IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\n
By listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
All three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n
"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n
"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
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In conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n
“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\n
We invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\n
Feel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\n
By listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
All three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n
"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n
"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\n
In conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n
“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\n
We invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\n
Feel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"},{slug:"intechopen-identified-as-one-of-the-most-significant-contributor-to-oa-book-growth-in-doab-20210809",title:"IntechOpen Identified as One of the Most Significant Contributors to OA Book Growth in DOAB"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8967",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Bacterial Biofilms",title:"Bacterial Biofilms",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book examines biofilms in nature. Organized into four parts, this book addresses biofilms in wastewater treatment, inhibition of biofilm formation, biofilms and infection, and ecology of biofilms. It is designed for clinicians, researchers, and industry professionals in the fields of microbiology, biotechnology, ecology, and medicine as well as graduate and postgraduate students.",isbn:"978-1-78985-900-3",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-899-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-819-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82929",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"bacterial-biofilms",numberOfPages:360,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"e692b520263526cca2b37092c3e8d0b4",bookSignature:"Sadik Dincer, Melis Sümengen Özdenefe and Afet Arkut",publishedDate:"October 7th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8967.jpg",numberOfDownloads:17504,numberOfWosCitations:36,numberOfCrossrefCitations:39,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:77,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:4,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:152,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 15th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 23rd 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 22nd 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 10th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 10th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"188141",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadik",middleName:null,surname:"Dincer",slug:"sadik-dincer",fullName:"Sadik Dincer",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188141/images/system/188141.jpeg",biography:"For the past 35 years, Prof. Sadık Dincer has been involved in teaching, research, and academic work in numerous distinguished universities in Turkey. Currently, he is working at Cukurova University, Biology and Biotechnology Departments, Adana, Turkey. His manuscripts and book chapters have been published in national and international journals and his works has been cited 1018 times. To date he has trained twenty-five MSc and eleven PhD students. He received the Technology Development Award from the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TÜBİTAK) in 2013 and a national study patent in 2019. His research is focused on bacteriology, microbial ecology, industrial biotechnology, and microbial genetics.",institutionString:"Cukurova University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Cukurova University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"292288",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Melis",middleName:null,surname:"Sümengen Özdenefe",slug:"melis-sumengen-ozdenefe",fullName:"Melis Sümengen Özdenefe",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/292288/images/14472_n.jpg",biography:"Associate Prof. Dr. Melis Sumengen Ozdenefe received her BSc, MSc, and PhD Degrees in Biology from Cukurova University, Turkey in 2009, 2011, and 2014, respectively. During her MSc, she was at Anhalt University, Germany for six months as an international exchange student and a researcher from 2010 to 2011. She has been working in the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Near East University in Northern Cyprus since 2014. Her teaching interests include Industrial Microbiology, Bacteriology, Biotechnology, Enzymology, and Environmental Microbiology. Her research areas involve enzymes and biosurfactant which are produced from various bacteria and fungi for industrial applications, the production and characterization of bacterial enzymes and bacteriocins, the antimicrobial and antioxidant activity of various plant structures, and multiple antibiotic resistance and heavy metal resistance of Gram-negative bacteria isolated from the aquatic environment. Her works have been published in national-international journals, conferences, congresses, and symposiums and cited 142 times.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:null,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Near East University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Cyprus"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"292290",title:"Dr.",name:"Afet",middleName:null,surname:"Arkut",slug:"afet-arkut",fullName:"Afet Arkut",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/292290/images/14475_n.jpg",biography:"Afet Arkut Özyapici received a BSc and PhD in Biology from Cukurova University, Turkey, in 2009 and 2013, respectively. During her postgraduate studies, she attended Anhalt University, Germany, for six months as an international exchange student (Erasmus) in 2010–2011. In 2013, she began working as a doctor in the Health Sciences Faculty at Cyprus International University. In March 2014, she became an assistant professor. Dr. Özyapici has been working as head of the Department of Social Work and vice dean of the Health Sciences Faculty at Cyprus International University since 2016 and 2017, respectively. Her teaching and research interests include microbiology, bacteriology, microbial ecology, hospital infection, hygiene, and sanitation.",institutionString:"Cyprus International University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Cyprus International University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Cyprus"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"896",title:"Microbial Ecology",slug:"microbial-ecology"}],chapters:[{id:"68476",title:"Biofilm in Moving Bed Biofilm Process for Wastewater Treatment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88520",slug:"biofilm-in-moving-bed-biofilm-process-for-wastewater-treatment",totalDownloads:2201,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:12,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"A brief introduction of the long history of biofilm-based wastewater treatment is given together with basics of biofilm behavior and mechanisms in removal and transformation of pollutants. Moving bed biofilm reactor (MBBR) principles and applications of such are presented. Advantages and limitations of such solutions are given together with evaluations of emerging MBBR applications. The basis of biofilm processes and biofilm layer classification based on dissolved oxygen gradient is discussed. Organisms grow at the protected surface of the biocarrier where oxygen gradients create aerobic, anoxic, and anaerobic layers allowing simultaneous nitrification and denitrification in one MBBR (nitrification, nitritation, autotrophic, and heterotrophic denitrification). Combination of MBBR with activated sludge, continuous flow intermittent cleaning (CFIC®), and integration with anaerobic digestion increases the potential usage of MBBR for enhanced efficiency and energy recovery and is partly discussed as case studies (COD, ammonium, and solid removal). Biofilm thickness and scaling control can be crucial for MBBR performance. The type of carriers, filling degree, and operational conditions play a major role for process performance; hence, the effect of those parameters is presented.",signatures:"Shuai Wang, Sudeep Parajuli, Vasan Sivalingam and Rune Bakke",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68476",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68476",authors:[{id:"253655",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuai",surname:"Wang",slug:"shuai-wang",fullName:"Shuai