Summary of studies investigating canine forelimb and/or elbow joint kinematics.
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More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"294",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"MATLAB - A Ubiquitous Tool for the Practical Engineer",title:"MATLAB",subtitle:"A Ubiquitous Tool for the Practical Engineer",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'A well-known statement says that the PID controller is the "bread and butter" of the control engineer. This is indeed true, from a scientific standpoint. However, nowadays, in the era of computer science, when the paper and pencil have been replaced by the keyboard and the display of computers, one may equally say that MATLAB is the "bread" in the above statement. MATLAB has became a de facto tool for the modern system engineer. This book is written for both engineering students, as well as for practicing engineers. The wide range of applications in which MATLAB is the working framework, shows that it is a powerful, comprehensive and easy-to-use environment for performing technical computations. \nThe book includes various excellent applications in which MATLAB is employed: from pure algebraic computations to data acquisition in real-life experiments, from control strategies to image processing algorithms, from graphical user interface design for educational purposes to Simulink embedded systems.',isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-907-3",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5552-2",doi:"10.5772/820",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"matlab-a-ubiquitous-tool-for-the-practical-engineer",numberOfPages:560,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"e73ce10cff1d0b433ff4ce05c3f05061",bookSignature:"Clara M. 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Patients presenting with hair loss (alopecia) is a very common problem and is often a cause of great concern for cosmetic and psychological reasons and this has several causes; as it may be an important sign of systemic disease.
Alopecia can be either scarring or non-scarring. Non-scarring alopecias tend to have preserved follicular ostia, with no clinically visible inflammation in most presentations, although histologic inflammation may be present. The common types of non-scarring alopecias are androgenic alopecia, telogen effluvium, alopecia areata, trichotillomania and traction alopecia. Scarring alopecias, also known as cicatricial alopecia, refers to a collection of hair loss disorders that have loss of follicular ostia, or atrophy, with permanent and irreversible destruction of hair follicles and their replacement with scar tissue. The histologic confirmation is the best method to confirm the presence of a fibrosing/scarring process with loss of hair follicles.
Scarring alopecias can be classified as lymphocytic (discoid lupus erythematosus (DLE), lichen planopilaris (LPP), central centrifugal cicatricial alopecia, pseudopelade of Brocq), neutrophilic (folliculitis decalvans, dissecting folliculitis), and mixed (acne keloidalis) entities [1].
Many alopecia types are biphasic. For example, androgenetic alopecia eventually results in loss of ostia and thus may appear like a scarring alopecia.
To establish the cause of the hair loss, one requires a history to identify known triggers, scalp examination, biochemical investigations and in many cases histology to identify the earliest stages of some types of alopecias esp scarring alopecia.
Scalp biopsies can be used to make or confirm a diagnosis of alopecia. Scalp biopsy is considered mandatory in all cases of scarring alopecia. The interpretation of the histopathological findings of primary scarring alopecias without known clinical history may be difficult and this is especially true if the biopsy specimen is inadequate.
In non-scarring type, it is not difficult to diagnose these disorders. However, scalp biopsy can be needed in few cases of:
Lack of identifiable triggers.
Severe hair loss (as in some cases of alopecia areata which does not present in a well defined bald area, but as severe hair loss (Fig 1).
Acute hair loss.
Telogen effluvium does not occur in an acute way after a known triggering factor.
Some cases of female androgenetic alopecia pattern; the clinical presentation may be similar to other types of non-scarring alopecias.
year old female patient presented with diffuse, acute severe hair loss and with localized patch of alopecia areata as it demonstrated by red arrow.
It is a crucial to determine the appropriate site of a scalp biopsy to have a correct diagnosis of alopecia, and this approach is different in scarring and non-scarring types. For a scarring process, the biopsy should be taken from the active border of hair loss where some hairs still remain and are more likely to display diagnostic findings. For non-scarring alopecias, the preferred site of biopsy is generally the border of a lesion (positive exclamation marks in alopecia areata), or from the site of a positive pull test in the setting of a diffuse alopecia. In the setting of evaluating a possible androgenic alopecia, two biopsies, one from the involved scalp (often vertex) and one from the uninvolved scalp (often occiput; serves as a positive control) may be beneficial.
The current gold-standard for a scalp biopsy specimen is the use of a 4-mm punch and must include subcutaneous fat to ensure sampling of the entire follicular unit and any anagen follicles; the specimen may be sectioned vertically or transversely [2]. Although a combination of the two may be optimal, the pathologist is frequently only provided with a single specimen.
Vertically-sectioned punch biopsy specimen is adequate for assessing alopecias associated with interface changes, lichenoid infiltrates, and subcutaneous pathology [3]. However, vertical sectioning will show only 10% of the follicles present in the specimen [4]because the hair follicles, which grow at an angle, cannot be visualized in their entirety in conventional vertical sections.
Vertical section of a scalp biopsy from a patient with DLE.
Horizontal sections are becoming the method of choice as they offer the advantage of evaluating large numbers of follicles simultaneously, determining hair density, location of inflammatory infiltrate and anagen to telogen ratio [5]. A transversely sectioned specimen will include all the hair follicles present in the biopsy, and in the same section. Although the clinical impression is very important in diagnosing alopecia, transversely sectioned biopsy specimens can greatly aid the diagnosis and management of patients with alopecia [6].
Transverse section from a scalp biopsy from a patient with DLE.
The histological findings in many forms of hair loss may be similar, and an accurate diagnosis of hair loss depends on distinguishing abnormal from normal follicular architecture. It is important to identify the normal hair follicle structure, the number, size and distribution of hair follicles within a biopsy specimen. Hematoxylin and eosin staining of the scalp biopsies is the usual satin in most of the cases of hair loss, but in some of the alopecias (such as DLE), immunofluorescence staining may be needed to add in diagnosis. In addition, the pathologist may use additional special stains to narrow a differential diagnosis or confirm an initial impression and one of these is immunohistochemistry which is dependent on the localization of antigens in tissue sections by the use of labeled antibody as specific reagents through antigen-antibody interactions that are visualized by a marker such as peroxidase.
Specimens are categorized as scarring or nonscarring alopecia, and further diagnostic criteria discussed herein assist the pathologist in making specific diagnoses of nonscarring and scarring alopecias.
Histologically, cicatricial alopecia is characterized by dermal scarring, along with absent or reduced hair follicles and reduced number of erector pili muscles. But taking skin biopsy from the active area will be more informative about the diagnosis.
This scarring alopecia may be secondary, and due to numerous etiologies (such as due to infectious causes (Fig 4), or primary, where the cause and pathogenesis are largely unknown, but the target is the hair follicle itself (such as DLE and LPP).
The discussion in following sections is about the primary type as the skin biopsy is more informative about the diagnosis.
Scarring alopecia in a child secondary to tinea capitis.
Lupus erythematosus is an autoimmune disease that can affect one or more internal organs as well as the skin. This disease is a clinical spectrum ranging from mildly affected patients with only localized skin disease to those at risk of dying from systemic manifestations. The skin involvement is among the most frequent symptoms; and is characterized by its natural history of relapsing and chronicity. The scalp (Fig 5) is a common area of involvement, and permanent alopecia may result with the following morphological features; sclero-atrophy, erythema, follicular hyperkeratosis, plugging and telangiectasia. The irreversible, scarring alopecia differs from the reversible non scarring alopecia that is seen in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus.
Scarring alopecia in DLE may mimic other types of scarring alopecia seen in some dermatoses, the most common differential diagnosis of this is lichen planopilaris (LPP) and the differentiation between them is possible by early clinical and histological changes. Both LPP and DLE show perifollicular erythema and keratotic follicular papules, but the distinctive clinical features of DLE of the scalp are the presence of erythema, scaling, telangiectasia, and mottled hyperpigmentation within the areas of scarring alopecia and the presence of hyperkeratotic papules in the central part of the bald area in DLE, while in LPP it presents at the margin of the alopecia patch [7].
Discoid lupus erythematosus of the scalp. The typical scaling is evident.
DLE is a scarring disease and so early treatment is needed to control existing cutaneous lesions and limit scaring and to prevent the development of the disease. Patients with DLE lesions should have regular clinical evaluation accompanied by simple laboratory studies to evaluate the possible progression from the primary cutaneous disorder to the disorder accompanied by systemic involvement. Therapy begins with general measures such as the use of sun-protective measures, including sunscreens, protective clothing and medical therapy includes corticosteroids (topical or intralesional) and antimalarials.
