2 (second-order Modified Huron and Vidal mixing rule), where the linear rule for the co-volume b was maintained. Like the Huron and Vidal mixing rule, the MHV2 does not satisfactorily describe the excess molar volume. Additionally, it is theoretically incorrect at the lower bound pressure (when the pressure goes to zero), where it does not show the QDSVC with the mole fraction.
Attempting to straighten out the theoretical inconsistency of the aforementioned mixing rules, Wong and Sandler [8] proposed a new method in which the rules fulfill the QDSVC with the composition at low pressure condition. The basic idea was to consider the excess Helmholtz free energy as much less dependent on pressure than the excess Gibbs free energy. In this way, the excess Helmholtz free energy at high pressure might be equal to the excess Gibbs free energy at low pressure. Therefore, this mixing rule is given by:
and c is a constant, equals –ln(2) for the SRK equation. The mixing rule gives the correct low density limit (the mixture second virial coefficient has a quadratic dependence on mole fraction). The high density limit, in turn, is consistent with experimental data: the equation of state provides the same molar excess Helmholtz free energy at infinite pressure as a function of composition, as well as that obtained from the selected activity coefficient model. The Wong and Sandler [8] mixing rule is not density dependent. It should be highlighted that, unlike the methods proposed above, the Wong-Sandler mixing rule introduced an additional binary interaction parameter besides those predicted by the activity coefficient model, which is the second virial coefficient binary interaction parameter itself. According to the authors, this parameter as well as those from the activity coefficient model, estimated at low pressure, may be interchangeably used (i.e. without restriction) at high pressure.
Boukouvalas et al. [10] proposed a new mixing rule for the parameter a in the attractive term of cubic equations of state. The idea was to make a linear combination between the Huron and Vidal and the MHV1 mixing rules, producing the name LCVM (Linear Combination of Vidal and Michelsen mixing rules), which may be expressed as:
α=λ⋅α+V(1−λ)⋅αME10
\n\t\t\t\t
where αV and αM are given by Vidal and Michelsen rules, respectively. The contributions related to α are weighted by a factor λ, which is proposed by Boulouvalas et al. [10] to be 0.36. For the parameter b, a classical linear rule was considered. The performance of this model was compared to MHV2 and MHV1 models, using the Soave equation and the UNIFAC [UNIQUAC (UNIversal QUAsiChemical) Functional-group Activity Coefficient] for nonpolar and polar systems, symmetrical and asymmetrical, low and high pressures. The results indicate an equivalent performance of LCVM compared to the other two models when investigating systems containing molecules of similar sizes. In mixtures composed of molecules with quite different sizes, in particular gas systems with alkanes, the LCVM rule showed superior results.
Zhong and Masuoka [50], based on experimental data, evaluated the MHV1 mixing rule with SRK equation of state and the original UNIFAC model for GE. They found out that: 1) SRK equation with MHV1 can not reproduce the GE of the GE model used in the mixing rule for asymmetric systems, even at low pressure; 2) the original UNIFAC is not accurate for asymmetric systems with large alkanes. The first point reflects the deficiency of MHV1 for asymmetric systems, while the second is caused by the low predictive ability of UNIFAC for systems containing large alkanes. Moreover, it is evident that, although MHV1 is able to reproduce the GE model exactly, it may not be as accurate for gas-large alkane systems as UNIFAC can not describe these systems properly. As a result, it is pointless to pursue exact reproduction of the GE model when attempting to improve the predictive capability for these systems. However, it is interesting to observe that the SRK equation with MHV1 can satisfactorily reproduce GE experimental data if a correction factor is added to GE in the original UNIFAC model used in MHV1. With this observation, a new mixing rule was proposed: the MR1 (mixing rule 1), obtained by Zhong and Masuoka [50]. The MR1 rule is very accurate for systems composed og gas and large alkanes, when the correction parameter is obtained as a simple correlation function of the carbon number for a given gas.
A new mixing rule for cubic equations of state, particularly suitable for highly symmetric systems, was proposed by Zhong and Masuoka [51]. It was validated by two cubic equations of state: a modification of Peng-Robinson equation proposed by Stryjek and Vera (PRSV) [52] and the SRK equation. As there is no critical point for polymers, parameters a and b in the equation of state cannot be calculated from critical properties and because polymers are almost non-volatile, their vapor pressures are very low. Therefore, it is possible to use zero-pressure experimental densities to determine them. Alternatively, the approach adopted by Orbey and Sandler [38] may be employed, i.e. to use densities at low pressure with a hypothetical and very low vapor pressure, for example 10-7 MPa. Zhong and Masuoka [51], in the proposal of this new mixing rule, considered a null Helmholtz free energy in the limit when pressure tends to infinity. This is the only difference between this mixing rule and the one proposed by Wong and Sandler [8]. As a result, only one parameter is necessary in the new mixing rule, which is much simpler than the method of Wong and Sandler [8], and is as simple as Kontogeorgis et al. method [9]. When using the new mixing rule for ten polymer solutions in a wide temperature range, the results show that it allows cubic equations of state to correlate the vapor-liquid equilibrium of polymer solutions precisely even if just one temperature independent parameter is used. These results verify that the assumption, namely the excess Helmholtz free energy is null at infinite pressure, is feasible, or at least acceptable, for polymer solutions. The authors demonstrate that accurate correlations for polymer solutions are insensitive to parameters a and b in the equation of state.
In recent years, many studies have focused on improving hybrid models, i.e. equations of state which embody GE models into mixing rules. They attempt to expand their applicability to more complex systems, such as those containing highly polar components or molecules with significantly different sizes (e.g., polymer-solvent), without loosing versatility and simplicity. Recently, Ahlers and Gmehling [53] proposed the VTPR model (Volume Translated Peng-Robinson) which brings together the UNIFAC and Peng-Robinson equation with translated volume. In the VTPR model, the two Flory-Huggins (FH) type combinatorial terms [12], which come from the equation of state and from the UNIFAC model, as well as the Staverman-Guggenheim [54] contribution of the UNIFAC combinatorial term, were eliminated. Moreover, an empirical approach in VTPR incorporates different exponents in the combination rule for the crossed co-volume of the equation of state, depending on the system studied: for those without polymer, it was set to 0.75, whereas for solvent-polymer systems, it was set to 0.5. This empirical approach, however, introduces some uncertainties. For example, it is not possible to set a single parameter for mixtures containing two solvents and a polymer. Furthermore, it is difficulty to choose two exponents for some systems containing a molecule similar to a polymer, for example, propane/hexacontane.
Voutsas et al. [55] proposed a new mixing rule, UMR (Universal Mixing Rule), for cubic equations of state applicable to symmetric and asymmetric systems. For the cohesion parameter of the cubic equation, this mixing rule includes the Stavermann-Guggenheim combinatorial term and the residual term of the original UNIFAC model. For the co-volume parameter in the cubic equation, a quadratic mixing rule in the composition is used. This rule has been applied to the t-PR (Translated Peng-Robinson) [56] equation [also known as the t-mPR (Translated and Modified Peng-Robinson) equation], which is a modification of the PR equation. Very satisfactory results were obtained using the original interaction parameters from the UNIFAC model inpredicting vapor-liquid and liquid-liquid equilibria at low and high pressures for several asymmetric systems including polymer mixtures.
2.3. Modeling polymeric systems with equations of state embodying Gibbs free energy (GE) models
Orbey and Sandler [57] applied the PRSV cubic EOS, along with the mixing rules proposed by Wong and Sandler [8], to correlate vapor-liquid equilibrium data for some polymer solutions. For pure solvents, they used the conventional method to determine the parameters of the equation of state from the critical properties and the acentric factor. For polymers, however, in order to determine these parameters, they chose an arbitrary value for the vapor pressure, 10-7 MPa, and used experimental data of molten polymer densities. As expected, the parameters a and b are at least slightly dependent on the molecular weight. Orbey and Sandler [57] used the Flory-Huggins [12] expression to calculate the activity coefficient.
Orbey et al. [57] used the SRK cubic equation [31], combined with the Flory-Huggins GE model in the Huron and Vidal [6] mixing rule, to correlate the vapor-liquid equilibrium of polymer-solvent mixtures. To extend the SRK equation for pure polymers, suitable critical constants were selected based on available information about long-chain hydrocarbons. For applications in mixtures, the single binary interaction parameter from the Flory-Huggins [12] model was obtained from activity coefficient data at infinite dilution, without using any experimental data for vapor-liquid equilibrium. The results showed that this approach, i.e. an equation of state coupled with mixing rules which incorporate GE, may represent the vapor-liquid equilibrium of the polymer-solvent with good accuracy. It was also observed that the binary interaction parameter from Flory-Huggins [12] is much less dependent on temperature and composition when the Flory-Huggins model is coupled with the SRK then when it is used directly in the activity coefficient model.
An equation of state based on ASOG (Analytical Solution Of Groups), called PRASOG (Peng-Robinson-ASOG), was developed by Tochigi [58] to predict the vapor-liquid equilibrium of non-polymeric and polymeric solutions. It makes use of the zero-pressure GE mixing rule, hence is consistent with the second virial coefficient dependence, in order to compute the mixture parameters of the Peng-Robinson equation of state and it predicts GE by the ASOG method. To apply PRASOG to polymer solutions, the PRASOG-FV (PRASOG Free Volume) has been proposed calculating GE from ASOG-FV, and then the vapor-liquid equilibrium in polyisobutylene solutions is predicted.
Tochigi et al. [59] extended the application of PRASOG, presented by Tochigi [58] for other polymer solutions. Nine binary systems were investigated in a temperature range from 298.15 K to 361.25 K, with six solvents (benzene, toluene, acetone, methyl ethyl ketone, ethyl acetate, propyl acetate) and four polymers (polystyrene, polyethylene oxide, polypropylene oxide, polyvinyl acetate). When using PRASOG-FV, the accuracy achieved was comparable to those of ASOG-PV and UNIFAC-FV.
Kang et al. [60] performed a comparative study for polymers and associating systems using the Peng-Robinson equation with the Wong-Sandler mixing rule (PR-WS), SAFT equation and NLF-HB (Non-Random Lattice Fluid Theory with Hydrogen Bonding) equation. The comparison was based on the prediction accuracy of the bubble point pressure, the molar fraction in vapor phase and the activity of the component in the liquid phase. Several factors were considered for comparison: model evaluation through their modeling errors, characteristics of the estimated parameters and computational issues. In general, when using appropriate parameters, all models provided good results when far away from critical regions, except in the case of non-polar polymers dissolved in non-associating polar solvents.
An evaluation of vapor-liquid equilibrium in polymer-solvent systems with cubic equation of state was performed by Louli and Tassios [61]. In this study the parameters a and b of PR equation were fitted from PVT (Pressure-Temperature-Volume) data of pure polymers, assuming that the ratio parameters/(molecular weight) are independent from the molecular weight. Several polymer-solvent systems were evaluated using three different mixing rules, all requiring only one adjustable parameter: vdW [34], ZM (Zhong and Masuoka) [11] and MHV1 [48]. The ZM rule gave the best results and the same performance was achieved when extrapolating predictions regarding temperature and molecular weight.
Using the PRSV cubic equation of state, Haghtalab and Espanani [62] studied the vapor-liquid equilibrium in polymer binary solutions with different molecular weights and temperatures. The parameters of the cubic equation of state were calculated using the Wong-Sandler mixing rule [8] incorporating the FH-NRTL-NRF (Flory-Huggins Non-Random Two Liquid Non-Random-Factor) excess Gibbs free energy model. The total vapor pressure of the polymer solutions was correlated using two adjustable energy parameters as functions of temperature with six constants for the entire temperature range. The modeling results showed very good agreement with the experimental data of several binary polymer solutions.
Voutsas et al. [63] showed that the UMR rule with the binary interaction parameters of the original UNIFAC model, independent of temperature, leads to poor predictions of vapor-liquid equilibrium at high temperatures and poor predictions for the heat of mixing. For this reason, Voutsas et al. [63] used the model proposed by Hansen et al. [64], which consider the binary interaction parameters temperature dependent, overcoming the drawbacks mentioned before. The performance of the new model was evaluated for the prediction of heat of mixing and also vapor-liquid, liquid-liquid and solid-gas equilibria in binary and multicomponent systems with different degrees of non-ideality and asymmetry, including polymer-solvent systems, showing good results.
The SRK and the Sanchez and Lacombe (SL) equations of state were applied by Costa et al. [65]-[66] to the flash simulation in a low-pressure separator (LPS) and also in a high-presure separator (HPS) in an industrial polyethylene facility (specifically, 8 low-density polyethylene resins and 25 linear low-density polyethylene resins were investigated). Three mixing rules were used in the SRK equation: van der Waals (vdW) one-fluid, Wong-Sandler and LCVM. The latter two mixing rules incorporate the Bogdanic and Vidal activity coefficient model [67]. All these models involve two adjustable parameters. The results for the LPS separator indicate that SL and SRK-vdW are the best models. The results for the HPS indicate that the SL is the best model. The SRK-LCVM and SRK-WS are unable to describe the HPS overhead composition.
Costa et al. [68] modeled the SLE in polyethylene and polypropylene solutions using SRK and PC-SAFT (Perturbed-Chain SAFT) equations of state. Two mixing rules were coupled with SRK: the Wong-Sandler rule and the LCVM rule, both considering the activity coefficient model from Bogdanic and Vidal [67]. The models were evaluated using SLE data at atmospheric and high pressure, obtained from literature. The binary interaction parameters of SRK and PC-SAFT equations of state were estimated to describe the experimental behavior of 20 different polymer-solvent systems at atmospheric pressure and 31 other polymer-solvent systems at high pressure better. The SRK-LCVM model showed the best performance with the SLE atmospheric data, although when evaluating equations predictive ability, PC-SAFT showed advantages as it is not easy to generate a good correlation of the GE (SRK-LCVM) parameter with temperature, whereas the PC-SAFT parameter correlated very well with temperature for all the systems analyzed. In high pressure conditions, interaction parameter correlations as a function of molecular weight and polymer concentration were developed for PC-SAFT and SRK-LCVM (SRK-WS model was not appropriate for the high pressure calculations carried out). PC-SAFT provided the best performance with excellent results, showing suitable interpolating and extrapolating (predictive ability) features.
3. Lattice models
In the second group of models for calculating the equilibrium constant, it is assumed that the molecules have one or more segments, and that the partition function of the system can be obtained by counting the number of possible configurations when these segments are arranged in hypothetical cells that resemble the crystal lattice of a solid. The thermodynamic functions can be calculated using the formalism of statistical mechanics. These crystal lattices can be considered compressible or incompressible. Incompressible lattices are generally used to model liquids at low pressures, a condition in which the concept of activity coefficient is used. The most widely used activity coefficient models are based on this formalism, e.g. [12], [69]-[71]. For compressible lattices, equations of state based on lattice models result. An example of such models is the lattice fluid theory [13], [72].
The lattice model, originally developed to describe the liquid phase, considers the liquid in a quasi-crystalline state, in which the molecules do not translate fully chaotically as in a gas, but each one tends to stay in a small region, a more or less fixed position in space, around which it vibrates back and forth. The quasi-crystalline picture of the liquid state supposes that the molecules are regularly arranged in space as in a lattice, and therefore models for liquid and liquid mixtures are called lattice models. Molecular considerations suggest that deviations from ideal behavior in liquid solutions are mainly due to the following effects: first, the attraction forces between unlike molecules are quantitatively different from those between alike molecules, giving rise to a nonzero enthalpy of mixing; second, if the molecules differ significantly in size or shape, the molecular arrangement in the mixture can be appreciably different from that for pure liquids, resulting in a non-ideal entropy of mixing; finally, in binary mixtures, if the attraction forces in one among the three possible interaction pairs are much stronger (or much weaker) than the other two pairs, there will be some preferred orientation of the molecules in the mixture what, in extreme cases, can lead to instability or incomplete miscibility [34].
The most simple lattice model considers a mixture of two liquids whose molecules are small, symmetrically spherical and similar in size (the ratio of their sizes is close to one). This model assumes that the molecules of each pure liquid are regularly arranged and equidistant from each other in the lattice. The molecular movement is limited to vibrations around equilibrium positions and is not affected by the mixing process. This model also assumes that for a fixed temperature the lattice spacing in both pure liquids and in the mixture are the same, regardless of composition (excess volume is null). The first step is to obtain an expression for the potential energy of a pure liquid or a mixture, assuming that the potential energy is pair-to-pair additive for every pair of molecules and that only the nearest neighbors are considered in this sum. This means that the potential energy of a large number of molecules in the lattice is given by the sum of the potential energy of all pairs of molecules situated immediately next to each other. Therefore, considering the excess volume and the excess entropy as null, the excess Gibbs free energy for the two-suffix Margules model can be obtained from the total potential energy in the lattice [34].
This lattice model is particularly useful for describing polymeric solutions in liquid solvents. Flory and Huggins [34] independently developed a theory for polymeric solutions which have formed the foundation of most subsequent developments in the last fifty years. In the Flory-Huggins [12] model the system polymer-solvent is modeled as a lattice structure, where each site is occupied by a molecule of solvent or a polymer segment. The combinatorial contributions to the thermodynamic mixing functions are calculated from the number of possible arrangements of the polymer molecules and solvent in the lattice. These combinatorial contributions correspond to the entropy of mixing. The combinatorial contributions of Flory-Huggins [12] model implicitly state that the mixing volume and the enthalpy of mixing are zero. The number of possible molecular arrangments leads to the well-known Flory-Huggins expression for the entropy of mixing [34]. The Flory-Huggins theory and its variations have been successful in correlating and/or predicting the UCST behaviour and loop phase behavior. Variations of this theory include making the interaction parameter of the enthalpy of mixing dependent on composition and/or temperature. In this context, the works of Cheluget et al. [73] and Bae et al. [74] may be cited. The UCST behavior, i.e. transition from two-phase to one phase, takes place as a result of energetic effects. The loop behavior normally occurs when specific interactions such as hydrogen bonds take place. Compressibility of a polymeric solution is not the key issue therefore it can be modeled by an incompressible lattice theory. As mentioned above, however, polymeric solutions also exhibit LCST behavior which occurs when polymer and solvent molecules experience different volumetric expansions. For these systemsa theory that takes into account the effects of compressibility is required. Significant work has been done to extend the Flory-Huggins theory for such systems by the inclusion of vacant sites (holes) in the lattice, which may vary to enable compressible lattice representation. Within this approach the models of Kleintjens and Koningveld [14] and Panayiotou and Vera [15] may be cited but the Sanchez and Lacombe model [13] should be highlighted given its wide application in polymeric systems.
3.1. Sanchez and Lacombe (SL) equation
The lattice fluid theory for liquid and gaseous mixtures developed by Sanchez and Lacombe [13], [75] is formally similar to the Flory-Huggins theory. However, the essential and important difference is that the Sanchez and Lacombe theory introduces holes to account for variations in compressibility and density, i.e. the mixture density may vary by increasing the fraction of holes in the lattice. The Sanchez and Lacombe equation uses a random mixing expression for the attractive energy term. Random mixture means that the composition everywhere in the solution equals the total composition, i.e. there are no effects of local composition. The energy of the lattice depends only on nearest neighbors interactions. For a pure component the only non-zero interaction energy corresponds to mer-mer pair interaction. The interaction energies of types mer-hole and hole-hole are zero. The Sanchez and Lacombe equation assumes a random mixture of holes and mers. Therefore, the number of mer-mer nearest neighbors is proportional to the probability of finding two neighboring mers in the system. The Sanchez and Lacombe EOS [13] is given by:
ρ˜2+P˜+T˜⋅[ln(1−ρ˜)+(1−1r)⋅ρ˜]=0E11
\n\t\t\t\t
where:
T˜=TT*P˜=PP*
ρ˜=ρρ*E12
\n\t\t\t\tT*=ε*kP*=ε*ν*
ρ*=MWr⋅ν*E13
\n\t\t\t\t
and T is the absolute temperature, P is the pressure, ρ is the density, MW is the molecular weight, k is the Boltzmann constant, and r, ε*, and v* are pure component parameters related to the corresponding scale factors T*, P* and ρ*, respectively. These scale factors are independent of the molecular size of the polymer. For mixtures, the model parameters become composition dependent through the following mixing rules:
νmix*=∑i∑jϕi⋅ϕj⋅νij*E14
\n\t\t\t\t
εmix*=1νmix*⋅∑i∑jϕi⋅ϕj⋅εij*⋅νij*E15
\n\t\t\t\t
1rmix=∑jϕjrjE16
\n\t\t\t\t
where the segment fraction of component i, φi, is calculated as a function of the weight fraction wi, given by:
ϕi=wiρi*⋅νi*∑j(wjρj*⋅νj*)E17
\n\t\t\t\t
The cross parameters are:
νij*=12⋅[νii*+νjj*]⋅(1−lij)E18
\n\t\t\t\t
εij*=εii*⋅εjj*⋅(1−kij)E19
\n\t\t\t\t
where lij and kij are binary interaction parameters.
Thus, the Sanchez and Lacombe equation obtains the PVT properties of pure component assuming that it is broken into parts or mers which are placed on a lattice and can interact with intermolecular potential. In order to calculate the density of the system correctly, an appropriate number of holes are also placed at specific sites in the lattice. In principle, this equation of state is appropriate to describe the thermodynamic properties of fluids in a wide range of conditions, from normal liquid or gaseous state to supercritical fluid at high temperatures and pressures. A real fluid is characterized by three molecular parameters or by three equation of state parameters, which must be known if the equation of state is to be used. In fact these parameters can be determined through any configurational thermodynamic property obtained experimentally. Vapor pressure data though, are particularly useful for solvents because they are readily available for a wide variety of fluids. For polymers, these characteristic parameters can be estimated by experimental data of the liquid density over a wide range of pressures and temperatures, using for example a numerical procedure based on non-linear least squares. When few PVT data are available, the parameters can be estimated from experimental values of density, thermal expansion coefficient and compressibility factor at ambient temperature and pressure.
Gauter and Heidemann [18] proposed a procedure to obtain parameters of the pure solvent from the critical temperature, critical pressure and acentric factor, as usually done with cubic equations of state. The polymer parameters were determined through PVT data regression.
Gauter and Heidemann [76] suggested that the polymer\'s parameters can be adjusted to simultaneously reproduce cloud-point data of polymer-solvent equilibrium and PVT data. They managed to obtain parameters for the Sanchez and Lacombe equation for polyethylene that could be applied for different samples, regardless of molecular weight and molecular weight distribution. The degree of branching and/or the presence of comonomers may also influence the parameters of the polymer.
3.2. Modeling polymeric systems using the Sanchez and Lacombe equation
Although there are few references in the literature for vapor-liquid equilibrium (e.g. [3], [77]) and one using industrial plant data [65], a large number of SL EOS evaluations have been reported in the literature regarding liquid-liquid equilibrium.
Kiran et al. [16] evaluated the efficiency of the Sanchez and Lacombe equation in predicting the high pressure phase behavior of varying molecular weight (16400, 108000 and 420000) polyethylene solutions in n-pentane and in binary solvents [(n-pentane)-(carbon dioxide)]. It was shown that concentration and pressure variations are correctly predicted if the characteristic temperature of the polymer is suitable adjusted using data from a sample with a specific molecular weight. The model also correctly predicts the behavior shift (solvent dependent) from LCST to UCST as the amount of carbon dioxide in solvent [(n-pentane)-(carbon dioxide)] increases.
Xiong and Kiran [78] modeled ternary systems of [polyethylene-(n-pentane)-(carbon dioxide)] using the Sanchez and Lacombe equation. Phase diagrams were generated for pressures up to 300 MPa and temperatures up to 460 K. The results show that the system can exhibit two or three phases depending on the pressure. At a given temperature, the three phase region disappears with increasing pressure. Depending on the pressure, the calculations also predict the displacements observed experimentally from LSCT to UCST, which are illustrated in ternary diagrams as displacements of the phase boundaries with temperature. It was shown that for polymer samples with high molecular weight, ternary calculations can be simplified by assuming that the polymer-poor phase is essentially free of polymer. Xiong and Kiran [79]-[80] investigated polyethylene binary systems with n-butane, n-pentane and CO2.
Koak and Heidemann [17] studied the phase behavior of polymer-solvent systems under conditions close to the vapor pressure curve of the solvent where the vapor-liquid-liquid equilibrium can occur. Experimental data of High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) in n-hexane were modeled using the following equations: Sanchez and Lacombe, Kleintjens and Koningsfeld [14] and the Perturbed Hard-Sphere-Chain (PHSC) [81]. The phenomena of interest include the LCST behavior and the liquid solvent, vapor solvent and polymer three-phase equilibrium. All the three models examined provided a reasonable representation of the cloud-point for the system HDPE and n-hexane along the three-phase line in the conditions investigated. Phoenix and Heidemann [82] used the SL EOS to develop an algorithm to determine the cloud and shadow point curves of polydisperse polymer/solvent systems using continuous thermodynamics to represent the polymer.
Wang et al. [83] compared the performance of the Group Contribution Lattice Fluid equation of state (GCLF) with the Sanchez and Lacombe equation for liquid-liquid equilibrium data in polymer-solvent systems. The authors showed that both equations of state are able to predict the UCST and LCST behaviors, simultaneous or otherwise, as well as the hourglass shape behavior in which there is no LCST or UCST. The systems studied were: (acetic acid)-dodecane, polyisobutylene-(n-pentane), polyethylene-(n-hexane), polystyrene-(n-hexane), polyisobutylene-(n-pentane) and polystyrene-acetone. In all cases the GCLF equation performed better than the SL equation. The GCLF equation showed good sensitivity for the polymer molecular weight, but failed to correctly describe the sensitivity regarding the pressure. The best performance of the GCLF equation was attributed to the simultaneous use of the saturated steam and liquid properties in the regression of group parameters for the equation.
The applicability of equations of state for the modeling and simulation of phase equilibria in polymer production processes is investigated by Orbey et al. [57]. A two-stage flash separation of unreacted ethylene from polyethylene, which mimics the separation process in the production of LDPE, is used as a prototype for the simulation, where three equations of state (SAFT, SL and SRK-MHV1-FH) are compared when correlating volumetric, calorimetric and vapor-liquid phase equilibrium properties for ethylene and LDPE. Each equation of state has some unique characteristics that influence the modeling results of the pure components as well as the mixtures. When extended to binary mixtures of ethylene with polyethylene, the results show that the three equations can satisfactorily fit the data, although the best results are obtained with the SRK equation. As expected, all models exhibit less satisfactory results when no binary parameter is fitted to the data. For SRK and SAFT equations, only one binary parameter significantly affected the model performance. On the other hand, the authors observed that in the SL equation the second binary interaction parameter can also make a significant difference.
Koak et al. [84] studied the high pressure phase behavior of some industrially important polymer systems: polyethylene-ethylene and polybutene-(1-butene). New experimental data were presented for the system polybutene-(1-butene) in the pressure range from (9 to 17) MPa and in the temperature range from (405 to 447) K. The range of polymer concentration, expressed as polymer weight percent, ranged from 0.31 to 16.65. The system showed LCST behavior. Data from polybutene-(1-butene) and polyethylene-ethylene mixtures, presented by de Loos et al. [85], were modeled using the SAFT and the SL equations. The phase equilibrium calculations were carried out for two scenarios: i) the polymer is considered monodisperse ii) the polymer polydispersity is taken into account, characterizing the polymer through pseudo-components. The polymer polydispersity has a significant effect on the phase behavior of the system under investigation. The results show that, although the model is suitable for polyethylene-ethylene, interaction parameters are required, which depend on the system and on the temperature. Additionally, polymer polydispersity has a significant effect on the phase behavior of the mixture, even for reasonably monodisperse samples. The modeling effort for the system polybutene-(1-butene) showed that, if the models are used in their standard forms, alternative strategies are needed to estimate the polymer parameters so that correlation and/or reasonable prediction of the phase behavior of the polymer solution can be obtained.
In order to verify if a single set of parameters can be used to obtain useful correlations for different polyethylene resins with different solvents, Gauter and Heidemann [76] used the Sanchez and Lacombe equation to model the cloud point isotherms for two systems of ethylene and polyethylene and a system of polyethylene in n-hexane. The three polyethylene samples examined differ considerably in average molecular weight and polydispersity. The polymer parameters were obtained by adjusting volumetric data of pure polyethylene, using an additional volume displacement coefficient. The results showed that the cloud point behavior of the polymer-solvent equilibrium for a variety of polymers and solvents can be correlated with the same set of polymer parameters. The required interaction parameters are relatively small in magnitude. Unfortunately, the calculated results are extremely sensitive to these numbers, even to the third decimal place. In addition, the temperature dependence, although slight, is essential to obtain a reasonable data fit.
Trumpi et al. [86] measured cloud point data for a binary system of monodisperse LDPE and ethylene. The cloud points were measured between (395 and 440) K and pressures up to 175 MPa. The experimental data were modeled with the SL equation. The LDPE parameters were obtained from a sequence of non-linear regression analysis based on experimental data for both cloud point and PVT data for polyethylene melt. The results show that the SL equation fits the experimental data well for a wide range of temperatures, pressures and compositions. For diluted mass fractions, on the other hand, the data fit is less accurate. The experimental uncertainty in this region is higher than for polymer-rich mixtures, however, it is smaller than the deviations between model prediction and experimental data. The difference in cloud point pressures between calculated and experimental data increases at the lowest polymer mass fractions.
Krenz et al. [19] used the technique described by Trumpi et al. [86] to adjust the SL parameters to fit both polyethylene-solvent cloud points and polyethylene density data. The molar mass distribution of the various polyethylene samples were represented by a number of pseudocomponents ranging from 7 to 16. When correlating the cloud points of polyethylene in a variety of solvents, it seemed that there was a unique set of polyethylene parameters that would work for all mixtures. The polyethylene energy parameters, εi, could also be adjusted to fit the critical point of a polyethylene-solvent mixture and still provide an accurate representation of the cloud points. The polyethylene parameters, derived from fitting the critical point of the mixture, were more consistent than those found from the cloud points alone [87].
The effect of using different molar mass distributions to represent the same polymer on the HDPE-ethylene cloud points, was examined by Krenz et al. [88]. The HDPE parameters were taken from Krenz et al. [19]. Log-normal and gamma distributions approximated by nine pseudocomponents were used to match the reported average molar masses. The amount of branching was not known for these HDPE samples but it was believed to be reflected in the different HDPE-ethylene binary interaction parameters [87].
Cloud points for three hydrogenated PolyButaDiene (hPBD)-(n-hexane) mixtures were calculated using the SL equation by Schnell et al. [89] and compared to experimental measurements. The SL parameters were directly regressed from pure component PVT data and the hPBD samples were assumed to be monodisperse. The cloud point calculations are predictive because no BIP was used.
Correlation and prediction of miscibility involving binary blends of a variety of homopolymers [polypropylene, polybutadiene, polyisoprene, poly(methyl methacrylate), polystyrene, among others] were investigated by Voutsas et al. [90] considering three models: EFV-UNIFAC [91], PR and SL. The performances were evaluated in terms of i) liquid-liquid equilibrium correlation in polymer blends ii) prediction of the effect of polymer molecular weight by using interaction parameters obtained from a pair of molecular weights iii) prediction of the effect of the system pressure on miscibility using interaction parameters obtained from miscibility data at low pressures. All the experimental data used correspond to those of monodisperse polymers. Satisfactory correlation results were obtained with all models but their quality depended on whether the interaction parameters were temperature dependent or not. A satisfactory prediction of the effect of polymer molecular weight on the blend was obtained only with the EFV-UNIFAC model and the SL equation. The SL model showed the best performance and also successfully predicted the effect of pressure on the solution critical temperature, albeit with a poorer prediction of the composition at this temperature.
Chen et al. [92] set out to measure important phase equilibria for the industrial production of LLDPE (Linear LDPE) using metallocene catalyst technology. The phase equilibria for (n-hexane)-polyethylene and ethylene-(n-hexane)-polyethylene mixtures were measured from (373.2 to 473.2) K at pressures up to 20 MPa. Approximate monodisperse polymers and their mixtures were used to investigate the effect of polymer molecular weight on phase behavior. All the systems exhibit liquid-liquid equilibrium with UCST. The SL equation was used to correlate the phase behavior of these systems, and the effect of adding supercritical ethylene provided quantitative agreement with experimental equilibrium data. The Hosemann-Schramek function [33] provided a suitable characterization of the molecular weight distribution used in some calculations.
Nagy et al. [93] measured cloud point, bubble point and liquid-liquid-vapor bubble point data for binary LLDPE-(n-hexane) and ternary LLDPE-(n-hexane)-ethylene systems. Experimental data were collected in the temperature range of (400 to 500) K at pressures up to 14 MPa. Experimental data of LLDPE-ethylene and LLDPE-hexane were modeled with a modified SL equation [94]. The LLDPE parameters were obtained by performing a sequence of non-linear regression analyses from PVT data of molten polyethylene and experimental cloud point data of the LLDPE-(n-hexane) and LLDPE-(ethylene) systems. From this information and from the adjustment of the SL equation for (n-hexane)-ethylene data, the phase behavior of the ternary system LLDPE-(n-hexane)-ethylene could be predicted. Using this procedure, the effect of the ethylene concentration on the cloud point pressure is slightly overestimated. Therefore, the BIP of the pair LLDPE-ethylene was fitted to the cloud point data of the LLDPE-hexane-ethylene triplet. The SL equation provided a good description of the cloud point curve and an almost quantitative prediction of the ternary bubble point and phase-boundary curves of the vapor-liquid-liquid equilibrium.
One or more polyethylene samples with varying molecular configurations can be mixed to produce a blend with different physical characteristics. Krenz and Heidemann [95] used the MSL (Modified Sanchez Lacombe) equation [96] to calculate the cloud points of a blend of two polydisperse LLDPE resins in a hydrocarbon solvent. The MSL equation is a lattice equation that can be used to calculate polydisperse polymer solutions. The considered polyethylene resins were hPBD type. The cloud points were compared with experimental data available for the systems (hPBD-1)-(hPBD-2)-(n-hexane) and (hPBD-3)-(hPBD-4)-(n-pentane). The four hPBD samples have different molecular weight distributions, although the other properties of the mixture are unknown (degree, type and frequency of branching in the polyethylene molecule). The temperature dependent BIP for LLDPE-hydrocarbon were previously fitted to binary mixture cloud points.