Wang"},{id:"303855",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Vasan",surname:"Sivalingam",slug:"vasan-sivalingam",fullName:"Vasan Sivalingam"},{id:"303856",title:"MSc.",name:"Sudeep",surname:"Parajuli",slug:"sudeep-parajuli",fullName:"Sudeep Parajuli"},{id:"309355",title:"Prof.",name:"Rune",surname:"Bakke",slug:"rune-bakke",fullName:"Rune Bakke"}],corrections:null},{id:"69536",title:"Effect of Heavy Metals on the Biofilm Formed by Microorganisms from Impacted Aquatic Environments",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89545",slug:"effect-of-heavy-metals-on-the-biofilm-formed-by-microorganisms-from-impacted-aquatic-environments",totalDownloads:937,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The aquatic environment is highly complex and diverse, consisting of several types of ecosystems that are dynamic products of complex interactions between biotic and abiotic components. Changes in the physical and chemical properties of these ecosystems can significantly affect the balance of life forms present, especially in their microbiota. Among the main pollutants present in these environments are heavy metals. Several studies demonstrate the effects of these minerals on the structure and function of microbial communities, which may develop adaptation mechanisms for survival and permanence in these sites. In addition, the resistance to heavy metals may contribute to the evolution of resistance genes to the different types of antimicrobials due to the increase of the selective pressure in the environment, becoming a public health problem. One of the adaptive mechanisms present in bacteria from impacted environments that has been frequently investigated is the formation of biofilms. Recent studies have reported significant changes in the structure and amount of biofilm formed in the presence of different metals, and consequently, an increase in the tolerance to these pollutants and antimicrobials. This review will discuss the effects of some metals on bacterial biofilms and their consequences for the marine environment.",signatures:"Lívia Caroline Alexandre de Araújo and Maria Betânia Melo de Oliveira",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69536",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69536",authors:[{id:"309527",title:"Dr.",name:"Lívia",surname:"Caroline",slug:"livia-caroline",fullName:"Lívia Caroline"},{id:"310489",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Maria Betânia",surname:"Melo De Oliveira",slug:"maria-betania-melo-de-oliveira",fullName:"Maria Betânia Melo De Oliveira"}],corrections:null},{id:"70686",title:"Natural Compounds Inhibiting Pseudomonas aeruginosa Biofilm Formation by Targeting Quorum Sensing Circuitry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90833",slug:"natural-compounds-inhibiting-em-pseudomonas-aeruginosa-em-biofilm-formation-by-targeting-quorum-sens",totalDownloads:770,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The biofilm lifestyle mode certainly represents one of the most successful behaviors to facilitate bacterial survival in diverse inhospitable environments. Conversely, the ability of bacteria to develop effective biofilms represents one of the major obstacles in the fight against bacterial infections. In Pseudomonas aeruginosa, the biofilm formation is intimately connected to the quorum sensing (QS) mechanisms, a mode of cell-to-cell communication that allows many bacteria to detect their population density in order to coordinate common actions. In this chapter, we propose an overview (i) on P. aeruginosa QS mechanisms and their implication in biofilm formation, and (ii) on natural products that are known to interfere with these QS mechanisms, subsequently disrupting biofilm formation. The concluding remarks focus on perspectives of these compounds as possible antibiotherapy adjuvants.",signatures:"Julie Carette, Amandine Nachtergael, Pierre Duez, Mondher El Jaziri and Tsiry Rasamiravaka",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70686",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70686",authors:[{id:"311589",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tsiry",surname:"Rasamiravaka",slug:"tsiry-rasamiravaka",fullName:"Tsiry Rasamiravaka"},{id:"311591",title:"Prof.",name:"Mondher",surname:"El Jaziri",slug:"mondher-el-jaziri",fullName:"Mondher El Jaziri"},{id:"311592",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Julie",surname:"Carette",slug:"julie-carette",fullName:"Julie Carette"},{id:"311593",title:"Dr.",name:"Amandine",surname:"Nachtergael",slug:"amandine-nachtergael",fullName:"Amandine Nachtergael"},{id:"311594",title:"Prof.",name:"Pierre",surname:"Duez",slug:"pierre-duez",fullName:"Pierre Duez"}],corrections:null},{id:"70594",title:"Inhibition of Bacterial Biofilm Formation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90614",slug:"inhibition-of-bacterial-biofilm-formation",totalDownloads:1008,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Biofilm is a complex matrix consisting of extracellular polysaccharides, DNA, and proteins that protect bacteria from a variety of physical, chemical, and biological stresses allowing them to survive in hostile environments. Biofilm formation requires three different stages: cell attachment to a solid substrate, adhesion, and growth. The inhibition of one of these steps by small molecules, such as antimicrobial peptides, or their action on specific targets will leave pathogens armless against classical antibiotics. Any drug impairing crucial processes for bacterial life will inevitably lead to the development of drug-resistant strains, whereas the inhibition of biofilm formation might prevent the onset of bacterial resistance. In this section, we will focus on proteins involved in biofilm formation as useful targets for the development of new drugs that can effectively and specifically impair biofilm formation with slight effects on cell survival, thus avoiding the generation of drug-resistant strains.",signatures:"Angela Di Somma, Antonio Moretta, Carolina Canè, Arianna Cirillo and Angela Duilio",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70594",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70594",authors:[{id:"311520",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Angela",surname:"Di Somma",slug:"angela-di-somma",fullName:"Angela Di Somma"},{id:"311653",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",surname:"Moretta",slug:"antonio-moretta",fullName:"Antonio Moretta"},{id:"311654",title:"Prof.",name:"Angela",surname:"Duilio",slug:"angela-duilio",fullName:"Angela Duilio"},{id:"311655",title:"Dr.",name:"Carolina",surname:"Canè",slug:"carolina-cane",fullName:"Carolina Canè"},{id:"311656",title:"Dr.",name:"Arianna",surname:"Cirillo",slug:"arianna-cirillo",fullName:"Arianna Cirillo"}],corrections:null},{id:"70055",title:"Approaches for Modeling Anaerobic Granule-Based Reactors",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90201",slug:"approaches-for-modeling-anaerobic-granule-based-reactors",totalDownloads:631,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Anaerobic granule sludge is a self-forming biofilm. This biofilm can be developed without the presence of bio-carriers. Anaerobic granule sludge-based technologies are dominant technologies in the field of anaerobic wastewater treatment. Although they are successful technologies, many efforts are still needed for a better understanding of the granules and granule-based reactors because reactor failure can occur. Here, reactor modeling is highly helpful in understanding the performance of anaerobic bioreactors. A model that can accurately model bioprocesses in a sludge bed reactor and predict concentrations of effluent components is valuable. This is because the model can provide insights into the reactor and be useful in reactor control. Current models of granules are models on bioprocesses in a single granule sludge or on the hydrodynamics and biokinetics in a sludge bed reactor. Here, we review advances in reactor model and its applications as well as limitations and further improvements in the models.",signatures:"Jixiang Yang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70055",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70055",authors:[{id:"311779",title:"Dr.",name:"Jixiang",surname:"Yang",slug:"jixiang-yang",fullName:"Jixiang Yang"}],corrections:null},{id:"69086",title:"Innovative Strategies for the Control of Biofilm Formation in Clinical Settings",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89310",slug:"innovative-strategies-for-the-control-of-biofilm-formation-in-clinical-settings",totalDownloads:857,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Biofilm formation in clinical settings is an increasingly important issue particularly due to the emergence of