Routine histologic examination of lesional skin from CLE patients is necessary, as the diagnosis of CLE generally requires clinicopathologic correlation and the distinction between different types of CLE based on histological findings without clinical correlation is difficult; all forms of CLE are similar histologically in broad terms. Histopathological features (Fig 6) include pilosebaceous atrophy, hyperkeratosis, parakeratosis, basement membrane thickening, subepidermal oedema and vasodilatation. A perivascular and peri-appendageal superficial and deep lymphoid cell infiltrate with plasma cells are other histolopathological findings.
DLE pathology. Note the hyperkeratosis, basal cell degeneration and heavy inflammatory infiltrate.
Direct immunofluorescence (DIF) of lesional skin in CLE is an adjunctive test; it helps to confirm the diagnosis when the routine histological findings are equivocal. The test is positive only in some of lesional skin biopsies; so light microscopy should be carried out before DIF. For DIF, the optimal lesion of LE should be an established, erythematosus lesion, and of at least 6-8 weeks in duration. The most suggestive findings are the presence of multiple immunoreactants typically IgG and IgM, in a special pattern (bright in intensity, continuous, perifollicular, and granular) [8]. Sometimes complement components may be present including C3b and C1q. Scalp lesions have been reported to show the highest frequency of the DIF test (83 %), the immunoreactants deposits occur around hair follicles, an important feature not seen in other types of scarring alopecia.
Using immunohistochemistry [9], there were significant alterations in the basement membrane zone (BMZ) in patients with active DLE and this explain the previous histological findings of thickened BMZ in DLE. There was an increase in the expression of the anchoring fibril and collagen component antigens in the BMZ with gross thickening and protrusion into the dermis in active DLE lesions (Fig 7).
Anti-type IV collagen staining in DLE with an exaggerated expression as demonstrated by thickness of the basement membrane and protrusions.
LPP is a rare type of lichen planus which characteristically affects the scalp (Figure 8) with perifollicular erythema, keratotic follicular spines and with patchy or diffuse hair loss which may result in scarring alopecia as its end stage. Scalp lesions can be associated with characteristic flat topped violaceous papules of lichen planus (LP) on the limbs in 50 % of cases [10]. LPP of the scalp is a scarring disease and it is difficult to treat comparing to the glabrous LP and this has major psychological consequences for the affected patients. The therapeutic management often is quite challenging, as relapses are common after local or systemic treatments. The recommended treatments are ultrapotent topical or intralesional injections of corticosteroid. Some cases may need systemic treatment including oral corticotherapy and cyclosporine.
LPP of the scalp.
Histologically (Fig 9) has been reported to show two different patterns [11], each pattern characterized by the presence of specific histological features that reflects the specific stage of the progression of the disease. In the first pattern, hair follicles and the perifollicular dermis were mainly involved in the pathologic process, with no involvement of the interfollicular structures. In the second pattern, the pathologic changes extended to the interfollicular epidermis and the papillary dermis.
LPP pathology. The inflammation is mainly perifollicular with some involvement of the basal cell layers which also show basal cell degeneration.
Direct immunofluorescence highlights the presence of colloid bodies in the peri-infundibular area staining with IgM (less frequently with IgG, IgA and C3).
By immunohistochemistry staining [12], there is a significant alteration in the basement membrane structure in lesions of LPP which could differentiate it from active lesions of scalp DLE lesions.
Anti-type IV collagen staining in LPP. Interrupted expression of type IV collagen in an affected hair follicle in an LPP lesion with projections into the underlying dermis, with the adjacent epidermis showing normal expression of the collagen
The diagnosis of this type of alopecia is usually based on a thorough history and a focused physical examination. In some patients, punch biopsy may be necessary if the cause of hair loss is unclear as has been described previously. The focus in the following discussion will be on alopecia areata and androgenetic alopecia (the skin biopsies will be needed in some of cases).
Alopecia areata (Fig 11) is one form of non-scarring alopecia characterize by patchy hair loss of autoimmune origin. It usually presents as a single or multiple confluent patches of non-scarring alopecia. Spontaneous regression of the disease is common in this disease and the hair may grow back if the affected region is small. Topical treatment is effective including corticosteroids clobetasol or fluocinonide, corticosteroid injections, or cream, steroid injections, topical minoxidil, irritants (anthralin or topical coal tar), and topical immunotherapy. Oral corticosteroids decrease the hair loss, but only for the period during which they are taken.
Diagnostic pathological findings (Fig 12) are more prominent in this type of alopecia which characterize by peribulbar lymphocytic inflammation which is usually considered to be an essential finding in establishing the diagnosis [13]. The lymphocytic
infiltrate is rich in helper T cells, which are considered to be evidence of an autoimmune process. Despite this, it may be absent in many scalp biopsy specimens. In the acute stage; a moderate to dense inflammatory cell infiltrate (mainly lymphocytes and langerhans cells) [14] develops around anagen hair and this leads finally to anagen arrest and inhibition which weakens the lowest portion of the
hair shaft. Using follicular counts [15] related to the stage of disease is a useful way to establish the histologic features of alopecia areata in scalp biopsy specimens taken from different types of alopecia areata; alopecia areata should be suspected when high percentages of telogen hairs are present, even in the absence of a peribulbar infiltrate [15].
Alopecia areata in a child presented with diffuse hair loss.
Skin biopsy from a patient with alopecia areata demonstrating perifollicular lymphocytic infiltrate.
Androgenic alopecia is the most common type of hair loss. Clinically, it is a patterned alopecia, in that it is characterized by bitemporal recession and vertex balding in men, and in women (female pattern hair loss) by diffuse hair thinning of the crown with an intact frontal hairline. Histopathologically, the use of transverse sections is the most valuable method to reach a diagnosis [16], as all the hair follicles can be visualized.
The terminal (T) to vellus (v) ratio is T: V= less than 4:14. Normal scalp ratio is T: V= 7:1). A ratio of T: V= 3: 1 or less is considered to be diagnostic [16], [17].
The canine elbow joint is a complex joint, whose musculoskeletal anatomy is well investigated. However, the in vivo function of the elbow joint, the individual movement of the humerus, radius and ulna relative to each other and the load distribution within the joint is still subject of present and future research. Especially pathophysiological motion of the elbow joint, leading to a mechanical overload of certain joint compartments, is not well understood and an interesting field of present veterinary research. Canine developmental elbow disease (DED), in particular medial coronoid disease (MCD), is one of the most common reasons for forelimb lameness in the dog and therefore this topic has not only academic, but also clinical relevance.
The canine elbow joint is composed of the humerus proximally and the radius and ulna distally, and can be divided into three joint compartments: the humero-ulnar, humero-radial and proximal radio-ulnar joint [1, 2]. The humero-ulnar joint is formed by the humeral trochlea and intercondylar region of the condyle and the ulnar trochlear notch, which extends from the anconeal process to the radial incisure, and continues to the medial coronoid process of the ulna. The humero-radial joint is formed by the capitulum of the humeral condyle and the radial head. The radial incisure and the medial aspect of the radial head form the proximal radio-ulnar joint. Altogether the elbow joint acts as a hinge joint (ginglymus) with extension and flexion being the main motion pattern and some amount of pronation and supination, mainly taken over by the radio-ulnar joint [1].
In healthy canine elbows the radio-ulnar joint shows a congruent shape without any step formation between the ulnar and radial joint surface, at least under static conditions. However, the humero-ulnar joint is not perfectly congruent even in healthy dogs [3, 4, 5, 6]. The radii of curvature of the humeral condyle and ulnar trochlear notch show different values along their curvilinear course, resulting in reduced contact in the central notch region [3, 4, 5, 6, 7]. The trochlear notch shows a slightly elliptical shape, so that the anconeal process and distal aspect of the notch as well as the coronoid process are in contact with the humeral condyle. This kind of physiological humero-ulnar incongruence was first described in humans and could be detected in the canine elbow joint, too [4, 5, 6, 8, 9].
The maximum range of motion (ROM) varies between 110 to 150 degrees, with breed-specific maximum flexion of 25 to 49 degrees and maximum extension of 155 to 175 degrees [10, 11, 12, 13, 14]. The main extensor muscle of the elbow joint is the triceps brachii muscle [1]. Further this muscle prevents flexion of the elbow during the stance phase. The anconeal and tensor fasciae antebrachii muscles are additional extensors of the elbow joint. Flexion is performed by the biceps brachii and brachial muscles. The extensor carpi radialis muscle contributes to flexor function to some amount. The canine antebrachium can be pronated 17 to 50 degrees and supinated 31 to 70 degrees [10, 15]. The supinator and brachioradial muscles are responsible for supination of the antebrachium. The latter contributes only minimal to supination and is missing in some individuals [16]. The pronator teres and pronator quadratus muscles are responsible for pronation and the pronator teres muscle is supposed to contribute to elbow joint flexion as well [1, 2].