Kanellopoulos et al. [97] used the SL equation to calculate the solubility of α-olefins in polyolefins over a wide range of temperatures and pressures. The characteristic parameters of the pure components (T*, P*, ρ*) were estimated using a dynamic molecular procedure: using commercial software, each selected species (i.e. penetrating molecules and the polymer chain) had its molecular architecture firstly built and its geometry optimized by minimizing the system energy. For all the binary systems investigated, just a single BIP between the penetrating molecules and the polymer chains was estimated. The binary parameter value depends on the penetrating molecule, the comonomer, the polymer crystallinity, as well as the selected experimental conditions (temperature and pressure). The calculated theoretical solubility showed excellent agreement with the experimental measurements and demonstrated the ability of the SL equation to predict the solubility of olefins in semicrystalline α-polyolefins.
Nagy et al. [98] measured equilibrium data at high pressure for the LLDPE-isohexane system which exhibits LCST behavior. The following measurements were performed with weight fractions of polymers ranging from 0 to 0.25, at temperatures of (380-500) K and a pressure of 12 MPa: cloud point data, bubble points and three-phase liquid-liquid-vapor bubble points. The data were modeled using the Sanchez and Lacombe equation.
4. Perturbation theory
Equations of state based on molecular structures not only provide a useful thermodynamic basis for deriving chemical potentials or fugacities (necessary for phase equilibrium simulation) but they can also help separate and quantify the effects of molecular structure and interactions on global properties and phase behavior. Examples of these effects are the molecular size and shape (e.g. chain length and chain branch), energy of association (e.g. hydrogen bonding), average field energy (e.g. dispersion and induction). Ideally, a single equation of state should incorporate all these effects [26].
Much progress has been made in the development of molecular theories of associative solutions and those containing macromolecules. The essence of this progress is the use of statistical mechanics methods, such as perturbation theory, to correlate the molecular properties with the macroscopic properties of the system under study. In perturbation models, a simple system is initially used as reference, which should characterize the essential aspects of the system and it is usually obtained using a theory with well-defined assumptions. The difference between the actual and ideal system (i.e. the reference system) is then computed using some correction terms, called perturbation terms, which are often based on semi-empirical models. The complexity and magnitude of these perturbations depend on the degree of accuracy with which the reference term, representing the ideal system, can be specified.
With this method, Beret and Prausnitz [99] used the results of Carnahan and Starling [100] for hard spheres, which can be characterized by square well potential to describe the reference state, and proposed the so-called Perturbed Hard-Chain Theory (PHCT). A further refinement, the Perturbed Asinotropic Chain Theory (PACT), was made by Vilmalchand and Donohue [101] and Vilmalchand et al. [102]. The PACT equation of state takes into account the effects of different molecular sizes, shape and intermolecular forces, including anisotropic dipole and quadrupole forces. The calculations from Vimalchand et al. [102] show that the explicit inclusion of multipolar forces can predict the properties of highly non-ideal mixtures with reasonable accuracy, without the use of binary interaction parameters. However, for pure fluids, the prediction behavior of the PACT equation of state is similar to other comparable equations of state. Kim et al. [103] developed a Simplified version of the PHCT equation (SPHCT), replacing the attractive term of the PHCT equation with a simpler theoretical expression. This simpler equation has been used in a large number of applications, including mixtures of molecules which greatly differ in size. Ikonomou and Donohue [104] derived the Associated PACT equation (APACT). This equation takes into account isotropic repulsive and attractive interactions, anisotropic interactions due to the dipole and quadrupole moments of molecules and hydrogen bonding, and it can predict the thermodynamic properties of associative pure components as well as associative multicomponent mixtures.
4.1. SAFT equation
More recently, a new model in the family of perturbation models was developed by Chapman et al. [24]-[25] and by Huang and Radoz [26]. This model is known as SAFT (Statistical Associating Fluid Theory) and is based on the TPT (Thermodynamic Perturbation Theory) work from Wertheim who presented a series of papers [20]-[23] in which a coherent statistical mechnical theory of associating fluids was proposed, expanding the Helmholtz free energy in a series of integrals of molecular distribution function and potential association. Here molecules are treated as different species according to the number of bonded associating sites, and separate singlet densities are defined for each possible bonding state of a molecule. Chapman et al. [24]-[25] derived the expression for the Helmholtz free energy of this new reference fluid and compared the results to Monte-Carlo based simulations, obtaining satisfactory results. Huang and Radoz applied the SAFT theory to a number of real pure compounds in 1990 (also known as CK-SAFT, because they applied a different dispersion term proposed by Chen and Kreglewski [5]) [26] and proposed an extension to mixtures in 1991 [27], concluding that the equation is suitable for most of the components/systems investigated.
The essence of the SAFT equation is to use a reference system which incorporates the chain length (molecular size and shape) and the molecular association, rather than the reference fluid with hard (rigid) spheres, which is much simpler. It is expected that the effects due to other types of intermolecular forces (dispersion, induction, among others) are weaker, and therefore, considered through a perturbation term. Thus, it is expected that this theory is able to describe most real fluids, including polymers and polar fluids. In the SAFT model, the molecules are interpreted as a mixture of spherical segments of equal size, interacting according to a square-well potential. In addition, two types of bonds between these spheres can occur: covalent bonds to form chains and association bonds for specific interactions [26], [25].
When developing the equation of state, it is assumed that the molecules are formed from segments of rigid spheres, according to the diagram in Figure 2. Initially, the fluid is composed only of rigid spheres of equal size, and only the effect of rigid spheres are considered. The reference fluid consists of rigid spheres forming chains (tetramers) via covalent bonds. Hydrogen bonds between terminal sites of different chains result in oligomer chains. The last step takes into account weak dispersion forces.
The equation is derived in terms of the residual Helmholtz free energyares:
ares(T,ρ)R⋅T=atotal(T,ρ)R⋅T−aideal(T,ρ)R⋅TE20
\n\t\t\t\t
where T is the temperature and\n\t\t\t\t\t is the density of the system. The residual Helmholtz free energy ares is expressed with regard to the Helmholtz free energy of an ideal gas aideal at the same T and . If the Helmholtz free energy of a fluid is known, all other properties such as pressure, chemical potential, among others, can be calculated using basic thermodynamic equations.
Figure 2.
Illustrative Picture of Molecule Formation in the Theory Underlying the SAFT Model [105].
Formation of rigid spheres (ahs) and chains (achain), as well as association (aassoc) and dispersion (attraction, adisp) interactions, all contribute to the residual Helmholtz free energy:
For a pure fluid, the formation of one mol of each chain, consisting of m segments, requires m moles of hard sphere. For the hard-sphere term ahs, the Carnahan-Starling [100] expression is used. The parameters of the pure components used to calculate achain are identical to those used to calculate ahs. No additional parameter is required to take into account connectivity. For the dispersion term adisp, Chapman et al. [24]-[25] used the expression originally proposed by Cotterman et al. [106] while Huang and Radosz [26] used a polynomial expression based on molecular dynamic simulation with square-well fluid. The contribution due to chain formation achain is given by Wertheim\'s association theory [20]-[23] where the association bonds are replaced by chain formation covalent bonds, as well as the association term aassoc. The number of association sites in a single molecule is unlimited, however, it must be specified. Wertheim\'s contribution terms (chain and association) are essentially unchanged in the several versions of SAFT.
4.2. PC-SAFT equation
Gross and Sadowski [28]-[29] developed a modification to the SAFT equation referred to as PC-SAFT (Perturbed-Chain SAFT). In the structure of the PC-SAFT equation, molecules are assumed to be chains of spherical segments, freely linked and exhibiting attraction forces among them. The repulsive interactions are described by an expression of rigid chain (hard sphere + chain) developed by Chapman et al. [107], which is the same as used in the SAFT equation of state. The attraction interactions are in turn divided into dispersion interactions and a contribution due to association. Figure 2 illustrates the formation of a molecule according to the PC-SAFT theory. Earlier versions of SAFT assume that the dispersive interactions of molecule chains are the same as those of spherical molecules. Further investigation, however, demonstrates that equations of state may be improved when the dependence on chain length is considered in the dispersive interactions. A new version, which explicitly takes into account this dependence, has been developed, leading to the PC-SAFT equation. The dispersion term was obtained by extending Barker and Henderson\'s [108] theory for chain molecules. This theory considers that a chain segment is connected to neighboring segments. It also considers the effect of the nearest neighbor segments in segment interactions.
When the systems under investigation do not contain associative fluids, the term that takes into account such interactions can be ignored.
In the literature, pure component parameters for various substances can be found, either small molecules or macromolecules. The model is already available in commercial software.
4.3. Other modifications of the SAFT equation
Although the PC-SAFT equation provides excellent results when simulating polymeric systems, a brief survey of other modifications involving the original form of the SAFT equation is given in this section. Four comprehensive reviews of the development and application of the various types of SAFT have appeared recently [1], [2], [105], [109].
Instead of using the hard sphere fluid as reference, Blas and Veja [110] used the Lennard-Jones fluid, leading to the soft-SAFT equation. The chain and association terms remained similar to those in the original SAFT formulation. The soft-SAFT equation was successfully applied to pure n-alkanes, 1-alkenes, 1-alcohols and binary and ternary mixtures of n-alkanes including the critical region. In the case of mixtures, two binary parameters should be used even for mixtures of n-alkanes.
Another version of the SAFT equation is the SAFT-VR (SAFT Variable Range) equation [111]-[114]. The differences between SAFT-VR and PC-SAFT arise from the specific treatment of the attractive interactions between segments and the choice of the reference fluid. The SAFT-VR takes as reference the hard-sphere fluid, while PC-SAFT takes the hard-sphere-chain fluid. The SAFT-VR equation describes a fluid of associating molecules with the chain segments interacting through attractive forces of variable range (VR). In SAFT-VR a reference system with interacting monomers is used to build the molecule.
The Simplified PC-SAFT (sPC-SAFT) equation [30], [114], [115] is not in fact a new equation of state, rather it is a simplified version of the original PC-SAFT regarding mixing rules. Therefore, the parameters of the pure components of the original and simplified PC-SAFT are the same. The sPC-SAFT equation assumes that all segments in the mixture have the same average diameter which provides a volume fraction of the mixture which is identical to the actual mixture. This simplified version is simpler to implement and improves computational performance compared to the original PC-SAFT with negligible differences in accuracy.
4.4. Polymeric systems modeling using the SAFT equation and its modifications
This section presents a brief review of studies that used the SAFT equations of state and its modifications for the modeling of polymeric systems. A crucial aspect for the success of modeling with SAFT and PC-SAFT equations is the correct selection of the parameters of the pure components. In general, the estimation of these parameters may not be easy for macromolecular compounds [116]. Moreover, the fit to experimental data through the estimation of binary interaction parameter kij is another important point for successful modeling. In this sense some works in which the SAFT and PC-SAFT equations are used for polymer solutions will be discussed, highlighting the results achieved.
From the work of Chapman et al. [24]-[25] and Huang and Radosz [26] several applications of the SAFT model can be found in the literature. Table 1 presents a summary of some applications of the SAFT model for systems consisting of homopolymers and copolymers. A more detailed review of the application of SAFT model to polymeric systems can be found in [116] and [2].
Chen et al. [117]-[118] studied different phase transitions, from liquid to liquid-vapor (L to LV) and liquid to liquid-liquid (L to LL) in binary, ternary and quaternary systems containing the solvents ethylene, propylene, 1 -butene, 1-hexene, n-hexane and methylcyclopentane, and Poly(Ethylene-co-Propylene) (PEP). SAFT modeling was used for PEP of varying molecular weights at low and moderate pressures [(0-500) bar]. The BIP set was defined as an exponential function of the polymer molecular weight and adjusted by three parameters.
Xiong and Kiran [80] compared the performance of SAFT with SL to model cloud point curves in polyethylene systems with n-butane and n-pentane. The pure component parameters were taken from literature [26] and the BIP were assumed to be equal to zero. For all temperature-pressure-composition ranges, the SAFT model was superior to SL.
The approach used by Han et al. [119] was to measure the cloud point and the coexistence pressures in propylene and ethylene solutions of alternating PEP of well-controlled polydispersity directly, from monodisperse to broadly polydisperse. These experimental data were modeled using the SAFT equation. More specifically they fited the cloud point pressure for monodisperse PEP and used the model for predicting the cloud point and coexistence pressure of bimodal polydisperse PEP, without any refitting.
Pan and Radosz [120] used the SAFT equation for copolymers to describe the fluid-liquid and solid-liquid transitions in solutions of polyethylene and poly(ethylene-co-olefin-1) in propane as well as the fluid-liquid transition in solutions of polystyrene in n-hexane. The parameters of the pure solutes were estimated based solely on the molecular weight and on the structure. Copolymer SAFT EOS has been also used to model SLE in systems containing polyethylene, m-xylene and amyl acetate [121].
Polymer
Solvent
Reference
Poly(ethylene-glycol) (PEG)
Propane, nitrogen, CO2
[125]
PolyEthylene (PE)
Ethylene
[33], [84], [126], [127], [128]
Propane (also SLE)
[120], [129]
n-butane, n-pentane
[80], [130]
Toluene
[126]
Isobutane
[129]
CO2
[126], [129]
1-hexene
[127]
Cyclohexane
[122]
Hexane, heptane, octane
[123]
SLE in amyl acetate and m-xylene
[121]
PolyPropylene (PP)
1-butene, n-butane, propane, propylene
[116]
PolyButylene (PB)
1-butene
[84]
PolyStyrene (PS)
Cyclohexane, metylcyclohexane, ethylbenzene, chlorobenzene, CO2
able 1.Polymeric Systems Modeled with SAFT Equation
Dariva [116] applied the SAFT equation of state to model PolyPropylene (PP)-solvent systems at low and moderate pressures. Two non-metallocene polypropylenes (molecular weights: 476745 and 244625 g/mol; and polydispersities: 4.4 and 5.0) and a metallocene polypropylene (molecular weight: 197150 g/mol; and polydispersity: 2.9) were used. As solvents, propylene, n-propane, 1-butene and n-butane were used. The author modeled transitions L to LV, L to LL and LL to LLV using the SAFT model with and without fitting the BIP. A large amount of experimental data for these systems can be found in this work.
Horst et al. [122] studied the influence of supercritical gases in the phase behavior of the systems polystyrene-cyclohexane-gas and polyethylene-cyclohexane-gas, modeling the experimental data with the SAFT equation of state. As supercritical gases, the authors used ethane, propane and nitrogen. The experimental data were collected at moderate pressures, and the binary interaction parameters used for the adjustment were defined as quadratic functions of temperature. Good results were obtained in the modeling, although a larger model mismatch in regions of higher polymer concentration can be obseved.
Jog et al. [123] used the SAFT equation to model the liquid-liquid equilibrium of LLDPE with hexane, octane and heptanes [124]. The effects of temperature, pressure, polymer concentration and molecular weight on the phase separation were successfully evaluated. The effect of polydispersity on cloud point was also considered. Although the SAFT predictions are sensitive to the binary interaction parameters, a constant value for the binary parameters was considered to model the cloud point in varying conditions (temperature, pressure and polymer concentration) and varying solvents. The SAFT equation showed a good predictive capacity for this system.
Besides the works already mentioned, the SAFT equation of state has also been applied in more recent works as a “reference” model, its performance being compared to PC-SAFT model, as will be shown below. After the work of Gross and Sadowski [28]-[29], some applications of the PC-SAFT model may be found in literature. Table 2 presents a summary of some of the applications of the PC-SAFT model for systems consisting of homopolymers and copolymers. A more detailed review of the application of PC-SAFT model to polymeric systems can be found in [2].
Tumakaka et al. [144] used the PC-SAFT equation to model cloud point curves for polymeric systems consisting of polyolefins, using ethane, ethene, propane, propylene, n-butane, 1-butene and CO2 as solvent. Here, the good results obtained for modeling the systems LDPE-solvents and HDPE-ethylene at high pressures should be highlighted. As well as modeling systems consisting of polyolefins, polyethylene copolymers and PVA (polyvinyl acetate vinyl) systems were also modeled. Good results were obtained when representating a system consisting of polypropylene with moderate polydispersity (MW/MN = 2.2), assuming that the polypropylene was monodisperse. The monodisperse assumption was also considered for the LDPE-solvent system, whereas for the HDPE-ethylene system the polyethylene was modeled using pseudocomponents.
able 2.Polymeric Systems Modeled with PC-SAFT Equation
Gross and Sadowski [145] used the fractionation of LDPE in three pseudocomponents to represent the cloud point curves for the ethylene-LDPE system (MW/MN = 8.56). The pure component parameters for ethylene and polyethylene and one binary interaction parameter kij (interaction ethylene-LDPE) were estimated from the simultaneous regression of polymer density data and a single cloud point curve, requiring the optimization of four parameters (m, σ, ε/k, kij). Additionally, the modeling of other polymeric systems in varying equilibrium conditions was carried out for a wide range of temperatures [(75-197) °C], pressures [(0-2000) bar] and weight compositions [(0-100)%]. Polymeric systems consisting of LDPE, HDPE, PP, polybutene, polyisobutene and polystyrene were evaluated. As solvents, ethylene, n-butane, 1-butene, n-pentane and cyclohexane were used. Comparisons of results obtained from SAFT and PC-SAFT models corroborate that PC-SAFT shows the best performance.
Gross and Sadowski [145] proposed changes to the PC-SAFT equation, adding two more parameters concerning the association term. Simulations of liquid-liquid and vapor-liquid equilibrium of systems consisting of simple molecules were compared with the SAFT model. Slightly better results were observed for the PC-SAFT equation. The pure component parameters were obtained from the simultaneous regression of vapor pressure and liquid phase density data. Thus, a total of five parameters were optimized for each component i: segment diameter (σi), segment number (mi), segment energy (εi/k), association energy (εAiBi/k) and effective association volume (kAiBi). The BIP kij parameter for each system was optimized later.
Cheluget et al. [73] applied the PC-SAFT equation of state to model a flash separation system of an industrial LLDPE plant. The system under study consisted of ethylene, 1-butene, cyclohexane and polymer at 267 °C and 33 bar. The PC-SAFT parameters used in this study were estimated from binary system liquid-liquid and vapor-liquid equilibrium data obtained from literature. The authors did not re-estimate the binary interaction parameters to fit the model to the industrial data, to compare the predicted (using interaction parameters from literature) and industrial data. The lack of parameter re-estimation is the most likely cause of the significant deviations between experimental and predicted values.
Gross et al. [146] extended the PC-SAFT model [28]-[29] for copolymers. The authors modeled phase equilibrium for ethylene copolymer systems with random alternating chains in a wide range of compositions (including homopolymer) and with molecular weights ranging between 709 and 242000 g/mol. The studied polymers were composed of repeating apolar [poly([ethylene oxide]-co-propylene) and poly([ethylene oxide]-co-[butene-1])] and polar [poly([ethylene oxide]-co-[vinyl acetate]) and poly(ethylene-co-[methyl acrylate])] units. Additionally, the authors reported binary interaction parameters of phase equilibrium for systems consisting of homopolymers, whose repeating units are present in the copolymers, and varying solvents, and some of these interaction parameters also considered the composition of the copolymer. The BIP were estimated from equilibrium data of binary polymer-solvent systems.
Kouskoumvekaki et al. [147] implemented a simplified version of the PC-SAFT equation of state, developed by von Solms et al. [30] with little repercussion for polymeric systems made up of a variety of solvents, including polar, apolar and associative compounds. Pure component parameters were estimated from vapor pressure and liquid phase density data. The simplified model showed similar results to those obtained by the original PC-SAFT equation, thus presenting some advantages due to its simplicity and lower computational cost.
In the work of Tumakaka and Sadowski [148], the PC-SAFT equation was applied to pure polar compounds as well as to the vapor-liquid and liquid-liquid equilibrium of binary mixtures containing polar compounds, with low molecular weight, and polar copolymers. As the original PC-SAFT is unable to describe polar systems, the authors used an extended version of the equation for polar systems. The dipolar interactions, which contribute significantly to the total intermolecular forces, are explicitly explained in molecular theory [149]. Due to the inclusion of a term of polar interactions in the molecular theory, it was also necessary to include a pure component parameter in the term. When dealing with mixture modeling, the authors defined the binary interaction parameter either as an independent term or as a function of the comonomer molar fraction.
The sPC-SAFT equation (Simplified PC-SAFT equation) was applied by Kouskoumvekaki et al. [150] to the vapor-liquid equilibrium of binary and ternary systems of polyamide-6 with several solvents (water, caprolactam, ethyl benzene and toluene). Binary interaction parameters between polyamide-6, caprolactam and water were estimated using experimental data of the binary mixtures. The estimated parameters were used to predict and correlate the ternary mixture of polyamide-6, caprolactam and water. When optimizing the pure parameters of polyamide-6, the corresponding values of caprolactam were considered as initial estimates, and just the segment diameter needed to be adjusted using experimental data of liquid volume. The results showed that the sPC-SAFT equation is a versatile tool for modeling multi-component systems containing polyamide.
Arce and Aznar [151] modeled the systems PP-(n-pentane) and PP-(n-pentano)-CO2 using the PC-SAFT equation of state. In this work resins of low molecular weight (MW = 50400 and 95400) at moderate pressure (below 350 bar) were considered. The PC-SAFT, Sanchez-Lacombe and Peng-Robinson models were used to predict the cloud point pressures from experimental data on each system. Although all the models were able to describe the system, the PC-SAFT equation showed superior performance. For all the models, the authors used the temperature dependent BIP.
Spyriouni and Economou [152] evaluated the performance of SAFT and PC-SAFT equations of state to describe the phase behavior of mixtures containing polydisperse polymers and copolymers at high pressure. Although there are several studies showing the application of both equations in modeling the phase behavior of polymer systems, the major contribution of this work was to compare the performance of both models for a wide variety of homopolymers and copolymers. The authors concluded that both models show a similar performance in modeling the equilibrium, however, from the data presented, the PC-SAFT model shows superior results for most systems.
Pedrosa et al. [153] presented phase equilibrium calculations for polyethylene solutions with varying solvents using two different versions of the SAFT equation: PC-SAFT and the soft-SAFT. The soft-SAFT equation uses the spherical fluid of Lennard-Jones as a reference, including attractive and repulsive interactions, while the reference term in the PC-SAFT equation is the rigid sphere chain. The studies carried out by Pedrosa et al. [153], which also dealt with vapor-liquid equilibrium, showed that results with soft-SAFT equation are slightly more accurate than those obtained with PC-SAFT in some cases.
Buchelli et al. [154] investigated the performance of the PC-SAFT equation of state for modeling the HPS and LPS units downstream from a low-density polyethylene tubular reactor. Plant data were used to validate the equilibrium stage model prediction for the two gas-liquid flash separators, however, the pure component parameters and BIP of this model were obtained exclusively from experimental data published in the literature. The authors achieved good agreement between the model and LPS plant data, although the predicted solubility was not in agreement with plant-measured values for the HPS.
Guerrieri [155] investigated the behavior of polymeric systems in two industrial polyethylene plants, a LDPE plant and a HDPE/LLDPE plant, using the PC-SAFT equation. The liquid-liquid equilibrium at high pressure, observed in the reactor, and the vapor-liquid equilibrium, observed in the low-pressure separator, were investigated in the LDPE plant. For this study, 8 commercial resins were considered. In the HDPE/LLDPE plant, the vapor-liquid equilibrium in the intermediate pressure separator was investigated. Here, 25 commercial resins were investigated. The experimental data were taken from measurements and mass/energy balances available in both plants, and the modeling of binary and multicomponent systems consisting of ethylene, ethane, propylene, propane, 1-butene, cyclohexane, 1-octene and polymer was carried out.
Tihic et al. [156]-[157] developed a group contribution method to be used in PC-SAFT equation to predict their pure parameters. If pure polymer parameters in SAFT-type equations are obtained only from density data, poor predictions of phase equilibrium may result. Therefore, the group contribution method for parameter estimation was developed through the adjustment of vapor pressure and density data based on a database of 400 components of low molecular weight. The data required to calculate the phase equilibrium for polymers using this contribution method are the polymer molecular structure in terms of functional groups and a single interaction parameter for accurate mixture calculations.
Understanding the phase behavior of polymer solutions is of great theoretical and practical importance. Some work has also been done on the development of algorithms for real-time prediction of SLE in solution polymerization of polyethylene based on PC-SAFT EOS and to study the effects of monomer and polymer polydispersity in solution polymerization processes [158]. Costa et al. [68] also modeled the SLE in polyolefins (polyethylene and polypropylene) solutions using PC-SAFT EOS for a variety of different polymer-solvent systems at atmospheric and high pressure with very good results. Pressure versus temperature (P-T) isopleths can be used to determine the number of phases present at a given T, P, and overall mixture composition. The PC-SAFT EOS was applied by Costa et al. [159] to simulate the curves that describe the borderlines between several distinct regions depicted in P-T isopleths for polyethylene solutions. A new strategy was used and the simulation results show good agreement with experimental cloud point isopleths data from the literature. In order to track the operational performance of industrial reaction systems safely, a strategy to calculate the distance between a given operational point (specified through a given pressure and a given temperature) and the corresponding point in the interface, for a fixed molecular weight and a fixed polymer fraction weight, has been developed which could also be extended for real-time prediction applications.
Kleiner et al. [160] extended the association term of the PC-SAFT EOS to account for the polydispersity of the copolymer samples. This EOS was used to model cloud-point curves of the systems poly(ethene-co-acrylic acid)-ethene and poly(ethene-co-methacrylic acid)-ethene. Both copolymer composition and molecular weight distribution were varied. To account for polydispersity the concept of pseudocomponents has been applied and they were generated such as to match the molecular weight distribution. An algorithm has been developed for calculating phase equilibria of polydisperse associating copolymer-solvent systems. The PC-SAFT approach turns out to be capable of adequately modeling and even predicting the phase behavior of the polydisperse polymeric systems by using two pseudocomponents for each copolymer, but no additional adjustable parameters.
Phase-dependent BIP were computed by Costa et al. [161] with PC-SAFT EOS by correlating the flash results for both high and low pressure separators (HPS and LPS) for the industrially significant mixture ethylene-ethane-propane-propylene-LDPE. HPS and LPS data were correlated for five of eight LDPE resins. A pressure, composition and molar mass dependent binary interaction parameter model was proposed for both the vapour and liquid phase. The resulting model was able to provide a good representation of the experimental data. The polydispersity and branching of the LDPE resins, as well as the temperature, were lumped into the BIP. Clearly, the proposed phase-dependent BIP model provides a good representation of the phase behaviour in two industrial separators for very complex polydisperse mixtures.
5. Conclusions
This chapter has presented a review of equation of state models for polymers, demonstrating their increasing evolution in performance for describing phase equilibria in polymer systems. The development of EOS for polymers remains a very active area of research and it is difficult to recommend a specific EOS [2].
In general the equations of state using GE models are unable to describe high-pressure phase equilibria with the desired quality [65], thus have a more restricted application. On the other hand, their equations and mixing rules are simple, which facilitates their convergence and the obtaining of terms required for the calculation of other thermodynamic properties, e.g. mixture specific heat.
Regardless of the model used, the calculation of the parameters of the pure components for polymers is a major challenge. When using an equation of state, the need for other applications besides the description of phase equilibria and PVT data, such as the calculation of Joule-Thompson coefficient and general energy balances should be borne in mind. Despite its importance, little research has been done in this respect with polymer systems. Note that the simpler the equation and its mixing rule, the easier it will be to obtain these properties and other important thermodynamic properties.
