More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\n
Our breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n
“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\n
Additionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\n
We are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\n
Simba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\n
IntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\n
Since the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\n
Our breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n
“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\n
Additionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\n
We are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n
\n\n
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\n
1. Introduction
\n
3D bioprinting is the wave of the future for constructing viable, functional, and biocompatible human organs that will be created from the patient’s own stem cells so that antirejection drugs will not be needed after transplantation. Currently, there are three main 3D bioprinting methods: inkjet or “drop on demand,” laser-assisted, and microextrusion [1].
\n
Inkjet printing uses thermal or acoustic (piezoelectric) forces to create and eject droplets. Thermal inkjet bioprinting yields good cell viability (>85%), and although localized heating of 200–300°C occurs and the temperature at the head only rises 4–10°C for short durations (~2 μs), cells can be heat shocked. The heat-shock protein chaperones can protect cells from dying [2] so that they have the potential of passing along DNA mutations that could ultimately result in a cancerous cell. Only a couple of degrees rise in temperature ≥2°C (~39°C) is needed to induce some heat-shock proteins [3]. Acoustic inkjet bioprinting applies voltage across polycrystalline piezoelectric ceramics to induce a rapid change in their shape that creates the pressure to eject droplets. However, the 15–25 kHz frequencies shock the cells: causing membrane damage and cellular lysis [4] and allowing molecules up to 40,000 Daltons (90 Å) in size to enter or exit the cell [5].
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Laser-assisted bioprinting yields high cell viability (>95%) [6] and is nozzle-free so that the problem of clogging with materials or cells that other printing methods have is circumvented. In addition, it has microscale resolution of a single cell per drop. The drawbacks to laser-assisted bioprinting are low flow rates due to the high resolution requiring rapid gelation kinetics [7], time-consuming preparation of the ribbons used for printing, metal residues from vaporization of the metallic laser-absorbing layer during printing (nanoparticles), the complexity of making ribbons to print multiple cell types, and the high cost; more germane, it is not clear if this technology can be scaled up for larger tissue sizes other than skin [8], let alone organs.
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Finally, microextrusion is the most common and affordable 3D bioprinting method that uses either pneumatic (air) or mechanical (screw or piston) forces to create pressurized dispensing systems [9]. However, this 3D bioprinting method is reported to yield the lowest cell viability of all three methods (40–80%) [10]. In previous studies, this low cell viability was completely attributed to the biofabrication mechanical forces or high pressures applied to the cells [11] rather than to structural imperfections inside the stainless steel nozzles creating membrane damage.
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We reasoned if some of this membrane damage was actually due to the imperfections inside the stainless steel nozzle, then we might be able to improve the viability by coating their interiors with silicone. By minimizing these interior structural flaws, we would increase the viability during printing under pressure. However, in the course of our investigation, we found that neither the biofabrication of mechanical forces nor the structural flaws inside the nozzle were causing the reduction in viability but rather it was the hypotonic solution the cells were placed in when the alginate was prepared in water; the cells were placed directly into that hypotonic solution without first adjusting it with salt to be isotonic. This lysed many cells (~25%) until evidently the solution became isotonic from the released intracellular salts leaving the remaining cell population “bloated” or swollen and very sensitive to mechanical forces.
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\n
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2. Materials and methods
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2.1. Chemical formulations
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The alginate solution was prepared using medium viscosity sodium alginate (Sigma, St. Louis, MO) dissolved in high-performance liquid chromatography grade water (Sigma Aldrich, St. Louis, MO) to make a 3% (w/v) solution as described previously [10, 11]. We also prepared 3% (w/v) alginate solutions in Dulbecco’s phosphate buffered saline (PBS) without magnesium or calcium (GIBCO, Gaithersburg, MD) and in complete culture media (see below) with the addition of 1 mM ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid (EDTA; Sigma Aldrich, St. Louis, MO). The 1 mM EDTA was added to crosslink the 2 mM calcium present in the media so the alginate would not solidify. Note that this solution of alginate in complete culture media with EDTA did not solidify for over a year. We sterilized these solutions using either a 0.45 μm syringe filtration system (Nalge Nunc International Corporation, Rochester, NY) with the cell dispensing device described below (Figure 1) at the highest force (20 lbs) overnight or a 0.45 μm filtration unit with vacuum suction overnight. Additionally, we tested the viability after passing cells through the syringe and blunt-end needles using this force (20 lbs) in complete culture media or PBS (after washing the cells three times to remove any bound proteins that might afford membrane protection).
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Figure 1.
The KD scientific model 100 series screw-driven pressure pump with maximum force of 20 lbs is shown housed in a homemade holder attached to a vertical stand with a heavy base equipped with a 3-mL syringe and a 28G nozzle of 1″ in length that was used for the experiments shown in Figures 2 and 4 (Figure 3 has the 30G nozzle but same device).
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\n
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2.2. Cell culture
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Human lymphoma H9 cells (ATTC, Manassas, VA) were cultured and maintained in the incubator at 37°C using complete culture medium: CO2-independent media (GIBCO, Gaithersburg, MD) supplemented with 10% (v/v) heat inactivated, mycoplasma-tested, and endotoxin-free, fetal bovine serum (GIBCO, Gaithersburg, MD), 4 mM glutamine (GIBCO, Gaithersburg, MD), antibiotic (10,000 IU penicillin and 10,000 μg/mL streptomycin), and antimycotic (25 μg/mL amphotericin B) solution (Sigma, St. Louis, MO). We use CO2-independent media so the cells do not undergo pH shock while being manipulated during or after experiments. This enabled us to leave the cells in culture tubes at 37°C using a constant temperature controlled heating block, Hema-Bath Block Module Heater Type 12,200 Dribath (Baxter Scientific Products, Deerfield, IL), under sterile conditions in the biosafety cabinet until monitored on the first day (0 and 4 or 6 h postexposure). For the 24-h time point, we diluted the samples 1:1 with CO2-independent complete culture media and maintained the cells in 5 mL sterile culture tubes at 37°C in the heating block or in the incubator (results not shown). These suspension cells were grown and maintained below 1 × 106 cells/mL in culture and were usually used between 4 and 8 × 105 cells/mL for experiments with viability ≥90% as determined by dye exclusion of propidium iodide (PI) using flow cytometry.
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Cells were centrifuged in 50 mL centrifuge tubes (Corning, Tewksbury, MA) at 300 × g for 7 min, and the media were aspirated to leave cell pellets that were loosened by quickly (2–3 s) vortexing at low speed. These cell pellets were very gently and briefly mixed in the viscous 3 mL of 3% (w/v) alginate solutions with a Pasteur pipet by swirling and slowly pipetting up and down three times to homogeneously disperse the cells as previously described [10]. The cell density was ~3 × 106 cells, as determined by hemocytometer readings, before mixing into 3 mL of alginate to give ~1 × 106 cells/mL.
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2.3. Procedure for simulated microextrusion pressure printing
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Cells were grown to 4–8 × 105 cells/mL in complete culture media whereby 100 mL was centrifuged at 300 × g for 7 min, media aspirated, and then the cell pellet was vortexed and suspended in one of the three, 3% (w/v) alginate solutions (H2O, PBS, or complete culture media) or suspended in solutions of either PBS or complete culture media to a final density of ~1 × 106 cells/mL or 4–8 × 105 cells/mL, respectively. Different concentrations were used to know if high cell density afforded protection for the cells. For the PBS and complete culture media comparison studies, we washed the cells three times with either PBS or complete culture media, respectively, prior to microextrusion. For the T = 0 time point (actual time < 10 min), we simply collected the cells in a test tube containing 0.25–0.5 mL of complete culture media at room temperature. For the longer daily time points of 4 or 6 h, we put the test tubes at 37°C in a dry-block incubator under the biosafety cabinet. For overnight studies at 24 h, we further diluted the cells 1:1 with complete culture media and put them in tightly capped sterile 5 mL polypropylene culture tubes or T-25 flasks (Corning, Tewksbury, MA).