multidrug-resistant strains, as it resulted in increased mortality, which poses a considerable financial burden on healthcare systems. The bacterial biofilms are quite resistant to the routine antimicrobial-based therapies; therefore, the novel strategies are desired in addition to the conventional antibiotics for the effective control of infections caused by biofilm-forming microbes. So far, the approaches being proposed to control the biofilm formation in clinical practice settings include the use of biofilm inhibitors and the use of modified biomaterials for the development of medical devices to thwart the formation of biofilms. In this chapter, we have focused on the latest developments in the anti-biofilm strategies through the interruption of the quorum-sensing system, which is crucial for biofilm formation and have summarized the various classes of antibacterial compounds for the control of biofilm formation. This agrees with the recent approaches suggested by the National Institute of Health (NIH) that advocates the use of combinational therapies based on the conventional methods and complementary treatment to explore the potential utility and safety concerns of the natural products. The studies regarding these emerging strategies could possibly lead to the establishment of better therapeutic alternates compared to conventional treatments.",signatures:"Aqsa Shahid, Maria Rasool, Naheed Akhter, Bilal Aslam, Ali Hassan, Sadia Sana, Muhammad Hidayat Rasool and Mohsin Khurshid",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69086",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69086",authors:[{id:"201590",title:"Dr.",name:"Bilal",surname:"Aslam",slug:"bilal-aslam",fullName:"Bilal Aslam"},{id:"305891",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohsin",surname:"Khurshid",slug:"mohsin-khurshid",fullName:"Mohsin Khurshid"},{id:"309790",title:"Ms.",name:"Aqsa",surname:"Shahid",slug:"aqsa-shahid",fullName:"Aqsa Shahid"},{id:"309792",title:"Ms.",name:"Maria",surname:"Rasool",slug:"maria-rasool",fullName:"Maria Rasool"},{id:"309793",title:"Dr.",name:"Naheed",surname:"Akhter",slug:"naheed-akhter",fullName:"Naheed Akhter"},{id:"309795",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",surname:"Hassan",slug:"ali-hassan",fullName:"Ali Hassan"},{id:"309796",title:"Ms.",name:"Sadia",surname:"Sana",slug:"sadia-sana",fullName:"Sadia Sana"},{id:"309797",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad Hidayat",surname:"Rasool",slug:"muhammad-hidayat-rasool",fullName:"Muhammad Hidayat Rasool"}],corrections:null},{id:"69533",title:"Formation, Antibiotic Resistance, and Control Strategies of Staphylococcus epidermidis Biofilm",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89800",slug:"formation-antibiotic-resistance-and-control-strategies-of-em-staphylococcus-epidermidis-em-biofilm",totalDownloads:513,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Staphylococcus epidermidis, member of the group of coagulase-negative staphylococci, belongs to an opportunistic pathogen. It is reported that the major pathogenicity of S. epidermidis is attributed to its biofilm formed on the surface of infected tissues, which enhances bacterial resistance to antibiotics. Thus, how to inhibit biofilm formation and screening biofilm inhibitors will have great value in reducing bacterial drug-resistance, which is beneficial to prevent and treat biofilm-associated infections. In this chapter, we present the current knowledge on formation, antibiotic resistance, and control strategies of S. epidermidis biofilm. First, biofilm formation in S. epidermidis, including factors involved in different phases in the process of biofilm, is analyzed. Second, the mechanisms of antibiotic resistance in S. epidermidis biofilms, such as poor antibiotic penetration, slow growth, and formation of persister cells, are introduced. Finally, control strategies to S. epidermidis biofilm formation are provided.",signatures:"Wei Chen, Ting-Ting Xie and Hong Zeng",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69533",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69533",authors:[{id:"303148",title:"Prof.",name:"Wei",surname:"Chen",slug:"wei-chen",fullName:"Wei Chen"},{id:"306885",title:"Dr.",name:"Ting-ting",surname:"Xie",slug:"ting-ting-xie",fullName:"Ting-ting Xie"},{id:"306886",title:"Dr.",name:"Hong",surname:"Zeng",slug:"hong-zeng",fullName:"Hong Zeng"}],corrections:null},{id:"69590",title:"Combating Biofilm and Quorum Sensing: A New Strategy to Fight Infections",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89227",slug:"combating-biofilm-and-quorum-sensing-a-new-strategy-to-fight-infections",totalDownloads:976,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Biofilms are structured aggregates of bacterial cells that are embedded in self-produced extracellular polymeric substances. Various pathogens initiate a disease process by creating organized biofilms that enhance their ability to adhere, replicate to accumulate, and express their virulence potential. Quorum sensing, which refers to the bacterial cell-to-cell communication resulting from production and response to N-acyl homoserine lactone signal molecules, also plays an important role in virulence and biofilm formation. Attenuation of microorganisms’ virulence such that they fail to adapt to the hosts’ environment could be a new strategic fight against pathogens. Thus, agents or products that possess anti-biofilm formation and/or anti-quorum sensing activities could go a long way to manage microbial infections. The incidence of microbial resistance can be reduced by the use of anti-biofilm formation and anti-quorum sensing agents.",signatures:"Cynthia Amaning Danquah, Samuel Osei-Djarbeng, Theresah Appiah, Yaw Duah Boakye and Francis Adu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69590",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69590",authors:[{id:"186987",title:"Dr.",name:"Yaw Duah",surname:"Boakye",slug:"yaw-duah-boakye",fullName:"Yaw Duah Boakye"},{id:"262750",title:"Dr.",name:"Cynthia",surname:"Amaning Danquah",slug:"cynthia-amaning-danquah",fullName:"Cynthia Amaning Danquah"},{id:"262752",title:"Dr.",name:"Francis",surname:"Adu",slug:"francis-adu",fullName:"Francis Adu"},{id:"297439",title:"Dr.",name:"Theresa",surname:"Appiah",slug:"theresa-appiah",fullName:"Theresa Appiah"},{id:"309609",title:"Dr.",name:"Samuel",surname:"Osei-Djarbeng",slug:"samuel-osei-djarbeng",fullName:"Samuel Osei-Djarbeng"}],corrections:null},{id:"72109",title:"Antibiotic Resistance in Biofilm",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92388",slug:"antibiotic-resistance-in-biofilm",totalDownloads:1411,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:17,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Biofilms can be found on several living and nonliving surfaces, which are formed by a group of microorganisms, complex assembly of proteins, polysaccharides, and DNAs in an extracellular polymeric matrix. By forming a biofilm, bacteria protect themselves from host defense, disinfectants, and antibiotics. Bacteria inside biofilm are much more resistant to antimicrobial agents than planktonic forms since bacteria that are unresisting to antimicrobial agents in any way can turn resistant after forming a biofilm. Low penetration of antibiotics into the biofilm, slow reproduction, and the existence of adaptive stress response constitute the multiphased defense of the bacterium. This antibiotic resistance, which is provided by biofilm, makes the treatments, which use effective antibiotic doses on the bacterium in planktonic shape, difficult. Biofilm formation potential of bacteria appears as an important virulence factor in ensuring the colonization on the living tissues or medical devices and makes the treatment difficult. The aim of this chapter is to overview the current knowledge of antimicrobial resistance mechanisms in biofilms.",signatures:"Sadık Dincer, Fatima Masume Uslu and Anil Delik",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72109",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72109",authors:[{id:"188141",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadik",surname:"Dincer",slug:"sadik-dincer",fullName:"Sadik Dincer"},{id:"315992",title:"MSc.",name:"Fatıma Masume",surname:"Uslu",slug:"fatima-masume-uslu",fullName:"Fatıma Masume Uslu"},{id:"315993",title:"MSc.",name:"Anıl",surname:"Delik",slug:"anil-delik",fullName:"Anıl Delik"}],corrections:null},{id:"71189",title:"Microbial Biofilms",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90790",slug:"microbial-biofilms",totalDownloads:1050,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Biofilms are the aggregation of microbial cells, which are associated with the surface in almost an irreversible manner. It exists in variety of forms like dental plaque, pond scum, or the slimy build up in