Although the PC-SAFT equation seems to show certain superiority in performance when compared to other models, no agreement was observed in the reviewed literature on which concept and/or thermodynamic model structure is better. Thus the choice of the model remains dependent on the system and its conditions. Although many studies address polymeric systems with a high concentration of polymers in a wide range of molecular weights, very few studies can be found that model oligomers (low molecular weight polymers), despite being a relevant problem as in many cases the quality of its measurement/prediction is critical for the proper functioning of important process equipment.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank CAPES (Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior), CNPq (Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico) and FAPESB (Fundação de Amaro à Pesquisa do Estado da Bahia) for financial support.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/38907.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/38907.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/38907",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/38907",totalDownloads:3912,totalViews:657,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:16,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:6,impactScorePercentile:95,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"November 24th 2011",dateReviewed:"May 8th 2012",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"September 12th 2012",dateFinished:"September 7th 2012",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/38907",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/38907",book:{id:"2385",slug:"polymerization"},signatures:"Yuri Guerrieri, Karen Valverde Pontes, Gloria Meyberg Nunes Costa and Marcelo Embiruçu",authors:[{id:"143327",title:"Prof.",name:"Glória",middleName:null,surname:"Nunes Costa",fullName:"Glória Nunes Costa",slug:"gloria-nunes-costa",email:"gmeyberg@ufba.br",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"143330",title:"Dr.",name:"Karen",middleName:"Valverde",surname:"Pontes",fullName:"Karen Pontes",slug:"karen-pontes",email:"karenpontes@ufba.br",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"143333",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcelo",middleName:null,surname:"Embiruçu",fullName:"Marcelo Embiruçu",slug:"marcelo-embirucu",email:"embirucu@ufba.br",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"158049",title:"MSc.",name:"Yuri",middleName:null,surname:"Guerrieri",fullName:"Yuri Guerrieri",slug:"yuri-guerrieri",email:"yuri.guerrieri@ufba.br",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Cubic equations of state and mixing rules",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. van der Waals mixing rules",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Mixing rules for excess free energy (GE) models",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. Modeling polymeric systems with equations of state embodying Gibbs free energy (GE) models",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Lattice models",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.1. Sanchez and Lacombe (SL) equation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.2. Modeling polymeric systems using the Sanchez and Lacombe equation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"4. Perturbation theory",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.1. SAFT equation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.2. PC-SAFT equation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.3. Other modifications of the SAFT equation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.4. Polymeric systems modeling using the SAFT equation and its modifications",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'WeiY. S.SadusR.\n\t\t\t\t\t2000 (2000) Equations of State for the Calculation of Fluid-Phase Equilibria. AIChE J. 6\n\t\t\t\t\t169196 .'},{id:"B2",body:'Kontogeorgis G M, Folas G K (2010) Thermodynamics Models for Industrial Applications. From Classical and Advanced Mixing Rules to Asssociation Theories. Wiley.'},{id:"B3",body:'OrbeyH.BokisC. P.Chen-CC.\n\t\t\t\t\t1998 Equation of State Modeling of Phase Equilibrium in the Low-Density Polyethylene Process: The Sanchez-Lacombe, Statistical Associating Fluid Theory and Polymer-Soave-Redlich-Kwong Equation of State. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 37\n\t\t\t\t\t44814491 .'},{id:"B4",body:'ValderramaJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t2003 (2003) The State of the Cubic Equations of State. Ind Eng. Chem. Res. 42\n\t\t\t\t\t16031618 .'},{id:"B5",body:'ChenS. S.Kreglewski\n\t\t\t\t\t1977 (1977) Applications of the Augmented van der Waals Theory of Fluids. I. Pure Fluids. Bunsen-Ges. Phys. Chem. 81\n\t\t\t\t\t10481052 .'},{id:"B6",body:'HuronM. J.Vidal\n\t\t\t\t\t1979, Vidal J (1979) New Mixing Rules in Simple Equation of State for Representing Vapour-Liquid Equilibria of Strongly Nonideal Mixture. Fluid Phase Equilib. 3\n\t\t\t\t\t255271 .'},{id:"B7",body:'SakoT.WuA. H.PrausnitzJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t1989 (1989) A Cubic Equation of State for the High-Pressure Phase Equilibria of Mixtures Containing Polymers and Volatile Fluids. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 38\n\t\t\t\t\t18391858 .'},{id:"B8",body:'Wong D S H, Sandler S\n\t\t\t\t\t1992 (1992) A Theoretically Correct Mixing Rule for Cubic Equation of State. AIChE J. 38\n\t\t\t\t\t671680 .'},{id:"B9",body:'KontogeorgisG. M.HarismiadisV. I.FredeslundA.TassiosD. P.\n\t\t\t\t\t1994a Application of the van der Waals Equation of State to Polymers I.Correlation. Fluid Phase Equilib. 96\n\t\t\t\t\t6592 .'},{id:"B10",body:'BoukouvalasC.SpiliotsN.CoutsikosP.TzouvarasN.Tassios\n\t\t\t\t\t1994 (1994) Prediciton of Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium with the LCVM Model: a Linear Combination of the Vidal and Michelsen Mixing Rules Coupled with the Original UNIFAC and the t-mPR Equation of State. Fluid Phase Equilib. 92\n\t\t\t\t\t75106 .'},{id:"B11",body:'ZhongC.MasuokaH.\n\t\t\t\t\t1996a A New Mixing Rule for Cubic Equation of State and its Application to Vapor-Liquid Equilibria of Polymer Solutions. Fluid Phase Equilib. 123\n\t\t\t\t\t5969 .'},{id:"B12",body:'FloryP.\n\t\t\t\t\t1965 (1965) Statistical Thermodynamics of Liquid Mixtures. J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 87\n\t\t\t\t\t18331838 .'},{id:"B13",body:'SanchezI. C.LacombeR.\n\t\t\t\t\t1978 (1978) Statistical Thermodynamics of Polymer Solutions. Macromolecules 11\n\t\t\t\t\t11451156 .'},{id:"B14",body:'IeintjensK.KoningmeL. A.Id\n\t\t\t\t\t1980 (1980) Liquid-Liquid Phase Separation in Multicomponent Polymer Systems XIX. Mean-Field Lattice-Gas Treatment of the System n-Alkane/Linear-Polyethylene. Colloid Polym. Sci. 258\n\t\t\t\t\t711718 .'},{id:"B15",body:'PanayiotouC.VeraJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t1982 (1982) Statistical Thermodynamics of r-Mer Fluids and Their Mixtures. Polym. J. 14\n\t\t\t\t\t681694 .'},{id:"B16",body:'KiranE.XiongY.Zhuang\n\t\t\t\t\t1993 (1993) Modeling Polyethylene Solutions in Near and Supercritical Fluids Using the Sanchez Lacombe Model. J. Supercrit. Fluids 6\n\t\t\t\t\t193203 .'},{id:"B17",body:'KoakN.HeidemannR.\n\t\t\t\t\t1996 (1996) Polymer-Solvent Phase Behavior Near the Solvent Vapor Pressure. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 35\n\t\t\t\t\t43014309 .'},{id:"B18",body:'GauterK.HeidemannR.\n\t\t\t\t\t2000 (2000) A Proposal for Parametrizing the Sanchez-Lacombe Equation of State. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 39\n\t\t\t\t\t11151117 .'},{id:"B19",body:'KrenzR. A.HeidemannR. A.de LoosTh.\n\t\t\t\t\t2003 (2003) Correlation of the Cloud Point Behavior in Polyethylene & Hydrocarbon Systems, AIChE Spring National Meeting, New Orlenas, LA, U.S.A., Mar-30 -Apr.3.'},{id:"B20",body:'Wertheim M S\n\t\t\t\t\t1984a Fluids with Highly Directional Attractive Forces. I Statistical Thermodynamics. J. Stat. Phys. 35\n\t\t\t\t\t1934 .'},{id:"B21",body:'Wertheim M.S\n\t\t\t\t\t1984b Fluids with Highly Directional Attractive Forces. II Thermodynamic Perturbation Theory And Integral Equations. J. Stat. Phys. 35\n\t\t\t\t\t3574 .'},{id:"B22",body:'Wertheim M.S\n\t\t\t\t\t1986a Fluids with Highly Directional Attractive Forces. III Multiple Attraction Sites. J. Stat. Phys. 42\n\t\t\t\t\t459476 .'},{id:"B23",body:'Wertheim M.S\n\t\t\t\t\t1986b Fluids with Highly Directional Attractive Forces. IV Equilibrium Polimerization. J. Stat. Phys. 42\n\t\t\t\t\t477492 .'},{id:"B24",body:'ChapmanW. G.GubbinsK. E.JacksonG.Radosz\n\t\t\t\t\t1989 (1989) SAFT: Equation-of-State Solution Model for Associating Fluids. Fluid Phase Equilib. 52\n\t\t\t\t\t3138 .'},{id:"B25",body:'ChapmanW. G.GubbinsK. E.JacksonG.Radosz\n\t\t\t\t\t1990 (1990) New Reference Equation of State for Associating Fluids. Mol. Phys. 29\n\t\t\t\t\t17091721 .'},{id:"B26",body:'HuangS. H.Radosz\n\t\t\t\t\t1990 (1990) Equation of State for Small, Large, Polydisperse, and Associating Molecules. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 29\n\t\t\t\t\t22842294 .'},{id:"B27",body:'HuangS. H.Radosz\n\t\t\t\t\t1990 (1990) Equation of State for Small, Large, Polydisperse, and Associating Molecules: extension to fluid mixtures. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 30\n\t\t\t\t\t19942005 .'},{id:"B28",body:'Gross J, Sadowski G (2000) Application of Perturbed Theory to Hard-Chain Reference Fluid: An Equation of State for Square-Well Chains. Fluid Phase Equilib. 168: 183-199.'},{id:"B29",body:'Gross J, Sadowski G (2001) Perturbed-Chain SAFT: An Equation of State Based on a Perturbed Theory for Chain Molecules. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 40: 1244-1260.'},{id:"B30",body:'vonSolms. N.MichelsenM. L.KontogeorgisG.\n\t\t\t\t\t2003ichelsen M L, Kontogeorgis G M (2003) Computational and Physical Performance of a Modified PC-SAFT Equation of State for Highly Assimmetric and Associating Mixtures. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 42\n\t\t\t\t\t10981105 .'},{id:"B31",body:'Soave\n\t\t\t\t\t1972 (1972) Equilibrium Constants from a Modifed Redlich-Kwong Equation of State. Chem. Eng. Sci. 27\n\t\t\t\t\t11971203 .'},{id:"B32",body:'PengD. Y.RobinsonD.\n\t\t\t\t\t1976 (1976) A New Two-Constant Equation of State. Ind. Eng. Chem. Fundam. 15\n\t\t\t\t\t5964 .'},{id:"B33",body:'TorkT.SadowskiG.ArltW.HaanA.Krooshof\n\t\t\t\t\t1999, Arlt W, Haan A, Krooshof G (1999) Modeling of High-Pressure Phase Equilibria Using the Sako-Wu-Prausnitz Equation of State II. Vapor-Liquid Equilibria and Liquid-Liquid Equilibria in Polyolefin Systems. Fluid Phase Equilib. 163\n\t\t\t\t\t7998 .'},{id:"B34",body:'PrausnitzJ. M.LichtenthalerR. N.AzevedoE.\n\t\t\t\t\t1999 (1999) Molecular Thermodynamics of Fluid-Phase Equilibria. Prentice Hall International Series, Third Edition.'},{id:"B35",body:'AdachiY.Sugie\n\t\t\t\t\t1986 (1986) A New Mixing Rule-Modified Conventional Mixing Rule. Fluid Phase Equilib. 28\n\t\t\t\t\t103118 .'},{id:"B36",body:'PanagiotopoulosA. Z.ReidR.\n\t\t\t\t\t1986 (1986) New Mixing Rule for Cubic Equation of State for Highly Polar Asymmetric Systems, Equation of State- Theories and Applications, K. C. Chao and R. L. Robinson Jr., eds. ACS Symp. Ser. 300\n\t\t\t\t\t571582 .'},{id:"B37",body:'SchwartzentruberJ.Renon\n\t\t\t\t\t1989 (1989) Development of a New Cubic Equation of State for Phase Equilibrium Calculations. Fluid Phase Equilib. 52\n\t\t\t\t\t127134 .'},{id:"B38",body:'OrbeyN.SandlerS. I.\n\t\t\t\t\t1994 Vapour-Liquid Equilibrium of Polymer Solutions Using a Cubic Equation of State. AIChE J. 40\n\t\t\t\t\t12031209 .'},{id:"B39",body:'Soave\n\t\t\t\t\t1984 (1984) Improvement of the Van der Waals Equation of State. Chem. Eng. Sci. 39\n\t\t\t\t\t357369 .'},{id:"B40",body:'AdachiY.Sugie\n\t\t\t\t\t1985 (1985) Effects of Mixing Rules on Phase Equilibrium Calculations. Fluid Phase Equilib. 24\n\t\t\t\t\t353362 .'},{id:"B41",body:'GupteP. A.DaubertT.\n\t\t\t\t\t1986 (1986) Extension of UNIFAC to High Pressure VLE Using Vidal Mixing Rules. Fluid Phase Equilib. 28\n\t\t\t\t\t155170 .'},{id:"B42",body:'1986eidemann R A, Rizvi S S H (1986) Correlation of Ammonia-Water Equilibrium Data with Various Peng-Robinson Equation of State. Fluid Phase Equilib. 29\n\t\t\t\t\t439446 .'},{id:"B43",body:'LermiteC.Vidal\n\t\t\t\t\t1992 (1992) A Group Contribution Equation of State for Polar and Non-Polar Compounds. Fluid Phase Equilib. 72\n\t\t\t\t\t111130 .'},{id:"B44",body:'SoaveG.BertucoA.Vecchiato\n\t\t\t\t\t1994 (1994) Equation of State Group Contribution from Infinite-Dilution Activity Coefficients. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 33\n\t\t\t\t\t975980 .'},{id:"B45",body:'Mollerup\n\t\t\t\t\t1986 (1986) A Note on the Derivation of Mixing Rules from Excess Gibbs Energy Models. Fluid Phase Equilib. 25\n\t\t\t\t\t323327 .'},{id:"B46",body:'HeidemannR. A.KokalS.\n\t\t\t\t\t1990 (1990) Combined Excess Free Energy Models and Equation of State. Fluid Phase Equilib. 56\n\t\t\t\t\t1737 .'},{id:"B47",body:'1990ichelsen M (1990) A Method for Incorporating Excess Gibbs Energy Models in Equations of State. Fluid Phase Equilib. 60\n\t\t\t\t\t4758 .'},{id:"B48",body:'1990ichelsen M (1990) Modified Huron-Vidal Mixing Rule for Cubic Equations of State. Fluid Phase Equilib. 60\n\t\t\t\t\t213219 .'},{id:"B49",body:'DahlS.Michelsen\n\t\t\t\t\t1990ichelsen M (1990) High-Pressure Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium with a UNIFAC-Based Equation of State. AIChE J. 36\n\t\t\t\t\t18291836 .'},{id:"B50",body:'ZhongC.MasuokaH.\n\t\t\t\t\t1996b Mixing Rules for Accurate Prediction of Vapor Liquid Equilibria of Gas/Large Alkane Systems Using SRK Equation of State Combined With UNIFAC. J. Chem. Eng. Jpn. 29\n\t\t\t\t\t315322 .'},{id:"B51",body:'ZhongC.MasuokaH.\n\t\t\t\t\t1996c Prediction of Henry’s Constants for Polymer-Containing Systems Using the SRK Equation of State Coupled with a New Modified UNIFAC Model. Fluid Phase Equilib. 126\n\t\t\t\t\t112 .'},{id:"B52",body:'StryjekR.VeraJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t1986 (1986) PRSV2: A Cubic Equation of State for Accurate Vapor-Liquid Equilibria Calculations. Can. J. Chem. Eng. 64\n\t\t\t\t\t323333 .'},{id:"B53",body:'AhlersJ.Gmehling\n\t\t\t\t\t2002, Gmehling J (2002) Development of a Universal Group Contribution Equation of State. 2. Prediction of Vapor-Liquid Equilibia for Asymmetric Systems. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 41\n\t\t\t\t\t34893498 .'},{id:"B54",body:'AaFredenslundGmehling. J.Rasmussen\n\t\t\t\t\t1977 Vapor-Liquid Equilibria Using UNIFAC a Group-Contribution Method, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, New York.'},{id:"B55",body:'VoutsasE.MagoulasK.Tassios\n\t\t\t\t\t2004 (2004) Universal Mixing Rule for Cubic Equations of State Applicable to Symmetric and Asymmetric Systems: Results with the Peng-Robinson Equation of State, Ind. Eng. Che. Res. 43\n\t\t\t\t\t62386246 .'},{id:"B56",body:'MagoulasK.Tassios\n\t\t\t\t\t1990 (1990) Thermophysical Properties of n-Alkanes from C1 to C20 and Their Prediction for Higher Ones. Fluid Phase Equilib. 56\n\t\t\t\t\t119140 .'},{id:"B57",body:'OrbeyH.BokisC. P.Chen\n\t\t\t\t\t1998 P, Chen C (1998) Poymer-Solvent Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium: Equations of State versus Activity Coefficient Models. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 37\n\t\t\t\t\t15671573 .'},{id:"B58",body:'Tochigi\n\t\t\t\t\t1998 (1998) Prediciton of Vapor-Liquid Equilibria in Non-Polymer and Polymer Solutions Using an ASOG-Based Equation of State (PRASOG). Fluid Phase Equilib. 144\n\t\t\t\t\t5968 .'},{id:"B59",body:'TochigiK.FutakuchiH.Kojima\n\t\t\t\t\t1998, Futakuchi H, Kojima K (1998) Prediction of Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium in Polymer Solutions Using a Peng-Robinson Group Contribution Model. Fluid Phase Equilib. 152\n\t\t\t\t\t209217 .'},{id:"B60",body:'KangJ. W.LeeJ. H.YooK.LeeC.\n\t\t\t\t\t2002 (2002) Evaluation of Equations of State Applicable to Polymers and Complex Systems. Fluid Phase Equilib. 194-197: 77-86.'},{id:"B61",body:'LouliV.Tassios\n\t\t\t\t\t2000 (2000) Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium in Polymer-Solvent Systems with a Cubic Equation of State. Fluid Phase Equilib. 168\n\t\t\t\t\t165182 .'},{id:"B62",body:'HaghtalabA.Espanani\n\t\t\t\t\t2004 (2004) A New Model and Extension of Wong-Sandler Mixing Rule for Prediciton of (Vapour+Liquid) Equilibrium of Polymer Solutins using EOS/GE. J. Chem. Thermodyn. 36\n\t\t\t\t\t901910 .'},{id:"B63",body:'VoutsasE.LouliV.BoukouvalasC.MagoulasK.Tassios\n\t\t\t\t\t2006 (2006) Thermodynamic Property Calculations with the Universal Mixing Rule for EOS/GE Models: Results with the Peng-Robinson EOS and a UNIFAC model. Fluid Phase Equilib. 241\n\t\t\t\t\t216228 .'},{id:"B64",body:'HansenH. K.GotoB.KuhlmannB.\n\t\t\t\t\t1992 UNIFAC with Linearly Temperature-Dependent Group-Interaction Parameters. Institut for Kemiteknik, DTH, Lingby, Denmark, SEP 9212, 1992.'},{id:"B65",body:'CostaG. M. N.GuerrieriY.KislanskyS.PessoaF. L. P.Vieira deMelo. S. A. B.EmbiruçuM.\n\t\t\t\t\t2009b Simulation of Flash Separation in Polyethylene Industrial Processing: Comparison of SRK and SL Equations of State. Industrial Eng. Chem. Research 48\n\t\t\t\t\t86138628 .'},{id:"B66",body:'CostaG. M. N.GuerrieriY.KislanskyS.Vieira deMelo. S. A. B.EmbiruçuM.PessoaF. L.\n\t\t\t\t\t2009essoa F L 2009 Computational Aspects for Optimization of High Pressure Phase Equilibrium for Polymer Industrial Systems. Computer-Aided Chem. Eng. 27: 405-410.'},{id:"B67",body:'BogdanicG.VidalJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t2000 (2000) Segmental Interaction Model for Liquid-liquid Equilibrium Calculations for Polymer Solutions. Fluid Phase Equilib. 173\n\t\t\t\t\t241252 .'},{id:"B68",body:'CostaG. M. N.KislanskyS.OliveiraL. C.PessoaF. L. P.Vieira deMelo. S. A. B.Embiruçu\n\t\t\t\t\t2011 N, Kislansky S, Oliveira L C, Pessoa F L P, Vieira de Melo S A B, Embiruçu M (2011) Modeling Solid-Liquid Equilibrium for Polyethylene and Polypropylene Solutions with Equations of State. J. Appl. Polymer Science 121\n\t\t\t\t\t18321849 .'},{id:"B69",body:'WilsonG.\n\t\t\t\t\t1964 (1964) Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium. XI: A New Expression for the Excess Free Energy of Mixing. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 86\n\t\t\t\t\t127130 .'},{id:"B70",body:'RenonH.PrausnitzJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t1968 (1968) Local Composition in Thermodynamic Excess Function for Liquid Mixtures. AIChE J. 14\n\t\t\t\t\t135144 .'},{id:"B71",body:'AbramsD. S.PrausnitzJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t1975 (1975) Statistical Thermodynamics of Liquid Mixtures: A New Expression for the Excess Gibbs Energy of Partly or Completely Miscible Systems. AIChE J. 21\n\t\t\t\t\t116128 .'},{id:"B72",body:'KumarS. K.SuterU. W.ReidR.\n\t\t\t\t\t1987 (1987) A Statistical Mechanics Based Lattice Model Equation of State. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 26\n\t\t\t\t\t25322542 .'},{id:"B73",body:'ChelugetE. L.BokisC. P. B.WardhaughL.ChenC. C.Fisher\n\t\t\t\t\t2002 (2002) Modeling Polyethylene Fractionation Using the Perturbed-Chain Statistical Associating Fluid Theory Equation of State. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 41\n\t\t\t\t\t968988 .'},{id:"B74",body:'BaeY. C.ShimJ. J.SoaneD. S.PrausnitzJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t1993 (1993) Representation of Vapor-Liquid and Liquid-Liquid Equilibria for Binary Systems Containing Polymers: Applicability of an Extended Flory-Huggins Equation. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 47\n\t\t\t\t\t11931206 .'},{id:"B75",body:'SanchezI. C.LacombeR.\n\t\t\t\t\t1976 (1976) An Elementary Molecular Theory of Classical Fluids: Pure Fluids. Journal of Physical Chemistry 80\n\t\t\t\t\t23522362 .'},{id:"B76",body:'GauterK.HeidemannR.\n\t\t\t\t\t2001 (2001) Modelling Polyethilene-Solvent Mixtures with the Sanchez-Lacombe Equation. Fluid Phase Equilib. 183-184: 87-97.'},{id:"B77",body:'KiszkaM. B.MeilchenM. A.Mc HughM.\n\t\t\t\t\t1988, McHugh M A (1988) Modeling High-Pressure Gas-Polymer Mixtures Using the Sanchez-Lacombe Equation of State. J. Appl. Polymer Science 36\n\t\t\t\t\t583597 .'},{id:"B78",body:'XiongY.Kiran\n\t\t\t\t\t1994 (1994) Prediction of High-Pressure Phase Behaviour in Polyethylene/ n-Pentane/ Carbon Dioxide Ternary System with the Sanchez-Lacombe Model. Polymer 35\n\t\t\t\t\t44084415 .'},{id:"B79",body:'XiongY.Kiran\n\t\t\t\t\t1994 (1994) High-Pressure Phase Behavior in Polyethylene/n-Butane Binary and Polyethylene/n-Butane/CO2 Ternary Systems. J. Appl. Polymer Science 53\n\t\t\t\t\t11791190 .'},{id:"B80",body:'XiongY.Kiran\n\t\t\t\t\t1995 (1995) Comparison of Sanchez-Lacombe and SAFT Model in Predicting Solubility of Polyethylene in High-Pressure Fluids. J. Appl. Polymer Science 55\n\t\t\t\t\t18051818 .'},{id:"B81",body:'SongY.LambertS. M.PrausnitzJ. M.\n\t\t\t\t\t1994a A Perturbed Hard-Sphere Equation of State for Normal Fluids and Polymers. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 33\n\t\t\t\t\t10471057 .'},{id:"B82",body:'PhoenixA. V.HeidemannR.\n\t\t\t\t\t1999 V, Heidemann R A (1999) An Algorithm for Determining Cloud and Shadow Curves Using Continuous Thermodynamics. Fluid Phase Equilib. 158-160: 643-655.'},{id:"B83",body:'WangW.TreeD. A.HighM. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t1996, High M S A (1996) Comparison of Lattice-Fluid Models for the Calculation of the Liquid-Liquid Equilibria of Polymer Solutions. Fluid Phase Equilib. 114\n\t\t\t\t\t4762 .'},{id:"B84",body:'KoakN.VisserR. M.de LoosT.\n\t\t\t\t\t1999 (1999) High-Pressure Phase Behavior of the Systems Polyethylene + Ethylene and Polybutene + 1 -Butene. Fluid Phase Equilib. 158-160: 835-846.'},{id:"B85",body:'de LoosT. W.PootW.DiepenG. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t1983 (1983) Fluid Phase Equilibria in the System Polyethylene + Ethylene. 1. Sytems of Linear Polyethylene + Ethylene at High Pressure. Macromolecules 16\n\t\t\t\t\t111117 .'},{id:"B86",body:'TrumpiH.de LoosT. W.KrenzR. A.HeidemannR.\n\t\t\t\t\t2003, Heidemann R A (2003) High Pressure Phase Equilibria in the System Linear Low Density Polyethylene+Ethylene: Experimental Results and Modelling. J. Supercrit. Fluids 27\n\t\t\t\t\t205214 .'},{id:"B87",body:'KrenzR.\n\t\t\t\t\t2005 (2005) Correlating the Fluid Phase Behaviour of Polydisperse Polyethylene Solutions Using the Modified Sanchez-Lacombe Equation of State. Calgary-AB: Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering-University of Calgary, (Ph.D. Thesis). Canada.'},{id:"B88",body:'KrenzR. A.HeidemannR. A.de LoosTh.\n\t\t\t\t\t2003 (2003) The Impact of the Molar Mass Distribution on Predicting the Cloud Point Behavior of Polyethylene+Ethylene Systems, AIChE Annual Meeting San Francisco, CA, USA, Nov, 1721 .'},{id:"B89",body:'SchnellM.StryukS.WolfB.\n\t\t\t\t\t2004 (2004) Liquid/Liquid Demixing in the System N-hexane/Narrowly Distributed Linear Polyethylene. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 43\n\t\t\t\t\t28522859 .'},{id:"B90",body:'VoutsasE.PappaG. D.BoukouvalasC.MagoulasK.Tassios\n\t\t\t\t\t2004, Boukouvalas C, Magoulas K, Tassios D (2004) Miscibility in Binary Polymer Blends: Correlation and Prediction. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 43\n\t\t\t\t\t13121321 .'},{id:"B91",body:'ElbroS.FredenslundA.Rasmussen\n\t\t\t\t\t1990 A New Simple Equation for the Prediction of Solvent Activities in Polymer Solutions. Macromolecules 23: 4707-4714.'},{id:"B92",body:'ChenX.YasudaK.SatoY.TakishimaS.Masuoka\n\t\t\t\t\t2004 (2004) Measurement and Correlation of Phase Equilibria of Ethylene + n-Hexane+ Metallocene Polyethylene at Temperatures between 373 and 473 K and at Pressures up to 20 MPa. Fluid Phase Equilib. 215\n\t\t\t\t\t105115 .'},{id:"B93",body:'NagyI.de LoosTh. W.KrenzR. A.HeidemannR.\n\t\t\t\t\t2006, Heidemann R A (2006) High Pressure Phase Equilibria in the Systems Linear Low Density Polyethylene +n-Hexane and Linear Low Density Polyethylene +n-Hexane +Ethylene: Experimental Results and Modelling with the Sanchez-Lacombe Equation of State. J. Supercrit. Fluids 37\n\t\t\t\t\t115124 .'},{id:"B94",body:'KrenzR.LaursenT.HeidemannR.\n\t\t\t\t\t2009 (2009) The Modified Sanchez-Lacombe Equation of State Applied to Polydisperse Polyethylene Solutions. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 48\n\t\t\t\t\t1066410681 .'},{id:"B95",body:'KrenzR. A.HeidemannR.\n\t\t\t\t\t2007, Heidemann R A (2007) Modelling the Fluid Phase Behavior of Polydisperse Polyethylene Blends in Hydrocarbons Using the Modified Sanchez-Lacombe Equation of State. Fluid Phase Equilib. 262\n\t\t\t\t\t217226 .'},{id:"B96",body:'Neau\n\t\t\t\t\t2002 (2002) A Consistent Method for Phase Equilibrium Calculation Using the Sanchez-Lacombe Lattice-Fluid Equation of State. Fluid Phase Equilib. 203\n\t\t\t\t\t133140 .'},{id:"B97",body:'KanellopoulosV.MouratidesD.PladisP.KiparissidesC.\n\t\t\t\t\t2006 Prediction of Solubility of α-Olefins in Polyolefins Using a Combined Equation of State-Molecular Dynamics Approach, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 45\n\t\t\t\t\t58705878 .'},{id:"B98",body:'NagyI.RyanA. K.HeidemannR. A.de LoosT.\n\t\t\t\t\t2007 (2007) High-Pressure Phase Equilibria in the System Linear Low Density Polyethylene + Isohexane: Experimental Results and Modelling. J. Supercrit. Fluids 40\n\t\t\t\t\t125133 .'},{id:"B99",body:'BeretS.PrausnitzJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t1975 (1975) Perturbed Hard-Chain Theory: Na Equation of State for Fluids Containing Small or Large Molecules. AIChE J., 26\n\t\t\t\t\t11231132 .'},{id:"B100",body:'Carnahan N.F, Starling K.E\n\t\t\t\t\t1969 Equation of State for Nonattracting Rigid Spheres. J. Chem. Phys. 51\n\t\t\t\t\t635636 .'},{id:"B101",body:'VilmalchandP.DonohueM.\n\t\t\t\t\t1985onohue M D (1985) Thermodynamics of Quadrupolar Molecules: The Perturbed Anisotropic-Chain Theory, Ind. Eng. Chem. Fundam. 24\n\t\t\t\t\t246257 .'},{id:"B102",body:'VilmalchandP.CelminsI.DonohueM.\n\t\t\t\t\t1986onohue M D (1986) VLE Calculations for Mixtures Containing Multipolar Compounds Using the Perturbed Anisotropic Chain Theory. AIChE J. 32\n\t\t\t\t\t17351738 .'},{id:"B103",body:'KimC. H.VilmalchandP.DonohueM. D.SandlerS.\n\t\t\t\t\t1986 (1986) Local Composition Model for Chainlike Molecules: A New Simplified Version of the Perturbed Hard Chain Theory. AIChE J. 32\n\t\t\t\t\t17261734 .'},{id:"B104",body:'IkonomouG. D.DonohueM.\n\t\t\t\t\t1988, Donohue M D (1988) Extension of the Associated Perturbed Anisotropic Chain Theory to Mixtures with More than One Associating Component. Fluid Phase Equilib. 39\n\t\t\t\t\t129159 .'},{id:"B105",body:'EconomouI.\n\t\t\t\t\t2002 (2002) Statistical Associating Fluid Theory: A Successful Model for the Calculation of Thermodynamic and Phase Equilibrium Properties of Complex Fluid Mixtures. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 41\n\t\t\t\t\t953962 .'},{id:"B106",body:'CottermannR. L.SchwarzB. J.PrausnitzJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t1986 (1986) Molecular Thermodynamics for Fluids at Low and High Densities. part 1: Pure Fluids Containg Small or Large Molecules AIChE J. 32\n\t\t\t\t\t17871798 .'},{id:"B107",body:'ChapmanW. G.JacksonG.GubbinsK.\n\t\t\t\t\t1988 (1988) Phase Equilibria of Associating Fluids. Chain Molecules with Multiple Bonding Sites. Mol. Phys. 65\n\t\t\t\t\t10571079 .'},{id:"B108",body:'BarkerJ. A.Henderson\n\t\t\t\t\t1967 (1967) Perturbed Theory and Equation of State for Fluids: The Square-Well Potential. J. Chem. Phys. 47\n\t\t\t\t\t28562861 .'},{id:"B109",body:'MullerE. A.GubbinsK.\n\t\t\t\t\t2001 A, Gubbins K E (2001) Molecular- Based Equations of State for Associating Fluids: A Review of SAFT and Related Approaches. Ind. Eng. Chem, Res. 40\n\t\t\t\t\t21932211 .'},{id:"B110",body:'BlasF. J.VejaL.\n\t\t\t\t\t1998 J, Veja L F (1998) Prediction of Binary and Ternary Diagrams Using the Statistical Associating Fluid Theory (SAFT) Equation of State. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 37\n\t\t\t\t\t660674 .'},{id:"B111",body:'Gil-VillegasA.GalindoA.WhiteheadP. J.MillsS. J.JacksonG.BurgessA.\n\t\t\t\t\t1997 (1997) Statistical Associating Fluid Theory for Chain Molecules with Attractive Potentials of Variable Range. J. Chem. Phys. 106\n\t\t\t\t\t41684186 .'},{id:"B112",body:'Mc CabeC.GalindoA.Garcia-LisbonaM. N.Jackson\n\t\t\t\t\t2001alindo A, Garcia-Lisbona M N, Jackson G (2001) Examining the Adsorption (Vapor-Liquid Equilibria) of Short-Chain Hydrocarbons in Low-Density Polyethylene with the SAFT-VR Approach. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 40\n\t\t\t\t\t38353842 .'},{id:"B113",body:'ParicaudP.GalindoA.Jackson\n\t\t\t\t\t2004alindo A, Jackson G (2004) Modeling the Cloud Curves and the Solubility of Gases in Amorphous and Semicrystalline Polyethylene with the SAFT-VR Approach and Flory Theory of Crystallization. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 43\n\t\t\t\t\t68716889 .'},{id:"B114",body:'HaslamA. J.vonSolms. N.AdjimanC. S.GalindoA.JacksonG.ParicaudP.MichelsenM. L.KontogeorgisG.\n\t\t\t\t\t2006ichelsen M L, Kontogeorgis G M (2006) Predicting Enhanced Absorption of Light Gases in Polyethylene Using Simplified PC-SAFT and SAFT-VR. Fluid Phase Equilib. 243\n\t\t\t\t\t7491 .'},{id:"B115",body:'vonSolms. N.KouskoumvekakiI. A.MichelsenM. L.KontogeorgisG.\n\t\t\t\t\t2006ichelsen M L, Kontogeorgis G M (2006) Capabilities, Limitations and Challenges of a Simplified PC-SAFT Equation of State. Fluid Phase Equilib. 241\n\t\t\t\t\t344353 .'},{id:"B116",body:'Dariva\n\t\t\t\t\t2000 (2000) Equilíbrio de Fases a Altas Pressões em Sistemas com Polipropilenos. Dados Experimentais e Modelagem SAFT (in portuguese). Rio de Janeiro-RJ: PEQ/COPPE/UFRJ (D.Sc. Thesis). Brazil.'},{id:"B117",body:'ChenS.Radosz\n\t\t\t\t\t1992 (1992) Density-Tuned Polyolefin Phase Equilibria. 1. Binary Solutions of Alternating Poly(ethy1ene-propylene) in Subcritical and Supercritical Propylene, 1-Butene, and 1-Hexene. Experiment and Flory-Patterson Model. Macromolecules 25\n\t\t\t\t\t30893096 .'},{id:"B118",body:'ChenS. J.EconomouI. G.RadoszM.\n\t\t\t\t\t1992a Density-Tuned Polyolefin Phase Equilibria. 2. Multicomponent Solutions of Alternating Poly(ethylene-propylene) in Subcritical and Supercritical Olefins. Experiment and SAFT Model. Macromolecules 25\n\t\t\t\t\t49874995 .'},{id:"B119",body:'HanS. J.GreggC. J.Radosz\n\t\t\t\t\t1997 (1997) How the Solute Polydispersity Affects the Cloud-Point and Coexistence Pressures in Propylene and Ethylene Solutions of Alternating Poly(ethylene-co-propylene). Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 36\n\t\t\t\t\t55205525 .'},{id:"B120",body:'PanC.Radosz\n\t\t\t\t\t1998 (1998) Copolymer SAFT Modeling of Phase Behavior in Hydrocarbon-Chain Solutions: Alkane Oligomers, Polyethylene, Poly(ethylene-co-olefin-1), Polystyrene, and Poly(ethylene-co-styrene). Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 37\n\t\t\t\t\t31693179 .'},{id:"B121",body:'PanC.Radoz\n\t\t\t\t\t1999 (1999) Modeling of Solid-Liquid Equilibria in Naphthalene, Normal-Alkane and Polyethylene Solutions Fluid Phase Equilib. 155\n\t\t\t\t\t5773 .'},{id:"B122",body:'HorstM. H.BehmeS.SadowskiG.de LoosTh. W.\n\t\t\t\t\t2002 The Influence of Supercritical Gases on the Phase Behavior of Polystyrene-Cyclohexane and Polyethylene-Cyclohexane Systems: Experimental Results and Modeling with the SAFT-Equation of State. J. Supercrit. Fluids 23\n\t\t\t\t\t181194 .'},{id:"B123",body:'JogP. K.ChapmanW. G.GuptaS. K.SwindollR.\n\t\t\t\t\t2002 (2002) Modeling of Liquid-Liquid Phase Separation in Linear Low-Density Polyethylene-Solvent Systems Using the Statistical Associating Fluid Theory Equation if State, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 41\n\t\t\t\t\t887891 .'},{id:"B124",body:'de LoosT. W.de GraafL. J.de SwaanArons.\n\t\t\t\t\t1996, de Swaan Arons J (1996) Liquid-Liquid Phase Separation in Linear Low Density Polyethylene-Solvent Systems. Fluid Phase Equilib. 117\n\t\t\t\t\t4047 .'},{id:"B125",body:'Wiesmet V, Weidner E, Behme S, Sadowski G, Arlt W (2000) Measurement and Modelling of High-Pressure Phase Equilibria in the Systems Polyethyleneglycol (PEG)-Propane, PEG-Nitrogen and PEG-Carbon Dioxide. J. Supercrit. Fluids 17: 1-12.'},{id:"B126",body:'GrossJ.SadowskiG.\n\t\t\t\t\t2002a Modeling of Polymer Systems Using the Perturbed-Chain Statistical Associating Fluid Theory Equation of State. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 41\n\t\t\t\t\t10841093 .'},{id:"B127",body:'KinzlM.LuftG.AdidharmaH.Radosz\n\t\t\t\t\t2000, Luft G, Adidharma H, Radosz M (2000) SAFT Modeling of Inert-Gas Effects on the Cloud-Point Pressures in Ethylene Copolymerization Systems: Poly(ethylene-co-vinyl acetate) + Vinyl Acetate + Ethylene and Poly(ethylene-co-hexene-1) + Hexene-1 + Ethylene with Carbon Dioxide, Nitrogen, or n-Butane. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 39\n\t\t\t\t\t541546 .'},{id:"B128",body:'BokisC. P.OrbeyH.Chen-CC.\n\t\t\t\t\t1999 Properly Model Polymer Processes. Chem. Eng. Prog. April: 3952 .'