Four ligaments support the elbow joint: the medial and lateral collateral ligament, the annular ligament and interosseous ligament/interosseous membrane [1, 2]. The medial and lateral collateral ligaments origin from the medial and lateral humeral epicondyle. The medial collateral divides into two crura. The cranial one is weaker and attaches at the radius, while the stronger caudal one attaches mainly at the ulna and to some amount at the radius. The lateral collateral ligament consists of two crura as well. The cranial part attaches to the radius, and the caudal part attaches to the ulna and colligates with the annular ligament, which can contain a sesamoid bone [2]. The annular ligament runs transversely around the radial head spanning from the lateral to the medial aspect of the radial incisure of the ulna. It runs underneath the medial and lateral collateral ligaments. The radius and ulna are further attached to each other by the interosseous ligament and interosseous membrane, which spans the interosseous space. Distally the radius and ulna are connected to each other by the radioulnar ligament.
Kinematics describe the motion of body segments without measuring the forces acting onto that segments. Kinematic analysis allows evaluation of the range of motion, angular velocities, segmental velocities of each portion of the limb, stride frequency and stride length [17]. Depending on the technique used for the kinematic analysis, motion of bones and joints can be measured with a submillimeter accuracy [18, 19, 20].
Generally two forms of kinematic analysis can be differentiated: the video-kinematography, based on a video motion capture system, and the radiostereometric kinematic analysis (RSA), based on a radiographic system, coupled with high speed video cameras. Video motion capture kinematic systems use skin markers, attached to specific body areas, which are tracked in the generated videos of the moving animal and allow for calculation of the aforementioned parameters. Radiostereometric analysis can be marker based or performed without bone markers [21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30]. Furthermore, both kinematic analysis systems can be used to evaluate motion in the two or three dimensional (2D, 3D) space, depending on the technical setup [17].
The most commonly used technique is a video motion capture system based analysis. This technique is non-invasive and allows for evaluation of overall limb, limb segment or body segment motion. However, skin mounted markers do not match exactly the movement of the underlying bones. Movement of the soft tissues results in skin motion artifacts [21, 28, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35], with a difference of 0.4 to 1.2 cm between the skin marker and respective underlying bony landmark in small animals [33]. Especially in the proximal joints of the forelimb skin marker based data differ significantly from fluoroscopically gained kinematic data [28]. Comparison of biplanar fluoroscopy and video-kinematography in hindlimb kinematics revealed significant differences between both techniques, too [21]. Skin marker based data tend to project different trajectories and smaller amplitudes compared to fluoroscopic kinematography with particularly contradictory results, especially in proximal joints, where increased soft tissues can be found [21].
Radiostereometric analysis, also called fluoroscopic kinematography, allows for the most accurate kinematic data acquisition [19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 28, 30]. One or two fluoroscopic units, coupled with high speed video cameras, take x-ray movies of the moving object. Based on these x-ray movies bone movement can be calculated and transferred onto 3D bone models generated from CT scans of the individual animal. Bone motion analysis can be performed using implanted bone markers, which are tracked in one (uniplanar, 2D evaluation) or both (biplanar, 3D evaluation) x-ray movies and 3D coordinates of each marker are then transferred onto the 3D bone models. Alternatively, scientific rotoscoping or autoscoping techniques can be used to track bone movement and transfer this in vivo bone motion from the fluoroscopic images onto 3D bone models [18, 20, 36]. These techniques do not rely on bone markers, rather the shape and edges of each bone are used to project digitally reconstructed radiographs (DRR), generated from the CT scans of each bone, onto the respective bone in the fluoroscopic image. By that the 3D bone model is aligned and animated along the x-ray movies. Scientific rotoscoping is performed manually, while autoscoping is a completely computerized process. Both techniques can be described as morphology based methods of motion analysis. Marker based tacking is the gold standard of kinematic analysis with an accuracy of 0.1 mm and 0.1 degrees [20]. However, scientific rotoscoping and autoscoping show a high accuracy as well, with values ranging from 0.16 to 0.66 mm in translation and 0.43 to 2.78 degrees rotation for scientific rotoscoping and 0.07 to 1.13 mm translation and 0.01 to 3.0 degrees rotation for autoscoping [18, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42]. Therefore, both techniques result in a highly precise evaluation of bone and joint motion with a substantially reduced invasiveness compared to a bone marker based analysis.
Multiple studies have investigated elbow joint kinematics in healthy dogs and dogs with different joint pathologies. Results have to be interpreted cautiously due to varying breeds, different technical setups and varying gaits and gait velocities, e.g. the walk or the trot, all of which influencing the kinematic pattern. Table 1 gives an overview of previous studies on canine forelimb and elbow joint kinematics.
Study | Technique | Breed | Number of dogs | Gait/Speed |
---|---|---|---|---|
DeCamp et al. [43] | 3D marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Greyhound | 8 | trot, 1.8–2.3 m/s (walkway) |
Allen et al. [44] | 3D marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Mixed breed dogs | 14 | trot, 1.8–2.3 m/s (overground) |
Hottinger et al. [45] | 3D marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Different large breed dogs | 15 | walk, 0.9–1.1. m/s (overground) |
Gillette and Zebas [46] | Uniplanar marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Labrador Retriever | 16 | trot, 2.8 m/s |
Nielsen et al. [47] | 3D marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion), stance phase only | Mixed breed dogs | 6 | walk, 0.8–1.0 m/s (overground) |
Owen et al. [48] | Uniplanar marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Greyhound | 11 | trot, 2.2–2.4 m/s (treadmill) |
Clements et al. [49] | Uniplanar marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Labrador Retriever | 10 | trot, 2.0 m/s (treadmill) |
Feeney et al. [50] | Uniplanar marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Labrador Retriever | 10 | walk, velocity not documented (overground) |
Burton et al. [51] | 3D marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Different mid to large breed dogs | 7 (unilateral elbow disease) | trot, velocity not documented (treadmill) |
Holler et al. [52] | 3D marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Different mid to large breed dogs | 8 | walk, 0.89–1.1 m/s (treadmill, normal, uphill, downhill, obstacle) |
Agostinho et al. [53] | 3D marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Labrador Retriever Rottweiler | 20 (10 each) | trot, 2.1–2.2. m/s (treadmill) |
Guillou et al. [54] | 3D marker based fluoroscopic kinematography | Fox hound | 4 | walk & trot, velocity not documented |
Angle et al. [55] | Uniplanar marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Greyhound | 7 | Movement initiation up to 3.52 m/s (overground) |
Jarvis et al. [56] | 3D marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion), stance phase only | Different breeds | 40 (24 healthy, 16 front limb amputee dogs) | trot, 2.2–2.6 m/s (walkway) |
Brady et al. [57] | 3D marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Different breeds | 16 | trot, 1.8 m/s & 2.5 m/s (walkway) |
Miqueleto et al. [58] | 3D marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | German Shepherd | 20 (10 hip dysplasia, 10 healthy dogs) | trot, 2.1–2.2. m/s (treadmill) |
Galindo-Zamora et al. [59] | 3D marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Different mid to large breed dogs | 20 (unilateral elbow disease) | walk, 0.65–1.1 m/s (treadmill) |
Caron et al. [60] | 3D marker based video-kinematography, 3D evaluation | Labrador Retriever | 26 (13 healthy, 13 dogs with coronoid disease) | walk, 0.7 m/s (treadmill) |
Fischer & Lilje, [61] | 3D marker based video- & fluoroscopic kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | 32 different breeds | 327 | walk & trot, 0.54–5.56 m/s (treadmill) |
Catavitello et al. [62] | Uniplanar marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Labrador Retriever Golden Retriever | 6 (3 each breed) | walk, 2 m/s, trot, 4 m/s & running, 9.5 m/s (overground) |
Duerr et al. [63] | Uniplanar marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) and inertial measurements unit | Different mid to large breed dogs | 16 | trot, 2.4–2.5 m/s (overground) |
Andrada et al. [28] | 3D marker based video- & fluoroscopic kinematography (scientific rotoscoping), 3D evaluation | Beagle | 5 | walk, 0.98 m/s & trot, 2.2 m/s (treadmill) |
Lorke et al. [64] | 3D marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Beagle | 10 | trot, 1.7–1.8 m/s (treadmill) |
Rohwedder et al. [22] | 3D marker based fluoroscopic kinematography (first third of stance phase only) | Different mid to large breed dogs | 11 (5 healthy, 6 dogs with coronoid disease) | walk, 0.6–0.9 m/s (treadmill) |
Kopec et al. [65] | Uniplanar marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Different mid to large breed dogs | 8 | walk, 1.01–1.45 m/s (overground & stair exercise) |
Rohwedder et al. [23] | 3D marker based fluoroscopic kinematography (first third of stance phase only) | Different mid to large breed dogs | 11 (5 healthy, 6 dogs with coronoid disease) | walk, 0.6–0.9 m/s (treadmill) |
Rohwedder et al. [24] | 3D marker based fluoroscopic kinematography & joint contact pattern evaluation | Labrador Retriever | 1 (before and after DPUO*) | walk, 0.6–0.9 m/s (treadmill) |
Humphries et al. [66] | 3D marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Labrador Retriever German Shepherd | 24 (12 each breed) | trot, 2.19–2.45 m/s (walkway) |
De Souza et al. [67] | 3D marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | American Pit Bull Terrier | 11 | walk, 1.17 ± 0.17 m/s trot, 2.04 ± 0.33 m/s (overground) |
Summary of studies investigating canine forelimb and/or elbow joint kinematics.