sink. Biofilm formation involves sequence of steps like conditioning, attachment, metabolism, and detachment. Biofilm consists of water channels, EPS (Exopolysaccharide), and eDNA (Environmental DNA), which plays an important role in nutrient circulation, its development, and structure stabilization. Resistance of planktonic bacteria against antimicrobial agents gets increased on the formation of biofilm, which may be the presence of diffusive barrier EPS or neutralizing enzyme, cells undergoing starvation, or due to spore formation. There are numerous factors, which affects biofilm formation such as substratum effects, conditioning film on substratum, hydrodynamics, characteristics of the aqueous medium, cell characteristics, and environmental factors. Biofilm can cause industrial, medical, and household damage and is a reason for loss of billions of dollars every year. Development of biofilm on catheters, medical implants, and devices is a major cause of infections and diseases in humans. Examples include Plaque, Native Valve Endocarditis, Otitis media, Prostatitis, Cystic fibrosis, Periodontitis, Osteomyelitis, and many more.",signatures:"Princy Choudhary, Sangeeta Singh and Vishnu Agarwal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71189",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71189",authors:[{id:"220858",title:"Ms.",name:"Princy",surname:"Choudhary",slug:"princy-choudhary",fullName:"Princy Choudhary"},{id:"251063",title:"Dr.",name:"Sangeeta",surname:"Singh",slug:"sangeeta-singh",fullName:"Sangeeta Singh"},{id:"318847",title:"Dr.",name:"Vishnu",surname:"Agarwal",slug:"vishnu-agarwal",fullName:"Vishnu Agarwal"}],corrections:[{id:"73763",title:"Corrigendum to: Microbial Biofilms",doi:null,slug:"corrigendum-to-microbial-biofilms",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,correctionPdfUrl:null}]},{id:"71796",title:"Essential Oils as an Innovative Approach against Biofilm of Multidrug-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91833",slug:"essential-oils-as-an-innovative-approach-against-biofilm-of-multidrug-resistant-em-staphylococcus-au",totalDownloads:647,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Staphylococcus aureus is one of the most common pathogens that cause recurrent, chronic, and biofilm-related diseases. Biofilms are the major form of bacterial structures capable of secreting polysaccharides that provide intrinsic protection against environmental stress like high concentrations of antibiotics. This, along with the emergence of multidrug-resistant strains, has made S. aureus infections a worldwide problem as a result of the inefficiency of the conventional medications. Plant essential oils (EOs) are an important source for drug discovery and pharmaceutical development due to their diverse biological activities, such as antimicrobial agents. The EOs’ microbicide action is extensively reported at the scientific literature and frequently associated with bioactive molecules, such as aldehydes and terpenes. However, the ability of some EOs to inhibit biofilm formation has been poorly explored and it is still unclear how they could be applied in specific treatments against well-known infections. Therefore, this chapter will address virulence factors and biofilm formation of S. aureus, as well as bioprospecting of essential oil as a promising source in the search for new bioactive compounds employed in the fight against this microorganism.",signatures:"Victor Alves Carneiro, Ramaiana Soares Melo, Antônio Mateus Gomes Pereira, Águida Maria Albuquerque Azevedo, Maria Nágila Carneiro Matos, Rafaela Mesquita Bastos Cavalcante, Renan Rhonalty Rocha, Vinícius de Queiroz Albuquerque, Jesús Alberto Pérez Guerrero and Francisco Eduardo Aragão Catunda Junior",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71796",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71796",authors:[{id:"311814",title:"Dr.",name:"Victor Alves",surname:"Carneiro",slug:"victor-alves-carneiro",fullName:"Victor Alves Carneiro"},{id:"311901",title:"MSc.",name:"Ramaiana Soares",surname:"Melo",slug:"ramaiana-soares-melo",fullName:"Ramaiana Soares Melo"},{id:"311902",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio Mateus",surname:"Gomes Pereira",slug:"antonio-mateus-gomes-pereira",fullName:"Antonio Mateus Gomes Pereira"},{id:"318147",title:"MSc.",name:"Águida Maria",surname:"Albuquerque Azevedo",slug:"aguida-maria-albuquerque-azevedo",fullName:"Águida Maria Albuquerque Azevedo"},{id:"318148",title:"MSc.",name:"Rafaela",surname:"Mesquita Bastos Cavalcante",slug:"rafaela-mesquita-bastos-cavalcante",fullName:"Rafaela Mesquita Bastos Cavalcante"},{id:"318149",title:"BSc.",name:"Renan",surname:"Rhonalty Rocha",slug:"renan-rhonalty-rocha",fullName:"Renan Rhonalty Rocha"},{id:"318150",title:"BSc.",name:"Vinícius",surname:"Queiroz Albuquerque",slug:"vinicius-queiroz-albuquerque",fullName:"Vinícius Queiroz Albuquerque"},{id:"318151",title:"MSc.",name:"Jesús",surname:"Alberto Pérez Guerrero",slug:"jesus-alberto-perez-guerrero",fullName:"Jesús Alberto Pérez Guerrero"},{id:"318230",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Nágila",surname:"Carneiro Matos",slug:"maria-nagila-carneiro-matos",fullName:"Maria Nágila Carneiro Matos"}],corrections:null},{id:"68020",title:"Methods for Searching of Potential Beneficial Bacteria and Their Products in Dental Biofilm",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88024",slug:"methods-for-searching-of-potential-beneficial-bacteria-and-their-products-in-dental-biofilm",totalDownloads:822,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Dental microbiota is associated with different types of organisms with dentition including humans and is responsible for many oral diseases all over the world. Bacteria in a dental biofilm are important also in other diseases, i.e., endocarditis, pulmonary fibrosis, and arthritis, and some findings predict the connection of dental microbiota with cancerogenesis. Not all oral bacterial representatives are pathogenic or potentially pathogenic. Dental biofilm consists of numerous different bacteria that may have beneficial characteristics for good condition of dental and oral health. Searching for bacteria or their products with the beneficial effect is important in the development of new biologically based strategies for the prevention or treatment of oral and dental diseases. For searching of potential probiotic candidates are useful methods that could map phenotypic or genotypic characteristics of studied bacteria. This chapter is focused on the spectrum of these basic methods searching for beneficial bacteria and their products.",signatures:"Marián Maďar, Jana Kačírová, Eva Styková, Michaela Maďarová and Radomíra Nemcová",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68020",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68020",authors:[{id:"210430",title:"Dr.",name:"Marián",surname:"Maďar",slug:"marian-madar",fullName:"Marián Maďar"},{id:"300537",title:"Dr.",name:"Jana",surname:"Kačírová",slug:"jana-kacirova",fullName:"Jana Kačírová"},{id:"300539",title:"Dr.",name:"Eva",surname:"Styková",slug:"eva-stykova",fullName:"Eva Styková"},{id:"300540",title:"Dr.",name:"Radomíra",surname:"Nemcová",slug:"radomira-nemcova",fullName:"Radomíra Nemcová"},{id:"307241",title:"Dr.",name:"Michaela",surname:"Maďarová",slug:"michaela-madarova",fullName:"Michaela Maďarová"}],corrections:null},{id:"69968",title:"Composition, Structure, and Formation of Biofilms Constituted by Periodontopathogenic Microorganisms",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90019",slug:"composition-structure-and-formation-of-biofilms-constituted-by-periodontopathogenic-microorganisms",totalDownloads:532,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Microorganisms that compose the oral microbiota maintain complex interactions with each other, especially pathogens related to periodontal disease. It is possible to characterize the etiology of this multifactorial and polymicrobial disease by the accumulation of biofilms formed in the supra- and subgingival environments associated to the immunological response and the susceptibility of the host, being responsible for a large part of the dental loss especially in the adult phase. Periodontal treatment has been carried out mainly by scaling and root planing. This therapy is limited due to the difficult access in some areas of the teeth, impairing the removal of biofilms. So, this chapter will focus on the composition and formation of the biofilm as well as the host’s immune response to periodontopathogenic microorganisms. Additionally, the therapeutic challenges and the treatments that are currently being studied in order to eliminate this biofilm, such as antimicrobial phototherapy, will be discussed.",signatures:"Juliana Cabrini Carmello, Sarah Raquel de Annunzio and Carla Raquel