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2.4. Microextrusion cell dispensing system
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We employed a mechanical device that uses a screw to create a force with subsequent pressure dependent on the radius of the syringe. The KD Scientific Model 100 series (Harvard Apparatus, Holliston, MA) screw-driven pressure pump with maximum force of 20 lbs was housed in a homemade holder attached to a vertical stand with a heavy base (see Figure 1). We used syringes of various sizes (3–60 mL) with Hamilton blunt-end 28G or 30G needles (Harvard Apparatus, Holliston, MA) of different lengths: ½″, 1″, and 2″. These blunt-end needles are referred to as nozzles.
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The experiments were performed using various pressures “P” that were calculated in pounds per square inch (psi) using Eq. (1):
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\n\nP\n=\n\nF\nA\n\n\nE1
\n
where “F” is the applied force (maximum of 20 lbs was used) and “A” is the area (in inches squared) of the applied force. We performed various experiments using syringes of different sizes, 3, 10, 30, and 60 mL, having radii of 0.17 (8.59 mm), 0.285 (14.48 mm), 0.425 (21.59 mm), and 0.524 inches (26.6 mm), with areas of 0.09, 0.255, 0.568, 0.86 inches2, yielding pressures of 220, 78, 35, and 23 psi, respectively. Pressure experiments were conducted at room temperature, and the cells were placed at 37°C after treatment until analyzed.
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2.5. Chemical coating nozzles
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In order to help minimize membrane damage incurred during pressurized simulated microextrusion printing, presumably from imperfections in the stainless steel, we coated the interior of the 28 and 30G blunt-end needles for 5–15 min at room temperature using ~10% (w/v) high molecular weight (500,000 g/mole) polydimethylsiloxane, trimethylsiloxy terminated (Gelest, Inc., Morrisville, PA) in high-performance liquid chromatography grade hexane (Sigma Aldrich, St. Louis, MO). To sterilize the blunt-end needles, we luer-locked them on the syringe, submerged them in 70% ethanol, and then used three 0.5 mL interior washes of 70% ethanol followed by three 0.5 mL interior washes of sterile 0.9% saline (isotonic).
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2.6. Cell viability
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Cell viability was assessed by the dye exclusion method using PI (Molecular Probes, Eugene, OR) at a final concentration of 1 μg/mL using a slightly modified procedure [12]. Briefly, the PI was added directly to the samples so as not to lose any of the representative cell populations or to create false positives by centrifuging and disrupting the membranes of partially damaged cells. Live cells completely exclude PI, while dead cells allow it to almost instantly pass through their membranes. Cell viability was quantified as percentages using flow cytometry.
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2.7. Flow cytometry
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The viability of 10,000 cells from each sample was determined by a FACSCanto II (Becton Dickinson, CA, USA) triple beam flow cytometer at medium flow rate in the PerCP-Cy5-5-A (equivalent to FL-2) channel using PI dye exclusion [12]. We gated on the single-cell population. To set the marker for the live cell population, we used cultured cells from the incubator (≥90%) and created the marker for the dead cell population (with viability <10%) using 10 mL of 4–8 × 105 cells/mL exposed overnight to a final concentration of 300 μM silver nitrate (unpublished results). The sham-exposed cells underwent the same treatment as the exposed cells except they were not put under pressure through the syringes and nozzles; the cells were carefully mixed in alginate or other solutions and then gently placed into the syringe and allowed to slowly drip out as small droplets.
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For each experiment, the live and dead cell controls were used to set the gates for the live and dead cell populations in the PerCP-Cy5-5-A fluorescent channel. We used forward scatter characteristics (FSC-W and FSC-H) to distinguish between single and multiple, or clumped, cell populations. The gate was set on the single-cell population to collect 10,000 cells for further analysis in the PerCP-Cy5-5-A fluorescent channel.
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2.8. Statistical analysis
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The data in the text and figures are presented as the mean (n = 3) ± standard deviation (SD) computed using the Student’s t-test for two samples assuming unequal variance and consider p < 0.05 to be significant.
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\n
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3. Results
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For these experiments, we used the pressure pump aligned vertically in a homemade holder attached to a stand with a heavy base at a maximum force of 20 lbs (see Figure 1).
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After preliminary testing, we realized the hypotonic alginate solution was causing the decrease in viability, so we compared alginate prepared in three different solutions: H2O, PBS, and complete culture media (as described in Section 2). Figure 2 shows a very significant drop in viability compared to the control (95 ± 1%) when the cells were placed in alginate prepared in H2O (Sham, 75 ± 11.6%, p = 0.048; 28G no coat, 21.8 ± 13.5%, p = 0.0056; 28G coat, 14 ± 1.3%, p = 6.3 × 10−8), while the cells placed in alginate prepared in either PBS (Sham, 94.3 ± 0.26, p = 0.16; 28G no coat, 92.9 ± 0.6%, p = 0.025; 28G coat, 87.8 ± 2.1%, p = 0.0062) or the complete culture media (Sham, 96.5 ± 0.4, p = 0.063; 28G no coat, 86.3 ± 2.8%, p = 0.0075; 28G coat, 85.5 ± 1.6, p = 0.00045) although sometimes significantly lower did not cause more than a 10% drop in cell viability using the same conditions: 3 mL syringe, 20 lbs of force giving 220 psi, and 28G nozzles of 1″ length. We show the data for 28G nozzles of 1″ length in Figure 2, but note that the ½ and 2″ lengths also did not cause a decrease of more than 10% in cell viability if the cells were placed in 3% (w/v) alginate prepared in PBS or complete culture media. Note that coating the nozzles did not improve the cell viability compared to those that were uncoated. The results for T = 0 are shown because the later time points did not yield more than a 10% decrease in viability, in agreement with what others found [10], and after 24 h, some of the surviving cells divided increasing the apparent viability.
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Figure 2.
The viability of H9 cells immediately (T = 0 h) following direct cell writing biofabrication using the homemade microextrusion device shown in Figure 1 equipped with a 3-mL syringe and 28G nozzle of 1″ length using maximum force of 20 lbs to produce 220 psi. Concentrated H9 cells were mixed with 3 mL of 3% (w/v) alginate prepared in different solutions: H2O, PBS, and complete culture media with 1 mM EDTA. The “no coat” refers to the untreated nozzles and the “coat” refers to the nozzles coated with silicone as described in Section 2.The asterisks indicate significant differences from the controls.
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As shown in Figure 2, the nozzle surface chemistry did not affect cell viability, but the hypotonic solution did, so we did not compare coated with uncoated nozzles in Figure 3. We wanted to know how a lower gauge nozzle with a smaller diameter would affect cell viability, so we used a 30G nozzle of 1″ length and placed the cells in 3% (w/v) alginate solutions as described previously: H2O, PBS, and complete culture media with 1 mM EDTA. Using the same conditions employed for the 28G nozzle of 1″ length (i.e., 3 mL syringe and maximum force of 20 lbs yielding 220 psi), we did not observe more than ~8% decrease in cell viability in the alginate prepared in H2O (14.1 ± 2.4%; p = 6.9 × 10−6), PBS (86 ± 10%; p = 0.21), or media (78.3 ± 5.2%; p = 0.016) than after passing them through the 28G nozzle of the same length (Figure 3). Note that these differences in cell viability are not statistically significant from those obtained using the 28G nozzles (H2O p = 0.22; PBS, p = 0.26; media, p = 0.051).
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Figure 3.
The viability of H9 cells immediately (T = 0 h) following direct cell writing biofabrication using the homemade microextrusion device equipped with a 3-mL syringe and 30G nozzle of 1″ length using maximum force of 20 lbs to produce 220 psi. Concentrated H9 cells were mixed with 3 mL of 3% (w/v) alginate prepared in different solutions: H2O, PBS, and complete culture media with 1 mM EDTA. The asterisks indicate significant differences from the controls.
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Finally, we wanted to see if we could decrease the cell viability by removing the alginate, as it might be affording protection by coating the cellular membranes. We show the results for 3-mL syringes with 28G nozzles of 1″ length (either coated or with no coat) but found no significant effect on cell viability even at the highest force of 20 lbs resulting in a pressure of 220 psi when in PBS or complete media (Figure 4). We also tried 30G nozzles of 1″ length and other syringe sizes, but they only slightly affected cell viability unless the cells were placed in a hypotonic alginate solution.
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Figure 4.
The viability of H9 cells was determined after control, sham, or passing the cells through the 3-mL syringe equipped with a 28G nozzle of 1″ length under 220 psi in either PBS or media in the absence of alginate. The cells were washed with either PBS or complete culture media three times prior to simulated microextrusion printing. The control and shams are as described in Section 2.