DPUO: dynamic proximal ulnar osteotomy.
Most studies on elbow joint kinematics are based on video-kinematographic analysis and have investigated the motion of the elbow only in the sagittal plane [43, 44, 45, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 62, 63, 65, 68, 69]. Caron et al. were the first to describe the real 3D kinematics of the canine forelimb of healthy Labrador retrievers and dogs with medial coronoid disease using video-kinematographic analysis [60]. Another study evaluated the 3D motion of orthopedic healthy canine forelimbs using video-kinematography and compared that data to fluoroscopically gained motion analysis, which was additionally calculated in one of the dogs [28].
One complete gait cycle consists of the swing and the stance phase. The swing phase starts when the paw breaks contact with the ground and ends with first ground contact of the paw. The time between initial ground contact and paw lift is defined as the stance phase. The ratio between swing and stance phase depends from the gait pattern and the dog’s velocity [28, 29, 70, 71]. At the walk the swing phase of the forelimb accounts for 39 to 43% of the whole gait cycle [60] and increases to approximately 50% to two thirds of the whole gait cycle during the trot, depending from the trotting speed [28, 43, 45, 58, 62, 64, 66]. During running the swing phase is further prolonged and accounts for approximately 75% of the gait cycle [62]. Conversely, with increasing speed the stance phase decreases [45, 70, 71].
The sagittal plane range of motion of the elbow joint (flexion-extension) is between 48.1 degrees and 70 degrees during one complete gait cycle when the dog is moving on a flat surface (Table 2), with the majority of motion occurring during the swing phase [28, 43, 44, 45, 47, 48, 49, 50, 52, 53, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67]. Range of motion is influenced by different parameters like breed, limb and body segment length, gait, velocity, exercise, age, contralateral limb amputation and concurrent orthopedic disease. With increasing speed of the gait the range of motion of joints increases [29, 45, 57, 62, 66, 68, 69]. Obese dogs show an increased range of motion as well, especially during the stance phase [57]. However, increasing age leads to an decrease in total range of motion, even in orthopedic healthy dogs [64]. Further, different exercises like descending stairs, uphill and downhill walking influence the range of motion, with descending stairs, obstacle exercises and uphill walking increasing the range of motion, while downhill walking decreases the amount of sagittal motion in the elbow [52, 65].
Study | Breed | Range of motion (°) | Flexion/Extension (°) | Gait/Speed |
---|---|---|---|---|
DeCamp et al. [43] | Greyhound | 53.7 | 86.8/140.5 | trot, 1.8–2.3 m/s (walkway) |
Allen et al. [44] | Mixed breed dogs | 55.8 | 93.7/149.5 | trot, 1.8–2.3 m/s (overground) |
Hottinger et al. [45] | Different large breed dogs | 48.1 | — | walk, 0.9–1.1. m/s (walkway) |
Gillette and Zebas [46] | Labrador Retriever | right: 69.1 left: 66.1 | — | trot, 2.8 m/s |
Nielsen et al. [47] | Mixed breed dogs | — | 111.7 ± 12/136.3 ± 10.4 (stance phase only) | walk, 0.8–1.0 m/s (overground) |
Owen et al. [48] | Greyhound | 49.35–49.59 | 100.98–102.7/150.57–152.05 | trot, 2.2–2.4 m/s (treadmill) |
Clements et al. [49] | Labrador Retriever | 59.3 (SD 5.5) | — | trot, 2.0 m/s (treadmill) |
Feeney et al. [50] | Labrador Retriever | 54.8 ± 17.9 | 91.4/146.3 | walk, velocity not documented(overground) |
Holler et a. [52] | Different mid to large breed dogs | normal: 52.9 ± 7.0 uphill: 54.2 ± 7.4 downhill: 43.1 ± 5.8 obstacle: 57.0 ± 6.9 | — | walk, 0.89–1.1 m/s (treadmill, normal, uphill, downhill, obstacle) |
Agostinho et al. [53] | Labrador Retriever Rottweiler | 63.77 ± 4.83 54.86 ± 5.16 | 90.52 ± 11.66/154.28 ± 9.64 93.99 ± 10.19/148.85 ± 9.15 | trot, 2.1–2.2. m/s (treadmill) |
Jarvis et al. [56] | Different breeds | stance phase only: control: 33.3 ± 8.6 amputee: 39.7 ± 10.4 | control: 123.0 ± 12.9/ 156.4 ± 12.2 amputee: 119.2 ± 12.8/ 158.9 ± 12.5 | trot, 2.2–2.6 m/s (walkway) |
Brady et al. [57] | Different breeds | lean: 52.5 (1.8 m/s) obese: 65.0 (1.8 m/s) lean: 54.0 (2.5 m/s) obese: 62.0 (2.5 m/s) | lean: 95 ± 7/147 ± 17 obese: 90 ± 11/155 ± 9 lean: 93 ± 8/147 ± 9 obese: 88 ± 14/150 ± 18 | trot, 1.8 m/s & 2.5 m/s (walkway) |
Miqueleto et al. [58] | German Shepherd | healthy: 68.15 ± 7.19 hip dysplasia: 63.54 ± 13.53 | healthy: 61.99/131.77 ± 7.60 hip dysplasia: 69.09/133.68 ± 11.37 | trot, 2.1–2.2. m/s (treadmill) |
Galindo-Zamora et al. [59] | Different mid to large breed dogs | healthy: 54.18 ± 8.62 MCD: 51.45 ± 7.27 | healthy: 82.36 ± 6.02/136.54 ± 9.16 MCD: 87.1 ± 10.8/138.55 ± 13.03 | walk, 0.65–1.1 m/s (treadmill) |
Duerr et al. [63] | Different mid to large breed dogs | 63.4 ± 7.7 | 82.1 ± 8.6/145.5 ± 10.8 | trot, 2.4–2.5 m/s (overground) |
Lorke et al. [64] | Beagle | young: 68.8 ± 2.7 old: 62.9 ± 5.1 | young: 83.2/152.0 ± 10.5 old: 76.8/139.6 ± 12.4 | trot, 1.7–1.8 m/s (treadmill) |
Kopec et al. [65] | Different mid to large breed dogs | flat: 65.81 desc. Stair: 80.43 desc. Ramp: 67.95 | 66.23/132.03 34.36/114.79 46.0/113.95 | walk, 1.01–1.45 m/s (overground & stair exercise) |
Humphries et al. [66] | Labrador Retriever German Shepherd | left: 70.63 right: 67.13 left: 67.13 right: 67.94 | 77.21/147.84 77.21/144.34 75.45/142.58 74.37/142.31 | trot, 2.19–2.45 m/s (walkway) |
De Souza et al. [67] | American Pit Bull Terrier | walk: 45.22 trot: 52.39 | walk: 111.25/167.65 trot: 110.14/163.00 | walk, 1.17 ± 0.17 m/s trot, 2.04 ± 0.33 m/s (overground) |
Summary of the values for range of motion in sagittal plane and flexion and extension angles of the canine elbow joint from different kinematic studies. All values are expressed in degrees and were calculated, if necessary, based on data of each study to allow comparison between studies. 180 degrees represent maximum extension and 0 degrees maximum flexion.