Fontana",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69968",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69968",authors:[{id:"310060",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Juliana",surname:"Cabrini Carmello",slug:"juliana-cabrini-carmello",fullName:"Juliana Cabrini Carmello"},{id:"310061",title:"MSc.",name:"Sarah Raquel",surname:"De Annunzio",slug:"sarah-raquel-de-annunzio",fullName:"Sarah Raquel De Annunzio"},{id:"310062",title:"Prof.",name:"Carla Raquel",surname:"Fontana",slug:"carla-raquel-fontana",fullName:"Carla Raquel Fontana"}],corrections:null},{id:"70036",title:"Biofilms Formed by Pathogens in Food and Food Processing Environments",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90176",slug:"biofilms-formed-by-pathogens-in-food-and-food-processing-environments",totalDownloads:1162,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter presents the ability of some pathogenic (Listeria monocytogenes, Escherichia coli, Salmonella enterica, Campylobacter jejuni, Pseudomonas aeruginosa) and toxigenic bacteria (Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus) to form biofilms and contribute to the persistence of these microorganisms in the food industry. Particularities regarding attachment and composition of biofilms formed in food and food processing environments are presented and genes involved in biofilm production are mentioned. To give a perspective on how to fight against biofilms with new means, nonconventional methods based on bacteriocins, bacteriophages, disruptive enzymes, essential oils, nanoemulsions and nanoparticles, and use of alternative technologies (cold plasma, ultrasounds, light-assisted technologies, pulsed electric field, and high pressure processing) are shortly described.",signatures:"Leontina Grigore-Gurgu, Florentina Ionela Bucur, Daniela Borda, Elena-Alexandra Alexa, Corina Neagu and Anca Ioana Nicolau",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70036",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70036",authors:[{id:"311859",title:"Prof.",name:"Anca",surname:"Nicolau",slug:"anca-nicolau",fullName:"Anca Nicolau"},{id:"311860",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena-Alexandra",surname:"Alexa",slug:"elena-alexandra-alexa",fullName:"Elena-Alexandra Alexa"},{id:"311861",title:"Dr.",name:"Leontina",surname:"Grigore-Gurgu",slug:"leontina-grigore-gurgu",fullName:"Leontina Grigore-Gurgu"},{id:"311862",title:"MSc.",name:"Florentina",surname:"Bucur",slug:"florentina-bucur",fullName:"Florentina Bucur"},{id:"312889",title:"Prof.",name:"Daniela",surname:"Borda",slug:"daniela-borda",fullName:"Daniela Borda"},{id:"312890",title:"Dr.",name:"Corina",surname:"Neagu",slug:"corina-neagu",fullName:"Corina Neagu"}],corrections:null},{id:"68263",title:"Dental Biofilm as Etiological Agent of Canine Periodontal Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88305",slug:"dental-biofilm-as-etiological-agent-of-canine-periodontal-disease",totalDownloads:920,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Periodontal disease is one of the most common health problem affecting dogs. The disease is more prevalent in small breeds and brachycephalic breeds compared to large breeds, and incidence increases with advancing age. In first stage it affects only the gingival tissue and causes gingivitis. It later develops into periodontitis which involves changes in other periodontium tissues. Main etiological agents of periodontal disease are pathogenic bacteria of dental biofilm, and products of their metabolism. In human, Porphyromonas gingivalis, Treponema denticola and Tannerella forsythia play a key role in the etiology of periodontal disease. Also, there are many other candidates as human periodontal pathogens, including Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans, Prevotella intermedia, Prevotella nigrescens, Fusobacterium nucleatum, Parvimonas micra, Eikenella corrodens, Capnocytophaga gingivalis, Eubacterium nodatum and Campylobacter rectus. Since periodontal diseases in dogs are similar to human diseases in terms of disease progression and clinical manifestation, we can assume their common etiology. This chapter is focused on review about canine dental biofilm and about members of biofilm as potential causative agent of canine periodontal disease.",signatures:"Jana Kačírová, Marián Maďar, Gabriela Štrkolcová, Aladár Maďari and Radomíra Nemcová",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68263",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68263",authors:[{id:"210430",title:"Dr.",name:"Marián",surname:"Maďar",slug:"marian-madar",fullName:"Marián Maďar"},{id:"300537",title:"Dr.",name:"Jana",surname:"Kačírová",slug:"jana-kacirova",fullName:"Jana Kačírová"},{id:"300540",title:"Dr.",name:"Radomíra",surname:"Nemcová",slug:"radomira-nemcova",fullName:"Radomíra Nemcová"},{id:"300579",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriela",surname:"Štrkolcová",slug:"gabriela-strkolcova",fullName:"Gabriela Štrkolcová"},{id:"300580",title:"Dr.",name:"Aladár",surname:"Maďari",slug:"aladar-madari",fullName:"Aladár Maďari"}],corrections:null},{id:"69138",title:"Biofilm, a Cozy Structure for Legionella pneumophila Growth and Persistence in the Environment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89156",slug:"biofilm-a-cozy-structure-for-em-legionella-pneumophila-em-growth-and-persistence-in-the-environment",totalDownloads:508,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Legionella pneumophila (L. pneumophila) is the causative agent of Legionnaires’ disease. Transmission to humans is mediated via inhalation of contaminated water droplets. L. pneumophila is widely distributed in man-made water systems, multiple species of protozoa, and nematodes. L. pneumophila persist within multi-species biofilms that cover surfaces within water systems. Virulence, spread, and resistance to biocides are associated with survival of L. pneumophila within multi-organismal biofilm. Outbreaks of Legionellosis are correlated with the existence of L. pneumophila in biofilms, even after the intensive chemical and physical treatments. Several factors negatively or positively modulate the persistence of L. pneumophila within the microbial consortium-containing L. pneumophila. Biofilm-forming L. pneumophila continue to be a public health and economic burden and directly influence the medical and industrial sectors. Diagnosis and hospitalization of patients and prevention protocols cost governments billions of dollars. Dissecting the biological and environmental factors that promote the persistence and physiological adaptation in biofilms can be fundamental to eliminating and preventing the transmission of L. pneumophila. Herein, we review different factors that promote persistence of L. pneumophila within the biofilm consortium, survival strategies used by the bacteria within biofilm community, gene regulation, and finally challenges associated with biofilm resistance to biocides and anti-Legionella treatments.",signatures:"Arwa Abu Khweek and Amal O. Amer",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69138",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69138",authors:[{id:"117138",title:"Dr.",name:"Amal",surname:"Amer",slug:"amal-amer",fullName:"Amal Amer"},{id:"302360",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Arwa",surname:"Abu Khweek",slug:"arwa-abu-khweek",fullName:"Arwa Abu Khweek"}],corrections:null},{id:"69502",title:"Oral Microbiota from the Stomatology Perspective",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89362",slug:"oral-microbiota-from-the-stomatology-perspective",totalDownloads:823,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Besides the properties typical of body cavities, the oral cavity exhibits many differentiating features that allow it to occupy position of an autonomous functional and biological unit, a characteristic ecosystem. An appropriate homeostasis of oral biocenosis and balanced conditions for microorganisms concerning proportions of physiological and pathogenic or potentially pathogenic microbiota play an important role with regard to the oral cavity health and eventually the overall health of an individual. The oral cavity is a constantly changing habitat. The current market offers a number of relevant preparations supporting oral health, and alternative approaches serving these purposes are also available. Results of the studies that focused on microbiocenosis of the dental plaque and interactions between individual bacterial species indicate a probiotic potential of some oral bacteria and their prospective use in prevention of oral cavity diseases. This chapter deals with the state of physiological microbiota found in oral biofilms, with the most important infections of the oral cavity and the potential use of probiotics as a prospective alternative approach to prevention and therapy of