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\n
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4. Discussion
\n
3D bioprinting using microextrusion is the most common and affordable way to print living cells. Microextrusion is a method of direct cell writing that can 3D bioprint using different substances like hydrogels, cell spheroids, and biocompatible polymers facilitating the deposition of multiple cell types with high resolution to accurately fabricate complex structures, like an ear, using computer-aided design software [13]. Among the multitudes of hydrogels, alginate is popular because it is inexpensive and is crosslinked using calcium to give it a solid structural form which can later be reversed using citrate or EDTA. One major advantage to microextrusion printing is the ability to print cells at high densities that are close to physiological conditions, which is needed to construct tissue-engineered organs, maintaining high cell viability using high pressures, and small nozzle sizes are required for fast printing speeds with high resolution. Because microextrusion 3D bioprinting was reported to result in a significant decrease in cell viability yielding between only 40 and 80% live cells in alginate solution [10, 11], we decided to try and improve the cell viability by coating the nozzles with silicone in order to prevent membrane damage from nozzle imperfections and high pressures, as the latter was the proposed reason for the decrease in viability [14]. However, we discovered that neither the high pressures nor the membrane damage caused by nozzle imperfections was the reasons for the low cell viability; we found the low cell viability was really caused by preparing the hydrogel (alginate) solution in H2O, which is a hypotonic solution that causes cell lysis and bloating (swelling). Some studies that reported low cell viability using microextrusion and alginate solutions did not state what solvent the hydrogel was dissolved in, but the fact that low cell viability was observed after printing using increasing pressures suggests a hypotonic solution was the culprit. This appears to be a recurring problem in this field because numerous scientists cite these findings and reproduce them using the same procedure.
\n
During our investigation, we used a variety of syringes (3, 5, 10, and 60 mL) and nozzles (blunt-end needles; 28G with ½″, 1″, and 2″ lengths, and 30G with ½ and 1″ lengths) with only PBS or complete culture media containing H9 cells, but there was no effect on cell viability using the highest force (20 lbs) and 3 mL syringe to yield the smallest area (0.09 inches2) for the highest pressure of ~220 psi, which is over five times the pressure (~40 psi) that is usually used and is over twice the pressure (~100 psi) most printers can accurately print. Only with the addition of alginate in H2O did we see an adverse effect on cell viability; there was no effect when the alginate was prepared in either PBS or complete culture media (Figures 2 and 3) or if the cells were placed in PBS or complete culture media without alginate (Figure 4). The water created a hypotonic solution because the counter cationic ion, alginate cannot enter the cell like chlorine ions (and sodium anions) can because it is too big (MW 216.12 g/mole), so about 25% of the cells initially lysed to create an isotonic solution and the rest of the cells survived but became “bloated” (swollen) during the process. However, our results suggest the bloating made the remaining cells more sensitive to mechanical pressure and caused the observed pressure-dependent decrease in cell viability. By preparing the alginate solutions in PBS or other isotonic solutions like complete culture media, we demonstrate significantly higher cell viability. We also put the cells in PBS and complete culture media without the potential protection of the alginate to see if they would be killed by the pressure or shear force alone, but we did not see any cell lysis or death using the same system (3 mL syringe, 20 lbs, 220 psi) and 28G nozzles of 1″ length (Figure 4). In addition, we did not see any significant decrease in cell viability with ½″ or 2″ long nozzles (results not shown). Furthermore, the 1″ long 30G nozzle also did not cause any appreciable decrease in cell viability (~7% decrease compared to 28G, Figure 3).
\n
The results presented here show the low cell viability found during some mircoextrusion 3D bioprinting studies using alginate was due to placing the cells in a hypotonic solution causing cell lysis and bloating that makes the cells more sensitive to mechanical pressure during printing, which has been modeled [14]. Here we show this problem can be easily resolved by using isotonic solutions like PBS or complete culture media (0.9% saline is also suitable). Furthermore, the so-called recovery or increase in cell viability after 24 h [10] can be attributed to the division of the living cells rather than the recovery of membrane or other cellular damage, as noted by the increase in total cell number. The reason there is a decline in viability with increasing pressure or decreasing nozzle diameter can be attributed to the increasing shear forces causing increasing amounts of cellular damage resulting in increasing cell death via apoptosis [11] (and our unpublished observations) but only when the cells are placed in hypotonic solutions.
\n
\n
\n
5. Conclusions
\n
Microextrusion is an excellent 3D bioprinting method that can yield high cell viabilities (≥85%) similar to Inkjet printing using 28G nozzles of either 1/2″ or 1″ lengths for pressures up to 220 psi as long as the hydrogels or solutions are isotonic. Good viability of over 75% can also be achieved using 30G nozzles of 1″ or shorter lengths using 220 psi. Thus, cells can survive with good viability (~85%) under considerable pressure for short periods of time during the microextrusion 3D bioprinting process if they are in isotonic hydrogels.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
The author thanks Dr. Girish Kumar for help with flow cytometry, Randy Bidinger for making the apparatus that securely housed the pressure pump device, Dr. Stephen J. Merrill for help with statistical analysis, and Dr. Shelby Skoog for critically reviewing this manuscript.
\n
Conflicts of interest
None.
Source of funding
Food and Drug Administration
Disclosure statement
No competing financial interests exist.
Disclaimer statement
The findings and conclusions in this paper have not been formally disseminated by the Food and Drug Administration and should not be construed to represent any agency determination or policy. The mention of commercial products, their sources, or their use in connection with material reported herein is not to be construed as either an actual or implied endorsement of such products by the Department of Health and Human Services.
Abbreviations
EDTA
ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid
PBS
phosphate buffered saline
PI
propidium iodide
psi
pounds per square inch
SD
standard deviation
\n',keywords:"force, hydrogel, hypotonic, isotonic, microextrusion, viability",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/58723.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/58723.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58723",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58723",totalDownloads:608,totalViews:221,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"December 5th 2017",dateReviewed:"December 14th 2017",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"June 6th 2018",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Because 3D bioprinting using microextrusion was reported to yield cells with low viability (~40%) after pneumatic pressure (40 psi) printing through stainless steel nozzles, or blunt-end needles, with about 150 μm diameters (28 and 30G), we set out to improve the viability by coating the interior of the nozzles with silicone. For these studies, H9 human lymphoma cells were used to simulate human stem cells in suspension, and cell viability was measured using propidium iodide dye exclusion and flow cytometry. We tried to improve the viability by coating the inside of the 28 and 30G nozzles (1″ length) with silicone to protect the cell membranes from being damaged by the imperfections in the stainless steel nozzle. However, we discovered silicone coating had little effect on viability because imperfections in the nozzle were not the problem. Instead, the cells being placed in hypotonic 3% (w/v) alginate prepared in water prior to printing caused significant cell death (~25%) and considerably more (≥50%) after simulated printing under pressure. By preparing the alginate in isotonic solutions of either phosphate buffered saline or complete culture media, we could use pressures over five times (>220 psi) what most printing procedures use and obtain ~80% viability.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/58723",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/58723",book:{slug:"tissue-regeneration"},signatures:"Dianne Eyvonn Godar",authors:[{id:"37160",title:"Dr.",name:"Dianne",middleName:"E",surname:"Godar",fullName:"Dianne Godar",slug:"dianne-godar",email:"Dianne.Godar@fda.hhs.gov",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Materials and methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Chemical formulations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Cell culture",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. Procedure for simulated microextrusion pressure printing",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4. Microextrusion cell dispensing system",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.5. Chemical coating nozzles",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.6. Cell viability",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"2.7. Flow cytometry",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"2.8. Statistical analysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"3. Results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"4. Discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"Conflicts of interest",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"Source of funding",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"Disclosure statement",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"Disclaimer statement",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"Abbreviations",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Murphy SV, Atala A. 3D bioprinting of tissues and organs. Nature Biotechnology. 