},{id:"B129",body:'PanC.Radosz\n\t\t\t\t\t1999 (1999) Phase Behavior of Poly(ethylene-co-hexene-1) Solutions in Isobutane and Propane. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 38\n\t\t\t\t\t28422848 .'},{id:"B130",body:'ChenC. K.DuranM. A.Radosz\n\t\t\t\t\t1993 A, Radosz M (1993) Phase Equilibria in Polymer Solutions. Block-Algebra, Simultaneous Flash Algorithm Coupled with SAFT Equation of State, Applied to Single-Stage Supercritical Antisolvent Fractionation of Polyethylene. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 32\n\t\t\t\t\t31233127 .'},{id:"B131",body:'TanS. P.MengD.PlancherH.AdidharmaH.Radosz\n\t\t\t\t\t2004eng D, Plancher H, Adidharma H, Radosz M (2004) Cloud Points for Polystyrene in Propane and Poly (4-methyl styrene) in Propane. Fluid Phase Equilib. 226\n\t\t\t\t\t189194 .'},{id:"B132",body:'Wu C-S, Chen Y-P\n\t\t\t\t\t1994 Calculation of Vapor-Liquid Equilibria of Polymer Solutions Using the SAFT Equation of State. Fluid Phase Equilib. 100\n\t\t\t\t\t103119 .'},{id:"B133",body:'BehmeS.SadowskiG.Arlt\n\t\t\t\t\t1999 (1999) Modeling of the Separation of Polydisperse Polymer Systems by Compressed Gases. Fluid Phase Equilib. 158-160: 869-877.'},{id:"B134",body:'Albrecht K.L, Stein F.P, Han S.J, Gregg C.J, Radosz\n\t\t\t\t\t1996 (1996) Phase Equilibria of Saturated and Unsaturated Polyisoprene in Sub- and Supercritical Ethane, Ethylene, Propane, Propylene, and Dimethyl Ether. Fluid Phase Equilib. 117\n\t\t\t\t\t8491 .'},{id:"B135",body:'GreggC. J.SteinF. P.RadoszM.\n\t\t\t\t\t1994a Phase Behavior of Telechelic Polyisobutylene in Subcritical and Supercritical Fluids. 3. Three-Arm-Star PIB (4K) as a Model Trimer for Monohydroxy and Dihydroxy PIB (1K) in Ethane, Propane, Dimethyl Ether, Carbon Dioxide, and Chlorodifluoromethane. Journal of Physical Chemistry 98\n\t\t\t\t\t1063410639 .'},{id:"B136",body:'GreggC. J.SteinF. P.RadoszM.\n\t\t\t\t\t1994b Phase Behavior of Telechelic Polyisobutylene (PIB) in Subcritical and Supercritical Fluids. 1. Inter- and Intra-Association Effects for Blank, Monohydroxy, and Dihydroxy PIB (1K) in Ethane, Propane, Dimethyl Ether, Carbon Dioxide, and Chlorodifluoromethane. Macromolecules 27\n\t\t\t\t\t49724980 .\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B137",body:'SadowskiG.MokrushinaL. V.Arlt\n\t\t\t\t\t1997 (1997) Finite and Infinite Dilution Activity Coefficients in Polycarbonate Systems. Fluid Phase Equilib. 139\n\t\t\t\t\t391403 .'},{id:"B138",body:'FolieB.GreggC.LuftG.Radosz\n\t\t\t\t\t1996 (1996) Phase Equilibria of Poly(ethylene-co-vinyl acetate) Copolymers in Subcritical and Supercritical Ethylene and Ethylene-Vinyl Acetate Mixtures. Fluid Phase Equilib. 120\n\t\t\t\t\t1137 .'},{id:"B139",body:'Lee-HS.HaschB. M.Mc HughM.\n\t\t\t\t\t1996 (1996) Calculating Copolymer Solution Behavior with Statistical Associating Fluid Theory. Fluid Phase Equilib., 117\n\t\t\t\t\t6168 .'},{id:"B140",body:'ChanK. C.AdidharmaH.Radosz\n\t\t\t\t\t2000 (2000) Fluid-Liquid and Fluid-Solid Transitions of Poly(ethylene-co-octene-1) in Sub- and Supercritical Propane Solutions. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 39\n\t\t\t\t\t30693075 .'},{id:"B141",body:'LoraM.Mc HughM.\n\t\t\t\t\t1999 (1999) Phase Behavior and Modeling of the Poly(Methyl Methacrylate)-CO2-Methyl Methacrylate System. Fluid Phase Equilib. 157\n\t\t\t\t\t285297 .'},{id:"B142",body:'Chen-JS.EconomouI. G.RadoszM.\n\t\t\t\t\t1992b Phase Behavior of LCST and UCST Solutions of Branchy Copolymers: Experiment and SAFT Modeling. Fluid Phase Equilib. 83\n\t\t\t\t\t391398 .'},{id:"B143",body:'Luna-BarcenasG.MawsonS.TakishimaS.De SimoneJ. M.SanchezI. C.JohnstonK.\n\t\t\t\t\t1998 Phase Behaviour of Poly(1,1-dihydroperfluorooctylacrylate) in Supercritical Carbon Dioxide. Fluid Phase Equilib. 146: 325-337.'},{id:"B144",body:'TumakakaF.GrossJ.Sadowski\n\t\t\t\t\t2002ross J, Sadowski G (2002) Modeling of Polymer Phase Equilibria Using Perturbed-Chain SAFT. Fluid Phase Equilib. 194-197: 541-551.'},{id:"B145",body:'GrossJ.SadowskiG.\n\t\t\t\t\t2002b Application of the Perturbed-Chain SAFT Equation of State to Associating Systems. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 41\n\t\t\t\t\t55105515 .'},{id:"B146",body:'Gross J, Spuhl O, Tumakaka F, Sadowski G (2003) Modeling Copolymer Systems Using Perturbed-Chain SAFT. Fluid Phase Equilib. 42: 1266-1274.'},{id:"B147",body:'KouskoumvekakiI. A.vonSolms. N.MichelsenM. L.KontogeorgisG. M.\n\t\t\t\t\t2004b Application of the Perturbed Chain SAFT Equation of State to Complex Polymer Systems Using Simplified Mixing Rules. Fluid Phase Equilib. 215\n\t\t\t\t\t7178 .'},{id:"B148",body:'TumakakaF.Sadowski\n\t\t\t\t\t2004 (2004) Application of the Perturbed-Chain SAFT Equation of State to Polar Systems. Fluid Phase Equilib. 217\n\t\t\t\t\t233239 .'},{id:"B149",body:'JogP. K.SauerS. G.BlaesingJ.ChapmanW.\n\t\t\t\t\t2001, Blaesing J, Chapman W G (2001) Application of Dipolar Chain Theory to the Phase Behavior of Polar Fluids and Mixtures. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 40\n\t\t\t\t\t46414648 .'},{id:"B150",body:'Kouskoumvekaki I.A, Krooshof G.P, Michelsen M.L, Kontogeorgis G.M\n\t\t\t\t\t2004a Application of the Simplified PC-SAFT Equation of State to the Vapor-Liquid Equilibria of Binary and Ternary Mixtures of Polyamide 6 with Several Solvents. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 43\n\t\t\t\t\t826834 .'},{id:"B151",body:'ArceP. F.AznarM.\n\t\t\t\t\t2005a Phase Behavior of Polypropylene + n-Pentane and Polypropylene + n-Pentane + Carbon Dioxide: Modeling with Cubic and Noncubic Equations of State. J. Supercrit. Fluids 34\n\t\t\t\t\t177182 .'},{id:"B152",body:'SpyriouniT.EconomouI.\n\t\t\t\t\t2005 (2005) Evaluation of SAFT and PC-SAFT Models for the Description of Homo- and Co-polymer Solution Phase Equilibria. Polymer 46\n\t\t\t\t\t1077210781 .'},{id:"B153",body:'PedrosaN.VegaL. F.CoutinhoJ. A. P.MarruchoI.\n\t\t\t\t\t2006arrucho I M (2006) Phase Equilibria of Polyethylene Solutions from SAFT-Type Equation of State. Macromolecules 39\n\t\t\t\t\t42404246 .'},{id:"B154",body:'BuchelliA.CallM. L.BrownA. L.BokisC. P.RamanathanS.Franjione\n\t\t\t\t\t2004 (2004) Nonequilibrium Behavior in Ethylene/Polyethylene Flash Separators. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 43\n\t\t\t\t\t17681778 .'},{id:"B155",body:'Guerrieri\n\t\t\t\t\t2007 (2007) Modelagem e Simulação do Equilíbrio de Fases em Plantas de Polietileno Utilizando a Equação de Estado PC-SAFT (in portuguese). Campinas-SP: FEQ-UNICAMP (M.Sc. Dissertation). Brazil.'},{id:"B156",body:'TihicA.KontogeorgisG. M.vonSolms. N.MichelsenM. L.ConstantinouL.\n\t\t\t\t\t2008, Kontogeorgis G M, von Solms N, Michelsen M L, Constantinou L A (2008) Predictive Group-Contribution Simplified PC-SAFT Equation of State: Application to Polymer Systems. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 47\n\t\t\t\t\t50925101 .'},{id:"B157",body:'TihicA.vonSolms. N.MichelsenM. L.KontogeorgisG. M.Constantinou\n\t\t\t\t\t2009, Kontogeorgis G M, Constantinou L (2009) Application of sPC-SAFT and Group Contribution sPCSAFT to Polymer Systems. Capabilities and Limitations. Fluid Phase Equilib. 281\n\t\t\t\t\t7077 .'},{id:"B158",body:'AbbasS.Mukherjeer.De GangulyS.\n\t\t\t\t\t2004, Mukherjee r, De S, Ganguly S (2004) Real-Time Inferencing of Solid-Liquid Phase Equilibria in Ssolution Polymerization of Polyethylene Chem. Eng. Process. 431449 .'},{id:"B159",body:'CostaG. M. N.KislanskyS.GuerrieriY.PessoaF. L. P.Vieira deMelo. S. A. B.Embiruçu\n\t\t\t\t\t2010 N, Kislansky S, Guerrieri Y, Pessoa F L P, Vieira de Melo S A B, Embiruçu M (2010) Calculation of Pressure-Temperature Diagrams and Distance for Phase Transition in Polyethylene Solutions. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 49\n\t\t\t\t\t1224212253 .'},{id:"B160",body:'KleinerM.TumakakaF.SadowskiG.LatzH.Buback\n\t\t\t\t\t2006, Tumakaka F, Sadowski G, Latz H, Buback M (2006) Phase Equilibria in Polydisperse and Associating Copolymer Solutions: Poly(ethene-co-(meth)acrylic acid)-Monomer Mixtures. Fluid Phase Equilib. 241\n\t\t\t\t\t113123 .'},{id:"B161",body:'CostaG. M. N.GuerrieriY.KislanskyS.Embiruçu\n\t\t\t\t\t2012 N, Guerrieri Y, Kislansky S., Embiruçu M (2012) Phase-Dependent Binary Interaction Parameters in Industrial Low-Density Polyethylene Separators. J. Appl. Polymer Science, submitted.'},{id:"B162",body:'vonSolms. N.KouskoumvekakiI. A.LindvigT.MichelsenM. L.KontogeorgisG.\n\t\t\t\t\t2004ichelsen M L, Kontogeorgis G M (2004) A Novel Approach to the Liquid-Liquid Equilibrium in Polymer Systems with Application to Simplified PC-SAFT. Fluid Phase Equilib. 222-223: 87-93.'},{id:"B163",body:'DominikA.ChapmanW.\n\t\t\t\t\t2005 (2005) Thermodynamic Model for Branched Polyolefins Using the PC-SAFT Equation of State. Macromolecules 38\n\t\t\t\t\t1083610843 .'},{id:"B164",body:'BeckerF.BubackM.LatzH.SadowskiG.Tumakaka\n\t\t\t\t\t2004, Buback M, Latz H, Sadowski G, Tumakaka F (2004) Cloud-Point Curves of Ethylene-(Meth)Acrylate Copolymers in Fluid Ethene up to High Pressures and Temperatures- Experimental Study and PC-SAFT Modeling. Fluid Phase Equilib. 215\n\t\t\t\t\t263282 .'},{id:"B165",body:'ArceP.AznarM.\n\t\t\t\t\t2005b Modeling the Phase Behavior of Commercial Biodegradable Polymers and Copolymer in Supercritical Fluids. Fluid Phase Equilib. 238\n\t\t\t\t\t242253 .'},{id:"B166",body:'van SchiltM. A.van MeerendonkW. J.KemmereM. F.KeurentjesJ. T. F.KleinerM.SadowskiG.de LoosTh.\n\t\t\t\t\t2005 J, Kemmere M F, Keurentjes J T F, Kleiner M, Sadowski G, de Loos Th W (2005) High-Pressure Phase Behavior of the System PCHC-CHO-CO2 for the Development of a Solvent-Free Alternative toward Polycarbonate Production. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 44\n\t\t\t\t\t33633366 .'},{id:"B167",body:'Krueger-MK.PfohlO.DohrnR.Sadowski\n\t\t\t\t\t2006 (2006) Phase Equilibria and Diffusion Coefficients in the Poly(dimethylsiloxane) + n-Pentane System. Fluid Phase Equilib. 241\n\t\t\t\t\t138146 .'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Yuri Guerrieri",address:null,affiliation:'
Programa de Engenharia Industrial (PEI) - Escola Politécnica – Universidade Federal da Bahia, Salvador-BA,, Brazil
Programa de Engenharia Industrial (PEI) - Escola Politécnica – Universidade Federal da Bahia, Salvador-BA,, Brazil
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"2385",type:"book",title:"Polymerization",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Polymerization",slug:"polymerization",publishedDate:"September 12th 2012",bookSignature:"Ailton De Souza Gomes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2385.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0745-3",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6233-9",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",numberOfWosCitations:163,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"135416",title:"Dr.",name:"Ailton",middleName:null,surname:"De Souza Gomes",slug:"ailton-de-souza-gomes",fullName:"Ailton De Souza Gomes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"915"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"38902",type:"chapter",title:"Atomic Force Microscopy Observations of the Polymer Network Structure Formed in Ferroelectric Liquid Crystals Cells",slug:"atomic-force-microscopy-observations-of-the-polymer-network-structure-formed-in-ferroelectric-liquid",totalDownloads:2975,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"M. Petit",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"147195",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Petit",fullName:"Mohamed Petit",slug:"mohamed-petit"}]},{id:"38910",type:"chapter",title:"Analysis of the Miscibility of Polymer Blends Through Molecular Dynamics Simulations",slug:"analysis-of-the-miscibility-of-polymer-blends-through-molecular-dynamics-simulations",totalDownloads:3693,totalCrossrefCites:4,signatures:"Inger Martínez de Arenaza, Emiliano Meaurio and Jose-Ramon Sarasua",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"113043",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose-Ramon",middleName:null,surname:"Sarasua",fullName:"Jose-Ramon Sarasua",slug:"jose-ramon-sarasua"},{id:"113046",title:"Prof.",name:"Emilio",middleName:null,surname:"Meaurio",fullName:"Emilio Meaurio",slug:"emilio-meaurio"},{id:"113047",title:"Mrs.",name:"Inger",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez De Arenaza",fullName:"Inger Martínez De Arenaza",slug:"inger-martinez-de-arenaza"}]},{id:"38906",type:"chapter",title:"Polymer Biocompatibility",slug:"polymer-biocompatibility",totalDownloads:8032,totalCrossrefCites:13,signatures:"Isabel Cristina Celerino de Moraes Porto",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"142262",title:"Prof.",name:"Isabel",middleName:"Cristina Celerino De Moraes",surname:"Porto",fullName:"Isabel Porto",slug:"isabel-porto"}]},{id:"38901",type:"chapter",title:"Plant Cell Wall Polymers: Function, Structure and Biological Activity of Their Derivatives",slug:"plant-cell-wall-polymers-function-structure-and-biological-activity-of-their-derivatives",totalDownloads:8308,totalCrossrefCites:34,signatures:"Marisol Ochoa-Villarreal, Emmanuel Aispuro-Hernández, Irasema Vargas-Arispuro and Miguel Ángel Martínez-Téllez",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"65387",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel Angel",middleName:"Angel",surname:"Martinez-Tellez",fullName:"Miguel Angel Martinez-Tellez",slug:"miguel-angel-martinez-tellez"}]},{id:"38938",type:"chapter",title:"Comparison of Traditional Methods and Microwave Irradiation Method About Amylum/Acrylic Acid /Acrylamide Polymerization",slug:"comparison-of-traditional-methods-and-microwave-irradiation-method-about-amylum-acrylic-acid-acrylam",totalDownloads:2694,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Hao Ren, Zhen Niu, Juan Wang and Jing Ning",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"146568",title:"Dr.",name:"Hao",middleName:null,surname:"Ren",fullName:"Hao Ren",slug:"hao-ren"}]},{id:"38905",type:"chapter",title:"FI Catalyst for Polymerization of Olefin",slug:"fi-catalyst-for-polymerization-of-olefin",totalDownloads:4912,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"S. Damavandi, S. Ahmadjo, R. Sandaroos and G.H. Zohuri",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"139590",title:"Dr.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Sandaroos",fullName:"Reza Sandaroos",slug:"reza-sandaroos"},{id:"140786",title:"Prof.",name:"Gholam Hossein",middleName:null,surname:"Zohuri",fullName:"Gholam Hossein Zohuri",slug:"gholam-hossein-zohuri"},{id:"141040",title:"Dr.",name:"Saeid",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmadjo",fullName:"Saeid Ahmadjo",slug:"saeid-ahmadjo"},{id:"141828",title:"Dr.",name:"Saman",middleName:null,surname:"Damavandi",fullName:"Saman Damavandi",slug:"saman-damavandi"}]},{id:"38908",type:"chapter",title:"High Affinity Polymers by Molecular Imprinting for Drug Delivery",slug:"high-affinity-polymers-by-molecular-imprinting-for-drug-delivery",totalDownloads:3278,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Mara Soares da Silva and Teresa Casimiro",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"139000",title:"Dr.",name:"Teresa",middleName:null,surname:"Casimiro",fullName:"Teresa Casimiro",slug:"teresa-casimiro"},{id:"142392",title:"PhD.",name:"Mara",middleName:null,surname:"Soares Da Silva",fullName:"Mara Soares Da Silva",slug:"mara-soares-da-silva"}]},{id:"38912",type:"chapter",title:"An Advanced Approach on the Study of Emulsion Polymerization: Effect of the Initial Dispersion State of the System on the Reaction Mechanism, Polymerization Rate, and Size Distribution of Polymer-Monomer Particles",slug:"an-advanced-approach-on-the-study-of-emulsion-polymerization-effect-of-the-initial-dispersion-state-",totalDownloads:5327,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"M. Khaddazh, I.A. Gritskova and G.I. Litvinenko",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"139066",title:"Dr.",name:"Mishal",middleName:null,surname:"Khaddazh",fullName:"Mishal Khaddazh",slug:"mishal-khaddazh"}]},{id:"38937",type:"chapter",title:"Recent Progress in Benzocyclobutene Related Polymers",slug:"recent-progress-in-benzocyclobutene-related-polymers",totalDownloads:5092,totalCrossrefCites:6,signatures:"Junxiao Yang, Yawen Huang and Ke Cao",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"139348",title:"Dr.",name:"Junxiao",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",fullName:"Junxiao Yang",slug:"junxiao-yang"},{id:"155240",title:"Dr.",name:"Yawen",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",fullName:"Yawen Huang",slug:"yawen-huang"},{id:"155241",title:"Dr.",name:"Ke",middleName:null,surname:"Cao",fullName:"Ke Cao",slug:"ke-cao"}]},{id:"38903",type:"chapter",title:"Titanium (IV) and Nickel (II) Catalysts Based on Anilinotropone Ligands",slug:"titanium-iv-and-nickel-ii-catalysts-based-on-anilinotropone-ligands",totalDownloads:2839,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Reza Sandaroos, Tomás Cuenca, Gholam Hossein Zohuri, Saman Damavandi and Saeid Ahmadjo",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"139590",title:"Dr.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Sandaroos",fullName:"Reza Sandaroos",slug:"reza-sandaroos"},{id:"141828",title:"Dr.",name:"Saman",middleName:null,surname:"Damavandi",fullName:"Saman Damavandi",slug:"saman-damavandi"},{id:"152598",title:"Prof.",name:"Tomas",middleName:null,surname:"Cuenca Agreda",fullName:"Tomas Cuenca Agreda",slug:"tomas-cuenca-agreda"},{id:"154722",title:"Prof.",name:"Gholam Hossein",middleName:null,surname:"Zohuri",fullName:"Gholam Hossein Zohuri",slug:"gholam-hossein-zohuri"},{id:"154774",title:"Dr.",name:"Saeid",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmadjo",fullName:"Saeid Ahmadjo",slug:"saeid-ahmadjo"}]},{id:"38897",type:"chapter",title:"Cationic Polymerization of Vinyl Monomers Under the Action of Metalorganic Compounds",slug:"cationic-polymerization-of-vinyl-monomers-under-the-action-of-metalorganic-compounds",totalDownloads:4016,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Alexey Lyapkov, Elena Ionova, Vladimir Bondaletov and Alexey Pestryakov",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"140091",title:"Dr.",name:"Alex",middleName:"A.",surname:"Lyapkov",fullName:"Alex Lyapkov",slug:"alex-lyapkov"},{id:"143519",title:"Dr.",name:"Vladimir",middleName:null,surname:"Bondaletov",fullName:"Vladimir Bondaletov",slug:"vladimir-bondaletov"},{id:"143520",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Ionova",fullName:"Elena Ionova",slug:"elena-ionova"},{id:"155791",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexey",middleName:null,surname:"Pestryakov",fullName:"Alexey Pestryakov",slug:"alexey-pestryakov"}]},{id:"38900",type:"chapter",title:"Synthesis of Ba1-xCaxTiO3 by Complex Polymerization Method (CPM)",slug:"synthesis-of-ba1-xcaxtio3-by-complex-polymerization-method-cpm-",totalDownloads:3249,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Fabiana V. Motta, Ana Paula A. Marques, Carlos A. Paskocimas, Mauricio R. D. Bomio, Amélia S. F. Santos, Edson R. Leite, José A. Varela and Elson Longo",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"140217",title:"Dr",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Motta",fullName:"Motta",slug:"motta"}]},{id:"38899",type:"chapter",title:"Block and Graft Copolymerization by Controlled/Living Radical Polymerization Methods",slug:"block-and-graft-copolymerization-by-controlled-living-radical-polymerization-methods",totalDownloads:9337,totalCrossrefCites:6,signatures:"Hülya Arslan",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"140539",title:"Prof.",name:"Hülya",middleName:null,surname:"Arslan",fullName:"Hülya Arslan",slug:"hulya-arslan"}]},{id:"38904",type:"chapter",title:"PolyADP-Ribosylation in Postfertilization and Genome Reprogramming: Implications for Carcinogenesis",slug:"polyadp-ribosylation-in-postfertilization-and-genome-reprogramming-implications-for-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:1529,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Tomoharu Osada and Mitsuko Masutani",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"143383",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomoharu",middleName:null,surname:"Osada",fullName:"Tomoharu Osada",slug:"tomoharu-osada"}]},{id:"38898",type:"chapter",title:"Two-Photon Polymerization Fabrication of Doped Microstructures",slug:"two-photon-polymerization-fabrication-of-doped-microstructures",totalDownloads:3175,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Daniel S. Correa, Leonardo De Boni, Adriano J. G. Otuka, Vinicius Tribuzi and Cleber R. Mendonça",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"4979",title:"Prof. Dr.",name:"Cleber",middleName:null,surname:"Mendonca",fullName:"Cleber Mendonca",slug:"cleber-mendonca"},{id:"107065",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Correa",fullName:"Daniel Correa",slug:"daniel-correa"},{id:"107066",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonardo",middleName:null,surname:"De Boni",fullName:"Leonardo De Boni",slug:"leonardo-de-boni"},{id:"107067",title:"MSc.",name:"Vinicius",middleName:null,surname:"Tribuzi",fullName:"Vinicius Tribuzi",slug:"vinicius-tribuzi"},{id:"108434",title:"MSc.",name:"Adriano",middleName:null,surname:"Otuka",fullName:"Adriano Otuka",slug:"adriano-otuka"}]},{id:"38907",type:"chapter",title:"A Survey of Equations of State for Polymers",slug:"a-survey-of-equations-of-state-for-polymers",totalDownloads:3912,totalCrossrefCites:7,signatures:"Yuri Guerrieri, Karen Valverde Pontes, Gloria Meyberg Nunes Costa and Marcelo Embiruçu",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"143327",title:"Prof.",name:"Glória",middleName:null,surname:"Nunes Costa",fullName:"Glória Nunes Costa",slug:"gloria-nunes-costa"},{id:"143330",title:"Dr.",name:"Karen",middleName:"Valverde",surname:"Pontes",fullName:"Karen Pontes",slug:"karen-pontes"},{id:"143333",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcelo",middleName:null,surname:"Embiruçu",fullName:"Marcelo Embiruçu",slug:"marcelo-embirucu"},{id:"158049",title:"MSc.",name:"Yuri",middleName:null,surname:"Guerrieri",fullName:"Yuri Guerrieri",slug:"yuri-guerrieri"}]},{id:"38909",type:"chapter",title:"Rheology - Theory and Application to Biomaterials",slug:"rheology-theory-and-application-to-biomaterials",totalDownloads:5028,totalCrossrefCites:7,signatures:"Hiroshi Murata",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"143357",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Murata",fullName:"Hiroshi Murata",slug:"hiroshi-murata"}]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3043",title:"New Polymers for Special Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd782fff3bea8992c224dfd3280d6cd1",slug:"new-polymers-for-special-applications",bookSignature:"Ailton De Souza Gomes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3043.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"135416",title:"Dr.",name:"Ailton",surname:"De Souza Gomes",slug:"ailton-de-souza-gomes",fullName:"Ailton De Souza Gomes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"38960",title:"Conducting Polymers Application",slug:"conducting-polymers-application",signatures:"Kareema Majeed Ziadan",authors:[{id:"142196",title:"Prof.",name:"Kareema",middleName:"Majeed",surname:"Zaidan",fullName:"Kareema Zaidan",slug:"kareema-zaidan"}]},{id:"38963",title:"Hydrogel Films on Optical Fiber Core: Properties, Challenges, and Prospects for Future Applications",slug:"hydrogel-films-on-optical-fiber-core-properties-challenges-and-prospects-for-future-applications",signatures:"Sergey V. Kazakov",authors:[{id:"143029",title:"Prof.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Kazakov",fullName:"Sergey Kazakov",slug:"sergey-kazakov"}]},{id:"38964",title:"Microwave Absorption and EMI Shielding Behavior of Nanocomposites Based on Intrinsically Conducting Polymers, Graphene and Carbon Nanotubes",slug:"microwave-absorption-and-emi-shielding-behavior-of-nanocomposites-based-on-intrinsically-conducting-",signatures:"Parveen Saini and Manju Arora",authors:[{id:"149897",title:"Dr.",name:"Parveen",middleName:null,surname:"Saini",fullName:"Parveen Saini",slug:"parveen-saini"},{id:"156193",title:"Dr.",name:"Manju",middleName:null,surname:"Arora",fullName:"Manju Arora",slug:"manju-arora"}]},{id:"38962",title:"Polymerization of Thin Film Polymers",slug:"polymerization-of-thin-film-polymers",signatures:"Markus Woehrmann and Michael Toepper",authors:[{id:"140469",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Markus",middleName:null,surname:"Woehrmann",fullName:"Markus Woehrmann",slug:"markus-woehrmann"},{id:"142641",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Toepper",fullName:"Michael Toepper",slug:"michael-toepper"}]},{id:"38958",title:"New Polymer Networks for PDLC Films Application",slug:"new-polymer-networks-for-pdlc-films-application",signatures:"Ana Isabel Mouquinho, Krasimira Petrova, Maria Teresa Barros and João Sotomayor",authors:[{id:"35978",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Teresa",middleName:null,surname:"Barros",fullName:"Maria Teresa Barros",slug:"maria-teresa-barros"},{id:"54274",title:"Dr.",name:"Krasimira",middleName:null,surname:"Petrova",fullName:"Krasimira Petrova",slug:"krasimira-petrova"},{id:"122246",title:"Prof.",name:"Joao",middleName:null,surname:"Sotomayor",fullName:"Joao Sotomayor",slug:"joao-sotomayor"},{id:"142973",title:"MSc.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Mouquinho",fullName:"Ana Isabel Mouquinho",slug:"ana-isabel-mouquinho"}]},{id:"38954",title:"Photopolymers for Use as Holographic Media",slug:"photopolymers-for-use-as-holographic-media",signatures:"Michael R. Gleeson, Jinxin Guo and John T. Sheridan",authors:[{id:"139817",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael R.",middleName:null,surname:"Gleeson",fullName:"Michael R. Gleeson",slug:"michael-r.-gleeson"}]},{id:"38956",title:"From Ruthenium Complexes to Novel Functional Nanocomposites: Development and Perspectives",slug:"from-ruthenium-complexes-to-novel-functional-nanocomposites-development-and-perspectives",signatures:"Karen Segala and Angela S. Pereira",authors:[{id:"142258",title:"PhD.",name:"Karen",middleName:null,surname:"Segala",fullName:"Karen Segala",slug:"karen-segala"},{id:"143174",title:"Dr.",name:"Angela",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",fullName:"Angela Pereira",slug:"angela-pereira"}]},{id:"38961",title:"Bulk Preparation of Radiation Crosslinking Poly (Urethane-Imide)",slug:"bulk-preparation-of-radiation-crosslinking-poly-urethane-imide-",signatures:"Chengfei Zhou",authors:[{id:"141573",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhou",middleName:null,surname:"Chengfei",fullName:"Zhou Chengfei",slug:"zhou-chengfei"}]},{id:"38965",title:"Oxidative Polymerization of Aniline: Molecular Synthesis of Polyaniline and the Formation of Supramolecular Structures",slug:"oxidative-polymerization-of-aniline-molecular-synthesis-of-polyaniline-and-the-formation-of-supramol",signatures:"I.Yu. Sapurina and M.A. Shishov",authors:[{id:"149374",title:"Dr.",name:"Irina",middleName:"Yurievna",surname:"Sapurina",fullName:"Irina Sapurina",slug:"irina-sapurina"}]},{id:"38957",title:"Nitrogen-Rich Polymers as Candidates for Energetic Applications",slug:"nitrogen-rich-polymers-as-candidates-for-energetic-applications",signatures:"Eric Pasquinet",authors:[{id:"146467",title:"Dr.",name:"Eric",middleName:null,surname:"Pasquinet",fullName:"Eric Pasquinet",slug:"eric-pasquinet"}]},{id:"38955",title:"Electroreductive Synthesis of Polysilanes with Ordered Sequences",slug:"electroreductive-synthesis-of-polysilanes-with-ordered-sequences",signatures:"Manabu Ishifune",authors:[{id:"141447",title:"Dr.",name:"Manabu",middleName:null,surname:"Ishifune",fullName:"Manabu Ishifune",slug:"manabu-ishifune"}]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3043",title:"New Polymers for Special Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd782fff3bea8992c224dfd3280d6cd1",slug:"new-polymers-for-special-applications",bookSignature:"Ailton De Souza Gomes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3043.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"135416",title:"Dr.",name:"Ailton",surname:"De Souza Gomes",slug:"ailton-de-souza-gomes",fullName:"Ailton De Souza Gomes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5260",title:"Conducting Polymers",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5b1132e8d69de0d37de11869d8b87543",slug:"conducting-polymers",bookSignature:"Faris Yilmaz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5260.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36900",title:"Dr.",name:"Faris",surname:"Yılmaz",slug:"faris-yilmaz",fullName:"Faris Yılmaz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5302",title:"Viscoelastic and Viscoplastic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b83c0ce566156f818b8e19bbf24366ab",slug:"viscoelastic-and-viscoplastic-materials",bookSignature:"Mohamed Fathy El-Amin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5302.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"17141",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",surname:"El-Amin",slug:"mohamed-el-amin",fullName:"Mohamed El-Amin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5365",title:"Adhesives",subtitle:"Applications and Properties",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2b4cabdd0f77b9b7ab6d38eb8392873",slug:"adhesives-applications-and-properties",bookSignature:"Anna Rudawska",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5365.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"110857",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Anna",surname:"Rudawska",slug:"anna-rudawska",fullName:"Anna Rudawska"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5904",title:"Aspects of Polyurethanes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"514b1dfa3811606d3dd5faf2c4f3ef30",slug:"aspects-of-polyurethanes",bookSignature:"Faris Yilmaz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5904.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36900",title:"Dr.",name:"Faris",surname:"Yılmaz",slug:"faris-yilmaz",fullName:"Faris Yılmaz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[{type:"book",id:"2385",title:"Polymerization",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e83b64f8e9875e507d879fede9f34d1a",slug:"polymerization",bookSignature:"Ailton De Souza Gomes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2385.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"135416",title:"Dr.",name:"Ailton",surname:"De Souza Gomes",slug:"ailton-de-souza-gomes",fullName:"Ailton De Souza Gomes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"77121",title:"Recombinant Fungal Cellulases for the Saccharification of Sugarcane Bagasse",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98363",slug:"recombinant-fungal-cellulases-for-the-saccharification-of-sugarcane-bagasse",body:'
1. Introduction
Alternative renewable fuel as bioethanol in the form of biofuel derived from biomass can contribute sources to replace fossil fuel-based conventional energy sources [1].
Cellulases are important enzymes in cellulose degradation that occurs in nature, this degradation involves a system of extracellular multienzymes and have wide application [2, 3].
Cellulase enzymes play an important role in industrial processes, representing about 20% of the global enzyme market worldwide and presenting a wide range of application, from food, feed, textile, pulp and pulp industries. An application that has been growing in recent years is the conversion of biomass into fermentable sugars for the production of biofuels [4, 5, 6].
Cellulases act on cellulosic fiber, catalyzing the degradation of β-1,4-glycocydic bonds [7] and includes three different types that act synergistically, based on classification the mode of action and specificities of the substrate, these: endoglucanases (EC 3.2.1.4) that randomly hydrolyze β-1.4 bonds in the cellulose molecule; cellobiohydrolases or exoglucanases (EC 3.2.1.91) which release a cellobiose unit and act procedurally at the end of the chain; and β-glycosidases (EC 3.2.1.21) that hydrolysis cellobiose to glucose [2, 8].
The construction of a high-quality system for the production of these enzymes is important for its application in the process of saccharification of biomass involved in the biofuel production process [9]. Current efforts have focused on fungal cellulases to transform lignocellulosic biomass into fermentable sugars that can be converted into ethanol. This process will allow the production of renewable fuel from cellulosic biomass [10].
Advances in the production of recombinant enzymes focus on the search for industrially viable microorganisms capable of producing enzymes under various conditions, expressing them in a highly efficient manner, aiming at the synthesis of several copies of genes and a strong promoter. Several species of fungi are capable of synthesizing and secreting high amounts of cellulase; most studies with fungal species use linearized plasmid, since these are encompassed to chromosomal DNA, improving its stability and expression efficiency [11].