oral cavity diseases.",signatures:"Andrea Stašková, Radomíra Nemcová, Stanislav Lauko and Andrej Jenča",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69502",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69502",authors:[{id:"300540",title:"Dr.",name:"Radomíra",surname:"Nemcová",slug:"radomira-nemcova",fullName:"Radomíra Nemcová"},{id:"309897",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",surname:"Stašková",slug:"andrea-staskova",fullName:"Andrea Stašková"},{id:"309898",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrej",surname:"Jenča",slug:"andrej-jenca",fullName:"Andrej Jenča"},{id:"310310",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislav",surname:"Lauko",slug:"stanislav-lauko",fullName:"Stanislav Lauko"}],corrections:null},{id:"72911",title:"The Importance of Biofilms to the Fate and Effects of Microplastics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92816",slug:"the-importance-of-biofilms-to-the-fate-and-effects-of-microplastics",totalDownloads:1055,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Microplastics are global pollutants in water media ranging from drinking water to freshwater streams to oceanic pollutant gyres. Besides the obvious appearance involving a scattered presence in the environmental landscape, microplastics are ubiquitous across modern society in products, food, and beginning to have strong economic effects too. Ingestion of microplastics is virtually unavoidable for each of us as we consume food, breathe air, or drink liquids. For example, beer has been found to be contaminated with plastic materials having the dimensions of micro- and nanoparticles. In the environment, the formation of biofilms on microplastics is widely observed and this can significantly alter properties important to environmental and human health. Significant research has been conducted on the role of biofilms in the fate and effect of microplastics on environmental and human health, with a general message to avoid contact with microplastics in the environment until more complete strategies for cleanup are developed.",signatures:"John A. Glaser",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72911",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72911",authors:[{id:"254294",title:"Dr.",name:"John A.",surname:"Glaser",slug:"john-a.-glaser",fullName:"John A. Glaser"}],corrections:null},{id:"70836",title:"Extending an Eco-Evolutionary Understanding of Biofilm-Formation at the Air-Liquid Interface to Community Biofilms",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90955",slug:"extending-an-eco-evolutionary-understanding-of-biofilm-formation-at-the-air-liquid-interface-to-comm",totalDownloads:686,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Growing bacterial populations diversify to produce a number of competing lineages. In the Pseudomonas fluorescens SBW25 model system, Wrinkly Spreader mutant lineages, capable of colonising the air-liquid interface of static microcosms by biofilm-formation, rapidly appear in diversifying populations with a fitness advantage over the ancestral wild-type strain. Similarly, a biofilm is rapidly produced by a community containing many biofilm-competent members, and selection by serial transfer of biofilm samples across microcosms results in a gradually changing community structure. Both the adaptive radiation producing Wrinkly Spreaders and the succession of biofilm communities in these static microcosms can be understood through evolutionary ecology in which ecological interactions and evolutionary processes are combined. Such eco-evolutionary dynamics are especially important for bacteria, as rapid growth, high population densities and strong selection in the context of infections can lead to fast changes in disease progression and resistance phenotypes, while similar changes in community function may also affect many microbially mediated biotechnological and industrial processes. Evolutionary ecology provides an understanding of why bacterial biofilms are so prevalent and why they are such a successful colonisation strategy, and it can be directly linked to molecular analyses to understand the importance of pathways and responses involved in biofilm-formation.",signatures:"Robyn Jerdan, Olga Iungin, Olena V. Moshynets, Geert Potters and Andrew J. Spiers",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70836",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70836",authors:[{id:"139367",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",surname:"Spiers",slug:"andrew-spiers",fullName:"Andrew Spiers"},{id:"315675",title:"Ms.",name:"Robyn",surname:"Jerdan",slug:"robyn-jerdan",fullName:"Robyn Jerdan"},{id:"315676",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",surname:"Iungin",slug:"olga-iungin",fullName:"Olga Iungin"},{id:"315677",title:"Dr.",name:"Olena",surname:"Moshynets",slug:"olena-moshynets",fullName:"Olena Moshynets"},{id:"315678",title:"Dr.",name:"Geert",surname:"Potters",slug:"geert-potters",fullName:"Geert Potters"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8415",title:"Extremophilic Microbes and Metabolites",subtitle:"Diversity, Bioprospecting and Biotechnological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"93e0321bc93b89ff73730157738f8f97",slug:"extremophilic-microbes-and-metabolites-diversity-bioprospecting-and-biotechnological-applications",bookSignature:"Afef Najjari, Ameur Cherif, Haïtham Sghaier and Hadda Imene Ouzari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8415.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196823",title:"Dr.",name:"Afef",surname:"Najjari",slug:"afef-najjari",fullName:"Afef Najjari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8422",title:"Metagenomics",subtitle:"Basics, Methods and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"82c6409553747ffccd6075f9420e3175",slug:"metagenomics-basics-methods-and-applications",bookSignature:"Wael N. 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\r\n\tOrganic electronics can impact healthcare, sports, and national security through inventions such as real-time biosensing and drug-delivery, stretchable and flexible sport track gear, and the electronic- nose and tongue. Organic semiconductors, based on carbon and hydrogen, two of the most abundant and low cost materials, can transduce ionic and electronic carriers into quantifiable data paving the way for multi-functional applications that are not easy to create with other material systems and often go beyond the working principle of the conventional field-effect transistor. We will begin our review with a general overview of the current state of OFETs focusing on complex architectures, materials and fabrication processes. We will discuss the device physics and explain the doping mechanisms that can exist in organic semiconducting channel materials. Then we will focus on exciting applications that include the electronic- nose and tongue, myriad biosensing applications for preventive, point-of-care testing and real-time drug delivery, emerging physico-chemical low cost sensing applications, and the well known flexible, stretchable electronics.
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1. Introduction
In the last two decades, the Global Positioning System (GPS) has been widely used in navigation, positioning, timing and related sciences. However, GPS observations are subject to several sources of error, such as clock biases, multi-path delay, and ionospheric and tropospheric delays. Particularly, the tropospheric delay significantly affects the GPS signals and causes errors of several meters in positioning. Since the GPS signal is sensitive to the tropospheric refractive index, which is dependent on the pressure, temperature and moisture, GPS can be used for sensing these properties in the troposphere, e.g.,tropospheric water vapor [12, 13]. Although studies have demonstrated to successfully estimate PWV from GPS within 1-2 mm of accuracy at 15-minute temporal resolution, a number of factors still affect PWV accuracies, e.g., mapping functions and Earth’s tide models, [14, 11].
The GPS-derived zenith total delay (ZTD) can be split into surface pressure dependent component or so called a hydrostatic (dry) part [23] and a water vapor and temperature dependent component or so called non-hydrostatic (wet) part. Since these delays change with the elevation angle, the signal with low elevation angle has a longer delay through the troposphere than one with high elevation angle. In addition, the mapping functions are needed to transform slant tropospheric delays into the zenith tropospheric delays [4, 17, 27]. Latest mapping functions include GMF (Global mapping function) and VMF1 (Vienna mapping function) obtained from numerical weather prediction models [4], which are widely used as currently the most accurate tropospheric mapping function models [25].