2014;32:773-785\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Beere HM. “The stress of dying”: The role of heat shock proteins in the regulation of apoptosis. Journal of Cell Science. 2004;117:2641-2651. Review\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Oehler R, Pusch E, Zellner M, Dungel P, Hergovics N, Homoncik M, Eliasen MM, Brabec M, Roth E. Cell type-specific variations in the induction of hsp70 in human leukocytes by feverlike whole body hyperthermia. Cell Stress & Chaperones. 2001;6:306-315\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Cui X, Boland T, D\'Lima DD, Lotz MK. Thermal inkjet printing in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. Recent Patents on Drug Delivery & Formulation. 2012;6:149-155. Review\n'},{id:"B5",body:'Cui X, Dean D, Ruggeri ZM, Boland T. Cell damage evaluation of thermal inkjet printed Chinese hamster ovary cells. Biotechnology and Bioengineering. 2010;106:963-969\n'},{id:"B6",body:'Hopp B, Smausz T, Kresz N, Barna N, Bor Z, Kolozsvári L, Chrisey DB, Szabó A, Nógrádi A. Survival and proliferative ability of various living cell types after laser-induced forward transfer. Tissue Engineering. 2005;11:1817-1823\n'},{id:"B7",body:'Guillotin B, Guillemot F. Cell patterning technologies for organotypic tissue fabrication. Trends in Biotechnology. 2011;29:183-190. Review\n'},{id:"B8",body:'Michael S, Sorg H, Peck CT, Koch L, Deiwick A, Chichkov B, Vogt PM, Reimers K. Tissue engineered skin substitutes created by laser-assisted bioprinting form skin-like structures in the dorsal skin fold chamber in mice. PLoS One. 2013;8:e57741. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0057741. Epub 2013 Mar 4\n'},{id:"B9",body:'Chang CC, Boland ED, Williams SK, Hoying JB. Direct-write bioprinting three-dimensional biohybrid systems for future regenerative therapies. Journal of Biomedical Materials Research. Part B, Applied Biomaterials. 2011;98:160-170. Review\n'},{id:"B10",body:'Chang R, Nam J, Sun W. Effects of dispensing pressure and nozzle diameter on cell survival from solid freeform fabrication-based direct cell writing. Tissue Engineering. Part A. 2008;14:41-48\n'},{id:"B11",body:'Nair K, Gandhi M, Khalil S, Yan KC, Marcolongo M, Barbee K, Sun W. Characterization of cell viability during bioprinting processes. Biotechnology Journal. 2009;4:1168-1177\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nhttps://www.rndsystems.com/resources/protocols/flow-cytometry-protocol-analysis-cell-viability-using-propidium-iodide [Accessed on 04/05/2016]\n'},{id:"B13",body:'Peltola SM, Melchels FP, Grijpma DW, Kellomäki M. A review of rapid prototyping techniques for tissue engineering purposes. Annals of Medicine. 2008;40:268-280. Review\n'},{id:"B14",body:'Yan KC, Nair K, Sun W. Three dimensional multi-scale modelling and analysis of cell damage in cell-encapsulated alginate constructs. Journal of Biomechanics. 2010;43:1031-1038\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Dianne Eyvonn Godar",address:"dianne.godar@fda.hhs.gov",affiliation:'
US Food and Drug Administration, Center for Devices and Radiological Health, Silver Spring, MD, USA
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\n
1. Introduction
\n
Monogenetic volcanoes (typically ≤1 km3 and ≤ 102 years) are usually distinguished as dominantly formed by either magmatic or phreatomagmatic explosive activity and accompanied effusive processes. The magmatic explosive eruptions typically build scoria or spatter cones, while explosive phreatomagmatic eruptions characteristically form tuff cones, tuff rings, maars and maar-diatremes [1]. Associated with either activity, effusive emissions forming lava domes and lava flows are also common; consequently, these products are part of the mentioned volcanic edifices [2, 3, 4]. Frequently, individual effusive monogenetic emissions are also released into the Earth’s surface, thus forming exclusively, or dominantly, effusive monogenetic volcanoes (e.g. [5]). In spite of this, they are usually not part of the monogenetic classification schemes (e.g. [1, 6, 7]), although many have been widely studied (e.g. [8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16]; among many other studies).
\n
Lava domes in general have been mostly described as part of eruptions in polygenetic, intermediate to acidic volcanoes (e.g. [17]). From there, several types have been defined. Based on the growing mechanism, they are either endogenous whether they expand by intrusion of new magma or exogenous whether they enlarge by extrusion of it [18]; they are also called cryptodomes whether the magma did not reach the surface [19]. Furthermore, based on the geoform, they have received different names such as tortas, platy, axisymmetric, lobate, spines or peléean-type, upheaved plugs, viscous coulées lava streams, among others [17, 20, 21, 22]. As minor centers (i.e. as monogenetic volcanoes), the only classification that exist for our knowledge, is that outlined by De Silva and Lindsay [23] who grouped them in: 1) lava domes or tortas, 2) coulées, 3) peléean, and 4) upheaved plugs, based on their morphology. Individual monogenetic lava flows, in addition, are not part of this or any other classification scheme with the exception of the scutulum, low shields or small-shields (cf. [24, 25] that are mentioned by De Silva and Lindsay [23] within the mafic monogenetic volcanoes classification.
\n
It is worth mentioning that the concept of “monogenetic” volcanism has even been considered in association with 1) Large Igneous Provinces (LIPs) that are overwhelmingly effusive, but formed in very short period of time in single flare ups [26], or 2) effusive dominated fields that are smaller than typical Large igneous provinces but significantly bigger than a “normal” monogenetic field [25]. In this work, however, we refer to small-volume monogenetic volcanoes, understood as small magma batches reaching the surface dispersed and episodically.
\n
We herein propose the expansion of the existing monogenetic classification scheme after including the effusive volcanoes based on the above mentioned. This classification is based on their geoform, similarly to the explosive volcanoes. Furthermore, we provide a framework of the processes that act during the magma ascent and cause differentiation to produce intermediate to evolved volcanic products. Thus, we outline magmatic plumbing system options, which include crustal magma reservoirs as zones for detaching magma batches. Finally, we provide an overview of this particular poorly known volcanism worldwide, contributing to the monogenetic comprehension for future studies.
\n
\n
\n
2. Effusive monogenetic volcanoes
\n
The way that magma is monogenetically released to the Earth surface is related to the internal magma dynamic that occurred in the last dozens of meters [27]. It also depends on the form and dimensions of the conduit with the ascending magma. Whether the magma encounters water en route, a process known as MFCI (Molten-Fuel Coolant Interaction) occurs and therefore, it drives the eruption [28, 29]. In this case, the eruptive style depends mostly on the amount of water that the magma encounters [30] and the lithology where this water (usually an aquifer) is stored (e.g. sediments vs. fractured metamorphic rocks) (e.g. [31, 32, 33]; this last also associated with the easiness for the water to be released. However, whether the magma reaches the surface without any interaction with water, the eruption may occur in two ways: 1) explosive, whether the magma is fragmented by the volatiles dynamics (i.e. exsolution, nucleation, growth and coalescence) associated with pressure decreasing, or 2) effusive, whether degassing is effective, linked to bubbles interconnection avoiding the magma fragmentation [34]. The first eruptive manner builds scoria cones (e.g. the historical Jorullo [35, 36, 37] and Paricutín volcanoes in México [38]), while the second one produces lava bodies (e.g. The Villamaría-Termales Monogenetic Volcanic Field in Colombia; [5]). As previously mentioned, these emissions are commonly part of the explosive activity forming any kind of pyroclastic cone; however, they can also dominate and create individual effusive volcanoes (Figure 1). Because of this, we propose here these effusive products as part of a monogenetic volcano classification scheme and add them to those produced by magmatic activity (Figure 2). Accordingly, we propose to distinguish them between lava domes, coulées, small-shields and lava flows based on their geoform. The construction of every volcano is linked to the internal dynamics of the magma, but also to the form and dimension of the ascending conduit, the interaction of the conduit with the surface, and the topography where the magma is released. Every factor should be in-depth investigated. An overview of these elements is the topic of the following sections.
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Figure 1.
Effusive monogenetic volcanoes. (A) Güneydag lava dome in Anatolia, Turkey; (B) Victoria lava dome and Victoria lava flow in Manizales, Colombia; (C) El Bosque small-shield in Morelia, México. (D) Tesorito couleé in Manizales, Colombia.
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Figure 2.
Classification scheme of monogenetic volcanoes and their relationship with their eruptive style.