The stance phase is mainly characterized by continuous extension of the elbow joint until lifting of the paw from the ground. Some studies have shown flexion of the elbow joint just after weight bearing [43, 45, 47, 53, 58, 60, 64], resulting in two peaks of extension during the gait cycle. The first peak of extension occurs during the late swing phase and the initiation of ground contact and a second peak occurs at the end of the stance phase. The amount of this flexion differs between studies by several degrees. Further, this movement has not been described using fluoroscopic kinematography, what represents the gold standard of kinematic gait analysis [28]. This might be due to breed and inter-individual differences in the gait, due to the different techniques used for kinematic analysis or due to a soft tissue artifact, which occurs with skin mounted markers, and does not represent the in vivo motion of the bony cubital joint, but the movement pattern of the complete limb including the soft tissues [28, 32, 33]. Maximum extension of the elbow joint is reached at the end of the stance phase and is followed by continuous flexion during the swing phase. The peak flexion of the elbow joint is reached at approximately the middle of the swing phase and is followed by continuous extension of the elbow joint as a preparation for paw strike [53, 60, 64].
Besides flexion and extension, which represent the main motion pattern of the elbow joint, supination and pronation of the antebrachium and abduction and adduction of the humerus and antebrachium occur during the regular locomotion. In healthy Labrador retrievers the antebrachium is positioned in mild supination at the initial stance phase and shows minimal pronation during the remainder stance phase with a mean supination of the antebrachium of 3 ± 9 degrees [60]. In healthy Beagle the forelimb is placed onto the ground in mild pronation and is kept in this position during two thirds of the stance phase and then externally rotated during the last third of stance [28]. During the initial swing phase the antebrachium is supinated and maximum supination (mean 19 ± 9 degrees) occurs at the middle of the swing phase, together with maximum flexion of the elbow joint, in healthy Labrador retrievers [60]. In orthopedic sound Beagle a similar motion pattern is present during the swing phase, with supination of the antebrachium occurring during the first third of the swing phase [28]. Prior to foot strike rapid pronation of the antebrachium occurs and the limb is placed on the ground in a slightly supinated position in Labrador retrievers and slight pronation in Beagle [28, 60].
Three dimensional micromotion of the humerus, radius and ulna relative to each other was measured in different studies using marker based fluoroscopic kinematographic analysis [22, 23, 24, 54, 72]. Results of these studies show that the bones of the antebrachium have a complex motion pattern and radius and ulna cannot be seen as one single object. At the walk and the trot an axial movement between radius and ulna occurs in healthy and MCD affected elbows [22, 54]. In healthy canine elbow joints the radius shows an mean axial movement of 0.7 (SD 0.31) mm to 0.8 mm in relation to the ulna. This axial motion was detected in different mid to large breed dogs, like Fox hounds, Australian shepherd, Labrador retriever, Eurasian, German shepherd, Bernese mountain dog and mixed breeds [22, 54]. After the initiation of ground contact the radius moves proximally and remains in a slightly elevated position relative to the ulna, resulting in a dynamic negative radio-ulnar incongruence (RUI) [22, 72]. These results correspond with data from an in vitro study, which investigated the effects of limb loading and flexion and extension onto the radio-ulnar joint conformation and intra articular contact areas and which showed, that elbow extension leads to a relative lowering of the ulna in relation to the radius [73]. Extension is the main motion of the elbow during the weight bearing phase and therefore the induction of a dynamic negative RUI might be seen as a adaption to joint loading [72]. Further, internal and external rotation between the radius and ulna occurs during the walk. Prior to foot strike the radius is in an externally rotated position relative to the ulna und shows internal rotation during the first third of the stance phase. Mean range of motion of the in vivo internal-external radial rotation is 11.4 (SD 2.0) degrees during the initial weight bearing phase [74]. No data exist investigating the in vivo radio-ulnar movement during the later stance phase and the swing. Therefore, the in vivo motion of the antebrachial bones and the dynamic changes within the radio-ulnar joint during the complete gait cycle are still unknown.
The in vivo humero-ulnar micromotion has only been investigated in one study so far [23]. Movement between the humerus and the ulna is characterized by flexion and extension, but rotational movement of the humerus relative to the ulna takes also place during locomotion [23]. At the walk the humerus shows an relative external rotation of 2.9 (SD 1.1) degrees during the first third of the stance phase in healthy humero-ulnar joints [23, 28]. These data imply that the elbow joint is not completely restricted to sagittal motion only. One study, investigating the 3D kinematics of the whole canine forelimb showed, that at the moment of ground contact the humerus is in an internally rotated position, which is slightly less at the trot compared to the walk (mean segment angle, walk: −34 degrees; trot: −25 degrees) [28]. During the walk the humerus shows internal and external rotation and only external rotation during the trot throughout the complete stance and swing phase, with a net external rotational movement during the stance phase [28]. This external rotational motion of the humerus is contrary to the internal rotation (pronation) of the antebrachium, which occurs prior to paw strike and is maintained during the stance [28, 60].
When kinematics of the diseased canine elbow joint are evaluated two different types of changes in the kinematic pattern have to be differentiated. First, changes attributed to pain and lameness, i.e. altered kinematics as a result of the disease. Second, changes in elbow joint kinematics, which represent a causative factor of the disease process.
Due to pain, caused by different joint pathologies in the elbow with DED, multiple adaptive mechanisms occur in the affected forelimb. Decreases in stance time, angular displacement and net joint moments can all be seen in the diseased elbow joint [51].
A reduced range of motion in the sagittal plane (flexion-extension) is present in dogs with MCD [51, 59, 60]. In particular flexion of the joint is decreased and the elbow kept in a more extended position during the gait. In Labrador retrievers with MCD a faster extension of the cubital joint occurs during late swing phase and the elbow is more extended by 9 degrees (mean) during initial ground contact and the early stance phase compared to orthopedically healthy elbows [60]. This more extended gait is a compensating mechanism and aims to reduce pressure at the medial joint compartment [7, 73, 75]. At the end of the stance and beginning of swing phase the elbow joint is more rapidly flexed in affected dogs. However, no active push off occurs at the end of the stance phase indicating that the affected limb is pulled off the ground by the proximal musculature [51]. Reduction in active push off aims to reduce the pressure acting on the joint surface. The elbow is held 16 degrees more externally rotated during the end of swing and initial stance phase and the antebrachium is in average 2 degrees more abducted throughout the gait cycle and 9 degrees more supinated during the paw strike and early stance phase [60]. These changes have to be assumed as compensating mechanisms as well. Supination leads to caudal displacement of the peak pressure at the medial ulnar joint surface and by that to a release of pressure and potentially pain at the diseased medial coronoid process. Besides the Labrador retriever a more extended elbow joint is present in other breeds with MCD, e.g. Rottweiler, Staffordshire Bullterrier, Airdale terrier, Golden retriever, Polish Lowland sheepdog, German wirehaired pointer, Belgian malinois, Irish setter and mixed breed dogs [51, 59, 60]. Therefore, these changes in the kinematic pattern represent a general secondary adaption to intra articular pathologies and the corresponding pain in canine elbow joints with MCD.
Primary changes in the kinematics of the radius, ulna and humerus are assumed to play an role in the pathogenesis of MCD. Altered kinematics in the proximal radio-ulnar joint, were suggested by different researchers to be one potential factor influencing the development of MCD [76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90]. One proposed mechanism was an increased axial translation of the radius relative to the ulna leading to an dynamic radio-ulnar incongruence. Translational movement between the radius and ulna occurs in elbows with and without MCD in vivo [22, 54], with no significant difference in the total amount of movement between both groups [22]. Therefore, increased axial movement between the radius and ulna and induction of a dynamic RUI under weight bearing conditions could be excluded as an primary factor. However, the direction of radial motion is different between normal and diseased joints, with a negative RUI being induced during the initial stance phase in healthy elbows and no significant change in the radio-ulnar joint conformation in MCD affected joints [72]. Based on the results of that study dogs with a static RUI are not able to compensate the radio-ulnar step formation by radio-ulnar translation and dogs with MCD, but without a static RUI, do not show the same amount of negative dynamic RUI as measured in healthy canine elbow joints [72]. The induction of a negative radio-ulnar step during weight bearing might be a protective mechanism in healthy canine elbow joints. Lowering of the ulna or elevation of the radius during extension of the elbow joint was previously described in vitro and leads to a decrease of intra articular pressure at the medial joint compartment [73]. The inability of the diseased canine elbow joint to adjust the radio-ulnar joint conformation during loading might be one potential biomechanical factor in the pathogenesis of MCD. Especially in dogs without a measurable static incongruence, which account for 40% of all patients with MCD [76], the insufficient adaption to intra articular joint loads can lead to mechanical overload at one distinct joint compartment. Increased radio-ulnar rotation was proposed as another potential cause of mechanical overload along the radial incisure of the medial coronoid process and subsequent cartilage and bone damage [82, 87, 88, 89, 90]. The only study comparing in vivo radio-ulnar rotational movement in healthy joints to joints with MCD showed no significant difference in the total amount of radial rotation and in the motion pattern of the radius [74]. The radius starts in an externally rotated position during the late swing phase just before paw strike and rotates internally in relation to the ulna during the early weight bearing phase. At approximately 30 to 40% of the stance phase the radius shows an external rotation again. Values of total rotational movement and internal/external movement of the radius show no significant difference between normal and affected elbow (internal radial rotation, healthy: 5.7 [SD 2.1] degrees; MCD: 5.3 [SD 2.6] degrees; p = 0.1727; external radial rotation, healthy: - 5.8 [SD: 1.3] degrees; MCD: - 4.5 [1.7] degrees; p = 0.7705; total rotation, healthy: 11.4 [SD: 2.0] degrees; MCD: 9.8 [SD: 3.2]; p = 0.2904) [74]. Absence of increased radio-ulnar rotational motion does not exclude an biomechanical overload along the lateral aspect of the medial coronoid process of the ulna caused by interaction with the radial head. An abaxial attachment of the tendon of the biceps brachii muscle at the ulna was detected in dogs with MCD [90]. The pull of the biceps brachii muscle on the ulna could potentially lead to increased pressure between the medial coronoid and the radial head without altering the kinematics. However, no studies have investigated the forces acting between radius and ulna and compared these data between healthy and MCD affected dogs.