The PWV can be obtained from wet delay, which can be used for climatology and weather forecasting. As for Near-Real Time (NRT) applications, estimation of PWV requires near-real-time observations from ground-based GPS stations and ultra-rapid orbit products. Although radiosounding is the most reliable technique for PWV estimates, it is quite costly and low resolution with twice per day. With the estimation of NRT-PWV from GPS measurements, spatial and temporal resolution of PWV values are improved for applications in climatology and numerical weather prediction models. In this chapter, the first PWV results are obtained from GPS observations in Turkey, which are validated and analyzed with radiosonde observations.
2. Data processing and methods
The tropospheric zenith delay can be computed with BERNESE, GAMIT/GLOBK and GIPSY-OASIS softwares. In this study hourly ZTD, ZHD and ZWD values are computed with GAMIT/GLOBK and corresponding PWV values are validated by radiosonde measurements. Here, two radiosonde stations with co-located GPS stations are used in Ankara and Istanbul (Figure 1). Meteorological parameters (temperature, pressure and humidity) at co-located GPS stations are obtained from the Turkish Met-Office (Meteoroloji Genel Mudurlugu).
In order to investigate various effects on GPS ZTD and PWV estimates, different processing strategies are used, including atmospheric and oceanic tidal and non-tidal models, and the mapping functions. Full list of processing strategies are shown in Table 1 Here GPS data from Sep. 2013 to Aug. 2014 are processed from GPS network in Figure 1, including IGS sites (Zeck, Onsa, Hert, Ramo, Mets, Ankr, Bucu, Drag, Gope, Ista, Medi, Mikl, Nico, Orid, Tubi, Yebe) and EUREF sites (Aut1, Baca, Dub2, Duth, Igeo, Larm, Noa1, Pat0, Srjv, Tuc2, Cost).
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tProcess Strategy\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tMapping Function\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tOcean Tide\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tAtmospheric Tide\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tNon-Atmospheric Tide\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
A
\n\t\t\t
VMF1
\n\t\t\t
Yes
\n\t\t\t
Yes
\n\t\t\t
Yes
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
B
\n\t\t\t
VMF1
\n\t\t\t
Yes
\n\t\t\t
No
\n\t\t\t
No
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
C
\n\t\t\t
VMF1
\n\t\t\t
No
\n\t\t\t
Yes
\n\t\t\t
Yes
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
D
\n\t\t\t
GMF
\n\t\t\t
Yes
\n\t\t\t
Yes
\n\t\t\t
Yes
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
E
\n\t\t\t
NMF
\n\t\t\t
Yes
\n\t\t\t
Yes
\n\t\t\t
Yes
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 1.
Processing Strategies
Figure 1.
GPS Network and co-located radiosonde stations
The processing software can resolve or model the orbital parameters of the satellites, estimate the transmitter and receiver positions and ionospheric delays, and solve the phase-cycle ambiguities and the clock drifts as well as for the tropospheric delay parameters of interest (Jin et al., 2007). In this study, the GAMIT/GLOBK software (Herring et al., 1999) has been used to estimate the ZTD and other parameters with the constrained batch last squares inversion procedure. By parameterizing the ZTD as stochastic variation of the [23], a piecewise linear interpolation between solution epochs is done. Additionally, a priori constraint of varying degrees of uncertainty is allowed. Orbit ephemeris are obtained from final International GNSS service (IGS)\'s solution. Radiosonde observations are obtained from University of Wyoming Department of Atmospheric Science\'s website. The coordinates of the stations are computed by processing 7 days of GPS observations of the prior week. Then, these coordinates are fixed, and the wet tropospheric component delays are estimated every hour [22]. The hydrostatic part of the troposphere was calculated from the GPT (Global Pressure and Temperature). After GAMIT/GLOBK computed daily zenith total delays (ZTD), PWV values are computed with Sh_Met_Util (Bevis Tm model). Bevis model was based on the mean temperature of the water vapor and estimates the PWV as a function of the surface temperature formula [2].
3. Results and analysis
3.1. Validation
The one-year available and continious GPS observations from Sep. 2013 to Aug. 2014 are processed using GAMIT/GLOBK software (Herring et al., 2006) with the International GPS Service (IGS) final orbits, the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS) Earth orientation parameters, and the elevation antenna phase center models. The unknown parameters are the station coordinates, the ambiguity, the ZTD, and the GPS satellite orbital parameters [15]. Figure 2 shows the results of PWV values using the different strategies at GISM station, which are nearly consistent with each other.
Figure 2.
PWV time series at GISM
In Table 2, PWV values obtained from radiosonde are compared to those from GPS observations and the difference is in ±1-2 mm. The results obtained from the Niell Mapping Function (strategy E) are the most accurate with the smallest standard deviation. GPS-derived PWV has a good agreement with radiosone (Figure 3). In addition, note that the temporal resolution of hourly GPS-derived PWV is much higher than the radiosonde measurements with twice per day.
When comparing with the first three strategies (Vienna Mapping Function) without the oceanic and the atmospheric tides corrections, it matches each other at sub-millimetric level. That means that even including these effects in the processing, the impact on the PWV values is small.
The effect of oceanic tide is stronger than the atmospheric tide effects (strategy B and strategy C). When comparing strategy B and strategy C with respect to the radiosonde PWV values, the results show that when atmospheric tide effects are removed, the differences of GPS PWV values with radiosonde results increase at GISM station.
Figure 3.
PWV distribution of GPS with respect to radiosonde
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tGANM\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tA\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tB\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tC\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tE\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Sdt.dev.
\n\t\t\t
1,835
\n\t\t\t
1,826
\n\t\t\t
1,832
\n\t\t\t
1,797
\n\t\t\t
1,794
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Mean
\n\t\t\t
0,188
\n\t\t\t
0,195
\n\t\t\t
0,208
\n\t\t\t
0,217
\n\t\t\t
0,147
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Min.
\n\t\t\t
-4,580
\n\t\t\t
-4,580
\n\t\t\t
-4,480
\n\t\t\t
-4,480
\n\t\t\t
-4,460
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Max.
\n\t\t\t
5,090
\n\t\t\t
5,100
\n\t\t\t
5,140
\n\t\t\t
5,060
\n\t\t\t
4,990
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
GISM
\n\t\t\t
A
\n\t\t\t
B
\n\t\t\t
C
\n\t\t\t
D
\n\t\t\t
E
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Sdt.dev.
\n\t\t\t
2,224
\n\t\t\t
2,232
\n\t\t\t
2,221
\n\t\t\t
2,222
\n\t\t\t
2,221
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Mean
\n\t\t\t
0,192
\n\t\t\t
0,086
\n\t\t\t
0,094
\n\t\t\t
0,117
\n\t\t\t
0,052
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Min
\n\t\t\t
-4,530
\n\t\t\t
-4,500
\n\t\t\t
-4,470
\n\t\t\t
-4,410
\n\t\t\t
-4,410
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Max
\n\t\t\t
6,080
\n\t\t\t
5,960
\n\t\t\t
6,100
\n\t\t\t
6,040
\n\t\t\t
5,960
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 2.
Statistics of PWV (mm) in 2013 at GISM and GANM
The results in 2014 show that all processing strategies can provide reliable PWV values either at GISM or GANM station with the function of the latitude, the longitude and climatic differences. From the results, it can be seen that the most accurate strategy is from the the Niell Mapping Funciton (strategy E) with the smallest RMS and standard deviation (Figure 4).
From the statistics shown in Figures 5, 6, 7 and 8, the strategy E (Niell Mapping Function) has the highest accuracy among all the strategies here used. By using meteorological measurements instead of the GPT model (Global pressure and temperature), the results will clearly improve.