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2.1 Evidences of internal dynamics
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Coherent lava bodies of effusive monogenetic volcanoes have usually a glassy groundmass, which is the evidence of the rapid cooling when magma reaches the surface (Figure 3A). Commonly, the magma hosts phenocrysts (i.e. crystals greater than 0.5 mm) and microphenocrysts (i.e. crystals between 0.5 and 0.05 mm), although they do not dominate in the products. Occasionally, when the magma reaches the surface, decompression triggering solubility decreasing, oversaturation and degassing, induces crystal nucleation and therefore growing of multiple small crystals [39]; if these crystals can be distinguished in type, they are called microliths (usually between 50 and 5 μm) and the groundmass can be defined as microcrystalline if they dominated (Figure 3B), on the contrary the crystals can be called nanoliths (<5 μm) and the groundmass denominated as cryptocrystalline (Figure 3C). This crystal nucleation, along with temperature, composition (mostly SiO2 but also MgO content) and dissolved volatiles (mostly H2O but also CO2), are the factors controlling the magma viscosity and somehow the volcano that is built (i.e. a lava dome, couleé, small-shield or lava flow). The higher the crystals and silica content, the higher the viscosity [39]; so, these magmas tend to form lava domes or couleés. On the contrary, small-shields and lava flows are related to low amount of crystals and low silica. Magma temperature tends to indicate relative low values in lava domes and high values in lava flows, while volatiles have a special behaviour [39]: their content is higher in viscous, high-silica magmas, but at the same time they keep viscosity lower; therefore, under a similar composition, a rapid degassing yields a lava dome formation, while a slow degassing leads to a lava flow geoform. Overall, slow ascent times are related to lava domes, while fast ascent times to lava flows. The relationship between the mentioned elements, however, are somehow circular or themselves dependent, and consequently without a linear relation. Thus, although the groundmass and the major crystals are evidence for the dynamics of magma propagation during ascent, from our experience, no direct relationships can be drawn between any of the elements vs. the volcanoes, even in a thin section study of the eruptive products under the microscope. This is worth mentioning because it explains why the definition of these volcanoes is purely dependent on the geoform and do not consider, for instance, petrographic characteristics. In spite of this, we consent some approaches that can be made from a rock. For example, an increase in decompression rates results in (1) bubbles and crystals with smaller sizes, (2) a lower crystallinity and thus higher glass fraction, and (3) a higher abundance of unstable hydrous phases [17, 40]. This may help as a starting point for subsequent studies when a rock from effusive monogenetic volcanoes is analysed.
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Figure 3.
Groundmass in effusive monogenetic products. (A, B) Glassy groundmass. (C, D) cryptocrystalline groundmass. (E, F) microcrystalline groundmass. Parallel nichols to the left, crossed nichols to the right.
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\n
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2.2 Magma conduit and topography
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Monogenetic effusive volcanoes are related to physical elements such as the conduit form and dimension, and the interaction with the surface, but also to the topography where the magmas are released. Thus, the volcanoes can be formed through a cylindrical vs. a fissural conduit and in a flat vs. a hilly topography. This complex emplacement can deviate the resulting geoforms from what we normally would expect. For instance, a lava flow volcano that could be linked to a low viscosity magma, could be really the result of a high viscosity magma released and emplaced through a long fissure in a flat topography; also a dome-like geoform that could be linked to high viscosity magma, could be really the result of a lava-type, low viscosity magma, released in a valley or basin that limited its movement. A more complex circumstance could also occur when the magma solidifies forming barriers for subsequent melt to come out, although clearly this situation would not play any role in large volume of magma outpourings. Thus, the upper dozens of meters of the conduit geometry in turn related to the shape of the crater and the magma rheology will be very important in the resulting landform type. Because of the obvious complexity and due to most of the times the construction of the volcanoes is not witnessed, the proposed classification scheme is based on geoforms, thus avoiding terminology complication associated with the source. Figure 4 details the ideal geoforms when related to conduit and topography.
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Figure 4.
Volcanic geoforms vs. ascent conduit type and emplacement topography.
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2.3 Magma releasing
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Magma fragmentation is associated with bubble nucleation and growth. Thus, fragmentation occurs when the gas volume fraction reaches a critical value, i.e. when the magma changes from a liquid with bubbles to a medium of bubbles with liquid [40]. Bubbles, in turn, are a function of water diffusivity and melt viscosity during magma ascent and decompression; diffusivity is important for the feeding of the bubbles, while viscosity for allowing their growing [39]. Considering high efficiency of bubbles feeding and growing in a magma, it is possible to state that: a rapid decompression linked to a relative high ascent time, produces a high rate of bubbles nucleation, expansion and coalescence, and therefore a magma fragmentation to form a scoria/spatter cone. On the contrary, a slow decompression linked to a relative low ascent time, produces a low rate of bubbles nucleation; this yields to expansion, coalescence, channelling and the generation of a permeable network, which allows outgassing; the result is a magma reaching the surface without being fragmented, thus forming an effusive monogenetic volcano. In conclusion, effusive volcanoes in general are indicative of slow ascent times, at least, in the last part of their journey before reaching the Earth’s surface.
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3. Magma evolution
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Although monogenetic volcanism is widely known as part of basaltic magmatic systems (e.g. [7, 27, 41], it is also known as accompanying more complex mafic or even intermediate to acidic systems [42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48], thus indicating magmatic evolution during ascent. This evolution points to significant magma differentiation necessarily associated with low ascent rates or even magma crustal stagnation, and therefore evolution through processes such as fractional crystallisation and assimilation. This evolution is evidenced in the erupted magmas by trails such as: 1) the common presence of significant amount of intermediate plagioclase and mainly amphibole that requires relatively low magma temperatures to crystallise (<1000°C) (e.g. [10, 49, 50], 2) the common presence of crustal xenoliths and xenocrysts indicating time for incorporation and partial or total dilution (e.g. [8]), 3) the almost ubiquitous wide range of liquid compositions of glass within the same products indicating microscale magma interaction/evolution while minerals are forming; this yields heterogeneous portions of magma (e.g. [51]), 4) the strong variation of trace elements at constant SiO2 or MgO values within the same volcanic field (e.g. [10]), and 5) the diverse isotopic ratios indicating strong assimilation from the basement, also within the same volcanic field (e.g. [8, 26]). Magma mixing and self-mixing are possible additional processes linked to the magma evolution (e.g. [13, 43, 52]). Evidences of these are mineral disequilibrium textures (e.g. coronate, embayment, sieve, skeletal), reverse compositional zoning in minerals others than plagioclase (e.g. [53]), and also glass compositional differences in the same products [51]).
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4. Magmatic plumbing systems
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A magma plumbing system under a monogenetic volcanic field can be understood as a network of interconnected dikes and sills that reach the surface in several points via different pathways [54]. Usually, these fields are understood as originated by magma reaching the surface directly from the asthenosphere in terms of weeks or months through simple conduits without any pattern [7]. This is evidenced in the very common primitive magmas and scattered volcanoes that characterise many volcanic fields (e.g. [55]). There is also a “common wisdom” that acidic compositions produce large monogenetic volcanoes only and that most of these volcanoes are related to magma chambers feeding polygenetic volcanoes [1] due to stagnation in the crust makes the magma batches un-eruptible [7]. However, typical (in volume) monogenetic volcanoes, which are intermediate to acidic in composition, are commonly forming monogenetic fields, thus indicating: 1) “normality” rather than “rarity”, and 2) stalling magma zones en route without cooling and crystallisation inhibiting the eruptivity. This stagnation has been evidenced as occurring within the lithosphere (e.g. [9]), particularly in the upper mantle-lower crust limit, or within the crust itself (e.g. [10, 12, 56], occasionally leaving small intrusive igneous bodies underneath the surface (e.g. [57]). This stagnation forming melt storage zones is a common geological explanation for many evolved monogenetic volcanic fields on different tectonic settings on Earth (e.g. [8, 11, 13, 14, 43, 52]). Thus, magmas coming to the planet surface directly from the asthenosphere tend to be mafic, while those coming from crustal melt storages tend to be either intermediate or felsic (Figure 5). Already near the surface, the eruptive style is driven by the internal magma characteristics but also by the external conditions linked to the lithology and the environment [27]. If the magmas do not reach the surface, they could form what would receive a name such as “monogenetic plutonic field.” Monogenetic volcanoes can also be associated with polygenetic volcanoes and therefore with magma chambers; in this case, the composition of the products is fully related to the processes involved in that chamber (Figure 5).