Another significant difference can be seen in the humero-ulnar rotational movement between healthy and MCD affected joints. Increased external rotation of the humeral condyle in relation to the ulna occurs at the first third of the stance phase in cubital joints with MCD (humeral rotation, healthy: 2.9 [SD 1.1] degrees; MCD: 5.3 [SD 2.0] degrees; p = 0.0229) [23]. This rotation of the humeral condyle leads to compression of the joint space between the medial coronoid process and the humeral trochlea, and might potentially lead to mechanical overload at the coronoid process and consequently to cartilage and subchondral bone damage (Figure 1). Therefore, increased humero-ulnar rotation has to be considered as one dynamic factor in the pathogenesis of MCD. If this increased humero-ulnar rotational movement is caused by soft tissue laxity, like in the dysplastic hip joint, altered muscle function or due to bony differences altering the joint function has not been investigated so far. The influence of a static positive radio-ulnar incongruence onto the contact areas and pressure distribution within the humero-ulnar joint is known [91, 92, 93]. However, the literature is lacking kinematic analysis investigating the influence of a static RUI on elbow joint motion, particular the humero-radio-ulnar micromotion. In the cited study on humero-ulnar kinematics the MCD group consisted of dogs with and without a static positive RUI [23]. Due to the small sample size no correlation could be found between the presence of static RUI and the amount of humeral rotational motion. Therefore, the influence of this significant bony deformity on the kinematics of the elbow joint remains unknown.
Image sequence of the in vivo humero-ulnar joint motion during the late swing phase (f0), at the moment of weight bearing (f30) and the first third of the stance phase (f60 – f150). (A) Healthy joint; (B) MCD affected joint; relative external rotation of the humerus occurs just after ground contact, when the joint gets loaded. External rotation of the condyle leads to a craniolateral shift of the trochlea, impinging on the lateral aspect of the medial coronoid process [
The mean body weight distribution between fore- and hindlimbs is approximately 60% : 40% in dogs [56, 94]. A large study investigating 123 different breeds found that the grand mean proportion of mass was 60.4% on the forelimbs (range: 47.6 to 74.4%) [94]. Only sex was shown to be a significant factor altering that ratio, with females being below the mean value throughout different breeds [94]. Another study comparing kinematic and kinetic data of orthopedic healthy Labrador retrievers and German shepherds reported that Labrador retrievers carry a higher percentage of the weight on their forelimbs compared to the German shepherd (69% vs. 62%, p < 0.001) [66]. If this breed specific mechanical overload plays a role in the pathogenesis of DED and contributes to the high rate of Labrador retrievers with developmental elbow disease, in particular MCD, is not known.
Within the elbow joint load and forces are not homogenously distributed throughout the whole joint surface. It was believed that the radial joint surface is the main weight bearing surface of the radio-ulnar joint. However, more recent studies have shown, that the radius takes 51 to 52% of load [73, 75, 91]. Therefore the ulna plays a more important role in weight bearing than previously assumed. Despite an overall equal load and force distribution between the radius and the ulna, not every part of the joint surface represents an active joint contact area. Within the combined radio-ulnar joint surface three distinct contact areas can be found: the craniolateral aspect of anconeal process, the joint surface of the radial head, and the medial coronoid process [7, 24, 73]. There is no particular contact at the medial aspect of the anconeal process and the center of the trochlear notch (Figure 2). The latter one might be explained by the slight physiological humero-ulnar incongruence leading to a bicentrical contact pattern [6, 7, 9, 73, 95]. When the elbow joint is loaded the force applied by the humeral condyle is distributed along the anconeal process and the coronoid region. With increasing load the concave ulnar notch is stretched and these pressure forces are partially transformed to traction forces [8, 95, 96, 97]. Therefore this physiological incongruence leads to a more even stress distribution within the humero-ulnar joint. In human elbow joints the proximal and distal contact area confluent when high loads are acting onto the ulnar joint surface [98]. This load dependent change in contact pattern has not been described in canine elbows so far [7].
Colored animation of the in vivo humero-ulnar joint contact pattern at the ulnar joint surface at the beginning of weight bearing in a healthy canine elbow joint (red: Humero-ulnar contact). Joint contact is present along the medial coronoid process and the lateral and proximal aspect of the trochlear notch. The radius is not shown in this animation.
The presence of these three contact areas within the elbow joint is further supported by increased subchondral bone density measurements at these anatomic areas [95, 99]. Bone is a dynamic tissue which has the ability to remodel in response to mechanical load (Wolff’s law) [100]. Therefore, increased bone density can be found in areas with increased load. Increased subchondral bone densities are present at the disto-medial and cranial aspect of the humeral trochlea and in the olecranon fossa, the anconeal and medial coronoid processes of the ulna and the cranio-medial region of the joint surface of the radius [95]. The same study showed a significant age-dependent increase in the subchondral bone density of the joint surfaces of all three bones, representing continuous adaption of the bone to mechanical stress with increasing age [95].
Though increased loading of the ulnar joint surface does not result in confluence of the bicentric contact pattern, other factors can influence the joint contact patterns of the humero-ulnar and humero-radial joint surfaces. An in vitro study investigated the influence of positive radio-ulnar incongruence (short radius) on joint contact patterns. Presence of a positive RUI leads to a shift of the contact area at the medial coronoid process towards the cranio-lateral aspect of the coronoid process and reduction of the anconeal contact area [93]. Other in vitro studies show similar results. After induction of a 1.9 mm positive RUI medial compartment contact area decreases significantly while the lateral contact area increases. Likewise the mean contact pressure and peak contact pressure increase within the medial compartment and decrease in the lateral part [91, 92]. Therefore, presence of a static positive RUI has to be assumed as an important factor in the disease process of developmental elbow disease and a correlation between the severity of cartilage damage and static RUI has been shown in affected elbows [76, 77, 101]. In vivo evaluation of the ulnar joint contact pattern during the walk in a dog with positive static RUI before and after bi-oblique dynamic proximal ulnar osteotomy (DPUO) confirmed the results of different in vitro studies [24]. Following DPUO positive static RUI decreased, leading to a significant increase of the contact area at the medial coronoid process and to a shift of the contact area from the cranio-lateral aspect (tip and radial incisure) towards the medial aspect and the base of the medial coronoid process (Figure 3) [24]. This positive effect of different forms of ulnar and humeral osteotomies onto humero-radio-ulnar contact and force distribution has previously been shown in vitro [75, 91, 92]. Whether a static RUI changes the kinematic pattern of humero-radial, humero-ulnar or radio-ulnar motion and by that the intra articular contact areas and pressure distribution or has a purely mechanical influence without dynamic changes has not been investigated so far.