For genetic engineering, the main expression systems are: E. coli, a bacteria classified as belonging to the Bacteria Domain, Proteobacteria philum; Gammaproteobacteria class, Enterobacteriales order and Enterobacteriaceae family, which has a high rate of development, easy to manipulate, transform and capture of plasmids, and can grow with high cell density. E. coli is generally transformed with self-replicated plasmid that does not integrate with chromosomal DNA and continues to replicate independently of cell divisions [12, 13]; and Pichia pastoris, a yeast classified as belonging to the Fungi Kingdom, Eucomycota division; Ascomycota subdivision; class Hemoascomycetes, the order Endomycetales, family Sacharomycetaceae and subfamily Sacharomycetoideae. A remarkable physiological characteristic of this yeast is the fact that it is methyltrophic, that is capable of growing in culture medium containing methanol as the only source of carbon and the ability to secrete high amounts of extracellular proteins [14, 15].
Due to the advance in the techniques of recombinant expression, the production systems of recombinant enzymes are promising strategies for the efficient production of industrial cellulase that can increase productivity in several industrial applications, including biomass in the processing of biofuels and thus meet the increasing demands of this enzyme [16].
The cost of obtaining sugars from the biomass of sugarcane bagasse for fermentation is still high, mainly due to the low enzymatic yield of fungal production. Thus, it generates the need for cellulase supplementation to these enzymatic cocktails. To resay these restrictions, molecular biology combined with recombinant DNA technology is a viable tool in enzymatic production. In subsequent topics, the production of endoglucanases, exoglucanases and β-glucosidase of fungi cloned in E. coli and Pichia pastoris will be addressed.
2. Lignocellulosic biomass
Lignocellulosic biomass is characterized mainly by the presence of two carbohydrate polymers (cellulose and hemicellulose), as well as an aromatic polymer called lignin, in addition to other components found in smaller amounts, such as ash, pectin, proteins, non-structural carbohydrates (glucose, fructose and sucrose) and lipids. Most of the biomass of lignocellulosic materials is composed of cellulose (40–50%), hemicellulose (20–30%) and lignin (10–25%) and the specific composition of lignocellulosic biomass varies depending on different factors, mainly plant species, age, growth stage and environmental factors, genetic variability, and cultivation conditions of plant material [2, 17, 18].
Lignocellulosic biomass has a complex internal structure and several of its main components also have complex structures. Cellulose and hemicellulose are polysaccharides composed of simple sugars while lignin is a complex network of aromatic alcohols. In general, hemicelluloses and lignin provide an amorphous matrix in which crystalline cellulose microfibrils are dispersed [2, 18].
Corn straw, sugarcane bagasse, rice straw and wheat bran are promising and abundant lignocellulosic raw products from plant residues in the United States, South America, Asia and Europe [19].
3. Heterologous systems
A potential tool to develop better industrial production of cellulase are techniques of heterologous expression. This technology leads to enzyme yields at an economically viable level, since it allows the creation of microbial strains that express sets of adapted and synergistically active enzymes, within a single cell or combining different strains [20]. There are a variety of protein expression systems available, including bacterial and yeasts expression systems.
For the bacterial expression system, the most used is Escherichia coli, whose genetic characteristics are already well described. In addition, it has easy of manipulation, has an abundance of commercially available strains and vectors and has great ability to express recombinant genes with high yields [20, 21, 22].
As an alternative to the bacterial system, yeasts are often used, where Pichia pastoris yeast has become the most widely used host system for the expression of many heterologous proteins with relative ease of technique and at lower costs than those of most other eukaryotic systems [23, 24, 25].
Data from the last 15 years describing the recombinant fungal cellulases candidates for cellulose hydrolysis produced in the expression systems E. coli, P. pastoris or other different systems are presented below.
4. Recombinant fungal Cellulases produced by different expression systems
Numerous study techniques have been improved in recent years for cloning, heterologous expression and characterization of cellulases (Table 1). Several studies show efficient technologies to produce endoglucanases and β-glucosidases cloned in E. coli strains.
Recombinant fungal Cellulases used in the Saccharification of sugarcane bagasse.
The Fungus Trichoderma virens ZY-01 expressed an endoglucanase cloned in a vector of expression pET-32-EG, being successfully elaborated, and expressed, in a heterologous way, in Escherichia coli and the target protein presented a weight of 39 kDa by electrophoresis SDS-PAGE [36].
A. fumigatus gene encoding endo-1,4-β-glucanase (Afu6g01800), studied by Bernardi et al. [46], was cloned in the vector pET-28a (+) and expressed in the strain of E. coli Rosetta ™ (DE3). The research results showed that the afegl7 enzyme belonged to the GH7 family, in which the Af-egl7 gene encodes the protein comprising 460 amino acids with a CBM1 domain in the 424–460 residues and molecular mass of 52 kDa.
RNA-Seq of β-glucosidase and genomic data are instruments that can be used to express T. harzianum genes for the deterioration of lignocellulosic biomass. The target gene of the recombinant protein (rThBgl) cloned and expressed heterological in Escherichia coli Rosetta was purified with high yields. The results showed a significant increase in the activity of β-glicosidase and in the filter paper cellulase (FPA). The cellulase produced by the transformers reached higher hydrolysis yield, with less enzymatic load during the saccharification of pretreated corn straw [41].
Delabona et al. [55] reported that Trichoderma harzianum overexpressed the methyltransferase of the global regulator - LAE1, in order to improve the production of cellulases, considering that the evaluation of the impact of LAE1 to induce cellulases made use of soluble carbon sources and lignocellulose and low cost in an agitated bioreactor. Using sugarcane bagasse with sucrose, the overexpression of lae1 culminated in a significant increase in the expression of the gh61b (31x), cel7a (25x), bgl1 (20x) and xyn3 (20x) genes. As a result, reduction of sugar released from the pretreated sugarcane bagasse, hydrolyzed by the recombinant crude enzymatic cocktail, obtained 41% cloned improvement through plasmid in Escherichia coli.
Two new genes of the β-glucosidases of Aspergillus niger 321 were successfully cloned in the pGEM-T vector [37]. Aspergillus fresenii (JCM 01963) Escherichia coli TOP 10 and K. phaffii X-33 (Invitrogen, USA) were used as host strains. The bgl T2-opt gene was synthesized according to the K. phaffii codon trend and constructed in the (pPICZαA vector Invitrogen, USA) with the sites of the restriction enzymes EcoRI and XbaI. This article effectively discovered a new β-1,4-glucosidase bgl T2 and its Aspergillus fresenii ORF, under the help of high-yield sequencing of the mRNA technique. Such a method is more convenient than the traditional of obtaining a new enzyme and its genetic information, as deluded in the discussion section. The bgl T2 gene was expressed by K. phaffii X33. The properties of bgl T2 were tested, including pH and temperature optimums for catalysis, pH tolerance, thermostability, effects of unusual chemicals and kinetic properties against pNPG [56].
The gene of M. thermophila coding for endoglucanase (EG) was isolated from fungal genomic DNA and then cloned and amplified in E. coli strains and, finally, expressed heterologic in P. pastoris and two basic strategies were followed for the production of EG. These strategies include controlling proteolysis through low temperature and adding numerous amino acid supplements to the culture medium. The enzyme presented high thermostability and was able to hydrolyze several natural substrates, cellobiose as the main product, characteristics that reflect its potential use in different biotechnological applications [38].
The study by Bernardi et al. [48] used the vector Pichia pastoris X-33 on to improve the characterization of an endo-1,4-β-glucanase, thermostable GH7 of Aspergillus fumigatus (Af EGL7). The kinetic parameters Km and Vmax were estimated and evidenced a robust enzyme which provided an improved hydrolysis of sugarcane bagasse “in natura”, exploded sugarcane bagasse, corn cob, rice straw and bean straw [48]. A recombinant thermoalkalin endoglucanase of Myceliopthor thermophila BJA (rMt-egl) was used in the application and enzymatic saccharine of agro residues. The gene of this codon-optimized endoglucanase (Mt-egl) was expressed, constitutively in Pichia pastoris under the regulation of the GAP promoter. It was confirmed that recombinant endoglucanase (rMt-egl), efficiently hydrolyzed industrial agro residues, which were tested, and wheat bran. The effort aims to improve the production of rMt-egl by various approaches to molecular biology and cultivation [39].
Zhao et al. [42] investigated the fungi T. reesei and Aspergillus niger with the intention of further improving cellulase production and performance in enzymatic hydrolysis. For this study, Escherichia coli DH5a was used for plasmid propagation. Agrobacterium tumefaciens AGL-1 was used for the transformation of recombinant T. reesei, constructed, and transformed into a pCAMBIA1300-PsCT vector. The vector Pichia pastoris was used for the production of recombinant CBH II by Zhao et al. [42] using a cloning vector of pUCm-T (Sangon, Shanghai, China) to obtain the T. reesei Rut-C30 and A. niger NL02. A vector pUC18-PsT containing fragments of 1.6 kb of Pcbh1-ss and 1.4 kb of Tcbh1 was used as vector structure to construct the set of DNA sequences with the expression information. As a result, a binary vector pCAMBIA1300-hph, in which it was added to this hygromycin gene, culminating in a final expression vector pCAMBIA1300-hph-PsCT. The results confirmed that the BG and CBHII genes provide a good performance in the hydrolysis of steam exploded corn pomace.
The recombinant endoglucanase (EG I) gene of Trichoderma reesei was successfully expressed in Pichia pastoris, with the objective of producing oligosaccharides from various biomass-derived substrates. Recombinant endoglucanase I (ReEG I) showed catalytic activity in relation to cellulose and xylan hydrolysis. Among several glucan and xylan substrates (paper pulp, carboxymethylated cellulose, oat xylan, birch xylan), birch xylan exhibited higher yield of xylooligosaccharides (XOS) [54].
An endoglucanase gene (ctendo7) of the fungus Chaetomium thermophilum was expressed in Pichia pastoris. The recombinant enzyme was purified by affinity chromatography with Ni2+ and subsequently characterized, through this analysis it was possible to conclude that the enzyme belongs to the family of glycosides hydrolase 7 and exhibited considerable activity against carboxytyl sodium cellulose (CMC-Na) and xylan of 1.91 IU / mg and 3.05 IU/mg in the ideal reaction condition of 55°C, pH 5.0, respectively, showed high hydrolytic efficiency in multiple lignocellulosic substrates at high temperatures [43].
The fungus T. aurantiacus RCKK was cloned in P. pastoris X-33 for overexpression. After the expression of recombinant endoglucanase (rEG), of molecular size of ~33 kDa confirmed by SDS-PAGE and western blotting, followed by determination of gel activity by zymogram analysis, the recombinant was successfully expressed in P. pastoris X-3 and bioreactor tests demonstrated that the enzyme is suitable for industrial applications [44].
An endoglucanase (TmEgl) was isolated from the solid-state culture of the ectomycorrhizal fungus Tricholoma matsutake (TmE-gl5A) cultivated in barley and vermiculite, which purified by fractionation of ammonium sulfate, ionic exchange, hydrophobic and gel filtration. TmEgl5A showed a molecular mass of approximately 40 kDa, as determined by SDS-PAGE. The gene encoding TmEgl was cloned and expressed in Pichia pastoris KM71H. These results suggested that T. matsutake produces a typical endoglucanase in solid state culture. T. matsutake presents itself as a strong candidate for the production of enzymes that degrade the cell wall of plants [52].
The unique candidate for GH5 cellulase of A. glaucus produced an endoglucanase called AgCMCase, which was cloned and expressed in the Pichia pastoris system [47]. The purified AgCMCase degraded the CMC-Na and was also able to hydrolyze the corn straw and rice to release sugar. The study showed that AgCMCase activity was retained by more than 95% after 4 h of incubation in the presence of NaCl 4 M, suggesting that it is a halotolerant enzyme. Thus, the interesting properties of AgCMCase can make it a potential candidate for industrial applications.
Recombinant β-glucosidase (EC 3.2.1.21) of Aspergillus nidulans AN2227 was expressed using buffered methanol complex medium (BMMY). Purification was performed using precipitation with ammonium sulfate and anionic exchange chromatography in the DEAE-Sephadex A-50 column. The enzyme was purified 2.58 times from the crude extract. The β-glucosidase was purified for electrophoretic homogeneity, containing a relative molecular weight of 100 kDa, as determined by electrophoresis in polyacrylamide gel, with sodium dodecile sulfate (SDS-PAGE). In the study, β-glucosidase was purified for electrophoretic homogeneity from the crude extract. The characteristics expressed from P. pastoris X33, with high-level expression, were described. The study suggests that the protein may be present in the monomeric form, with the enzyme having a good pH and temperature stability, making it an excellent candidate for cellulose hydrolysis [35].
A new bgl1 gene, which encodes a GH3 family of β-glucosidase of Penicillium verruculosum (PvBGL) was cloned and expressed heterological in the strain of P. canescens RN3–11–7 (niaD-) under the control of the xylAgene promoter. After the construction of the rPvBGL vector its properties were studied and compared with those of rAnBGL of Aspergillus niger, previously expressed in the same fungal host. It was observed that rPvBGL had an observed molecular mass of 90 kDa (SDS-PAGE data). It was possible to verify that rPvBGL converted polymeric substrates into glucose much faster than the recombinant BGL of A. niger (rAnBGL). Thus, this study showed the possibility of using rPvBGL for the construction of complex and balanced enzymatic preparations of cellulase based on the fungus P. verruculosum [49].
A β-glucosidase (BGL) of Hypocrea sp. W63 was cloned and expressed in Pichia pastoris and recombinant enzyme after purification presented a specific activity of 194.25 IU/mg. This study used C. autoethanogenum and A. succinogenes for the co-production of ethanol and succinic acid, using sugarcane bagasse as a source of fermentable sugars. The good conversion of epB-BGL suggests a great potential for the biorefining of cellulosic material [53].
Other study produced an exoglucanase (Cel6A) cloned in Pichia pastoris. The Cel6A gene was derived from Trichoderma reesei was produced synthetically, and the codon optimized for better expression in yeast P. pastoris. The gene was placed under the regulation of the GAP promoter, and the recombinant plasmid, called pLIPI-TrCel6A, inserted with the T. reesei Cel6A gene (TrCel6A), integrated into the genome of P. pastoris SMD1168H. The recombinant enzyme was successfully expressed by P. pastoris, with a main product that shows a molecular size of about 50 kDa. The recombinant Plasmid Cel6A selected was linearized with the enzyme BamHIO recombinant plasmid, pLIPI-TrCel6A, carrier of the T. reesei Cel6A gene (TrCel6A) integrated into the genome of P. pastoris SMD1168H [50].
4.1 Recombinant endoglucanases
Generoso et al. [27] using the expression system in Pichia pastoris, obtained a β-1,4-endoglucacase belonging to Glycosil hidrolases 12 (cel12a), cloned in the vector pPICZαA, isolated from the filamentous fungus Trichoderma harzianum IOCzianum-3844. The recombinant enzyme rThEGIII presented a molecular mass of 25 kDa, which is similar to the predicted mass, which is 24.6 kDa, as demonstrated by the authors. A large amount of rThEGIII was produced after 24 h of methanol induction, where in approximately 48 h, 300 mg of the purified enzyme was obtained from 1 L of medium. The optimum pH and temperature for rThEGIII activity were 5.5 and 48.2°C, respectively, similar to other EGIII already described. These characteristics indicate that rThEGIII is promising for simultaneous saccharification and fermentation, since the authors showed that the enzyme presented stability at temperatures close to ideal, lasting several days with acceptable activity.
Another recombinant endoglucanase was reported by Quay et al. [10], from the fungus Aspergillus niger ATCC 10574. The coding gene for the enzyme (EglA) was cloned in a pPICZαC vector and expressed in recombinant form in P. pastoris X-33. After purification, the recombinant protein obtained presented a mass of ~30 kDa. Based on biochemical characterization, EglA had excellent activity at 50°C and ideal pH of 4.0, with a high stability at temperatures between 30 and 50°C and pH between 2.0 and 7.0. EglA showed greater affinity in the presence of β-glucan followed by carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) with a specific activity of 63.83 and 9.47 U/mg, respectively. Significant increase in activity was also observed with the presence of metal ions (Mn2, Co2+, Zn2+, Mg2+, Ba2+, Fe2+, Ca2+ and K+). Based on these attributes, this enzyme can be signaled in order to be explored for enzymatic hydrolysis of agro-industrial residues.
A recombinant endoglucanase (MtEG7a), belonging to the family of glycosides hydrolase 7, was obtained by Karnaouri et al. [28], isolated from the fungus Myceliophthora thermophila; cloned in a pPICZαC vector and functionally expressed in the yeast Pichia pastoris. The purified recombinant enzyme (MtEG7a) was tested for its activity in relation to different substrates; where the enzyme showed high activity for β-glucan of barley (298 U/mg) and carboxymethylcelllulase (177 U/mg), also presenting activity for xylan-containing substrates, such as wheat arabinoxylan (5 U/mg). The highest activity levels were verified at pH 5.0 and the ideal activity temperature was 60°C, rapidly losing its activity at temperatures above 65°C. This study shows that the primary enzymatic activity of MtEG7 a hydrolysis the β-1.4 bonds of substrates because the activity of MtEG7a in β-1,3-glucan bonds was completely inhibited. In addition, the characteristics in terms of catalytic efficiency and thermostability of MtEG7a, makes it a good candidate for industrial applications, including the saccharification of lignocellulosic materials [28].
Rubini et al. [57], reported the isolation and cloning of the first cDNA of P. echinulatum (Pe-egl1) that encodes a supposed endoglucanase. This cDNA was expressed in a system of heterologous expression based on the methyl yeast trophic Pichia pastoris. P. echinulatum EGL1 secreted in the culture supernatant of a recombinant strain of Picchia pastoris revealed several characteristics of industrial interest, such as an optimal activity at 60°C and in a wide pH range. Recombinant P. echinulatum EGL1 is also interesting for its high thermostability.
Lahjouji et al. [58] described a cDNA of celobiohydrolase Tvcel7a de Trametes versicolor cloned and expressed in Aspergillus niger. The biochemical properties of purified TvCel7a obtained from both peaks were studied in detail. The optimum pH and temperature were 5.0 and 40°C, respectively. The enzyme is stable in a pH range extending from 3.0 to 9.0 and at temperatures below 50°C. Kinetic parameters with the p-nitrophenyl substrate β-D-cellobioside (pNPC) were 0.58 mM and 1.0 μmol/ min/mg of protein for purified TvCel7a found in peaks 1 and 2. TvCel7a catalyzes the hydrolysis of pNPC, filter paper, β-glucan and avicel in several degrees, but no detectable hydrolysis was observed when the substrates carboxymethylcellulose, laminarin and pNPG were used.
Nakazawa et al. [59] attempted to increase the specific activity of T. reesei EG III in E. coli by random gene mutagenesis using error-prone PCR followed by plate-assay activity screening. They reported that the yield in the active form of EG III was improved in transforming and the specific activity of their mutant (2R4) was increased. In addition, the stability in the pH and heat of these mutants increased unexpectedly.
Koseki et al. [60] produced an endoglucanase of the glycosyl hydrolase family 61 of Aspergillus kawachii (AkCel61) and a truncated enzyme only with the catalytic domain (rAkCel61ΔCBM) in Pichia pastoris and analyzed its biochemical properties. The proteins rAkCel61 and rAkCel61ΔCBM produced small amounts of oligosaccharides from soluble carboxymethylcellulose. They also exhibited a slight hydrolytic activity in relation to laminarin. However, they showed no detectable activity in relation to microcrystalline cellulose, arabinoxylan and pectin. Both recombinant enzymes also showed no detectable activity for p-nitrophenyl-β-D-glucosides, p-nitrophenyl-β-D-cellobiosides and p-nitrophenyl-β-D-celotriosides.
Igarashi et al. [61] report the identification of the gene encoding the endoglucanase (EG) of the family 45 (GH) of Phanerochaete chrysosporium, cloning the cDNA, determining its heterologous expression in the methylotrophic yeast Pichia pastoris and characterizing the recombinant protein. The recombinant protein showed hydrolytic activity in relation to amorphous cellulose, carboxymethylcellulose, liquena, barley-glucan and glucomannan, but not xylan. In addition, a synergistic effect was observed with cellobiohydrolase of the recombinant GH 6 family of the same fungus for amorphous cellulose as substrate, indicating that the enzyme can act together with other cellulolytic enzymes to hydrolyze cellulosic biomass in nature.
A new β-1,3-1,4-glucanase gene (designated as PtLic16A) of Paecilomyces thermophila was successfully cloned and expressed in Pichia pastoris as β-1,3-1,4-active extracellular glucanase. The purified enzyme had a molecular mass of 38.5 kDa in SDS-PAGE. It was optimally active at pH 7.0 and at a temperature of 70°C. In addition, the enzyme exhibited strict specificity for β-1,3-1,4-D-glucans. This was the first report on cloning and expression of a β-1,3-1,4-glucanase gene of Paecilomyces sp [62].
The gene encoding an endoglucanase of the glycosyl hydrolase (GH) family 45 (Cel45A) was cloned from P. decumbens and expressed in Pichia pastoris [63]. As far as we know, this is the first report of characterization of a protein of the GH 45 family in Penicillium species. The purified recombinant enzyme showed higher activity on glucomannan konjac (KGM) than on sodium carboxymethylcellulose (CMC-Na) or phosphoric acid cellulose (PASC). The highest hydrolytic activity was detected at pH 5.0 in KGM and pH 3.5 in CMC-Na, indicating that the mode of action in both substrates may be different for Cel45A. The optimum temperatures in both substrates were 60°C and about 90% of the relative activities were retained at 70° C. Products released from PASC and CMC-Na were mainly cellobiose, cellotriose. The protein with the highest glucomannanase activity can aid in the efficient degradation of lignocellulose by P. decumbens in the natural state.
4.2 Recombinant Exoglucanases
In a study conducted by Li et al. [29], a gene (cbh1) encoding a cellobiohydrolase (CBH) was isolated from the fungus Aspergillus niger NL-1. The cellobiohydrolase gene (cbh1) was successfully expressed in Pichia pastoris KM71H, presenting molecular mass of approximately 60 kDa. The amino acid sequence encoded by cbh1 shows high homology with the glycoside hydrolase sequence family 7. The recombinant cbh1 exhibited ideal activity at 60°C and pH 4.0 with Km and Vmax for CMC-Na of 13.81 mM and 0.269 μmol/min, respectively. When submitted to 2 h of incubation at 90°C, the enzyme retained more than 80% of its activity and was stable in the pH range 1.0 ± 10.0; due to moderate to high temperature stability and a wide pH range, the authors point out that this enzyme has potential in several industrial applications.
Taipakova et al. [26], obtained the cellobiohydrolase coding gene (Cel6B), belonging to the glycosyl hydrolase 6B family, lentinula edodes isolate cloned in vector pET11d and transformed into E. coli (Rosetta DE3). The recombinant protein obtained presented a mass of 46.4 kDa. However, there was the formation of an insoluble inclusion body, preventing enzymatic activity. Such a feature has been observed before, according to Chiang et al. [64], overexpressed proteins in E. coli can lead to the formation of the inclusion body. To obtain the recombinant protein in the active form, Taipakova et al. [26], denaturated with 6 M guanidine chloride. After this stage, the enzyme showed activity of 0.12 U/min, being considered much lower when compared to other celobiohidolases, however, an optimization of this expression system in E. coli has a great possibility of obtaining that of active cellulases.
The genome of the basidiomycete Phanerochaete chrysosporium contains sequences encoding at least 166 putative hydrolase glycosides, many of which are predicted to β-1,3-glucanases [65]. Kawai et al. [66], cultivated P. chrysosporium with laminarin as the only carbon source and found that several β-1,3-glucanases were secreted in the medium. The cDNA encoding a new β-1,3-glucanase with molecular mass of 36 kDa was cloned and expressed in a heterologous way in the methylotrophic yeast Pichia pastoris. Based on the catalytic activity of the recombinant enzyme in relation to various substrates β-1, 3-glucan, the recognition pattern for the branched structure of β-1,3/16-glucan is discussed: Lam16A generates non-branched oligosaccharide from branched β-1,3/1,6-glucan.
Voutilainen et al. [67] characterized three new cellobiohydrolases originated from thermophilic ascomycetes fungi. The properties of these three cellobiohydrolases were compared to one of the best characterized celobiohydrolases, T. reesei Cel7A. C. thermophilum Cel7A showed the highest specific activity and optimum temperature in soluble substrates and these properties also correlate well with its high activity in polymeric substrates.
A gene(cel4) encoding for a cellobiohydrolase II (Ex-4) Ex-4 has been isolated from the basidiomycete of the white rot strain Irpex lacteus MC-2 and successfully expressed in yeast Pichia pastoris. The recombinant Ex-4 showed endo-processive degradation activity for cellulosic substrates and a synergistic effect on Avicel degradation was observed when the enzyme acted together with cellobiohydrolase I (Ex-1) or endoglucanase (En-1) produced by I. lacteus MC-2 [68].
4.3 β-Glycosidase recombinant
Ramani et al. [32] obtained a β-glucosidase (rBgl4) of Penicillium funiculosum successfully expressed in the expression system of Pichia pastoris KM71H. The recombinant protein rBgl4, after purified presented a weight of ~130 kDa. The rBgl4 activity test at different pH showed ideal activity at pH 5.0 and temperature of 60°C. The enzyme exhibited a high substrate conversion rate for p-nitrophenyl-β-glucosidase and cellobiose, being 3,332 and 2,083 μmol/min/mg, respectively. In addition, rBgl4 demonstrated glucose concentration tolerance of up to 400 mM.
A two-fold increase in glucose yield was observed when supplemented with crude cellulase of Trichoderma reesei Rut-C30 in cellulose hydrolysis, suggesting that the recombinant enzyme is a term β-glucosidase and glucose tolerant, and maybe a potential complement to commercial cellulases in cellulose hydrolysis, ensuring profitability in bioethanol production [32].
The gene of a β-glycosidase (bglI) of Aspergillus niger NL-1, expressed in Pichia pastoris, was obtained by Zhao et al. [30]. The recombinant enzyme showed high activity at pH 4.0 and temperature 60°C and was stable in a pH range of 3.0 to 7.0 and held more than 85% of activity after incubation at 60°C for 30 minutes. The β recombinant glucosidase presented molecular mass of 121 kDa. The authors determined glucose production from avicel compared to recombinant β-glycosidase, where, without the addition of recombinant β-glucosidase, glucose yield was only 49.3%, while with the addition of recombinant β-glucosidase, glucose yield was 63.4%, 70.5% and 78.6%, corresponding to 0.5, 0.75 and 1.0 U/mL, respectively. The results also indicate that BGLI was high glucose tolerant and organic solvent, presenting higher efficiency in the hydrolysis of cellobiose than β-glucosidases. This study points to the use of β-glycosidase to improve the enzymatic conversion of cellulose to glucose through synergistic action.
Zhao et al. [31] expressed in Pichia pastoris a thermostable beta glycosidase of the thermophilic fungus Myceliophthora thermophila. The molecular mass of the enzyme after purification was 130.0 kDa the recombinant enzyme (MtBgl3b) MtBgl3b presented pH 5.0 as the ideal for activity at 60°C, and excellent thermostability at 60 or 65°C. The authors also determined the effects of some metal ions and chemical reagents on the activities of MtBgl3b, where Ca2+, Pb2+, K+, Mn2+, EDTA, β-ME and Triton X-100 improved the activity by 6.4–29.9%, while Fe3+ completely suppressed the enzymatic activity. In addition, the activities of MtBgl3b were determined in relation to different substrates, for which the enzyme had higher activity against pNPG (258.7 U mg − 1), followed by pNPC (164.5 U mg-1), celotetraosis (125.7 U mg-1), celotriosis (118.0 U mg-1), celobiosis (62.2 U mg-1) and gentilebiosis (63.9 mg U-1). These results indicate that the enzyme presented desirable industrial properties, in addition to thermostability, wide spectrum of substrates and the capacity resistant to ethanol, which makes this protein a great candidate for industrial applications [30].
A β-glucosidase from A. niger was successfully expressed in P. pastoris and recombinant produced gentileoligosaccharides from glucose. In addition, the main operating parameters of this enzymatic conversion were optimized. At 80% glucose, 60°C, pH 4.5, 1 mmol/ L K +, 60 U of beta-glucosidase per gram of substrate and reaction time of 48 h, the gentiooligosaccharides produced reached 50 g/L [69].
5. One-time expression with the new CRISPR/Cas9 system technology
In recent years, several genetic tools have been elaborated and applied in various fungi and widely shared in different sectors of the economy. However, there is still a certain limitation in the studies of functional genomics for the production of recombinant cellulases in fungi. For this logic, emerging tools stand out, including CRISPR-Cas9-based genome editing (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats), i.e., Grouped and Regularly Interspaced Palindromic Repeats, as an agile tool for genome-specific gene edits [70]. The CRISPR-Cas9 system contains two components: the effector protein, which is Cas9 endonuclease, and a single chimeric guide RNA (sgRNA). This tool was involved to allow rapid editing of the genome of several organisms, among them, some varieties of filamentous fungi [71, 72, 73, 74, 75].
However, such approaches are not as useful as those available for yeasts and bacteria, considering the complexity of fungi, such as multicellular morphology, cell differentiation, thick chitinous cell walls and lack of adequate plasmids [76]. Composing the need to establish a genome editing system that can be used to develop a hyper cell factory for preparations of lignocellulolytic enzymes and other heterologous proteins, as well as to characterize the mechanisms that regulate protein induction, synthesis, and secretion [77].
In studies with Myceliophthora thermophile Li et al. [78] used the CRISPR/Cas9 technique in five highly expressed genes encoding extracellular proteases, degrade extracellular proteins and reduce cellulase yield. The results attest that Mtalp1 is a gene that degrades protease that inhibits cellulase production. To perform this study, five genes were selected and constructed using the CRISPR-Cas9 technique, resulting in a Mutant DMtalp1 that demonstrated protease activity substantially lower than 58.4%, and may be a good initial strain for additional metabolic engineering in order to produce cellulases and other proteins.
Liu et al. [74] used the CRISPR/Cas9 system for effective multiplexed genome engineering, successfully developed in thermophilic species M. thermophila and M. heterothallica. CRISPR/Cas9 can efficiently modify the imported a mdS gene into the genome through non-homologous nhej end-mediated events. As evidence of principle, the genes of the cellulase production pathway including cre-1, res-1, gh1–1 and alp-1, were chosen as editing targets. Simultaneous multigenic fissures of up to four of these different loci were prepared with the integration of the neomycin selection marker by means of a single transformation, using the CRISPR/Cas9 system.
This genome engineering tool gave rise to several strains that exhibit marked production of hypercellulase, among which extracellular secret activities of protein and lignocellulase increased substantially (up to 5 and 13 times, respectively), in analogy with the parent lineage. In their research, Salazar-Cerezo et al. [79], used Penicillium subrubescens, which is an ascomycete fungus with a robust content of families of active enzymes specific to carbohydrates involved in the degradation of ligonocellulosoic biomass. First, a method was developed for the engendering and transformation of protoplasts, using hygromycin as a selection marker. Subsequently, the CRISPR/Cas9 system was established in P. subrubescens by successfully excluding the KU70 gene, which was directly involved in the non-homologous end of the DNA repair mechanism. According to Salazar-Cerezo et al. [79], it was possible to consider the implementation of the CRISPR/Cas9 system in the filamentous fungus P. subrubescens and the effective protocols for generating and transforming protoplasts were optimized. In this way the MUTATED KU70 gene showed no discrepant phenotypic differences with the wild-type strains reported in the study, enabling the use of these mutants as parental strains for subsequent transformation events.
Rantasalo et al. [80] made use of CRISPR/Cas9 multiplexed in combination with System (S), classified as synthetic expression producing large amounts of the highly pure calB gene; this combination allowed the production of strains in a shorter time. Rantasalo et al. [80], when using the SES tool, it was used by the calB gene indices in an inducing medium, with highly constitutive expression provided by the SES, being possible to produce approximately 4 grams of glucose per liter of calB, in a cellulase inducing medium.
Zheng et al. [81], was able to create a CRISPR/Cas9 system in Aspergillus niger for sgRNA expression based on an endogenous U6 promoter and two heterologous promoters of U6. The three u6 promoters tested made feasible the transcription of sgRNA and the interruption of the gene of polyketide synthase albA gene in A. niger. In addition, this system allowed the insertion of highly efficient genes in the target genomic locus in A. niger, using DNAs from donors with homologous arms of up to 40 bp.
One of the alternatives for bioprospecting enzymes potentially for industry and the use of CRISPR/Cas9 with non-model species, such as the fungus Huntiella omanensis, a filamentous fungus ascomycete belonging to the family Ceratocystidaceae, will allow cutting in metabolic and genetic pathways that have not yet been studied in model species [82].
However, filamentous fungi are considered the largest producers of cellulases so far, since for genome editing systems using CRISPR-Cas9, it was stipulated in more than 40 different species of filamentous fungi and oomycetes, being therefore an important strategy regarding the production of potential strains for applications in the industry [83]. Cellulases and heterologous of fungi, with great industrial potential in the manufacture of bioethanol, using one of the most efficient techniques of recent times for genetic engineering, CRISPR/Cas9. It can be concluded that this technique, combined with biotechnological advances, will result in the improvement of fungal cells capable of producing biofuels economically and on an industrial scale, resulting in higher yield and quality of products.