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Figure 5.
Schematic framework of magmatic plumbing systems for monogenetic volcanic fields. LAB: Lithosphere-Asthenosphere Boundary. Not to scale.
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4.1 Examples
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A well-known place on Earth where effusive monogenetic volcanoes are located is the Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Complex [58] in the Central Volcanic Zone in South America [59]. In this place, several of these volcanoes have been identified, usually with intermediate compositions (e.g. SC2 shield-like volcano; [8]), and occasionally related to post-caldera activity (e.g. El Viejo Couleé, [60]). After several studies, it has been proposed partial melting zones linked to magma stagnation either around the Moho boundary or within the continental crust (e.g. [8, 10]).
\n
The French Massif Central is another widely known example where effusive monogenetic volcanoes exist. The iconic Puy de Dóme [61] along with other effusive and explosive volcanoes (e.g. [62, 63], form the Chaine des Puys volcanic field [64]. Volcanoes from this field have been interpreted as formed by magma detached from a melt storage or reservoir in the upper crust, where crystal fractionation plus self-mixing and minor crustal contamination occur (e.g. [13]).
\n
In the west part of the Arabian shield [42, 52, 65], where mostly lava flows as effusive monogenetic emissions have occurred through time [66, 67], recent investigations have proposed a plumbing system composed of a melting region in the asthenosphere with magma stagnation zones in the upper part of the lower crust (e.g. [14]). Similarly, in the Colombian Andes, recently identified intermediate to acidic effusive monogenetic volcanoes forming volcanic fields have been linked to a plumbing system that include a magmatic reservoir located in the upper part of the lower crust [12]. This melt storage zone gives rise to the monogenetic volcanoes, but also to at least 10 composite volcanoes that exist in a 140 km-long volcanic chain.
\n
Finally, it is important to mention the widely known Michoacán-Guanajuato Volcanic Field in México [68, 69, 70, 71], where more than 1000 monogenetic volcanoes have been identified [72]. Lava domes, small-shields and lava flows are characteristic of there (e.g. [15, 16, 73]. Although most of the volcanoes seems to be mafic to intermediate (between 50 and 62 wt.% in SiO2; [72]) some reach up to 69 wt.% (e.g. [11]), thus invoking crustal stagnation linked to evolution. Some others, however, seems to be the result of magmas detachment directly from the asthenosphere (e.g. [74]), as it also seems to occur in the Acigöl rhyolite field in Anatolia, Turkey [48], where interesting effusive volcano geoforms exist.
\n
\n
\n
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5. Conclusions
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Small, short-lived and dispersed effusive monogenetic volcanoes are common in different tectonic settings. They can be mafic but also intermediate to silicic in composition and grouped in field arrangements with their explosive counterparts. The volcanoes are common in convergent plate margins like the Andean arc, but also in orogenic regions like Anatolia or intracontinental settings like Arabia or Sudan. Crustal stagnation is common and eventually ready to act as a “source of melt” in small volume and distinct release; this leads to magmatic plumbing systems related to sort of extensional tectonic, small-scale, regimes acting as “windows” for melt releasing, even in compressional regional settings.
\n
In the monogenetic mafic systems, the chemical signatures most likely reflect the source processes (i.e. magma generation, source depth, melting rate, among others), however, in effusive, commonly silicic systems, these primary features are overprinted by the shallow storage and melt segregation signatures. This makes somehow more complex the understanding of the magma evolution. This adds to the fact that the recognition of such silicic effusive monogenetic volcanic systems in the geological record is not easy and requires some petrologic work and the understanding of the overall stress-field.
\n
Finally, we emphasise that effusive monogenetic systems as a conceptual framework could work in volcanic fields overwhelmingly effusive, with a huge volume of effusive products or even classified as large igneous provinces.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
Support from Universidad de Caldas to run a volcanology field course over four years that allowed to expand a greater collaboration between research students and researchers as well as to create an international expansion of collaborative works along the subject of this chapter is gratefully acknowledged.
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\n',keywords:"lava dome, couleé, small-shield, lava flow",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/73962.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/73962.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73962",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73962",totalDownloads:130,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"June 5th 2020",dateReviewed:"October 8th 2020",datePrePublished:"November 30th 2020",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"November 7th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The study of monogenetic volcanism around Earth is rapidly growing due to the increasing recognition of monogenetic volcanic edifices in different tectonic settings. Far from the idea that this type of volcanism is both typically mafic and characteristic from intraplate environments, it occurs in a wide spectrum of composition and geological settings. This volcanism is widely known by the distinctive pyroclastic cones that represent both magmatic and phreatomagmatic explosive activity; they are known as scoria or spatter cones, tuff cones, tuff rings, maars and maar-diatremes. These cones are commonly associated with lava domes and usually accompanied by lava flows as part of their effusive eruptive phases. In spite of this, isolated effusive monogenetic emissions also appear around Earth’s surface. However, these isolated emissions are not habitually considered within the classification scheme of monogenetic volcanoes. Along with this, many of these effusive volcanoes also contrast with the belief that this volcanism is indicative of rapidly magma ascent from the asthenosphere, as many of the products are strongly evolved reflecting differentiation linked to stagnation during ascent. This has led to the understanding that the asthenosphere is not always the place that directly gives rise to the magma batches and rather, they detach from a crustal melt storage. This chapter introduces four singular effusive monogenetic volcanoes as part of the volcanic geoforms, highlights the fact that monogenetic volcanic fields can also be associated with crustal reservoirs, and outlines the processes that should occur to differentiate the magma before it is released as intermediate and acidic in composition. This chapter also provides an overview of this particular volcanism worldwide and contributes to the monogenetic comprehension for future studies.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/73962",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/73962",signatures:"Hugo Murcia and Károly Németh",book:{id:"9992",title:"Volcanoes - Updates in Volcanology",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Volcanoes - Updates in Volcanology",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Karoly Nemeth",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9992.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"51162",title:"Dr.",name:"Karoly",middleName:null,surname:"Nemeth",slug:"karoly-nemeth",fullName:"Karoly Nemeth"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Effusive monogenetic volcanoes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Evidences of internal dynamics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Magma conduit and topography",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Magma releasing",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Magma evolution",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"4. Magmatic plumbing systems",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.1 Examples",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nNémeth, K. & G. Kereszturi, (2015). Monogenetic volcanism: personal views and discussion. International Journal of Earth Sciences. 104(8): 2131-2146.\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nPioli, L., E. Erlund, E. Johnson, K. Cashman, P. Wallace, M. Rosi, & H. Delgado Granados, (2008). Explosive dynamics of violent Strombolian eruptions: The eruption of Paricutin Volcano 1943-1952 (Mexico). Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 271(1-4): 359-368.\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nAgustin-Flores, J., K. Németh, S.J. Cronin, J.M. Lindsay, G. Kereszturi, B.D. Brand, & I.E.M. Smith, (2014). Phreatomagmatic eruptions through unconsolidated coastal plain sequences, Maungataketake, Auckland Volcanic Field (New Zealand). Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 276: 46-63.\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nMurcia, H., K. Németh, N.N. El-Masry, J.M. Lindsay, M.R.H. Moufti, P. Wameyo, S.J. Cronin, I.E.M. Smith, & G. Kereszturi, (2015). The Al-Du\'aythah volcanic cones, Al-Madinah City: implications for volcanic hazards in northern Harrat Rahat, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Bulletin of Volcanology. 77(6).\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nBotero-Gómez, L.A., P. Osorio, H. Murcia, C. Borrero, & J.A. Grajales, (2018). Campo Volcánico Monogenético Villamaría-Termales, Cordillera Central, Andes colombianos (Parte I): Características morfológicas y relaciones temporales. Boletín de Geología. 40(3): 85-102.