Humero-ulnar joint contact pattern at the ulnar joint surface at the beginning of weight bearing in a canine elbow joint with MCD (red: Contact area). (A) Contact pattern before bi-oblique DPUO; focal concentration of joint contact at the medial coronoid process (MCP) and slight contact at the medial and lateral aspect of the anconeal process is present. (B) Contact pattern 12 weeks postoperative; joint contact is more homogenously distributed throughout the ulnar joint surface and the craniolateral aspect of the MCP is even not in contact with the corresponding humeral trochlea [
Further, joint contact areas change during the regular locomotion. Pronation leads to reduction of the contact area in the medial and to a lesser amount in the lateral compartment of the radio-ulnar joint surface. The effect of pronation is further influenced by the elbow joint angle, with significant reduction of the medial contact area by 23% at 135 degree of flexion, what represents the average flexion angle during the stance phase [73]. A reduced contact area will result in increased pressure when the same load is applied to the joint. Further, pronation of the antebrachium leads to a shift of the peak contact pressure towards the apex of the medial coronoid process. Otherwise supination of the antebrachium leads to caudal displacement of the peak contact pressure on the medial coronoid process [73, 75]. This might explain that dogs with medial coronoid disease show a more supinated stance to release pressure from the apex of the medial coronoid [60]. Moreover, flexion and extension, the main motion pattern during the normal locomotion, influence the intra articular pressure distribution. Flexion increases peak pressure at the medial radio-ulnar joint compartment and extension decreases pressure [73]. It is assumed that this change is due to dynamic changes within the radio-ulnar joint surface in healthy canine elbows [72, 73]. In a cadaveric study extension of the elbow joint induced lowering of the radius and ulna, however more pronounced in the ulna (3.8 mm) compared to the radius (1.9 mm). This corresponds to findings of the in vivo investigation of the radio-ulnar joint cup conformation in healthy elbow joints during the walk, where a negative RUI (short ulna) was induced during weight bearing [72]. This lowering of the ulna relative to the radius might protect the medial coronoid process from mechanical overload during locomotion in healthy canine elbows. In contrast, altered radio-ulnar kinematics preventing elevation of the radius might lead to continuous excessive mechanical overload and subsequent joint pathologies.
Considering the changes of intra articular contact areas and pressure distribution as a function of limb position might explain the typical clinical signs in dogs with developmental elbow disease. Affected dogs stand with the elbow slightly abducted and the antebrachium in slight external rotation (supination) [102]. Furthermore, the elbow joint is more rapidly extended during the swing phase and kept in a more extended position during weight bearing [60]. This motion pattern aims to reduce the contact and pressure at the medial coronoid process, where most commonly lesions attributed to developmental elbow disease occur [90, 103].
Canine elbow joint kinematics are more complex than flexion and extension of the joint and influenced by multiple factors like breed, limb length, gait, exercise and joint pathologies. The precise interaction of the three joint forming bones is essential for physiologic joint contact and intra articular force and pressure distribution. Based on the current literature an significantly increased humero-ulnar rotational movement as well as an reduced adjustment of the radio-ulnar joint during the regular locomotion of the dog seem to be two essential pathological factors influencing the development of MCD. This kind of movement is only measurable using laborious techniques like 3D fluoroscopic based kinematography. Nevertheless, further studies are needed to evaluate the complex kinematics of the healthy and the diseased canine elbow joint and to understand the effect of different kinematics onto kinetics.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
This is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Author Service Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.
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In the era of digitalization, it needs to adapt again. Around 1.3 billion persons are traveling yearly around the world. Thus, a small change in this sector has a huge impact on the whole society. We propose a new paradigm, Tourism 4.0, appearing with the quest to unlock the innovation potential in the whole tourism sector. This will be done with the help of key enabling technologies from the Industry 4.0, such as Internet of Things, Big Data, Blockchain, Artificial Intelligence, Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality. By establishing a collaborative ecosystem involving local inhabitants, local authority, tourists, service providers and government, we can co-create an enriched tourism experience in both the physical and the digital world. With this, we can shift from tourist-centered focus to a tourism-centered focus around the local community. Who is the consumer in this new paradigm of tourism and what is the role of marketing in a paradigm shift? The chapter will analyze the current development and present the main shifts due to it.",book:{id:"7830",slug:"consumer-behavior-and-marketing",title:"Consumer Behavior and Marketing",fullTitle:"Consumer Behavior and Marketing"},signatures:"Urška Starc Peceny, Jurij Urbančič, Simon Mokorel, Vesna Kuralt and Tomi Ilijaš",authors:[{id:"217400",title:"Dr.",name:"Urška",middleName:null,surname:"Starc Peceny",slug:"urska-starc-peceny",fullName:"Urška Starc Peceny"},{id:"286485",title:"Dr.",name:"Vesna",middleName:null,surname:"Kuralt",slug:"vesna-kuralt",fullName:"Vesna Kuralt"},{id:"286486",title:"Dr.",name:"Jurij",middleName:null,surname:"Urbančič",slug:"jurij-urbancic",fullName:"Jurij Urbančič"},{id:"286632",title:"Dr.",name:"Simon",middleName:null,surname:"Mokorel",slug:"simon-mokorel",fullName:"Simon Mokorel"},{id:"288765",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Tomi",middleName:null,surname:"Ilijas",slug:"tomi-ilijas",fullName:"Tomi Ilijas"}]},{id:"59751",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74527",title:"Theory of New Product Development and Its Applications",slug:"theory-of-new-product-development-and-its-applications",totalDownloads:5525,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"A product which can be a physical object or a service should be functional and emotional to satisfy the customer’s need, and to offer value, be delivered as the way customer demanded. Also, it has to include other specific elements like providing customer services. New product is the result of a creative and unique idea that is able to make consumers satisfied. In the process of new product development, it should not be thought that the change will only be on product physically but also on every aspect of the product. The difference between ideas increases production of different goods. The different kind of goods can positively affect the customers’ opinion about a business. When a new business starts to produce a product which satisfies customer’s need, then the demand of competitor’s product which was already in the market may be decreased. Establishment of new product development (NPD) departments and their direct influence in the production process is crucial for businesses. They can determine demand and needs of consumers by applying different theories. These theories can be classified as (i) product-service systems, (ii) the Kano model, (iii) conjoint analysis, (iv) the product value matrix and (v) quality function deployment.",book:{id:"6583",slug:"marketing",title:"Marketing",fullTitle:"Marketing"},signatures:"Esen Gurbuz",authors:[{id:"227728",title:"Dr.",name:"Esen",middleName:null,surname:"Gurbuz",slug:"esen-gurbuz",fullName:"Esen Gurbuz"}]},{id:"69005",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89282",title:"Reputation Management",slug:"reputation-management",totalDownloads:589,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"The problem of building a reputation in the traditional brick-and-mortar world has been known for centuries; we know how to build a good reputation, or more precisely how to help in building a good reputation. Even if we are a target of various half-truths and slanders, we are aware that if they are only spoken words, their durability over time is quickly fleeting. However, written text is different from spoken words; its life durability over time is much longer. In our chapter, we bring the overview of what happens if we must suddenly face the problem of building and maintaining a good reputation in the virtual world of the Internet. Thus, the objective of this chapter is to summarize and present the state of the art in the field of reputation; it consists of the definition of basic terminology and then offers the well-arranged theoretical determination of the problem of reputation in both the traditional brick-and-mortar and virtual world.",book:{id:"9044",slug:"promotion-and-marketing-communications",title:"Promotion and Marketing Communications",fullTitle:"Promotion and Marketing Communications"},signatures:"František Pollák, Peter Dorčák and Peter Markovič",authors:null},{id:"56485",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70161",title:"Citrus Value Chain(s): A Survey of Pakistan Citrus Industry",slug:"citrus-value-chain-s-a-survey-of-pakistan-citrus-industry",totalDownloads:2227,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Pakistan is producing more than 30 types of different fruits of which citrus fruit is leading among all fruit and constitutes about 30% of total fruit production in the country. Above 90% of citrus fruits are produced in Punjab province and distributed through different value chains in domestic as well as in international markets. A large part of citrus fruit produced in Pakistan is mostly consumed locally without much value addition; however, 10–12% of total production is exported after value addition. The value chains are very diverse, and a number of different players actively participate in these chains, which ultimately decide the destination of citrus fruit in these supply chain(s). Knowing all these facts, the main aim of this research is to identify different value chains of citrus fruit (Kinnow) in Pakistan and also to identify and discuss the role and function of different value chain players in the citrus industry in Pakistan. A survey involving of different players of Pakistan’s citrus industry was conducted in 2013–2014 to better understand the citrus value chain(s). Using a convenience sampling technique, a total of 245 respondents were interviewed during a period of 4–5 months from three leading citrus-producing districts. It was found that citrus value chains can be classified into two major types: unprocessed citrus value chain and processed citrus value chains. It was also found that in the past, a large number of citrus growers were involved in preharvest contracting for their orchards and only a small number of citrus growers sold their orchards directly into local and foreign markets. The proportion has been gradually changed now and growers are becoming progressive and more market oriented.",book:{id:"5762",slug:"agricultural-value-chain",title:"Agricultural Value