6. Conclusions
Cellulases are important enzymes in cellulose degradation that occurs in nature, this degradation involves a system of extracellular multienzymes and have wide application. Molecular biology combined with recombinant DNA technology is a viable tool in enzymatic production with high activity, what makes recombinant fungal cellulases good candidates for industrial applications, including the saccharification of lignocellulosic materials.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by two doctoral scholarships (88882.447813/2019-2101 and 88882.447821/2019-2101) financed by CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel). We thanks the Biotechnology Graduate Program of State University of Feira de Santana (UEFS/FIOCRUZ), Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado da Bahia (FAPESB) and CNPq.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"recombinants cellulases, fungal cellulases, lignocellulosic biomass, cellulose degradation, heterologous systems, CRISPR/Cas9",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/77121.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/77121.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77121",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77121",totalDownloads:137,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"April 30th 2021",dateReviewed:"May 12th 2021",datePrePublished:"June 9th 2021",datePublished:"April 20th 2022",dateFinished:"June 9th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Cellulases are important enzymes in cellulose degradation that occurs in nature, this degradation involves a system of extracellular multienzymes and have wide application. The construction of a high-quality system for the production of these enzymes is important for its application in the process of saccharification of biomass involved in the biofuel production process. Several species of fungi are capable of synthesizing and secreting high amounts of cellulase, most studies with fungal species use linearized plasmid, since these are encompassed to chromosomal DNA, improving its stability and expression efficiency. Advances in the production of recombinant enzymes focus on the search for industrially viable microorganisms capable of producing enzymes under various conditions, expressing them in a highly efficient manner, aiming at the synthesis of several copies of genes and a strong promoter. To resay these restrictions, molecular biology combined with recombinant DNA technology is a viable tool in enzymatic production. In subsequent topics, the production of endoglucanases, exoglucanases and β-glucosidase of fungi cloned in Escherichia coli, Pichia pastoris and other different expression systems will be addressed.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/77121",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/77121",signatures:"Raquel Guimarães Benevides, Sandra Aparecida de Assis, Alison Borges Vitor, Geise Camila Ribeiro, Cleidineia Souza de Santana and Larissa Emanuelle da Silva Almeida",book:{id:"10681",type:"book",title:"Biodegradation Technology of Organic and Inorganic Pollutants",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Biodegradation Technology of Organic and Inorganic Pollutants",slug:"biodegradation-technology-of-organic-and-inorganic-pollutants",publishedDate:"April 20th 2022",bookSignature:"Kassio Ferreira Mendes, Rodrigo Nogueira de Sousa and Kamila Cabral Mielke",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10681.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83968-896-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-895-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-897-3",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"197720",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kassio",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira Mendes",slug:"kassio-ferreira-mendes",fullName:"Kassio Ferreira Mendes"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"345903",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Aparecida de Assis",fullName:"Sandra Aparecida de Assis",slug:"sandra-aparecida-de-assis",email:"sandrinhaassis@yahoo.com.br",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"348903",title:"Dr.",name:"Raquel",middleName:null,surname:"Guimarães Benevides",fullName:"Raquel Guimarães Benevides",slug:"raquel-guimaraes-benevides",email:"raquelgb@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"348904",title:"MSc.",name:"Alison",middleName:null,surname:"Borges Vitor",fullName:"Alison Borges Vitor",slug:"alison-borges-vitor",email:"alisonborgesvictor@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"348905",title:"MSc.",name:"Geise",middleName:null,surname:"Camila Ribeiro",fullName:"Geise Camila Ribeiro",slug:"geise-camila-ribeiro",email:"gkmila_ribeiro@hotmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"348907",title:"MSc.",name:"Cleide",middleName:null,surname:"Souza de Santana",fullName:"Cleide Souza de Santana",slug:"cleide-souza-de-santana",email:"ssantanacleide@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"348908",title:"Dr.",name:"Larissa",middleName:"Emanuelle Da Silva",surname:"Emanuelle da Silva Almeida",fullName:"Larissa Emanuelle da Silva Almeida",slug:"larissa-emanuelle-da-silva-almeida",email:"larissa_emanuelle_almeida@hotmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Lignocellulosic biomass",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Heterologous systems",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Recombinant fungal Cellulases produced by different expression systems",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1 Recombinant endoglucanases",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.2 Recombinant Exoglucanases",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.3 β-Glycosidase recombinant",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"5. One-time expression with the new CRISPR/Cas9 system technology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"6. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Dey P, Pal P, Kevin JD, Das DB. Lignocellulosic bioethanol production: prospects of emerging membrane technologies to improve the process – a critical review. Rev Chem Eng 2020; 36(3): 333-367. DOI: 10.1515/revce-2018-0014'},{id:"B2",body:'Shahzadi T, Mehmood S, Irshad, M, Anwar Z, Afroz A, Zeeshan N, Rashid U, Sughra K. Advances in lignocellulosic biotechnology: A brief review on lignocellulosic biomass and cellulases. Adv Biosci Biotechnol. 2014;5:246-251. DOI: 10.4236/abb.2014.53031'},{id:"B3",body:'Bhattacharya AS, Bhattacharya A, Pletschke BI. Synergism of fungal and bacterial cellulases and hemicellulases: a novel perspective for enhanced bio-ethanol production. Biotechnol Lett. 2015;37:1117-1129. DOI: 10.1007/s10529-015-1779-3'},{id:"B4",body:'Mohapatra S, Padhy S, Das Mohapatra PK, Thatoi HN. Enhanced reducing sugar production by saccharification of lignocellulosic biomass, Pennisetum species through cellulase from a newly isolated Aspergillus fumigatus. Bioresour Technol. 2018;253:262-272. DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2018.01.023'},{id:"B5",body:'Wang H, Zhai L, Geng A. Enhanced cellulase and reducing sugar production by a new mutant strain Trichoderma harzianum USA20. J Biosci Bioeng. 2020;129:242-249. DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiosc.2019.08.016'},{id:"B6",body:'Zhang H, Hua S-F, Zhang L. Co-immobilization of cellulase and glucose oxidase on graphene oxide by covalent bonds: a biocatalytic system for one-pot conversion of gluconic acid from carboxymethyl cellulose. J Chem Technol Biotechnol. 2020;95:1116-1125. DOI: 10.1002/jctb.6296'},{id:"B7",body:'Ma Y, Han C, Chen J, Li H, He K, Liu A, Li D. Fungal cellulase is an elicitor but its enzymatic activity is not required for its elicitor activity. Mol Plant Pathol. 2015;16:14-26. DOI: 10.1111/mpp.12156'},{id:"B8",body:'Kuhad RC, Gupta R, Singh A. Microbial cellulases and their industrial applications. Enzyme Res. 2011;2011:1-10. DOI: 10.4061/2011/280696'},{id:"B9",body:'Kishishita S, Fujii T, Ishikawa K. Heterologous expression of hyperthermophilic cellulases of archaea Pyrococcus sp. by fungus Talaromyces cellulolyticus. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol. 2015;42:137-141. DOI: 10.1007/s10295-014-1532-2'},{id:"B10",body:'Quay DHX, Bakar FDA, Rabu A, Said M, Illias RM, Mahadi NM, Hassan O, Murad AMA. Overexpression, purification and characterization of the Aspergillus niger endoglucanase, EglA, in Pichia pastoris. Afr J Biotechnol. 2011;10:2101-2111. DOI: 10.5897/AJB10.1046'},{id:"B11",body:'Kun RS, Gomes ACS, Hildén KS, Cerezo SS, Mäkelä MR, De Vries RP. Developments and opportunities in fungal strain engineering for the production of novel enzymes and enzyme cocktails for plant biomass degradation. Biotechnol Adv. 2019;37:1-19. DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2019.02.017'},{id:"B12",body:'Mohammad SF, Feng Y, Yang G. Optimization of cell culture and cell disruption processes to enhance the production of thermophilic cellulase FnCel5A in E.coli using response surface methodology. PLoS ONE. 2019;14:1-16. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0210595'},{id:"B13",body:'Nawaz M, Zafar S, Shervani SK, Ray S, Buneen U, Rubab A, Kanwal M, Qandeel-e-Arsh, Khurram MF, Sajid SN. Optimization of conditions for the production of recombinant cellulase by using E. coli BL21 Codon Plus in Fermenter. Biosci Biotech Res Asia. 2020;17:173-190. DOI: 10.13005/bbra/2822'},{id:"B14",body:'Valli M, Tatto NE, Peymann A, Gruber C, Landes N, Ekker H, Thallinger GG, Mattanovich D, Gasser B, Graf AB. Curation of the genome annotation of Pichia pastoris (Komagataella phaffii) CBS7435 from gene level to protein function. FEMS Yeast Res. 2016;16:1-12. DOI: 10.1093/femsyr/fow051'},{id:"B15",body:'Pekarsky A, Veiter L, Rajamanickam V, Herwig C, Grünwald-Gruber C, Altmann F, Spadiut O. Production of a recombinant peroxidase in different glyco-engineered Pichia pastoris strains: a morphological and physiological comparison. Microb Cell Fact. 2018;17:1-15. DOI: 10.1186/s12934-018-1032-6'},{id:"B16",body:'Garvey M, Klose H, Fischer R, Lambertz C, Commandeur U. Cellulases for biomass degradation: comparing recombinant cellulase expression platforms. Trends Biotechnol. 2013;31:581-593. DOI: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2013.06.006'},{id:"B17",body:'Koupaie EH, Dahadha S, Lakeh AAB, Azizi A, Elbeshbishy E. Enzymatic pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass for enhanced biomethane production-A review. J Environ Manag. 2019;233:774-784. DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.09.106'},{id:"B18",body:'Sajith S, Priji P, Sreedevi S, Benjamin S. An Overview on Fungal Cellulases with an Industrial Perspective. Int J Food Sci Nutr. 2016;6:1-13. DOI: 10.4172/2155-9600.1000461'},{id:"B19",body:'Laca A, Laca A, Díaz M. Hydrolysis: From cellulose and hemicellulose to simple sugars. In: Basile A, Dalena F, editors. Second and Third Generation of Feedstocks. 1 ed. Elsevier; 2019. p. 213-240. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-815162-4.00008-2'},{id:"B20",body:'Lambertz C, Garvey M, Klinger J, Heesel D, Klose H, Fischer R, Commandeur U. Challenges and advances in the heterologous expression of cellulolytic enzymes: a review. Biotechnol biofuels. 2014;7:1-15. DOI: 10.1186/s13068-014-0135-5'},{id:"B21",body:'Juturu V, Wu JC. Microbial cellulases: engineering, production and applications. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev. 2014;33:188-203. DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2014.01.077'},{id:"B22",body:'Makino T, Skretas G, Georgiou G. Strain engineering for improved expression of recombinant proteins in bacteria. Microb cell fact. 2011;10:1-10. DOI: 10.1186/1475-2859-10-32'},{id:"B23",body:'Ahmad M, Hirz M, Pichler H, Schwab H. Protein expression in Pichia pastoris: recent achievements and perspectives for heterologous protein production. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2014;98:5301-5317. DOI: 10.1007/s00253-014-5732-5'},{id:"B24",body:'Araújo JA, Ferreira TC, Rubini MR, Duran AGG, Marco JL, Moraes LMP, Torres FAG. Coexpression of cellulases in Pichia pastoris as a self-processing protein fusion. AMB Expr. 2015;5:1-10. DOI: 10.1186/s13568-015-0170-z'},{id:"B25",body:'Jiménez AV, Wang H, Siegfried BD. Expression and characterization of a recombinant endoglucanase from western corn rootworm, in Pichia pastoris. J Insect Sci. 2014;14:1-5. DOI: 10.1093/jisesa/ieu104'},{id:"B26",body:'Taipakova SM, Stanbekova G, Ischenko A, Saparbayev M, Bissenbaev AK. Cloning and expression of Lentinula edodes cellobiohydrolase CEL6B gene in E. coli. Int J Biol Chem. 2011;2011:19-26'},{id:"B27",body:'Generoso WC, Malagó-Jr W, Pereira Jr N, Henrique-Silva F. Recombinant expression and characterization of an endoglucanase III (cel12a) from Trichoderma harzianum (Hypocreaceae) in the yeast Pichia pastoris. Genet Mol Res. 2012;11:1544-1557. DOI: 10.4238/2012.May.21.11'},{id:"B28",body:'Karnaouri AC, Topakas E, Christakopoulos P. Cloning, expression, and characterization of a thermostable GH7 endoglucanase from Myceliophthora thermophila capable of high-consistency enzymatic liquefaction. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2014;98:231-242. DOI: 10.1007/s00253-013-4895-9'},{id:"B29",body:'Li GQ, Chai CS, Fan S, Zhao LG. Cloning of a cellobiohydrolase gene (cbh1) from Aspergillus niger and heterogenous expression in Pichia pastoris. Advanced Materials Research. 2012;347-353:2443-2447. DOI: 10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.347-353.2443'},{id:"B30",body:'Zhao L, Zhou T, Li X, Fan S, You L. Expression and characterization of GH3 β-Glucosidase from Aspergillus niger NL-1 with high specific activity, glucose inhibition and solvent tolerance. Microbiology. 2013;82:356-363. DOI: 10.1134/S0026261713030181'},{id:"B31",body:'Zhao J, Guo C, Tian C, Ma Y. Heterologous expression and characterization of a GH3 β-glucosidase from thermophilic fungi Myceliophthora thermophila in Pichia pastoris. Appl Biochem Biotechnol. 2015;177:511-527. DOI: 10.1007/s12010-015-1759-z'},{id:"B32",body:'Ramani G, Meera B, Vanitha C, Rajendhran J, Gunasekaran P. Molecular cloning and expression of thermostable glucose-tolerant β-glucosidase of Penicillium funiculosum NCL1 in Pichia pastoris and its characterization. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol. 2015;42:553-565. DOI: 10.1007/s10295-014-1549-6'},{id:"B33",body:'Lima MS, Damasio ARL, Crnkovic PM, Pinto MR, Silva AM, Silva JCR, Segato F, Lucas RC, Jorge JA, Polizeli MLTM. Co-cultivation of Aspergillus nidulans recombinant strains produces an enzymatic cocktail as alternative to alkaline sugarcane berry pretreatment. Front Microbiol. 2016;7:1-9. DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.00583'},{id:"B34",body:'Santos CA, Zanphorlin LM, Crucello A, Tonoli CCC, Ruller R, Horta MAC, Murakami MT, Souza AP. Crystal structure and biochemical characterization of the recombinant ThBgl, a GH1 β-glucosidase overexpressed in Trichoderma harzianum under biomass degradation conditions. Biotechnol Biofuels. 2016;9:2-11. DOI: 10.1186/s13068-016-0487-0'},{id:"B35",body:'Auta R, Wusu AD, Radecka I, Hooley P. Expression and characterization of recombinant β-glucosidases from Aspergillus nidulans AN2227. Science World Journal. 2016;11:7-15'},{id:"B36",body:'Zeng R, Hu Q, Yin X-Y, Huang H, Yan J-B, Gong Z-W, Yang Z-H. Cloning a novel endo-1,4-β-d-glucanase gene from Trichoderma virens and heterologous expression in E. coli. AMB Expr. 2016;6:1-7. DOI: 10.1186/s13568-016-0282-0'},{id:"B37",body:'Auta R, Campbell A, Radecka I, Hooley P. Enzyme Assay, Cloning and Squencing of Novel β-glucosidase Gene From Aspergillus niger f321 (unidentified Nigerian strain). Science World Journal. 2016;11:44-52'},{id:"B38",body:'Karnaouri A, Muraleedharan MN, Dimarogona M, Topakas E, Rova U, Sandgren M, Christakopoulos P. Recombinant expression of thermostable processive MtEG5 endoglucanase and its synergism with MtLPMO from Myceliophthora thermophila during the hydrolysis of lignocellulosic substrates. Biotechnol Biofuels. 2017;10:2-17. DOI: 10.1186/s13068-017-0813-1'},{id:"B39",body:'Phadtare P, Joshi S, Satyanarayana T. Recombinant thermo-alkali-stable endoglucanase of Myceliopthora thermophila BJA (rMt-egl): Biochemical characteristics and applicability in enzymatic saccharification of agro-residues. Int J Biol Macromol. 2017;104:107-116. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2017.05.167'},{id:"B40",body:'Rungrattanakasin B, Premjet S, Thanonkeo S, Klanrit P, Thanonkeo P. Cloning and expression of an endoglucanase gene from the thermotolerant fungus Aspergillus fumigatus DBiNU-1 in Kluyveromyces lactis. Braz J Microbiol. 2018;49:647-655. DOI: 10.1016/j.bjm.2017.10.001'},{id:"B41",body:'Xia Y, Yang L, Xia L. Combined strategy of transcription factor manipulation and β-glucosidase gene overexpression in Trichoderma reesei and its application in lignocellulose bioconversion. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol. 2018;45:803-811. DOI: 10.1007/s10295-018-2041-5'},{id:"B42",body:'Zhao C, Deng L, Fanga H. Mixed culture of recombinant Trichoderma reesei and Aspergillus niger for cellulase production to increase the cellulose degrading capability. Biomass Bioenergy. 2018;112:93-98. DOI: 10.1016/j.biombioe.2018.03.001'},{id:"B43",body:'Hua C, Li W, Han W, Wang Q, Bi P, Han C, Zhu L. Characterization of a novel thermostable GH7 endoglucanase from Chaetomium thermophilum capable of xylan hydrolysis. Int J Biol Macromol. 2018;117:342-349. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2018.05.189'},{id:"B44",body:'Jain KK, Kumar S, Bhardwaj KN, Kuhad RC. Functional expression of a thermostable endoglucanase from Thermoascus aurantiacus RCKK in Pichia pastoris X-33 and its characterization. Mol Biotechnol. 2018;60:736-748. DOI: 10.1007/s12033-018-0106-3'},{id:"B45",body:'Trollope K, Nel DW, Volschenk H. The heterologous expression potential of an acid-tolerant Talaromyces pinophilus β-glucosidase in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Folia Microbiol. 2018;63:725-734. DOI: 10.1007/s12223-018-0613-4'},{id:"B46",body:'Bernardi AV, Gouvêa PF, Gerolamo LD, Yonamine DK, Balico LLL, Uyemura SK, Dinamarco TM. Functional characterization of GH7 endo-1.4-β-glucanase from Aspergillus fumigatus and its potential industrial application. Protein Expression Purif. 2018;150:1-11. DOI: 10.1016/j.pep.2018.04.016'},{id:"B47",body:'Li Z, Pei X, Zhang Z, Wei Y, Song Y, Chen L, Liu S, Zhang S-H. The unique GH5 cellulase member in the extreme halotolerant fungus Aspergillus glaucus CCHA is an endoglucanase with multiple tolerance to salt, alkali and heat: prospects for straw degradation applications. Extremophiles. 2018;22:675-685. DOI: 10.1007/s00792-018-1028-5'},{id:"B48",body:'Bernardi AV, Yonamine DK, Uyemura SA, Dinamarco TM. A Thermostable Aspergillus fumigatus GH7 Endoglucanase Over-Expressed in Pichia pastoris Stimulates Lignocellulosic Biomass Hydrolysis. Int J Mol Sci. 2019;20:2261. DOI: 10.3390/ijms20092261'},{id:"B49",body:'Volkov PV, Rozhkova AM, Zorov IN, Sinitsyn AP. Cloning, Purification and Study of Recombinant GH3 Family β-glucosidase From Penicillium verruculosum. Biochimie. 2019;168:231-240. DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2019.11.009'},{id:"B50",body:'Gu Y, Zheng F, Wang Y, Su X, Bai Y, Yao B, Huang H, Luo H. Characterization of two thermophilic cellulases from Talaromyces leycettanus JCM12802 and their synergistic action on cellulose hydrolysis. PLoS ONE. 2019;14:1-15. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0224803'},{id:"B51",body:'Anindyawati T, Putra R, Yuliawati, Dewi KS, Fuad AM, Sudiyani Y. Heterologous Expression of Trichoderma reesei Exoglucanase (Cel6A) in Pichia pastoris Under the Control of GAP Promoter. AIP Conf Proc. 2019;2155:020044. DOI: 10.1063/1.5125548'},{id:"B52",body:'Onuma H, Hara K, Sugita K, Kano A, Fukuta Y, Shirasaka N. Purification and characterization of a glycoside hydrolase family 5 endoglucanase from Tricholoma matsutake grown on barley based solid-state medium. J Biosci Bioeng. 2019;128:669-676. DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiosc.2019.05.012'},{id:"B53",body:'Liang CY, Xu JL, Xu HJ, Qi W, Zhang Y, Luo W, Chen XY, Wang ZM, Yuan ZH. Gene cloning and characterization of an organic solvent stimulated β-glucosidase and its application for the coproduction of ethanol and succinic acid. Cellulose. 2019;26:8237-8248. DOI: 10.1007/s10570-019-02477-y'},{id:"B54",body:'Tao Y, Yang L, Yin L, Lai C, Huang C, Li X, Yong Q. Novel approach to produce biomass-derived oligosaccharides simultaneously by recombinant endoglucanase from Trichoderma reesei. Enzyme Microb Technol. 2019;134:109481. DOI: 10.1016/j.enzmictec.2019.109481'},{id:"B55",body:'Delabona PS, Codima CA, Ramoni J, Zubieta MP, Araújo BM, Farinas CS, Pradella JGC, Seiboth B. The impact of putative methyltransferase overexpression on the Trichoderma harzianum cellulolytic system for biomass conversion. Bioresour Technol. 2020;313:123616. DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2020.123616'},{id:"B56",body:'Yang Y, Wang J, Guo H, Cao Y. The enzymatic characters of heterologous expressed novel β-1, 4-glucosidase originated from Aspergillus fresenii. Biotech. 2020;10:1-9. DOI: 10.1007/s13205-020-02229-x'},{id:"B57",body:'Rubini MR, Dillon AJP, Kyaw CM, Faria FP, Poças-Fonseca MJ, Silva-Pereira I. Cloning, characterization and heterologous expression of the first Penicillium echinulatum cellulase gene. J Appl Microbiol. 2010;108:1187-1198. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2009.04528.x'},{id:"B58",body:'Lahjouji, K, Storms R, Xiao Z, Joung K-B, Zheng Y, Powlowski J, Tsang A, Varin L. Biochemical and molecular characterization of a cellobiohydrolase from Trametes versicolor. Appl Biotechnol Microbiol. 2007;75:337-346. DOI: 10.1007/s00253-006-0824-5'},{id:"B59",body:'Nakazawa H, Okada K, Onodera T, Ogasawara W, Okada H, Morikawa Y. Directed evolution of endoglucanase III (Cel12A) from Trichoderma reesei. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2009;83:649-657. DOI: 10.1007/s00253-009-1901-3'},{id:"B60",body:'Koseki T, Mese Y, Fushinobu S, Masaki K, Fujii T, Ito K, Shiono Y, Murayama T, Iefuji H. Biochemical characterization of a glycoside hydrolase family 61 endoglucanase from Aspergillus kawachii. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2008;77:1279-1285. DOI: 10.1007/s00253-007-1274-4'},{id:"B61",body:'Igarashi K, Ishida T, Hori C, Samejima M. Characterization of an Endoglucanase Belonging to a New Subfamily of Glycoside Hydrolase Family 45 of the Basidiomycete Phanerochaete chrysosporium. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2008;74:5628-5634. DOI: 10.1128/AEM.00812-08'},{id:"B62",body:'Hua C, Yan Q, Jiang Z, Li Y, Katrolia P. High-level expression of a specific β-1,3-1,4-glucanase from the thermophilic fungus Paecilomyces thermophila in Pichia pastoris. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2010;88:509-518. DOI: 10.1007/s00253-010-2759-0'},{id:"B63",body:'Liu G, Wei X, Qin Y, Qu Y. Characterization of the endoglucanase and glucomannanase activities of a glycoside hydrolase family 45 protein from Penicillium decumbens 114-2. J Gen Appl Microbiol. 2010;56:223-229. DOI: 10.2323/jgam.56.223'},{id:"B64",body:'Chiang, C-J, Chen PT, Yeh CY, Chao Y-P. Statistical optimization of one-step immobilization process for recombinant endoglucanase from Clostridium thermocellum. Process Biochem. 2013;48:1886-1892. DOI: 10.1016/j.procbio.2013.08.022'},{id:"B65",body:'Martinez D, Larrondo LF, Putnam N, Gelpke MDS, Huang K, Chapman J, Helfenbein KG, Ramaiya P, Detter JC, Larimer F, Coutinho PM, Henrissat B, Berka R, Cullen D, Rokhsar D. Genome sequence of the lignocellulose degrading fungus Phanerochaete chrysosporium strain RP78. Nat Biotechnol. 2004;22:695-700. DOI: 10.1038/nbt967'},{id:"B66",body:'Kawai R, Igarashi K, Yoshida M, Kitaoka M, Samejima M. Hydrolysis of β-1,3/1,6-glucan by glycoside hydrolase family 16 endo-1,3(4)-β-glucanase from the basidiomycete Phanerochaete chrysosporium. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2006;71:898-906. DOI: 10.1007/s00253-005-0214-4'},{id:"B67",body:'Voutilainen SP, Puranen T, Siika-Aho M, Lappalainen A, Alapuranen M, Kallio J, Hooman S, Viikari L, Vehmaanperä J, Koivula A. Cloning, expression, and characterization of novel thermostable family 7 cellobiohydrolases. Biotechnol Bioeng. 2008;101:515-528. DOI: 10.1002/bit.21940'},{id:"B68",body:'Toda H, Nagahata N, Amano Y, Nozaki K, Kanda T, Okazaki M, Shimosaka M. Gene Cloning of Cellobiohydrolase II from the White Rot Fungus Irpex lacteus MC-2 and Its Expression in Pichia pastoris. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem. 2008;72:3142-3147. DOI: 10.1271/bbb.80316'},{id:"B69",body:'Liu L, Song Z, Zhu T, Zhang M, Wu J, Chen J. Production of gentiooligosaccharide by recombinant beta-glucosidase. Acta Microbiol Sin. 2009;49:597-602'},{id:"B70",body:'Javed MR, Noman M, Shahid M, Ahmed T, Khurshid M, Rashid MH, Ismail M, Sadaf M, Khan F. Current situation of biofuel production and its enhancement by CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genome engineering of microbial cells. Microbiol Res. 2019;219:1-11. DOI: 10.1016/j.micres.2018.10.010'},{id:"B71",body:'Fuller KK, Chen S, Loros JJ, Dunlap JC. Development of the CRISPR/Cas9 system for targeted gene disruption in Aspergillus fumigatus. Eukaryotic Cell. 2015;14:1073-1080. DOI: 10.1128/EC.00107-15'},{id:"B72",body:'Liu R, Chen L, Jiang Y, Zhou Z, Zou G. Efficient genome editing in filamentous fungus Trichoderma reesei using the CRISPR/Cas9 system. Cell Discovery. 2015;1:1-11. DOI: 10.1038/celldisc.2015.7'},{id:"B73",body:'Matsu-ura T, Baek M, Kwon J, Hong C. Efficient gene editing in Neurospora crassa with CRISPR technology. Fungal Biol Biotechnol. 2015;2:1-7. DOI: 10.1186/s40694-015-0015-1'},{id:"B74",body:'Liu Q, Gao R, Li J, Lin L, Zhao J, Sun W, Tian C. Development of a genome-editing CRISPR/Cas9 system in thermophilic fungal Myceliophthora species and its application to hyper-cellulase production strain engineering. Biotechnol Biofuels. 2017;10:1-14. DOI: 10.1186/s13068-016-0693-9'},{id:"B75",body:'Shi T-Q, Liu G-N, Ji R-Y, Shi K, Song P, Ren L-J, Huang H, Ji X-J. CRISPR/Cas9-based genome editing of the filamentous fungi: the state of the art. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2017;101:7435-7443. DOI: 10.1007/s00253-017-8497-9'},{id:"B76",body:'Graf R, Li X, Chu VT, Rajewsky K. sgRNA sequence motifs blocking efficient CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene editing. Cell Reports. 2019;26:1098-1103. DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2019.01.024'},{id:"B77",body:'van Leeuwe TM, Arentshorst M, Ernst T, Alazi E, Punt PJ, Ram AFJ. Efficient marker free CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing for functional analysis of gene families in filamentous fungi. Fungal Biol Biotechnol. 2019;6:1-13. DOI: 10.1186/s40694-019-0076-7'},{id:"B78",body:'Li F, Liu Q, Li X, Zhang C, Li J, Sun W, Liu D, Xiao D, Tian C. Construction of a new thermophilic fungus Myceliophthora thermophila platform for enzyme production using a versatile 2A peptide strategy combined with efficient CRISPR-Cas9 system. Biotechnol Lett. 2020;42:1181-1191. DOI: 10.1007/s10529-020-02882-5'},{id:"B79",body:'Salazar-Cerezo S, Kun RS, Vries RP, Garrigues S. CRISPR/Cas9 technology enables the development of the filamentous ascomycete fungus Penicillium subrubescens as a new industrial enzyme producer. Enzyme Microb Technol. 2020;133:109463. DOI: 10.1016/j.enzmictec.2019.109463'},{id:"B80",body:'Rantasalo A, Vitikainen M, Paasikallio T, Jäntti J, Landowski CP, Mojzita D. Novel genetic tools that enable highly pure protein production in Trichoderma reesei. Sci Rep. 2019;9:1-12. DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-41573-8'},{id:"B81",body:'Zheng X, Zheng P, Sun J, Kun Z, Ma Y. Heterologous and endogenous U6 snRNA promoters enable CRISPR/Cas9 mediated genome editing in Aspergillus niger. Fungal Biol Biotechnol. 2018;5:1-9. DOI: 10.1186/s40694-018-0047-4'},{id:"B82",body:'Wilson AM, Wingfield BD. CRISPR-Cas9-Mediated Genome Editing in the Filamentous Ascomycete Huntiella omanensis. J Visualized Ex. 2020;9:1-11. DOI: 10.3791/61367'},{id:"B83",body:'Schuster M, Kahmann R. CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing approaches in filamentous fungi and oomycetes. Fungal Genet Biol. 2019;130:43-53. DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2019.04.016'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Raquel Guimarães Benevides",address:"raquelgb@uefs.br",affiliation:'
LAPEM, Biology Department, State University of Feira de Santana, Brazil
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Sandra Aparecida de Assis",address:null,affiliation:'
Enzymology and Fermentation Technology Laboratory, Health Department, State University of Feira de Santana, Brazil
Enzymology and Fermentation Technology Laboratory, Health Department, State University of Feira de Santana, Brazil
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Cleidineia Souza de Santana",address:null,affiliation:'
LAPEM, Biology Department, State University of Feira de Santana, Brazil
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Larissa Emanuelle da Silva Almeida",address:null,affiliation:'
Enzymology and Fermentation Technology Laboratory, Health Department, State University of Feira de Santana, Brazil
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"10681",type:"book",title:"Biodegradation Technology of Organic and Inorganic Pollutants",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Biodegradation Technology of Organic and Inorganic Pollutants",slug:"biodegradation-technology-of-organic-and-inorganic-pollutants",publishedDate:"April 20th 2022",bookSignature:"Kassio Ferreira Mendes, Rodrigo Nogueira de Sousa and Kamila Cabral Mielke",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10681.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83968-896-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-895-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-897-3",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"197720",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kassio",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira Mendes",slug:"kassio-ferreira-mendes",fullName:"Kassio Ferreira Mendes"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"28586",title:"Prof.",name:"Igor",middleName:null,surname:"Peshko",email:"ipeshko@wlu.ca",fullName:"Igor Peshko",slug:"igor-peshko",position:null,biography:"Professor Igor Peshko is currently with Wilfrid Laurier University, Department of Physics and Computer Science, Waterloo, Canada. During his career he worked in Universities, National Labs, Government Agencies, and private companies in Ukraine, Poland, Germany, Canada, and USA. His priorities were in lasers physics, applied optics, and sensor areas. He is currently working on general concepts, hardware, and data processing algorithms of multifunctional scientific instruments. Among them: 1) instruments for extra-terrestrial research; 2) chemical identifiers; 3) field-labs for environmental contamination monitoring and for exploration of oil and gas sites; 4) medical devices for pathologies identification; and 5) mobile and stationary sensory robotic terminals for operating within security networks at high-risk zones. He has authored and co-authored more than 120 publications.",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/28586/images/3741_n.jpg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalEditedBooks:"1",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:{name:"Wilfrid Laurier University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}},booksEdited:[{id:"2231",type:"book",slug:"laser-pulses-theory-technology-and-applications",title:"Laser Pulses",subtitle:"Theory, Technology, and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2231.jpg",abstract:"This book discusses aspects of laser pulses generation, characterization, and practical applications. Some new achievements in theory, experiments, and design are demonstrated. The introductive chapter shortly overviews the physical principles of pulsed lasers operation with pulse durations from seconds to yoctoseconds. A theory of mode-locking, based on the optical noise concept, is discussed. With this approximation, all paradoxes of ultrashort laser pulse formation have been explained. The book includes examples of very delicate laser operation in biomedical areas and extremely high power systems used for material processing and water purification. We hope this book will be useful for engineers and managers, for professors and students, and for those who are interested in laser science and technologies.",editors:[{id:"28586",title:"Prof.",name:"Igor",surname:"Peshko",slug:"igor-peshko",fullName:"Igor Peshko"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}],chaptersAuthored:[{id:"21053",title:"Smart Synergistic Security Sensory Network for Harsh Environments: Net4S",slug:"smart-synergistic-security-sensory-network-for-harsh-environments-net4s",abstract:null,signatures:"Igor Peshko",authors:[{id:"28586",title:"Prof.",name:"Igor",surname:"Peshko",fullName:"Igor Peshko",slug:"igor-peshko",email:"ipeshko@wlu.ca"}],book:{id:"477",title:"Nuclear Power",slug:"nuclear-power-control-reliability-and-human-factors",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}},{id:"40171",title:"Time and Light",slug:"time-and-light",abstract:null,signatures:"Igor Peshko",authors:[{id:"28586",title:"Prof.",name:"Igor",surname:"Peshko",fullName:"Igor Peshko",slug:"igor-peshko",email:"ipeshko@wlu.ca"}],book:{id:"2231",title:"Laser Pulses",slug:"laser-pulses-theory-technology-and-applications",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"25543",title:"Prof.",name:"Vyacheslav",surname:"Kharchenko",slug:"vyacheslav-kharchenko",fullName:"Vyacheslav Kharchenko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"25634",title:"Dr.",name:"Roald",surname:"Taymanov",slug:"roald-taymanov",fullName:"Roald Taymanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"D.I. Mendeleyev All-Russian Institute for Metrology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"27760",title:"Dr.",name:"Joaquín",surname:"García-Hernández",slug:"joaquin-garcia-hernandez",fullName:"Joaquín García-Hernández",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"31036",title:"Dr",name:"Grigory",surname:"Buymistriuc",slug:"grigory-buymistriuc",fullName:"Grigory Buymistriuc",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31036/images/3911_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"32492",title:"Prof.",name:"Hash",surname:"Hashemian",slug:"hash-hashemian",fullName:"Hash Hashemian",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"34244",title:"Dr.",name:"Richard",surname:"Wood",slug:"richard-wood",fullName:"Richard Wood",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"37221",title:"Prof.",name:"Belle",surname:"Upadhyaya",slug:"belle-upadhyaya",fullName:"Belle Upadhyaya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"56271",title:"Dr",name:"Kseniia",surname:"Sapozhnikova",slug:"kseniia-sapozhnikova",fullName:"Kseniia Sapozhnikova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"115357",title:"Dr.",name:"Olexandr",surname:"Siora",slug:"olexandr-siora",fullName:"Olexandr Siora",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"115358",title:"Dr.",name:"Volodymyr",surname:"Sklyar",slug:"volodymyr-sklyar",fullName:"Volodymyr Sklyar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"publication-agreement-monograph",title:"Publication Agreement - Monograph/Compacts",intro:'
IntechOpen aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. We uphold a flexible Copyright Policy, guaranteeing that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their Work.