\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nKurszlaukis, S. & V. Lorenz, (2017). Differences and similarities between emplacement models of kimberlite and basaltic maar-diatreme volcanoes. In: K. Németh, G. Carrasco-Nuñez, J.J. Aranda-Gomez, & I.E.M. Smith, Editors, Monogenetic Volcanism, The Geological Society Publishing House: Bath, UK. p. 101-122.\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nSmith, I.E.M. & K. Németh, (2017). Source to surface model of monogenetic volcanism: a critical review. In: K. Németh, G. Carrasco-Nuñez, J.J. Aranda-Gomez, & I.E.M. Smith, Editors, Monogenetic Volcanism, The Geological Society Publishing House: Bath, UK. p. 1-28.\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nMattioli, M., A. Renzulli, M. Menna, & P.M. Holm, (2006). Rapid ascent and contamination of magmas through the thick crust of the CVZ (Andes, Ollagüe region): Evidence from a nearly aphyric high-K andesite with skeletal olivines. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 158(1-2): 87-105.\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nBolos, X., J. Marti, L. Becerril, L. Planaguma, P. Grosse, & S. Barde-Cabusson, (2015). 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Németh, Editor, Updates in Volcanology - New Advances in Understanding Volcanic Systems, inTech Open: Rijeka, Croatia. p. 3-88.\n'},{id:"B28",body:'\nZimanowski, B., R. Buettner, V. Lorenz, & H.-G. Haefele, (1997). Fragmentation of basaltic melt in the course of explosive volcanism. Journal of Geophysical Research. 102(B1): 803-814.\n'},{id:"B29",body:'\nZimanowski, B., R. Buttner, & V. Lorenz, (1997). Premixing of magma and water in MFCI experiments. Bulletin of Volcanology. 58(6): 491-495.\n'},{id:"B30",body:'\nWohletz, K.H. & M.F. Sheridan, (1983). Hydrovolcanic Explosions .2. Evolution Of Basaltic Tuff Rings And Tuff Cones. American Journal Of Science. 283(5): 385-413.\n'},{id:"B31",body:'\nKereszturi, G., K. Németh, G. Csillag, K. Balogh, & J. Kovács, (2011). The role of external environmental factors in changing eruption styles of monogenetic volcanoes in a Mio/Pleistocene continental volcanic field in western Hungary. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 201(1-4): 227-240.\n'},{id:"B32",body:'\nRoss, P.-S., S. Delpit, M.J. Haller, K. Nemeth, & H. Corbella, (2011). Influence of the substrate on maar-diatreme volcanoes - An example of a mixed setting from the Pali Aike volcanic field, Argentina. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 201(1-4): 253-271.\n'},{id:"B33",body:'\nBorrero, C., H. Murcia, J. Agustin-Flores, M.T. Arboleda, & A.M. Giraldo, (2017). Pyroclastic deposits of San Diego maar, central Colombia: an example of a silicic magma-related monogenetic eruption in a hard substrate. In: K. Németh, G. Carrasco-Núñez, J.J. Aranda-Gómez, & I.E.M. Smith, Editors, Monogenetic Volcanism - Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 446(1): London, UK. p. 361-374.\n'},{id:"B34",body:'\nCashman, K.V. & B. Scheu, (2015). Magmatic fragmentation. In: H. H. Sigurdsson, B. Houghton, S.R. McNutt, H. Rymer, & J. Stix, Editors, Encyclopedia of Volcanoes (2nd edition), Academic Press, Elsevier: USA. p. 459-471.\n'},{id:"B35",body:'\nFries, C., (1953). Volumes and weights of pyroclastic material, lava, and water erupted by Paricutin volcano, Michoacan, Mexico. EOS, Trans. Am. Geophys. Union. 34(4): 603-616.\n'},{id:"B36",body:'\nGuilbaud, M.N., C. Siebe, P. Layer, S. Salinas, R. Castro-Govea, V.H. Garduno-Monroy, & N. Le Corvec, (2011). Geology, geochronology, and tectonic setting of the Jorullo Volcano region, Michoacan, Mexico. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 201(1-4): 97-112.\n'},{id:"B37",body:'\nLuhr, J.F. & I.S.E. Carmichael, (1985). Jorullo volcano, Michoacan, Mexico (1759-1774): the earlier stages of fractionation in calk-alkaline magmas. Contribution to Mineralogy and Petrology. 90: 142-161.\n'},{id:"B38",body:'\nLuhr, J.F. & T. Simkin, (1993). Paricutin. The volcano born in a Mexican cornfield., Phoenix: Geosciences Press. 427.\n'},{id:"B39",body:'\nBurgisser, A. & W. Degruyter, (2015). Chapter 11 - Magma Ascent and Degassing at Shallow Levels. In: H. Sigurdsson, Editor, The Encyclopedia of Volcanoes (Second Edition), Academic Press: Amsterdam. p. 225-236.\n'},{id:"B40",body:'\nCashman, K.V. & J. Blundy, (2000). Degassing and crystallization of ascending andesite and dacite. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 358(1770): 1487-1513.\n'},{id:"B41",body:'\nMcGee, L.E., M.-A. Millet, I.E.M. Smith, K. Nemeth, & J.M. Lindsay, (2012). The inception and progression of melting in a monogenetic eruption: Motukorea Volcano, the Auckland Volcanic Field, New Zealand. Lithos. 155: 360-374.\n'},{id:"B42",body:'\nCamp, V.E., M.J. Roobol, & P.R. Hooper, (1991). The Arabian continental alkali basalt province; Part II, Evolution of harrats Khaybar, Ithnayn, and Kura, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia; with Suppl. Data 91-06. Geological Society of America Bulletin. 103(3): 363-391.\n'},{id:"B43",body:'\nFranz, G., C. Breitkreuz, D.A. Coyle, B. El Hur, W. Heinrich, H. Paulick, D. Pudlo, R. Smith, & G. Steiner, (1997). The alkaline Meidob volcanic field (Late Cenozoic, northwest Sudan). Journal of African Earth Sciences. 25(2): 263-291.\n'},{id:"B44",body:'\nFranz, G., G. Steiner, F. Volker, D. Pudlo, & K. Hammerschmidt, (1999). Plume related alkaline magmatism in central Africa - the Meidob Hills (W Sudan). Chemical Geology. 157(1-2): 27-47.\n'},{id:"B45",body:'\nRiggs, N.R., J.C. Hurlbert, T.J. Schroeder, & S.A. Ward, (1997). The interaction of volcanism and sedimentation in the proximal areas of a mid-tertiary volcanic dome field, central Arizona, USA. Journal of Sedimentary Research. 67(1): 142-153.\n'},{id:"B46",body:'\nNémeth, K. & M.R. Moufti, (2017). Geoheritage values of a mature monogenetic volcanic field in intra-continental settings: Harrat Khaybar, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Geoheritage. 9(3): 311-328.\n'},{id:"B47",body:'\nKósik, S., M. Bebbington, & K. Németh, (2020). Spatio-temporal hazard estimation in the central silicic part of Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand, based on small to medium volume eruptions. Bulletin of Volcanology. 82(6): 50.\n'},{id:"B48",body:'\nSiebel, W., A.K. Schmitt, E. Kiemele, M. Danisik, & F. Aydin, (2011). Acigol rhyolite field, central Anatolia (part II): geochemical and isotopic (Sr-Nd-Pb, delta O-18) constraints on volcanism involving two high-silica rhyolite suites. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology. 162(6): 1233-1247.\n'},{id:"B49",body:'\nGrove, T.L., L.T. Elkins-Tanton, S.W. Parman, N. Chatterjee, O. Müntener, & G.A. Gaetani, (2003). Fractional crystallization and mantle-melting controls on calc-alkaline differentiation trends. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology. 145(5): 515-533.\n'},{id:"B50",body:'\nPutirka, K.D., (2008). Thermometers and barometers for volcanic systems. In: K.D. Putirka & F.J. Tepley, Editors, Minerals, Inclusions and Volcanic Processes - Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry 69, Mineralogical Society of America and Geochemical Society: USA. p. 61-120.\n'},{id:"B51",body:'\nSalazar-Muñóz, N., C.A. Ríos de la Ossa, H. Murcia, D. Schonwalder-Angel, L.A. Botero-Gómez, G. Hincapie, & J.C. Da Silva, (2020). Evolved (SiO2: ~60 wt.%) monogenetic volcanism in the northern Colombian Andes: Crystallisation history of three Quaternary lava domes. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research [in review].\n'},{id:"B52",body:'\nCamp, V.E. & M.J. Roobol, (1989). The Arabian continental alkali basalt province; Part I, Evolution of Harrat Rahat, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia; with Suppl. Data 89-04. Geological Society of America Bulletin. 101(1): 71-95.\n'},{id:"B53",body:'\nLaeger, K., R. Halama, T. Hansteen, I.P. Savov, H.F. Murcia, G.P. Cortés, & D. Garbe-Schönberg, (2013). Crystallization conditions and petrogenesis of the lava dome from the ̃900 years BP eruption of Cerro Machín Volcano, Colombia. Journal of South American Earth Sciences. 48: 193.\n'},{id:"B54",body:'\nBurchardt, S. & O. Galland, (2016). Studying volcanic plumbing systems; multi-disciplinary approaches to a multi-facetted problem. In: K. Nemeth, Editor, Updates in Volcanology – From Volcano Modelling to Volcano Geology inTech Open: Rijeka, Croatia. p. 23-53.\n'},{id:"B55",body:'\nMcGee, L.E., I.E.M. Smith, M.-A. Millet, H.K. Handley, & A.M. Lindsay, (2013). Asthenospheric Control of Melting Processes in a Monogenetic Basaltic System: a Case Study of the Auckland Volcanic Field, New Zealand. Journal of Petrology. 54(10): 2125-2153.\n'},{id:"B56",body:'\nLondono, J.M., (2016). Evidence of recent deep magmatic activity at Cerro Bravo-Cerro Machín volcanic complex, central Colombia. Implications for future volcanic activity at Nevado del Ruiz, Cerro Machín and other volcanoes. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 324: 156.\n'},{id:"B57",body:'\nJaramillo, J.S., A. Cardona, G. Monsalve, V. Valencia, & S. León, (2019). Petrogenesis of the late Miocene Combia volcanic complex, northwestern Colombian Andes: Tectonic implication of short term and compositionally heterogeneous arc magmatism. Lithos. 330: 194.\n'},{id:"B58",body:'\nde Silva, S.L., (1989). Geochronology and stratigraphy of the ignimbrites from the 21°30\'S to 23°30\'S portion of the Central Andes of northern Chile. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 37: 93-131.\n'},{id:"B59",body:'\nStern, C.R., (2004). Active Andean volcanism: its geologic and tectonic setting. Revista Geologica De Chile. 31(2): 161-206.\n'},{id:"B60",body:'\nBustos, E., W.A. Báez, L. Bardelli, J. McPhie, A. sola, A. Chiodi, V. Simón, & M. Arnosio, (2020). Genesis of megaspherulites in El Viejo Rhyolitic Coulee (Pleistocene), Southern Puna, Argentina. Bulletin of Volcanology. 82: 43.\n'},{id:"B61",body:'\nMiallier, D., P. Boivin, C. Deniel, A. Gourgaud, P. Lanos, M. Sforna, & T. Pilleyre, (2010). The ultimate summit eruption of Puy de Dôme volcano (Chaîne des Puys, French Massif Central) about 10,700 years ago. Comptes Rendus Geoscience. 342: 847.