Chain",fullTitle:"Agricultural Value Chain"},signatures:"Muhammad Imran Siddique and Elena Garnevska",authors:[{id:"181547",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Garnevska",slug:"elena-garnevska",fullName:"Elena Garnevska"},{id:"196724",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Imran",middleName:null,surname:"Siddique",slug:"muhammad-imran-siddique",fullName:"Muhammad Imran Siddique"}]},{id:"64050",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81281",title:"Recycling of Polymeric Composite Materials",slug:"recycling-of-polymeric-composite-materials",totalDownloads:1650,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"This chapter treats studies about the methods and technologies used to recycle the polymeric composite materials and develop new recipes using waste of polymer composite materials resulted from recycling. Composite materials obtained from recycling are presented, with a complete recovery of waste glass fibers. Also, the mechanical properties for new structures of polymeric composite materials, containing additional materials were presented. These were obtained from the recycling of composite waste. A morphology analysis of fracture area of composites samples was done. At present, the polymeric composite materials present a great scientific and technical interest, which justify both the development of research in this field, and the expansion of production of such materials. The author treats aspects regarding a current problem due to the large number of polymeric composite materials waste, and reduced of environmental impact. This field is representing one of the top viable research directions.",book:{id:"7489",slug:"product-lifecycle-management-terminology-and-applications",title:"Product Lifecycle Management",fullTitle:"Product Lifecycle Management - Terminology and Applications"},signatures:"Emilia Sabău",authors:[{id:"248080",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Emilia",middleName:null,surname:"Sabau",slug:"emilia-sabau",fullName:"Emilia Sabau"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"59152",title:"Marketing Strategies for the Social Good",slug:"marketing-strategies-for-the-social-good",totalDownloads:1681,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Social network sites (SNS) have proven to be a good environment to promote and sell goods and services, but marketing is more than creating commercial strategies. Social marketing strategies can also be used to promote behavioral change and help individuals transform their lives, achieve well-being, and adopt prosocial behaviors. In this chapter, we seek to analyze with a netnographic study, how SNS are being employed by nonprofits and nongovernment organizations (NGOs) to enable citizens and consumers to participate in different programs and activities that promote social transformation and well-being. A particular interest is to identify how organizations are using behavioral economic tactics to nudge individuals and motivate them to engage in prosocial actions. By providing an understanding on how SNS can provide an adequate environment for the design of social marketing strategies, we believe our work has practical implications both for academicians and marketers who want to contribute in the transformation of consumer behavior and the achievement of well-being and social change.",book:{id:"6583",slug:"marketing",title:"Marketing",fullTitle:"Marketing"},signatures:"Alicia De La Pena",authors:[{id:"196878",title:"Dr.",name:"Alicia",middleName:null,surname:"De La Pena",slug:"alicia-de-la-pena",fullName:"Alicia De La Pena"}]},{id:"66643",title:"Social Media, Consumer Behavior, and Service Marketing",slug:"social-media-consumer-behavior-and-service-marketing",totalDownloads:3594,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"This study examined the impact of social media platforms and brand awareness in relation to the consumer decision-making and buying behavior patterns influenced by social media. It also depicts how companies can effectively make use of social media platforms as marketing strategy tools in business performances. Social media platforms seem to be increasingly and effectively bringing brand awareness and influence consumers’ purchase decision-making and later on realize repeat purchases that bring about customer loyalty. Social media also has some influence to both the consumer and the marketers and is becoming the most welcomed online selling point by the millennial. Marketers/producers have noticed the rise in social media consumers; however, most of the business entities have not yet utilized social media to its fullest in their marketing activities and business strategies and performances. The study highlights the benefits of using social media platforms and brand awareness strategies that can be utilized through the online social media systems and gives a contemporary research gap, in how frequent businesses are engaging with social media.",book:{id:"7830",slug:"consumer-behavior-and-marketing",title:"Consumer Behavior and Marketing",fullTitle:"Consumer Behavior and Marketing"},signatures:"Abigail Chivandi, Michael Olorunjuwon Samuel and Mammo Muchie",authors:[{id:"267975",title:"Dr.",name:"Abigail",middleName:null,surname:"Chivandi",slug:"abigail-chivandi",fullName:"Abigail Chivandi"},{id:"275118",title:"Prof.",name:"Michael Olorunjuwon",middleName:null,surname:"Samuel",slug:"michael-olorunjuwon-samuel",fullName:"Michael Olorunjuwon Samuel"},{id:"275121",title:"Prof.",name:"Mammo",middleName:null,surname:"Muchie",slug:"mammo-muchie",fullName:"Mammo Muchie"}]},{id:"59751",title:"Theory of New Product Development and Its Applications",slug:"theory-of-new-product-development-and-its-applications",totalDownloads:5536,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"A product which can be a physical object or a service should be functional and emotional to satisfy the customer’s need, and to offer value, be delivered as the way customer demanded. Also, it has to include other specific elements like providing customer services. New product is the result of a creative and unique idea that is able to make consumers satisfied. In the process of new product development, it should not be thought that the change will only be on product physically but also on every aspect of the product. The difference between ideas increases production of different goods. The different kind of goods can positively affect the customers’ opinion about a business. When a new business starts to produce a product which satisfies customer’s need, then the demand of competitor’s product which was already in the market may be decreased. Establishment of new product development (NPD) departments and their direct influence in the production process is crucial for businesses. They can determine demand and needs of consumers by applying different theories. These theories can be classified as (i) product-service systems, (ii) the Kano model, (iii) conjoint analysis, (iv) the product value matrix and (v) quality function deployment.",book:{id:"6583",slug:"marketing",title:"Marketing",fullTitle:"Marketing"},signatures:"Esen Gurbuz",authors:[{id:"227728",title:"Dr.",name:"Esen",middleName:null,surname:"Gurbuz",slug:"esen-gurbuz",fullName:"Esen Gurbuz"}]},{id:"63867",title:"Product Development and Management Strategies",slug:"product-development-and-management-strategies",totalDownloads:3015,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The chapter seeks to discuss and describe the concept of product from the marketing perspective, how companies come about new product, product development options, and the various strategies available to a company to manage new and existing products. It is a conceptual paper which reviews relevant literatures from various sources. In essence, the proposed chapter will be divided into three main sections. Section 1 will introduce the concept of product, its meaning, and core components from the marketing point of view. It will also contain discussion on the various connotations of the term product, what constitute a new product, and new product adoption. Section 2 will dwell on the options available to a company on how to come up with new products including mergers, acquisition, and licensing, franchising, and proactive new product development. It will also explain the two product development strategies that companies adopt in the market place. The last section will discuss the product management strategies available to a firm either from the product life cycle way or the individual product management strategies or both. At the end, conclusions and the general context of the paper are drawn.",book:{id:"7489",slug:"product-lifecycle-management-terminology-and-applications",title:"Product Lifecycle Management",fullTitle:"Product Lifecycle Management - Terminology and Applications"},signatures:"Musa Gambo Kasuwar Kuka",authors:[{id:"248588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Musa",middleName:null,surname:"Gambo K.K.",slug:"musa-gambo-k.k.",fullName:"Musa Gambo K.K."}]},{id:"64024",title:"Product Design Process and Methods",slug:"product-design-process-and-methods",totalDownloads:2850,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Suitable design procedures and methods will lead to twice the result with half the work. Hence, good products need a good beginning in the design process. The design procedure is the basis for guiding the steps of design process, while the design method is the guarantee for effectively developing the design process and improving its quality. A clear and reasonable process can lead to a simple and smooth way in design, while the proper use of creating techniques can let the designer find a better way to solve the problems in a wider range, so as to develop and design a good product.",book:{id:"7489",slug:"product-lifecycle-management-terminology-and-applications",title:"Product Lifecycle Management",fullTitle:"Product Lifecycle Management - Terminology and Applications"},signatures:"Jinxia Cheng",authors:[{id:"251440",title:"Mrs.",name:"Jinxia",middleName:null,surname:"Cheng",slug:"jinxia-cheng",fullName:"Jinxia Cheng"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"74",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:91,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:333,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:144,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:124,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:23,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"117248",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Macnab",slug:"andrew-macnab",fullName:"Andrew Macnab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"24",type:"subseries",title:"Computer Vision",keywords:"Image Analysis, Scene Understanding, Biometrics, Deep Learning, Software Implementation, Hardware Implementation, Natural Images, Medical Images, Robotics, VR/AR",scope:"The scope of this topic is to disseminate the recent advances in the rapidly growing field of computer vision from both the theoretical and practical points of view. Novel computational algorithms for image analysis, scene understanding, biometrics, deep learning and their software or hardware implementations for natural and medical images, robotics, VR/AR, applications are some research directions relevant to this topic.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11420,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"1177",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"J. 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