',metaTitle:"Publication Agreement - Monograph",metaDescription:"IntechOpen aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our authors. For that matter, we uphold a flexible copyright policy meaning that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and authors retain exclusive copyright to their work.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/publication-agreement-monograph",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
When submitting a manuscript, the Author is required to accept the Terms and Conditions set out in our Publication Agreement – Monographs/Compacts as follows:
\\n\\n
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\\n\\n
Subject to the following Article, the Author grants to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright, and any extensions or renewals of that term, the following:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
An irrevocable, worldwide, royalty-free, perpetual, transferable, sublicensable, non-exclusive right to publish, communicate to the public, reproduce, republish, transmit, sell, distribute and otherwise use the Monograph/Compact in whole, partial or adapted form and/or incorporated in, or in conjunction with, other works, in electronic and print editions of the Publication and in derivative works, and on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen throughout the world, in all languages, and in all media and formats now known, or later developed.
\\n\\t
An irrevocable, worldwide, royalty-free, perpetual, transferable, sublicensable, non-exclusive right to create and store electronic archival copies of the Work, including the right to deposit the Work in open access digital repositories.
\\n\\t
An irrevocable, worldwide, royalty-free, perpetual, transferable, sublicensable, non-exclusive right to license others to reproduce, translate, republish, transmit and distribute the Work in whole, partial, or adapted from and/or incorporated in, or in conjunction with, other works under the condition that the Author and Co-Authors are attributed (currently this is carried out by publishing the Work under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License).
\\n
\\n\\n
The foregoing licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Publication Agreement for any reason.
\\n\\n
The Author, on his or her own behalf and on behalf of any of the Co-Authors, reserves the following rights in the Work but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Work as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\\n\\n
The Author, and any Co-Author, confirms that they are, and will remain, a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\\n\\n
Subject to the license granted above, copyright in the Work and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process, including all published versions, is retained by the Author and any Co-Authors.
\\n\\n
Subject to the license granted above, the Author and Co-Authors retain patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Work.
\\n\\n
All rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the specific approval of the Author or Co-Authors.
\\n\\n
The Author, on his/her own behalf and on behalf of the Co-Authors, will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Work as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Work arising from the translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits as determined by IntechOpen.
\\n\\n
AUTHOR'S DUTIES
\\n\\n
When distributing or re-publishing the Work, the Author agrees to credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Author guarantees that Co-Authors will also credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Work.
\\n\\n
The Author agrees to:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Define the topic and title of the Work.
\\n\\t
Submit the complete manuscript; the Author assumes the responsibility for the published content, defining the sections of the Work and structuring the content and writing a foreword i.e. the introductory chapter of the Work.
\\n\\t
Submit all the corrections in due time.
\\n
\\n\\n
The Author will be held responsible for the payment of the agreed Open Access Publishing Fee before the completion of the project (Monograph/Compacts publication).
\\n\\n
All payments shall be due 30 days from the date of issue of the invoice. The Author or whoever is paying on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\\n\\n
The Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Work worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen, at its request, the original copies of such consents for inspection or the photocopies of such consents.
\\n\\n
The Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from those who might recognize themselves or be identified by others, for example from case reports or photographs.
\\n\\n
The Author shall respect confidentiality during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Author and Co-Authors are confidential and are intended only for the recipients. The contents of any communication may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\\n\\n
AUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\\n\\n
The Author and Co-Authors confirm and warrant that the Work does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Work contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy.
\\n\\n
The Author and Co-Authors confirm that: (i) the Work is their original work and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Work has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors have not assigned, and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign, any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\\n\\n
The Author and Co-Authors also confirm and warrant that: (i) he/she has the power to enter into this Publication Agreement on his or her own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) has the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Work to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licences in this Publication Agreement. If the Work was prepared jointly by the Author and Co-Authors, the Author confirms that: (i) all Co-Authors agree to the submission, license and publication of the Work on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) the Author has the authority to enter into this biding Publication Agreement on behalf of each Co-Author. The Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each Co-Author.
\\n\\n
The Author agrees to indemnify IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses, as well as all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of, or in connection with, any breach of the agreed confirmations and warranties. This indemnity shall not apply in a situation in which a claim results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\\n\\n
Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\\n\\n
TERMINATION
\\n\\n
IntechOpen has the right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Author and/or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (being a private individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (as a corporate entity) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for, or enters into, any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\\n\\n
In the event of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Author of the decision in writing.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen’s DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\\n\\n
Unless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen, at its discretion, agrees to publish the Work attributing it to the Author and Co-Authors.
\\n\\n
Unless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen agrees to provide publishing services which include: managing editing (editorial and publishing process coordination, Author assistance); publishing software technology; language copyediting; typesetting; online publishing; hosting and web management; and abstracting and indexing services.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen agrees to offer free online access to readers and use reasonable efforts to promote the Publication to relevant audiences.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors against third parties, for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements. In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Work, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement that is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen has the right to include/use the Author and Co-Authors names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Work and has the right to contact the Author and Co-Authors until the Work is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\\n\\n
MISCELLANEOUS
\\n\\n
Further Assurance: The Author shall ensure that any relevant third party, including any Co-Author, shall execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\n
Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\\n\\n
Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by, or on behalf of, the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (known as the "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of any fraudulent pre-contract misrepresentation or concealment.
\\n\\n
Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\\n\\n
Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall have effect unless it is in writing and signed by the parties, or their duly authorized representatives.
\\n\\n
Severance: If any provision, or part-provision, of this Publication Agreement is, or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted. Any modification to, or deletion of, a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\n
No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for, or on behalf of, any other party.
\\n\\n
Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim, including non-contractual disputes or claims arising out of, or in connection with it, or its subject matter or formation, shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of, or in connection with, this Publication Agreement, including any non-contractual disputes or claims.
When submitting a manuscript, the Author is required to accept the Terms and Conditions set out in our Publication Agreement – Monographs/Compacts as follows:
\n\n
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\n\n
Subject to the following Article, the Author grants to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright, and any extensions or renewals of that term, the following:
\n\n
\n\t
An irrevocable, worldwide, royalty-free, perpetual, transferable, sublicensable, non-exclusive right to publish, communicate to the public, reproduce, republish, transmit, sell, distribute and otherwise use the Monograph/Compact in whole, partial or adapted form and/or incorporated in, or in conjunction with, other works, in electronic and print editions of the Publication and in derivative works, and on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen throughout the world, in all languages, and in all media and formats now known, or later developed.
\n\t
An irrevocable, worldwide, royalty-free, perpetual, transferable, sublicensable, non-exclusive right to create and store electronic archival copies of the Work, including the right to deposit the Work in open access digital repositories.
\n\t
An irrevocable, worldwide, royalty-free, perpetual, transferable, sublicensable, non-exclusive right to license others to reproduce, translate, republish, transmit and distribute the Work in whole, partial, or adapted from and/or incorporated in, or in conjunction with, other works under the condition that the Author and Co-Authors are attributed (currently this is carried out by publishing the Work under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License).
\n
\n\n
The foregoing licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Publication Agreement for any reason.
\n\n
The Author, on his or her own behalf and on behalf of any of the Co-Authors, reserves the following rights in the Work but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Work as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\n\n
The Author, and any Co-Author, confirms that they are, and will remain, a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\n\n
Subject to the license granted above, copyright in the Work and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process, including all published versions, is retained by the Author and any Co-Authors.
\n\n
Subject to the license granted above, the Author and Co-Authors retain patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Work.
\n\n
All rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the specific approval of the Author or Co-Authors.
\n\n
The Author, on his/her own behalf and on behalf of the Co-Authors, will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Work as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Work arising from the translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits as determined by IntechOpen.
\n\n
AUTHOR'S DUTIES
\n\n
When distributing or re-publishing the Work, the Author agrees to credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Author guarantees that Co-Authors will also credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Work.
\n\n
The Author agrees to:
\n\n
\n\t
Define the topic and title of the Work.
\n\t
Submit the complete manuscript; the Author assumes the responsibility for the published content, defining the sections of the Work and structuring the content and writing a foreword i.e. the introductory chapter of the Work.
\n\t
Submit all the corrections in due time.
\n
\n\n
The Author will be held responsible for the payment of the agreed Open Access Publishing Fee before the completion of the project (Monograph/Compacts publication).
\n\n
All payments shall be due 30 days from the date of issue of the invoice. The Author or whoever is paying on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\n\n
The Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Work worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen, at its request, the original copies of such consents for inspection or the photocopies of such consents.
\n\n
The Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from those who might recognize themselves or be identified by others, for example from case reports or photographs.
\n\n
The Author shall respect confidentiality during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Author and Co-Authors are confidential and are intended only for the recipients. The contents of any communication may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\n\n
AUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\n\n
The Author and Co-Authors confirm and warrant that the Work does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Work contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy.
\n\n
The Author and Co-Authors confirm that: (i) the Work is their original work and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Work has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors have not assigned, and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign, any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\n
The Author and Co-Authors also confirm and warrant that: (i) he/she has the power to enter into this Publication Agreement on his or her own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) has the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Work to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licences in this Publication Agreement. If the Work was prepared jointly by the Author and Co-Authors, the Author confirms that: (i) all Co-Authors agree to the submission, license and publication of the Work on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) the Author has the authority to enter into this biding Publication Agreement on behalf of each Co-Author. The Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each Co-Author.
\n\n
The Author agrees to indemnify IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses, as well as all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of, or in connection with, any breach of the agreed confirmations and warranties. This indemnity shall not apply in a situation in which a claim results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\n
Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\n
TERMINATION
\n\n
IntechOpen has the right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Author and/or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (being a private individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (as a corporate entity) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for, or enters into, any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\n\n
In the event of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Author of the decision in writing.
\n\n
IntechOpen’s DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\n\n
Unless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen, at its discretion, agrees to publish the Work attributing it to the Author and Co-Authors.
\n\n
Unless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen agrees to provide publishing services which include: managing editing (editorial and publishing process coordination, Author assistance); publishing software technology; language copyediting; typesetting; online publishing; hosting and web management; and abstracting and indexing services.
\n\n
IntechOpen agrees to offer free online access to readers and use reasonable efforts to promote the Publication to relevant audiences.
\n\n
IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors against third parties, for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements. In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Work, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement that is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\n
IntechOpen has the right to include/use the Author and Co-Authors names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Work and has the right to contact the Author and Co-Authors until the Work is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\n
MISCELLANEOUS
\n\n
Further Assurance: The Author shall ensure that any relevant third party, including any Co-Author, shall execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n
Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\n
Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by, or on behalf of, the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (known as the "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of any fraudulent pre-contract misrepresentation or concealment.
\n\n
Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\n\n
Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall have effect unless it is in writing and signed by the parties, or their duly authorized representatives.
\n\n
Severance: If any provision, or part-provision, of this Publication Agreement is, or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted. Any modification to, or deletion of, a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n
No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for, or on behalf of, any other party.
\n\n
Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim, including non-contractual disputes or claims arising out of, or in connection with it, or its subject matter or formation, shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of, or in connection with, this Publication Agreement, including any non-contractual disputes or claims.
\n\n
Policy last updated: 2018-09-11
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. In the Engineering side, Digital Signal Processing, Computer Architecture, Electronics Devices, Digital Filtering and Engineering Management.\nApart from his Academic Interest and activities he loves sport especially, Cricket, Football, Snooker and Squash. He plays cricket for Esbjerg city in the second division team as an opener wicket keeper batsman. He is a very good player of squash but has not played squash since his arrival in Denmark.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"611",title:"Prof.",name:"T",middleName:null,surname:"Nagarajan",slug:"t-nagarajan",fullName:"T Nagarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Teknologi Petronas",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:6654},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5945},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:2452},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:12681},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:1014},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:17701}],offset:12,limit:12,total:133951},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"1",sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish"},books:[{type:"book",id:"11254",title:"Optical Coherence Tomography",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"a958c09ceaab1fc44c1dd0a817f48c92",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11254.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11616",title:"Foraging",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"955b60bb658c8d1a09dd4efc9bf6674b",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11616.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11632",title:"Updated Research on Bacteriophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"d34dfa0d5d10511184f97ddaeef9936b",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11632.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11697",title:"Scoliosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"fa052443744b8f6ba5a87091e373bafe",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11697.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11699",title:"Neonatal Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"e52adaee8e54f51c2ba4972daeb410f7",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11699.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11730",title:"Midwifery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"95389fcd878d0e929234c441744ba398",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11730.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11770",title:"Feminism",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"008be465c708a6fde48c8468757a40af",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11770.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11773",title:"Archaeology - Challenges and Updates",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"17d91462fa926279f65164ac0d5641cd",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11773.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11776",title:"Fashion Industry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"e8d53d1029a7bccf825aa55d43fecc68",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11776.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11794",title:"Coconut Cultivation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"48e1cb42a4162f64cae3a2e777472f21",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11794.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11797",title:"Clostridium",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"4cb066b44bb8d4a8b93a627de26e3ebf",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11797.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11809",title:"Lagomorpha",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"1e8fd5779205c16e5797b05455dc5be0",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11809.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:30},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:14},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:83},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:25},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:253},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS",subtitle:"New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ed9d96da98233a885bd2869a8056c36",slug:"serotonin-and-the-cns-new-developments-in-pharmacology-and-therapeutics",bookSignature:"Berend Olivier",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg",editors:[{id:"71579",title:"Prof.",name:"Berend",middleName:null,surname:"Olivier",slug:"berend-olivier",fullName:"Berend Olivier"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d7f2aa74874444bc6986e613ccebd7c",slug:"grapes-and-wine",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata, Iris Loira and Carmen González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg",editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11029",title:"Hepatitis B",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"609701f502efc3538c112ff47a2c2119",slug:"hepatitis-b",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11029.jpg",editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9537",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54f05b93812fd434f3962956d6413a6b",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",bookSignature:"Trudy Corrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9537.jpg",editors:[{id:"197557",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",middleName:null,surname:"Corrigan",slug:"trudy-corrigan",fullName:"Trudy Corrigan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11371",title:"Cerebral Circulation",subtitle:"Updates on Models, Diagnostics and Treatments of Related Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d3335445d2852d0b906bb9750e939f",slug:"cerebral-circulation-updates-on-models-diagnostics-and-treatments-of-related-diseases",bookSignature:"Alba Scerrati, Luca Ricciardi and Flavia Dones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11371.jpg",editors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11012",title:"Radiopharmaceuticals",subtitle:"Current Research for Better Diagnosis and Therapy",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f9046d6f96148b285e776f384991120d",slug:"radiopharmaceuticals-current-research-for-better-diagnosis-and-therapy",bookSignature:"Farid A. Badria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11012.jpg",editors:[{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9974",title:"E-Learning and Digital Education in the Twenty-First Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88b58d66e975df20425fc1dfd22d53aa",slug:"e-learning-and-digital-education-in-the-twenty-first-century",bookSignature:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9974.jpg",editors:[{id:"94099",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Mahruf C.",middleName:null,surname:"Shohel",slug:"m.-mahruf-c.-shohel",fullName:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:4422},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1677,editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS",subtitle:"New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ed9d96da98233a885bd2869a8056c36",slug:"serotonin-and-the-cns-new-developments-in-pharmacology-and-therapeutics",bookSignature:"Berend Olivier",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1337,editors:[{id:"71579",title:"Prof.",name:"Berend",middleName:null,surname:"Olivier",slug:"berend-olivier",fullName:"Berend Olivier"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1309,editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:847,editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d7f2aa74874444bc6986e613ccebd7c",slug:"grapes-and-wine",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata, Iris Loira and Carmen González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2273,editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:591,editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:515,editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11029",title:"Hepatitis B",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"609701f502efc3538c112ff47a2c2119",slug:"hepatitis-b",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11029.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:413,editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9537",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54f05b93812fd434f3962956d6413a6b",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",bookSignature:"Trudy Corrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9537.jpg",publishedDate:"June 8th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2194,editors:[{id:"197557",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",middleName:null,surname:"Corrigan",slug:"trudy-corrigan",fullName:"Trudy Corrigan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11371",title:"Cerebral Circulation",subtitle:"Updates on Models, Diagnostics and Treatments of Related Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d3335445d2852d0b906bb9750e939f",slug:"cerebral-circulation-updates-on-models-diagnostics-and-treatments-of-related-diseases",bookSignature:"Alba Scerrati, Luca Ricciardi and Flavia Dones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11371.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:341,editors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11029",title:"Hepatitis B",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"609701f502efc3538c112ff47a2c2119",slug:"hepatitis-b",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11029.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10774",title:"Model Organisms in Plant Genetics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f6624b58571ac10c9b636c5d85ec5e54",slug:"model-organisms-in-plant-genetics",bookSignature:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10774.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"213344",title:"Prof.",name:"Ibrokhim Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Abdurakhmonov",slug:"ibrokhim-y.-abdurakhmonov",fullName:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10839",title:"Protein Detection",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2f1c0e4e0207fc45c936e7d22a5369c4",slug:"protein-detection",bookSignature:"Yusuf Tutar and Lütfi Tutar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10839.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11371",title:"Cerebral Circulation",subtitle:"Updates on Models, Diagnostics and Treatments of Related Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d3335445d2852d0b906bb9750e939f",slug:"cerebral-circulation-updates-on-models-diagnostics-and-treatments-of-related-diseases",bookSignature:"Alba Scerrati, Luca Ricciardi and Flavia Dones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10696",title:"Applications of Calorimetry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8c87f7e2199db33b5dd7181f56973a97",slug:"applications-of-calorimetry",bookSignature:"José Luis Rivera Armenta and Cynthia Graciela Flores Hernández",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10696.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"107855",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rivera Armenta",slug:"jose-luis-rivera-armenta",fullName:"Jose Luis Rivera Armenta"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"243",title:"Android Science",slug:"android-science",parent:{id:"22",title:"Robotics",slug:"physical-sciences-engineering-and-technology-robotics"},numberOfBooks:11,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:139,numberOfWosCitations:554,numberOfCrossrefCitations:480,numberOfDimensionsCitations:919,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"243",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"10417",title:"Collaborative and Humanoid Robots",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd42dd44dc386e591e8ff04956762023",slug:"collaborative-and-humanoid-robots",bookSignature:"Jesús Hamilton Ortiz and Ramana Kumar Vinjamuri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10417.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"283288",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus Hamilton",middleName:null,surname:"Ortiz",slug:"jesus-hamilton-ortiz",fullName:"Jesus Hamilton Ortiz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6865",title:"Becoming Human with Humanoid",subtitle:"From Physical Interaction to Social Intelligence",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e208316a62e4ab5b042486aea682ee18",slug:"becoming-human-with-humanoid-from-physical-interaction-to-social-intelligence",bookSignature:"Ahmad Hoirul Basori, Ali Leylavi Shoushtari and Andon Venelinov Topalov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6865.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"13394",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmad Hoirul",middleName:null,surname:"Basori",slug:"ahmad-hoirul-basori",fullName:"Ahmad Hoirul Basori"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"899",title:"The Future of Humanoid Robots",subtitle:"Research and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"130ce80afc8dec281b5e15a475be5d77",slug:"the-future-of-humanoid-robots-research-and-applications",bookSignature:"Riadh Zaier",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/899.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"63414",title:"Dr.",name:"Riadh",middleName:null,surname:"Zaier",slug:"riadh-zaier",fullName:"Riadh Zaier"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1881",title:"Mobile Robots",subtitle:"Current Trends",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f1ee45d3e50f6d5295a1d8c190b646c",slug:"mobile-robots-current-trends",bookSignature:"Zoran Gacovski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1881.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"89211",title:"Dr.",name:"Zoran",middleName:null,surname:"Gacovski",slug:"zoran-gacovski",fullName:"Zoran Gacovski"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3632",title:"Human-Robot Interaction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"human-robot-interaction",bookSignature:"Daisuke Chugo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3632.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"1022",title:"Dr.",name:"Daisuke",middleName:null,surname:"Chugo",slug:"daisuke-chugo",fullName:"Daisuke Chugo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3698",title:"Humanoid Robots",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"humanoid_robots",bookSignature:"Ben Choi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3698.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"132340",title:"Dr.",name:"Ben",middleName:null,surname:"Choi",slug:"ben-choi",fullName:"Ben Choi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4814",title:"Stereo Vision",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8d18cf7b9c13e7bcd89bc9121d71f5fc",slug:"stereo_vision",bookSignature:"Asim Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4814.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"13818",title:"Dr.",name:"Asim",middleName:null,surname:"Bhatti",slug:"asim-bhatti",fullName:"Asim Bhatti"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3604",title:"Recent Advances in Multi Robot Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"recent_advances_in_multi_robot_systems",bookSignature:"Aleksandar Lazinica",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3604.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3598",title:"Humanitarian Demining",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"humanitarian_demining",bookSignature:"Maki K. Habib",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3598.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"80821",title:"Dr.",name:"Maki K.",middleName:null,surname:"Habib",slug:"maki-k.-habib",fullName:"Maki K. Habib"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3372",title:"Humanoid Robots",subtitle:"Human-like Machines",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"581c6d2ca6e91bebee1a1679c857a0c4",slug:"humanoid_robots_human_like_machines",bookSignature:"Matthias Hackel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3372.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144263",title:"Dr.",name:"Matthias",middleName:null,surname:"Hackel",slug:"matthias-hackel",fullName:"Matthias Hackel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3373",title:"Humanoid Robots",subtitle:"New Developments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"486fa33207ca761a78fee46492830ee1",slug:"humanoid_robots_new_developments",bookSignature:"Armando Carlos de Pina Filho",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24367",title:"Prof.",name:"Armando Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"De Pina Filho",slug:"armando-carlos-de-pina-filho",fullName:"Armando Carlos De Pina Filho"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:11,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"240",doi:"10.5772/4876",title:"Geminoid: Teleoperated Android of an Existing Person",slug:"geminoid__teleoperated_android_of_an_existing_person",totalDownloads:4428,totalCrossrefCites:82,totalDimensionsCites:135,abstract:null,book:{id:"3373",slug:"humanoid_robots_new_developments",title:"Humanoid Robots",fullTitle:"Humanoid Robots: New Developments"},signatures:"Shuichi Nishio, Hiroshi Ishiguro and Norihiro Hagita",authors:[{id:"11981",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Ishiguro",slug:"hiroshi-ishiguro",fullName:"Hiroshi Ishiguro"}]},{id:"172",doi:"10.5772/4808",title:"Limit Cycle Walking",slug:"limit_cycle_walking",totalDownloads:5105,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:99,abstract:null,book:{id:"3372",slug:"humanoid_robots_human_like_machines",title:"Humanoid Robots",fullTitle:"Humanoid Robots, Human-like Machines"},signatures:"Daan G.E. Hobbelen and Martijn Wisse",authors:null},{id:"5767",doi:"10.5772/5898",title:"A Performance Review of 3D TOF Vision Systems in Comparison to Stereo Vision Systems",slug:"a_performance_review_of_3d_tof_vision_systems_in_comparison_to_stereo_vision_systems",totalDownloads:6188,totalCrossrefCites:28,totalDimensionsCites:52,abstract:null,book:{id:"4814",slug:"stereo_vision",title:"Stereo Vision",fullTitle:"Stereo Vision"},signatures:"Stephan Hussmann, Thorsten Ringbeck and Bianca Hagebeuker",authors:null},{id:"8629",doi:"10.5772/8140",title:"Improving Human-Robot Interaction through Interface Evolution",slug:"improving-human-robot-interaction-through-interface-evolution",totalDownloads:2783,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:39,abstract:null,book:{id:"3632",slug:"human-robot-interaction",title:"Human-Robot Interaction",fullTitle:"Human-Robot Interaction"},signatures:"Brenden Keyes, Mark Micire, Jill L. Drury and Holly A. Yanco",authors:null},{id:"8632",doi:"10.5772/8143",title:"Robot-Aided Learning and r-Learning Services",slug:"robot-aided-learning-and-r-learning-services",totalDownloads:2937,totalCrossrefCites:28,totalDimensionsCites:39,abstract:null,book:{id:"3632",slug:"human-robot-interaction",title:"Human-Robot Interaction",fullTitle:"Human-Robot Interaction"},signatures:"Jeonghye Han",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"177",title:"Towards an Interactive Humanoid Companion with Visual Tracking Modalities",slug:"towards_an_interactive_humanoid_companion_with_visual_tracking_modalities",totalDownloads:3121,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"3372",slug:"humanoid_robots_human_like_machines",title:"Humanoid Robots",fullTitle:"Humanoid Robots, Human-like Machines"},signatures:"Paulo Menezes, Frederic Lerasle, Jorge Dias and Thierry Germa",authors:null},{id:"68781",title:"Electromechanical Analysis (MEMS) of a Capacitive Pressure Sensor of a Neuromate Robot Probe",slug:"electromechanical-analysis-mems-of-a-capacitive-pressure-sensor-of-a-neuromate-robot-probe",totalDownloads:756,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The domain of medicine, especially neurosurgery, is very concerned in the integration of robots in many procedures. In this work, we are interested in the Neuromate robot. The latter uses the procedure of stereotaxic surgery but with better planning, greater precision and simpler execution. The Neuromate robot allows in particular the registration with intraoperative images (ventriculographies, and especially angiographies) in order to perfect the planning. In this book, we focus on the contact force measurement system required for the effectiveness of the stimulation between the robot probe and the patient’s head and thus ensure the safety of the patient. A force sensor is integrated upstream of the wrist, the pressure sensor is part of a silicon matrix that has been bonded to a metal plate at 70°C. The study was carried out under the software COMSOL Multiphysics, ideally suited for the simulation of applications (Microelectromechanical systems) “MEMS”. After electromechanical stationary survey, deflection of the quadrant when the pressure difference across the membrane was 25 kPa, as expected, the deviation was expected to be greatest at the center of the membrane. The proposed sensor structure is a suitable selection for MEMS capacitive pressure sensors.",book:{id:"6865",slug:"becoming-human-with-humanoid-from-physical-interaction-to-social-intelligence",title:"Becoming Human with Humanoid",fullTitle:"Becoming Human with Humanoid - From Physical Interaction to Social Intelligence"},signatures:"Hacene Ameddah",authors:[{id:"302678",title:"Dr.",name:"Hacene",middleName:null,surname:"Ameddah",slug:"hacene-ameddah",fullName:"Hacene Ameddah"}]},{id:"70653",title:"Living and Interacting with Robots: Engaging Users in the Development of a Mobile Robot",slug:"living-and-interacting-with-robots-engaging-users-in-the-development-of-a-mobile-robot",totalDownloads:814,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Mobile robots such as Aldebaran’s humanoid Pepper currently find their way into society. Many research projects already try to match humanoid robots with humans by letting them assist, e.g., in geriatric care or simply for purposes of keeping company or entertainment. However, many of these projects deal with acceptance issues that come with a new type of interaction between humans and robots. These issues partly originate from different types of robot locomotion, limited human-like behaviour as well as limited functionalities in general. At the same time, animal-type robots—quadrupeds such as Boston Dynamic’s WildCat—and underactuated robots are on the rise and present social scientists with new challenges such as the concept of uncanny valley. The possible positive aspects of the unusual cooperations and interactions, however, are mostly pushed into the background. This paper describes an approach of a project at a research institution in Germany that aims at developing a setting of human–robot-interaction and collaboration that engages the designated users in the whole process.",book:{id:"6865",slug:"becoming-human-with-humanoid-from-physical-interaction-to-social-intelligence",title:"Becoming Human with Humanoid",fullTitle:"Becoming Human with Humanoid - From Physical Interaction to Social Intelligence"},signatures:"Valerie Varney, Christoph Henke and Daniela Janssen",authors:[{id:"299092",title:"Dr.",name:"Valerie",middleName:null,surname:"Varney (neé Stehling)",slug:"valerie-varney-(nee-stehling)",fullName:"Valerie Varney (neé Stehling)"},{id:"299578",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniela",middleName:null,surname:"Janssen",slug:"daniela-janssen",fullName:"Daniela Janssen"},{id:"299580",title:"MSc.",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Henke",slug:"christoph-henke",fullName:"Christoph Henke"}]},{id:"66784",title:"Physical Interaction and Control of Robotic Systems Using Hardware-in-the-Loop Simulation",slug:"physical-interaction-and-control-of-robotic-systems-using-hardware-in-the-loop-simulation",totalDownloads:987,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Robotic systems used in industries and other complex applications need huge investment, and testing of them under robust conditions are highly challenging. Controlling and testing of such systems can be done with ease with the support of hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) simulation technique and it saves lot of time and resources. The chapter deals on the various interaction methods of robotic systems with physical environments using tactile, force, and vision sensors. It also discusses about the usage of hardware-in-the-loop technique for testing of grasp and task control algorithms in the model of robotic systems. The chapter also elaborates on usage of hardware and software platforms for implementing the control algorithms for performing physical interaction. Finally, the chapter summarizes with the case study of HIL implementation of the control algorithms in Texas Instruments (TI) C2000 microcontroller, interacting with model of Kuka’s youBot Mobile Manipulator. The mathematical model is developed using MATLAB software and the virtual animation setup of the robot is developed using the Virtual Robot Experimentation Platform (V-REP) robot simulator. By actuating the Kuka’s youBot mobile manipulator in the V-REP tool, it is observed to produce a tracking accuracy of 92% for physical interaction and object handling tasks.",book:{id:"6865",slug:"becoming-human-with-humanoid-from-physical-interaction-to-social-intelligence",title:"Becoming Human with Humanoid",fullTitle:"Becoming Human with Humanoid - From Physical Interaction to Social Intelligence"},signatures:"Senthil Kumar Jagatheesa Perumal and Sivasankar Ganesan",authors:[{id:"266892",title:"Dr.",name:"Senthil Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"J",slug:"senthil-kumar-j",fullName:"Senthil Kumar J"},{id:"266898",title:"Prof.",name:"Sivasankar",middleName:null,surname:"G",slug:"sivasankar-g",fullName:"Sivasankar G"}]},{id:"163",title:"Artificial Muscles for Humanoid Robots",slug:"artificial_muscles_for_humanoid_robots",totalDownloads:10430,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:null,book:{id:"3372",slug:"humanoid_robots_human_like_machines",title:"Humanoid Robots",fullTitle:"Humanoid Robots, Human-like Machines"},signatures:"Bertrand Tondu",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"243",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:18,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 23rd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:0,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. Her publications cover a wide range of scientific and technical research publications that include edited books, book chapters, refereed journals, refereed conference papers and reports for local, state and federal government clients. She has also produced podcasts for various organisations and participated in media interviews. She has received state, national and international funding worth over USD $25 million. Usha has been awarded the Quarterly Franklin Membership by London Journals Press (UK). Her biography has been included in the Marquis Who's Who in the World® 2018, 2016 (33rd Edition), along with approximately 55,000 of the most accomplished men and women from around the world, including luminaries as U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. In 2017, Usha was awarded the Marquis Who’s Who Lifetime Achiever Award.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"RMIT University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/91.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11975,editor:{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181603/images/system/181603.jpg",biography:"Antonella Petrillo is a Professor at the Department of Engineering of the University of Naples “Parthenope”, Italy. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino. Her research interests include multi-criteria decision analysis, industrial plant, logistics, manufacturing and safety. She serves as an Associate Editor for the International Journal of the Analytic Hierarchy Process. She is a member of AHP Academy and a member of several editorial boards. She has over 160 Scientific Publications in International Journals and Conferences and she is the author of 5 books on Innovation and Decision Making in Industrial Applications and Engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Parthenope University of Naples",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"92",title:"Health and Wellbeing",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/92.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11976,editor:{id:"348225",title:"Prof.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Hemingway",slug:"ann-hemingway",fullName:"Ann Hemingway",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035LZFoQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-11T14:55:40.jpg",biography:"Professor Hemingway is a public health researcher, Bournemouth University, undertaking international and UK research focused on reducing inequalities in health outcomes for marginalised and excluded populations and more recently focused on equine assisted interventions.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bournemouth University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"93",title:"Inclusivity and Social Equity",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/93.