\n'},{id:"B62",body:'\nMiallier, D., T. Pilleyre, P. Boivin, P. Labazuy, L.S. Gailler, & J. Rico, (2017). Grand Sarcoui volcano (Chaine des Puys, Massif Central, France), a case study for monogenetic trachytic lava domes. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 345: 125-141.\n'},{id:"B63",body:'\nColombier, M., L. Gurioli, T.H. Druitt, T. Shea, P. Boivin, D. Miallier, & N. Cluzel, (2017). Textural evolution of magma during the 9.4-ka trachytic explosive eruption at Kilian Volcano, Chaine des Puys, France. Bulletin of Volcanology. 79(2).\n'},{id:"B64",body:'\nBoivin, P. & J.-C. Thouret, (2014). The Volcanic Chaîne des Puys: A Unique Collection of Simple and Compound Monogenetic Edifices, M. In: Fort & M.-F. André, Editors, Landscapes and Landforms of France, Springer Netherlands: Dordrecht. p. 81-91.\n'},{id:"B65",body:'\nCamp, V.E., P.R. Hooper, M.J. Roobol, & D.L. White, (1987). The Madinah eruption, Saudi Arabia: Magma mixing and simultaneous extrusion of three basaltic chemical types. Bulletin of Volcanology. 49(2): 489-508.\n'},{id:"B66",body:'\nMoufti, M.R., A.M. Moghazi, & K.A. Ali, (2013). Ar-40/Ar-39 geochronology of the Neogene-Quaternary Harrat Al-Madinah intercontinental volcanic field, Saudi Arabia: Implications for duration and migration of volcanic activity. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences. 62: 253-268.\n'},{id:"B67",body:'\nMurcia, H., K. Nemeth, M.R. Moufti, J.M. Lindsay, N. El-Masry, S.J. Cronin, A. Qaddah, & I.E.M. Smith, (2014). Late Holocene lava flow morphotypes of northern Harrat Rahat, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia; implications for the description of continental lava fields. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences. 84: 131-145.\n'},{id:"B68",body:'\nHasenaka, T. & I.S.E. Carmichael, (1985). A compilation of location, size, and geomorphological parameters of volcanoes of the Michoacan-Guanajuato volcanic field, central Mexico. Geofisica Internacional. 24(4): 577-608.\n'},{id:"B69",body:'\nHasenaka, T. & I.S.E. Carmichael, (1985). The cinder cones of Michoacán-Guanajuato, central Mexico: their age, volume and distribution, and magma discharge rate. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 25: 105-124.\n'},{id:"B70",body:'\nHasenaka, T., (1985). Differentiation of cinder cone magmas from the Michoacan-Guanajuato volcanic field, central Mexico. Abstracts with Programs - Geological Society of America. 17(7): 605-605.\n'},{id:"B71",body:'\nHasenaka, T., (1994). Size, Distribution, and Magma Output Rate for Shield Volcanos of the Michoacan-Guanajuato Volcanic Field, Central Mexico. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 63(1-2): 13-31.\n'},{id:"B72",body:'\nHasenaka, T. & I.S.E. Carmichael, (1987). The cinder cones of Michoacan-Guanajuato, central Mexico: Petrology and chemistry. Journal of Petrology. 28: 241-269.\n'},{id:"B73",body:'\nOsorio-Ocampo, S., J. Luis Macias, A. Pola, S. Cardona-Melchor, G. Sosa-Ceballos, V. Hugo Garduno-Monroy, P.W. Layer, L. Garcia-Sanchez, M. Perton, & J. Benowitz, (2018). The eruptive history of the Patzcuaro Lake area in the Michoacan Guanajuato Volcanic Field, central Mexico: Field mapping, C-14 and Ar-40/Ar-39 geochronology. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 358: 307-328.\n'},{id:"B74",body:'\nLosantos, E., J.M. Cebria, D.J. Moran-Zenteno, B.M. Martiny, J. Lopez-Ruiz, & G. Solis-Pichardo, (2017). Petrogenesis of the alkaline and calcalkaline monogenetic volcanism in the northern sector of the Michoacan-Guanajuato Volcanic Field (Central Mexico). Lithos. 288: 295-310.\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Hugo Murcia",address:"hugofmurcia@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Departamento de Ciencias Geológicas - Department of Geological Sciences, Instituto de Investigaciones en Estratigrafía (IIES), Universidad de Caldas, Colombia
School of Agriculture and Environment, Massey University, New Zealand
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The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.
",metaTitle:"Our story",metaDescription:"The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/our-story",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
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In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
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The IntechOpen timeline
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2004
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Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
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Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
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2005
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IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
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2006
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IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
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2008
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Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
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2009
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Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
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2010
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Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
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IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
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2011
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Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
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IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
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IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
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IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
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2012
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Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
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IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
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2013
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IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
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2014
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IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
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IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
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2015
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Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
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Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
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40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
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Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
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2016
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IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
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2017
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Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
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Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\n\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\n\n
2004
\n\n
\n\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\n\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n
\n\n
2005
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\n
\n\n
2006
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\n
\n\n
2008
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\n
\n\n
2009
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\n
\n\n
2010
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\n
\n\n
2011
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\n\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
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IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
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2012
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Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
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IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
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2013
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IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
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2014
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IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
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IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
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2015
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Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
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Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
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40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
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Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
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2016
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IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
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2017
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Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
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Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
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