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11977,editor:{id:"210060",title:"Prof. Dr.",name:"Ebba",middleName:null,surname:"Ossiannilsson",slug:"ebba-ossiannilsson",fullName:"Ebba Ossiannilsson",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6LkBQAU/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:31:48.png",biography:"Professor Dr. Ebba Ossiannilsson is an independent researcher, expert, consultant, quality auditor and influencer in the fields of open, flexible online and distance learning (OFDL) and the 'new normal'. Her focus is on quality, innovation, leadership, and personalised learning. She works primarily at the strategic and policy levels, both nationally and internationally, and with key international organisations. She is committed to promoting and improving OFDL in the context of SDG4 and the future of education. Ossiannilsson has more than 20 years of experience in her current field, but more than 40 years in the education sector. She works as a reviewer and expert for the European Commission and collaborates with the Joint Research Centre for Quality in Open Education. Ossiannilsson also collaborates with ITCILO and ICoBC (International Council on Badges and Credentials). She is a member of the ICDE Board of Directors and has previously served on the boards of EDEN and EUCEN. Ossiannilsson is a quality expert and reviewer for ICDE, EDEN and the EADTU. She chairs the ICDE OER Advocacy Committee and is a member of the ICDE Quality Network. She is regularly invited as a keynote speaker at conferences. She is a guest editor for several special issues and a member of the editorial board of several scientific journals. She has published more than 200 articles and is currently working on book projects in the field of OFDL. Ossiannilsson is a visiting professor at several international universities and was recently appointed Professor and Research Fellow at Victoria University of Wellington, NZ. Ossiannilsson has been awarded the following fellowships: EDEN Fellows, EDEN Council of Fellows, and Open Education Europe. She is a ICDE OER Ambassador, Open Education Europe Ambassador, GIZ Ambassador for Quality in Digital Learning, and part of the Globe-Community of Digital Learning and Champion of SPARC Europe. On a national level, she is a quality developer at the Swedish Institute for Standards (SIS) and for ISO. She is a member of the Digital Skills and Jobs Coalition Sweden and Vice President of the Swedish Association for Distance Education. She is currently working on a government initiative on quality in distance education at the National Council for Higher Education. She holds a Ph.D. from the University of Oulu, Finland.",institutionString:"Swedish Association for Distance Education, Sweden",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"94",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/94.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11978,editor:{id:"61855",title:"Dr.",name:"Yixin",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yixin-zhang",fullName:"Yixin Zhang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYWJgQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-06-09T11:36:35.jpg",biography:"Professor Yixin Zhang is an aquatic ecologist with over 30 years of research and teaching experience in three continents (Asia, Europe, and North America) in Stream Ecology, Riparian Ecology, Urban Ecology, and Ecosystem Restoration and Aquatic Conservation, Human-Nature Interactions and Sustainability, Urbanization Impact on Aquatic Ecosystems. He got his Ph.D. in Animal Ecology at Umeå University in Sweden in 1998. He conducted postdoc research in stream ecology at the University of California at Santa Barbara in the USA. After that, he was a postdoc research fellow at the University of British Columbia in Canada to do research on large-scale stream experimental manipulation and watershed ecological survey in temperate rainforests of BC. He was a faculty member at the University of Hong Kong to run ecological research projects on aquatic insects, fishes, and newts in Tropical Asian streams. He also conducted research in streams, rivers, and caves in Texas, USA, to study the ecology of macroinvertebrates, big-claw river shrimp, fish, turtles, and bats. Current research interests include trophic flows across ecosystems; watershed impacts of land-use change on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning; ecological civilization and water resource management; urban ecology and urban/rural sustainable development.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Soochow University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"95",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/95.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11979,editor:{id:"181079",title:"Dr.",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Lüthi",slug:"christoph-luthi",fullName:"Christoph Lüthi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHSqQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-12T15:51:33.png",biography:"Dr. Christoph Lüthi is an urban infrastructure planner with over 25 years of experience in planning and design of urban infrastructure in middle and low-income countries. He holds a Master’s Degree in Urban Development Planning from the University College of London (UCL), and a Ph.D. in Urban Planning & Engineering from TU Berlin. He has conducted applied research on urban planning and infrastructure issues in over 20 countries in Africa and Asia. In 2005 he joined Eawag-Sandec as Leader of the Strategic Environmental Sanitation Planning Group. Since 2015 he heads the research department Sanitation, Water and Solid Waste for Development (Sandec) at the Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Research and Technology (Eawag).",institutionString:"Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Switzerland",institution:null},editorTwo:{id:"290571",title:"Dr.",name:"Rui Alexandre",middleName:null,surname:"Castanho",slug:"rui-alexandre-castanho",fullName:"Rui Alexandre Castanho",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/290571/images/system/290571.jpg",biography:"Rui Alexandre Castanho has a master\\'s degree in Planning, Audit, and Control in Urban Green Spaces and an international Ph.D. in Sustainable Planning in Borderlands. Currently, he is a professor at WSB University, Poland, and a visiting professor at the University of Johannesburg, South Africa. Dr. Castanho is a post-doc researcher on the GREAT Project, University of Azores, Ponta Delgada, Portugal. He collaborates with the Environmental Resources Analysis Research Group (ARAM), University of Extremadura (UEx), Spain; VALORIZA - Research Center for the Enhancement of Endogenous Resources, Polytechnic Institute of Portalegre (IPP), Portugal; Centre for Tourism Research, Development and Innovation (CITUR), Madeira, Portugal; and AQUAGEO Research Group, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Brazil.",institutionString:"University of Johannesburg, South Africa and WSB University, Poland",institution:{name:"University of Johannesburg",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:14,paginationItems:[{id:"82248",title:"Sustainability and Excellence: Pillars for Business Survival",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105420",signatures:"Irina Severin, Maria Cristina Dijmarescu and Mihai Caramihai",slug:"sustainability-and-excellence-pillars-for-business-survival",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Globalization and Sustainability - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Emerging Issues",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11476.jpg",subseries:{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society"}}},{id:"82124",title:"Assessment of Diversity, Growth Characteristics and Aboveground Biomass of Tree Species in Selected Urban Green Areas of Osogbo, Osun State",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104982",signatures:"Omolara Aremu, Olusola O. Adetoro and Olusegun Awotoye",slug:"assessment-of-diversity-growth-characteristics-and-aboveground-biomass-of-tree-species-in-selected-u",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Forest Degradation Under Global Change",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11457.jpg",subseries:{id:"94",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability"}}},{id:"81975",title:"Self-Sustained Communities: Food Security in Times of Crisis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104425",signatures:"Kriengsak Chareonwongsak",slug:"self-sustained-communities-food-security-in-times-of-crisis",totalDownloads:11,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Food Systems Resilience",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10897.jpg",subseries:{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society"}}},{id:"81920",title:"Rethinking an Approach for Sustainable Globalization",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105141",signatures:"Parakram Pyakurel",slug:"rethinking-an-approach-for-sustainable-globalization",totalDownloads:21,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Globalization and Sustainability - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Emerging Issues",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11476.jpg",subseries:{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:0,paginationItems:[]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"11475",title:"Food Security Challenges and Approaches",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11475.jpg",hash:"090302a30e461cee643ec49675c811ec",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 5th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"292145",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Haseeb Ahmad",slug:"muhammad-haseeb-ahmad",fullName:"Muhammad Haseeb Ahmad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11450",title:"Environmental Impacts of COVID-19 Pandemic on the World",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11450.jpg",hash:"a58c7b02d07903004be70f744f2e1835",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 10th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11477",title:"Public Economics - New Perspectives and Uncertainty",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11477.jpg",hash:"a8e6c515dc924146fbd2712eb4e7d118",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 27th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"414400",title:"Dr.",name:"Habtamu",surname:"Alem",slug:"habtamu-alem",fullName:"Habtamu Alem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11457",title:"Forest Degradation Under Global Change",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11457.jpg",hash:"8df7150b01ae754024c65d1a62f190d9",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"June 1st 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"317087",title:"Dr.",name:"Pavel",surname:"Samec",slug:"pavel-samec",fullName:"Pavel Samec"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11474",title:"Quality of Life Interventions - Magnitude of Effect and Transferability",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11474.jpg",hash:"5a6bcdaf5ee144d043bcdab893ff9e1c",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"July 7th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"245319",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sage",surname:"Arbor",slug:"sage-arbor",fullName:"Sage Arbor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11473",title:"Social Inequality - Structure and Social Processes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11473.jpg",hash:"cefab077e403fd1695fb2946e7914942",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"July 13th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"313341",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yaroslava",surname:"Robles-Bykbaev",slug:"yaroslava-robles-bykbaev",fullName:"Yaroslava Robles-Bykbaev"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:19,paginationItems:[{id:"82196",title:"Multi-Features Assisted Age Invariant Face Recognition and Retrieval Using CNN with Scale Invariant Heat Kernel Signature",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104944",signatures:"Kamarajugadda Kishore Kumar and Movva Pavani",slug:"multi-features-assisted-age-invariant-face-recognition-and-retrieval-using-cnn-with-scale-invariant-",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"82063",title:"Evaluating Similarities and Differences between Machine Learning and Traditional Statistical Modeling in Healthcare Analytics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105116",signatures:"Michele Bennett, Ewa J. Kleczyk, Karin Hayes and Rajesh Mehta",slug:"evaluating-similarities-and-differences-between-machine-learning-and-traditional-statistical-modelin",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11422.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"81791",title:"Self-Supervised Contrastive Representation Learning in Computer Vision",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104785",signatures:"Yalin Bastanlar and Semih Orhan",slug:"self-supervised-contrastive-representation-learning-in-computer-vision",totalDownloads:23,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"79345",title:"Application of Jump Diffusion Models in Insurance Claim Estimation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99853",signatures:"Leonard Mushunje, Chiedza Elvina Mashiri, Edina Chandiwana and Maxwell Mashasha",slug:"application-of-jump-diffusion-models-in-insurance-claim-estimation-1",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Data Clustering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10820.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"81557",title:"Object Tracking Using Adapted Optical Flow",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102863",signatures:"Ronaldo Ferreira, Joaquim José de Castro Ferreira and António José Ribeiro Neves",slug:"object-tracking-using-adapted-optical-flow",totalDownloads:15,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Information Extraction and Object Tracking in Digital Video",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg",subseries:{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision"}}},{id:"81558",title:"Thresholding Image Techniques for Plant Segmentation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104587",signatures:"Miguel Ángel Castillo-Martínez, Francisco Javier Gallegos-Funes, Blanca E. Carvajal-Gámez, Guillermo Urriolagoitia-Sosa and Alberto J. Rosales-Silva",slug:"thresholding-image-techniques-for-plant-segmentation",totalDownloads:20,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Information Extraction and Object Tracking in Digital Video",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg",subseries:{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision"}}},{id:"81471",title:"Semantic Map: Bringing Together Groups and Discourses",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103818",signatures:"Theodore Chadjipadelis and Georgia Panagiotidou",slug:"semantic-map-bringing-together-groups-and-discourses",totalDownloads:19,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Data Clustering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10820.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"79491",title:"Fuzzy Perceptron Learning for Non-Linearly Separable Patterns",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101312",signatures:"Raja Kishor Duggirala",slug:"fuzzy-perceptron-learning-for-non-linearly-separable-patterns",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Raja Kishor",surname:"Duggirala"}],book:{title:"Data Clustering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10820.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"81234",title:"Cognitive Visual Tracking of Hand Gestures in Real-Time RGB Videos",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103170",signatures:"Richa Golash and Yogendra Kumar Jain",slug:"cognitive-visual-tracking-of-hand-gestures-in-real-time-rgb-videos",totalDownloads:38,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Information Extraction and Object Tracking in Digital Video",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg",subseries:{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision"}}},{id:"81331",title:"Machine Learning Algorithm-Based Contraceptive Practice among Ever-Married Women in Bangladesh: A Hierarchical Machine Learning Classification Approach",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103187",signatures:"Iqramul Haq, Md. Ismail Hossain, Md. Moshiur Rahman, Md. Injamul Haq Methun, Ashis Talukder, Md. Jakaria Habib and Md. Sanwar Hossain",slug:"machine-learning-algorithm-based-contraceptive-practice-among-ever-married-women-in-bangladesh-a-hie",totalDownloads:20,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11422.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}}]},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[{caption:"Applied Intelligence",value:22,count:1,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Computer Vision",value:24,count:8,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",value:26,count:10,group:"subseries"}],publishedBooks:{paginationCount:11,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"10795",title:"Plant Stress Physiology",subtitle:"Perspectives in Agriculture",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10795.jpg",slug:"plant-stress-physiology-perspectives-in-agriculture",publishedDate:"April 28th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman and Kamran Nahar",hash:"c5a7932b74fe612b256bf95d0709756e",volumeInSeries:11,fullTitle:"Plant Stress Physiology - Perspectives in Agriculture",editors:[{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7999",title:"Free Radical Medicine and Biology",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7999.jpg",slug:"free-radical-medicine-and-biology",publishedDate:"July 15th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Kusal Das, Swastika Das, Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar, Varaprasad Bobbarala and S. Subba Tata",hash:"083e5d427097d368a3f8a02bd6c76bf8",volumeInSeries:10,fullTitle:"Free Radical Medicine and Biology",editors:[{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8762",title:"Melatonin",subtitle:"The Hormone of Darkness and its Therapeutic Potential and Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8762.jpg",slug:"melatonin-the-hormone-of-darkness-and-its-therapeutic-potential-and-perspectives",publishedDate:"June 24th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Marilena Vlachou",hash:"bfbc5538173f11acb0f9549a85b70489",volumeInSeries:9,fullTitle:"Melatonin - The Hormone of Darkness and its Therapeutic Potential and Perspectives",editors:[{id:"246279",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Marilena",middleName:null,surname:"Vlachou",slug:"marilena-vlachou",fullName:"Marilena Vlachou",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246279/images/system/246279.jpg",institutionString:"National and Kapodistrian University of Athens",institution:{name:"National and Kapodistrian University of Athens",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8002",title:"Tumor Progression and Metastasis",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8002.jpg",slug:"tumor-progression-and-metastasis",publishedDate:"April 8th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Ahmed Lasfar and Karine Cohen-Solal",hash:"db17b0fe0a9b6e80ff02b81a93bafa4e",volumeInSeries:8,fullTitle:"Tumor Progression and Metastasis",editors:[{id:"32546",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Lasfar",slug:"ahmed-lasfar",fullName:"Ahmed Lasfar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32546/images/system/32546.png",institutionString:"Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey",institution:{name:"Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"6897",title:"Biophysical Chemistry",subtitle:"Advance Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6897.jpg",slug:"biophysical-chemistry-advance-applications",publishedDate:"February 19th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mohammed A. A. Khalid",hash:"0ad18ab382e2ffb9ff202d15282297eb",volumeInSeries:7,fullTitle:"Biophysical Chemistry - Advance Applications",editors:[{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8430",title:"Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disorder",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8430.jpg",slug:"neurodevelopment-and-neurodevelopmental-disorder",publishedDate:"November 27th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Michael Fitzgerald",hash:"696c96d038de473216e48b199613c111",volumeInSeries:6,fullTitle:"Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disorder",editors:[{id:"205005",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Fitzgerald",slug:"michael-fitzgerald",fullName:"Michael Fitzgerald",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/205005/images/system/205005.jpg",institutionString:"Independant Researcher",institution:{name:"Trinity College Dublin",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ireland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8008",title:"Antioxidants",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8008.jpg",slug:"antioxidants",publishedDate:"November 6th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Emad Shalaby",hash:"76361b4061e830906267933c1c670027",volumeInSeries:5,fullTitle:"Antioxidants",editors:[{id:"63600",title:"Prof.",name:"Emad",middleName:null,surname:"Shalaby",slug:"emad-shalaby",fullName:"Emad Shalaby",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63600/images/system/63600.png",institutionString:"Cairo University",institution:{name:"Cairo University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8797",title:"Adipose Tissue",subtitle:"An Update",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8797.jpg",slug:"adipose-tissue-an-update",publishedDate:"November 6th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leszek Szablewski",hash:"34880b7b450ef96fa5063c867c028b02",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Adipose Tissue - An Update",editors:[{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"6924",title:"Adenosine Triphosphate in Health and Disease",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6924.jpg",slug:"adenosine-triphosphate-in-health-and-disease",publishedDate:"April 24th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Gyula Mozsik",hash:"04106c232a3c68fec07ba7cf00d2522d",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Adenosine Triphosphate in Health and Disease",editors:[{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Hungary"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"6925",title:"Endoplasmic Reticulum",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6925.jpg",slug:"endoplasmic-reticulum",publishedDate:"April 17th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Angel Català",hash:"a9e90d2dbdbc46128dfe7dac9f87c6b4",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Endoplasmic Reticulum",editors:[{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7264",title:"Calcium and Signal Transduction",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7264.jpg",slug:"calcium-and-signal-transduction",publishedDate:"October 24th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"John N. Buchholz and Erik J. Behringer",hash:"e373a3d1123dbd45fddf75d90e3e7c38",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Calcium and Signal Transduction",editors:[{id:"89438",title:"Dr.",name:"John N.",middleName:null,surname:"Buchholz",slug:"john-n.-buchholz",fullName:"John N. Buchholz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89438/images/6463_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Loma Linda University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Plant Physiology",value:13,count:1},{group:"subseries",caption:"Human Physiology",value:12,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Cell Physiology",value:11,count:8}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:1},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:5},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:25,paginationItems:[{id:"429683",title:"Dr.",name:"Bilal",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"bilal-khalid",fullName:"Bilal Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/429683/images/system/429683.png",biography:"Dr. Bilal Khalid received a Ph.D. in Industrial Business Administration from KMITL Business School, Bangkok, in 2021, and a master’s in International Business Management from Stamford International University, Bangkok, in 2017. Dr. Khalid\\'s research interests include leadership and negotiations, digital transformations, gamification, eLearning, blockchain, Big Data, and management of information technology. Dr. Bilal Khalid also serves as an academic editor at Education Research International and a reviewer for international journals.",institutionString:"KMITL Business School",institution:{name:"King Mongkut's Institute of Technology Ladkrabang",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"418514",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Mohiuddin",slug:"muhammad-mohiuddin",fullName:"Muhammad Mohiuddin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038UqSfQAK/Profile_Picture_2022-05-13T10:39:03.jpg",biography:"Dr. Muhammad Mohiuddin is an Associate Professor of International Business at Laval University, Canada. He has taught at Thompson Rivers University, Canada; University of Paris-Est, France; Osnabruck University of Applied Science, Germany; and Shanghai Institute of Technology and Tianjin University of Technology, China. He has published research in Research Policy, Applied Economics, Review of Economic Philosophy, Strategic Change, International Journal of Logistics, Sustainability, Journal of Environmental Management, Journal of Global Information Management, Journal of Cleaner Production, M@N@GEMENT, and more. He is a member of CEDIMES Institut (France), Academy of International Business (AIB), Strategic Management Society (SMS), Academy of Management (AOM), Administrative Science Association of Canada (ASAC), and Canadian council of small business and entrepreneurship (CCSBE). He is currently the director of the Research Group on Contemporary Asia (GERAC) at Laval University. He is also co-managing editor of Transnational Corporations Review and a guest editor for Electronic Commerce Research and Journal of Internet Technology.",institutionString:"Université Laval",institution:{name:"Université Laval",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"189147",title:"Dr.",name:"Hailan",middleName:null,surname:"Salamun",slug:"hailan-salamun",fullName:"Hailan Salamun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/189147/images/19274_n.jpeg",biography:"Hailan Salamun, (Dr.) was born in Selangor, Malaysia and graduated from Tunku Ampuan Jamaah Religious High School at Shah Alam. Obtained a degree from the International Islamic University (UIA), Gombak in the field of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Heritage. Next, I furthered my studies to the professional level to obtain a Diploma in Education at UIA. After serving for several years in school, I furthered my studies to the Master of Dakwah and Leadership at Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Bangi. I graduated with a Doctor of Philosophy in Principalship Leadership from the University of Malaya (UM) in 2010. I am currently a senior lecturer in the Department of Nationalism and Civilization, Center for Basic and Continuing Education, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu. Prior to that, I had served in several educational institutions such as schools, the Institute of Teacher Education (IPG), and also the University of Malaya. I am also actively involved in paper presentation, writing and publishing. My research interests are focused on leadership, education, society and Islamic civilization. This area of research requires a detailed understanding of Islamic studies and research studies in leadership. Another research interest that I have explored recently is the politics of the Malay community and also the leadership of the mosque.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"442081",title:"Dr.",name:"Audrey",middleName:null,surname:"Addy",slug:"audrey-addy",fullName:"Audrey Addy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"437993",title:"Mr.",name:"Job",middleName:null,surname:"Jackson",slug:"job-jackson",fullName:"Job Jackson",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Management College of Southern Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"428495",title:"Prof.",name:"Asyraf",middleName:null,surname:"Ab Rahman",slug:"asyraf-ab-rahman",fullName:"Asyraf Ab Rahman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"429650",title:"Dr.",name:"Jacqueline",middleName:null,surname:"Kareem",slug:"jacqueline-kareem",fullName:"Jacqueline Kareem",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Christ University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"421041",title:"Dr.",name:"Sunil",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar Ramdas",slug:"sunil-kumar-ramdas",fullName:"Sunil Kumar Ramdas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jain University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"421833",title:"Mr.",name:"Eugene",middleName:null,surname:"Owusu-Acheampong",slug:"eugene-owusu-acheampong",fullName:"Eugene Owusu-Acheampong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"239876",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Luciana",middleName:null,surname:"Mourão",slug:"luciana-mourao",fullName:"Luciana Mourão",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Salgado de Oliveira",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"421735",title:"Dr.",name:"elizabeth",middleName:null,surname:"addy",slug:"elizabeth-addy",fullName:"elizabeth addy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"442083",title:"Dr.",name:"James",middleName:null,surname:"Addy",slug:"james-addy",fullName:"James Addy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"437991",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Hoque",slug:"muhammad-hoque",fullName:"Muhammad Hoque",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"421006",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Uster",slug:"anna-uster",fullName:"Anna Uster",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"470243",title:"Dr.",name:"Md Samim",middleName:null,surname:"Al Azad",slug:"md-samim-al-azad",fullName:"Md Samim Al Azad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"470244",title:"Dr.",name:"Slimane",middleName:null,surname:"Ed-dafali",slug:"slimane-ed-dafali",fullName:"Slimane Ed-dafali",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"421011",title:"Dr.",name:"Afatakpa",middleName:null,surname:"Fortune",slug:"afatakpa-fortune",fullName:"Afatakpa Fortune",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"446057",title:"Mr.",name:"Okedare",middleName:null,surname:"David Olubukunmi",slug:"okedare-david-olubukunmi",fullName:"Okedare David Olubukunmi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"421778",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatimah",middleName:"Saeed",surname:"AlAhmari",slug:"fatimah-alahmari",fullName:"Fatimah AlAhmari",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"421024",title:"Prof.",name:"Harold Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Patrick",slug:"harold-andrew-patrick",fullName:"Harold Andrew Patrick",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"421065",title:"Ms.",name:"Euzália",middleName:null,surname:"do Rosário Botelho Tomé",slug:"euzalia-do-rosario-botelho-tome",fullName:"Euzália do Rosário Botelho Tomé",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"421053",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ken",middleName:null,surname:"Kalala Ndalamba",slug:"ken-kalala-ndalamba",fullName:"Ken Kalala Ndalamba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"421826",title:"Dr.",name:"Inusah",middleName:null,surname:"Salifu",slug:"inusah-salifu",fullName:"Inusah Salifu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"420823",title:"Prof.",name:"Gardênia da Silva",middleName:null,surname:"Abbad",slug:"gardenia-da-silva-abbad",fullName:"Gardênia da Silva Abbad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"437613",title:"MSc.",name:"Juliana",middleName:null,surname:"Legentil",slug:"juliana-legentil",fullName:"Juliana Legentil",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"39",type:"subseries",title:"Environmental Resilience and Management",keywords:"Anthropic effects, Overexploitation, Biodiversity loss, Degradation, Inadequate Management, SDGs adequate practices",scope:"
\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11967,editor:{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",slug:"jose-navarro-pedreno",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRAXrQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-03-09T15:50:19.jpg",biography:"Full professor at University Miguel Hernández of Elche, Spain, previously working at the University of Alicante, Autonomous University of Madrid and Polytechnic University of Valencia. Graduate in Sciences (Chemist), graduate in Geography and History (Geography), master in Water Management, Treatment, master in Fertilizers and Environment and master in Environmental Management; Ph.D. in Environmental Sciences. His research is focused on soil-water and waste-environment relations, mainly on soil-water and soil-waste interactions under different management and waste reuse. His work is reflected in more than 230 communications presented in national and international conferences and congresses, 29 invited lectures from universities, associations and government agencies. Prof. Navarro-Pedreño is also a director of the Ph.D. Program Environment and Sustainability (2012-present) and a member of several societies among which are the Spanish Society of Soil Science, International Union of Soil Sciences, European Society for Soil Conservation, DessertNet and the Spanish Royal Society of Chemistry.",institutionString:"Miguel Hernández University of Elche, Spain",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713"},editorialBoard:[{id:"177015",title:"Prof.",name:"Elke Jurandy",middleName:null,surname:"Bran Nogueira Cardoso",slug:"elke-jurandy-bran-nogueira-cardoso",fullName:"Elke Jurandy Bran Nogueira Cardoso",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGxzQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-25T08:32:33.jpg",institutionString:"Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil",institution:null},{id:"211260",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Ricart",slug:"sandra-ricart",fullName:"Sandra Ricart",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/211260/images/system/211260.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:14,paginationItems:[{id:"82103",title:"The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Its Regulation in the Progression of Neurological and Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105543",signatures:"Mary Dover, Michael Kishek, Miranda Eddins, Naneeta Desar, Ketema Paul and Milan Fiala",slug:"the-role-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-its-regulation-in-the-progression-of-neurological-and-i",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"80954",title:"Ion Channels and Neurodegenerative Disease Aging Related",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103074",signatures:"Marika Cordaro, Salvatore Cuzzocrea and Rosanna Di Paola",slug:"ion-channels-and-neurodegenerative-disease-aging-related",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Ion Channels - From Basic Properties to Medical Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10838.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"81647",title:"Diabetes and Epigenetics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104653",signatures:"Rasha A. Alhazzaa, Thomas Heinbockel and Antonei B. Csoka",slug:"diabetes-and-epigenetics",totalDownloads:26,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Epigenetics to Optogenetics - A New Paradigm in the Study of Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9672.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"81099",title:"SK Channels and Heart Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104115",signatures:"Katherine Zhong, Shawn Kant, Frank Sellke and Jun Feng",slug:"sk-channels-and-heart-disease",totalDownloads:21,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Ion Channels - From Basic Properties to Medical Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10838.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"80967",title:"Hot on the Trail of Skin Inflammation: Focus on TRPV1/TRPV3 Channels in Psoriasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103792",signatures:"Lisa S. Martin, Emma Fraillon, Fabien P. Chevalier and Bérengère Fromy",slug:"hot-on-the-trail-of-skin-inflammation-focus-on-trpv1-trpv3-channels-in-psoriasis",totalDownloads:36,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Ion Channels - From Basic Properties to Medical Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10838.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"80952",title:"TRPV Family Ion Channels in the Mammary Epithelium: Role in Normal Tissue Homeostasis and along Breast Cancer Progression",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103665",signatures:"Sari Susanna Tojkander",slug:"trpv-family-ion-channels-in-the-mammary-epithelium-role-in-normal-tissue-homeostasis-and-along-breas",totalDownloads:19,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Ion Channels - From Basic Properties to Medical Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10838.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"80157",title:"Structural Determinants for Ligand Accommodation in Voltage Sensors",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102094",signatures:"Abigail García-Morales, Aylin López-Palestino and Daniel Balleza",slug:"structural-determinants-for-ligand-accommodation-in-voltage-sensors",totalDownloads:100,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Ion Channels - From Basic Properties to Medical Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10838.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"79690",title:"Mitochondrial Channels and their Role in Cardioprotection",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101127",signatures:"Keerti Mishra and Min Luo",slug:"mitochondrial-channels-and-their-role-in-cardioprotection",totalDownloads:100,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Ion Channels - From Basic Properties to Medical Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10838.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"78415",title:"Epigenetic",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99964",signatures:"Mehmet Ünal",slug:"epigenetic",totalDownloads:149,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Epigenetics to Optogenetics - A New Paradigm in the Study of Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9672.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"77443",title:"Cyanobacterial Phytochromes in Optogenetics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97522",signatures:"Sivasankari Sivaprakasam, Vinoth Mani, Nagalakshmi Balasubramaniyan and David Ravindran Abraham",slug:"cyanobacterial-phytochromes-in-optogenetics",totalDownloads:197,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Epigenetics to Optogenetics - A New Paradigm in the Study of Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9672.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"75979",title:"Spatiotemporal Regulation of Cell–Cell Adhesions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97009",signatures:"Brent M. Bijonowski",slug:"spatiotemporal-regulation-of-cell-cell-adhesions",totalDownloads:180,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Epigenetics to Optogenetics - A New Paradigm in the Study of Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9672.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"76646",title:"Functional Mechanism of Proton Pump-Type Rhodopsins Found in Various Microorganisms as a Potential Effective Tool in Optogenetics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97589",signatures:"Jun Tamogami and Takashi Kikukawa",slug:"functional-mechanism-of-proton-pump-type-rhodopsins-found-in-various-microorganisms-as-a-potential-e",totalDownloads:216,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Epigenetics to Optogenetics - A New Paradigm in the Study of Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9672.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"76510",title:"Evolution of Epigenome as the Blueprint for Carcinogenesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97379",signatures:"Zeenat Farooq, Ambreen Shah, Mohammad Tauseef, Riyaz A. Rather and Mumtaz Anwar",slug:"evolution-of-epigenome-as-the-blueprint-for-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:196,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Epigenetics to Optogenetics - A New Paradigm in the Study of Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9672.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"74615",title:"Diet-Epigenome Interactions: Epi-Drugs Modulating the Epigenetic Machinery During Cancer Prevention",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95374",signatures:"Fadime Eryılmaz Pehlivan",slug:"diet-epigenome-interactions-epi-drugs-modulating-the-epigenetic-machinery-during-cancer-prevention",totalDownloads:376,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,authors:[{name:"Fadime",surname:"Eryılmaz Pehlivan"}],book:{title:"Epigenetics to Optogenetics - A New Paradigm in the Study of Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9672.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}}]},publishedBooks:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"10843",title:"Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)",subtitle:"Monitoring, Impact and Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10843.jpg",slug:"persistent-organic-pollutants-pops-monitoring-impact-and-treatment",publishedDate:"April 13th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",hash:"f5b1589f0a990b6114fef2dadc735dd9",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) - Monitoring, Impact and Treatment",editors:[{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},testimonialsList:[{id:"8",text:"I work with IntechOpen for a number of reasons: their professionalism, their mission in support of Open Access publishing, and the quality of their peer-reviewed publications, but also because they believe in equality.",author:{id:"202192",name:"Catrin",surname:"Rutland",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",slug:"catrin-rutland",institution:{id:"134",name:"University of Nottingham",country:{id:null,name:"United Kingdom"}}}},{id:"27",text:"The opportunity to work with a prestigious publisher allows for the possibility to collaborate with more research groups interested in animal nutrition, leading to the development of new feeding strategies and food valuation while being more sustainable with the environment, allowing more readers to learn about the subject.",author:{id:"175967",name:"Manuel",surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",institution:{id:"6221",name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",country:{id:null,name:"Mexico"}}}},{id:"18",text:"It was great publishing with IntechOpen, the process was straightforward and I had support all along.",author:{id:"71579",name:"Berend",surname:"Olivier",institutionString:"Utrecht University",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71579/images/system/71579.png",slug:"berend-olivier",institution:{id:"253",name:"Utrecht University",country:{id:null,name:"Netherlands"}}}}]},submityourwork:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:18,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],subseriesList:[{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",scope:"
\r\n\tIn general, the harsher the environmental conditions in an ecosystem, the lower the biodiversity. Changes in the environment caused by human activity accelerate the impoverishment of biodiversity.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity refers to “the variability of living organisms from any source, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; it includes diversity within each species, between species, and that of ecosystems”.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity provides food security and constitutes a gene pool for biotechnology, especially in the field of agriculture and medicine, and promotes the development of ecotourism.
\r\n
\r\n\tCurrently, biologists admit that we are witnessing the first phases of the seventh mass extinction caused by human intervention. It is estimated that the current rate of extinction is between a hundred and a thousand times faster than it was when man first appeared. The disappearance of species is caused not only by an accelerated rate of extinction, but also by a decrease in the rate of emergence of new species as human activities degrade the natural environment. The conservation of biological diversity is "a common concern of humanity" and an integral part of the development process. Its objectives are “the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits resulting from the use of genetic resources”.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe following are the main causes of biodiversity loss:
\r\n
\r\n\t• The destruction of natural habitats to expand urban and agricultural areas and to obtain timber, minerals and other natural resources.
\r\n
\r\n\t• The introduction of alien species into a habitat, whether intentionally or unintentionally which has an impact on the fauna and flora of the area, and as a result, they are reduced or become extinct.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Pollution from industrial and agricultural products, which devastate the fauna and flora, especially those in fresh water.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Global warming, which is seen as a threat to biological diversity, and will become increasingly important in the future.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/40.jpg",keywords:"Ecosystems, Biodiversity, Fauna, Taxonomy, Invasive species, Destruction of habitats, Overexploitation of natural resources, Pollution, Global warming, Conservation of natural spaces, Bioremediation"},{id:"39",title:"Environmental Resilience and Management",scope:"
\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
\r\n\tWater is not only a crucial substance needed for biological life on Earth, but it is also a basic requirement for the existence and development of the human society. Owing to the importance of water to life on Earth, early researchers conducted numerous studies and analyses on the liquid form of water from the perspectives of chemistry, physics, earth science, and biology, and concluded that Earth is a "water polo". Water covers approximately 71% of Earth's surface. However, 97.2% of this water is seawater, 21.5% is icebergs and glaciers, and only 0.65% is freshwater that can be used directly by humans. As a result, the amount of water reserves available for human consumption is limited. The development, utilization, and protection of freshwater resources has become the focus of water science research for the continued improvement of human livelihoods and society.
\r\n
\r\n\tWater exists as solid, liquid, and gas within Earth’s atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. Liquid water is used for a variety of purposes besides drinking, including power generation, ecology, landscaping, and shipping. Because water is involved in various environmental hydrological processes as well as numerous aspects of the economy and human society, the study of various phenomena in the hydrosphere, the laws governing their occurrence and development, the relationship between the hydrosphere and other spheres of Earth, and the relationship between water and social development, are all part of water science. Knowledge systems for water science are improving continuously. Water science has become a specialized field concerned with the identification of its physical, chemical, and biological properties. In addition, it reveals the laws of water distribution, movement, and circulation, and proposes methods and tools for water development, utilization, planning, management, and protection. Currently, the field of water science covers research related to topics such as hydrology, water resources and water environment. It also includes research on water related issues such as safety, engineering, economy, law, culture, information, and education.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/41.jpg",keywords:"Water, Water resources, Freshwater, Hydrological processes, Utilization, Protection"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 24th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfPublishedBooks:31,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/28586",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"28586"},fullPath:"/profiles/28586",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()