Figure 4.
PWV values obtained from GNNS using the Niell Mapping function and radiosonde at GISM and GANM stations.
Figure 5.
Average and standart deviation of PWV from GANM station for each strategy (Table 1). Values are divided in three time span of 60 day interval since Jan 1st of 2014
Figure 6.
Average and standart deviations of PWV at GISM station for each strategy (Table 1). Values are divided into three time spans with 60 day interval since Jan 1st, 2014
Figure 7.
Mean values of PWV at GISM and GANM stations from each strategy (Table 1)
Figure 8.
RMS of PWV values at GISM and GANM stations from each strategy (Table 1)
3.2. Seasonal variations
The monthly standard deviation in the ZTD increases from about 5 mm in winter to about 15 mm in summer. Apart from that, Tuchband and [22] compared the results from summer and winter periods and clearly showed that the residual wet delays were smaller in winter periods. We also evaluated the seasonal behaviour of the PWV values for both GISM and GANM stations in Turkey, which have different geographic locations and climates. As we can see in Figure 8, PWV at the GANM station is closer, excluding summer time. On the other hand, at the GISM station, which is near to the coast and has very humid climate, the mean PWV values changes drastically from winter to summer (Figure 9).
Figure 9.
Mean PWV values of GISM and GANM stations
Tuchband and [22] stated that this wet delay difference can be explained by the fact that the troposphere contains a low amount of water vapour in the winter period and the weather conditions is more stable in the winter than the summer period.
3.3. Influence of oceanic and atmospheric tides on ZTD and PWV
A permanent GPS station is subject to movements due to the ocean tides [24], which leads to diurnal and semidiurnal variations in station coordinates. Since the GPS site heights and the ZTD are strongly correlated, the ocean tide effects on GPS site heights must be carefully modeled to obtain reliable ZTD [16, 19]. Here the oceanic tide influence is investigated, with and without ocean tide corrections. Tregoning and van Dam (2005) investigated the application of tide and non-atmospheric pressure tide (ATML) at observation level against daily-averaged correction. Their results concluded that applying the ATML at observation level produces significantly better reduction in height RMS than applying daily-averaged corrections. They also showed that still it was not possible to produce a reliable "non-tidal" ATML model by removing diurnal and semi-diurnal atmospheric tides by using the approach of [21].
In fact, applying the tidal models of [21], and the associated "non-tidal" ATML, it yielded a worse solution than applying the ATML convolved from the raw National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) pressure data with a partial sampling of S1 and S2 tides.
The effect is significant in tropospheric delay estimates, when the ocean tide is not applied. The diurnal and semidiurnal frequencies have a combined effect on the ZTD, within the order of few millimeters. However, if they were not modeled, a periodic and undesired signal in the ZTD time series (not due to the atmospheric refraction) would be induced [19]. So, ocean tide corrections cannot be neglected, even in areas near the Mediterranean Sea [5, 6, 9].
Figure 10.
Statistical description of the tide effects in GANM and GISM stations for the first 60 days of 2014 (Processing strategies are listed in the Table 1)
Results of the PWV show that atmospheric tide effects vary with not only the latitude and longitude of the GPS station but also the regional climatic conditions. The oceanic tide effect varies with the geographic location of the GPS stations. Figure 10 shows no significant changes in the PWV values of the A1-C1 values at GANM station or the A1-C1 at GISM station. Since Istanbul is subject to both Black Sea and Sea of Marmara ocean tide effects, the impact on PWV values reaches several millimeters. While Ankara has no such effect since it is located in the middle of Turkey. The atmospheric tide effects have not been specifically applied in the strategy B, neither at the GANM station nor the GISM station. As we can see in Figure 10 that effects on PWV values using strategy B (GISM station) are bigger than 5 millimeters.
4. Summary
In this study, ZTD values have been calculated by GAMIT/GLOBK software with a resolution of 1 hour at 30 stations from IGS and Turkey. The PWV values at 2 GPS stations (Istanbul GISM and Ankara GANM) in Turkey are obtained and validated by co-located radiosonde PWV measurements. From our results we can see that the ZTD and the PWV by using GAMIT/GLOBK software and GPT model, the Niell Mapping Function gives the best results when compared to radiosonde PWV measurements. The seasonal variations of PWVs at GISM and GANM stations are studied. The larger PWV is found especially in summer periods, and the mean values of PWV are higher than in the other seasons. This difference can be explained by the fact that the troposphere contains lower amount of water vapour in the winter than in the summer and weather conditions are more variable in the summer than in the winter. In addition, oceanic tide effects must be considered for ZTD and PWV estimates, while the effects of atmospheric tide should not be neglected in humid climates.
Acknowledgments
Authors thank to IGS for providing the highly precise GPS observation data and products. This work was supported by the TUBITAK-CAYDAG Project number 112Y350. Also authors thank to the Scientific Research Project Office of Bulent Ecevit University for support.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/48164.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/48164.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48164",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48164",totalDownloads:1881,totalViews:308,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:3,impactScorePercentile:85,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"November 25th 2014",dateReviewed:"December 4th 2014",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"March 11th 2015",dateFinished:"January 14th 2015",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/48164",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/48164",book:{id:"4476",slug:"satellite-positioning-methods-models-and-applications"},signatures:"Gokhan Gurbuz, Shuanggen Jin and Cetin Mekik",authors:[{id:"174941",title:"Dr.",name:"Gökhan",middleName:null,surname:"Gürbüz",fullName:"Gökhan Gürbüz",slug:"gokhan-gurbuz",email:"gokhanngurbuz@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Data processing and methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Results and analysis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1. Validation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2. Seasonal variations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3. Influence of oceanic and atmospheric tides on ZTD and PWV",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"4. Summary",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'BevisMBusingerSHerringT. ARockenCAnthesRWareR1992GPS meteorology: remote sensing of atmospheric water vapor using the global positioning system. J Geophys Res 97(D14):15787-15801.Bevis, M., Businger, S., Herring, T. A., Rocken, C., Anthes, R., Ware, R. (1992): GPS meteorology: remote sensing of atmospheric water vapor using the global positioning system. J Geophys Res 97(D14):15787–15801.'},{id:"B2",body:'BevisMChiswellSHeringT. AAnthesRRockenCWareR1994GPS meteorology: mapping zenith wet delays onto precipitable water. 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Technol., 22, doi:10.1088/0957-0233/22/4/045101, 2011.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Gokhan Gurbuz",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Geomatics Engineering, Bulent Ecevit University, Zonguldak, Turkey
Department of Geomatics Engineering, Bulent Ecevit University, Zonguldak, Turkey
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1. Introduction
First MOSFET measurements at liquid Helium temperature have been reported as soon as in late 1960s [1, 2, 3], leading to some remarkable discoveries like the integer quantum Hall effect [4]. Since then, many works have been published on the electrical characteristics of MOSFETS down to 4.2 K [5, 6, 7]. The interest of operating electronic circuits at cryogenic temperatures has been demonstrated a few decades ago, and relies on the performance improvement and/or on the necessity to have electronics in cryogenic environment [5, 6, 7]. With the emerging field of quantum computing, for which read-out and control electronics of the quantum bits (qubits) is required in the proximity of the qubit itself, the study of CMOS devices at low and very low temperature, well below 100 K, has received a renewed attention [8, 9, 10]. In particular, qubit control requires high-frequency and large-bandwidth signals, as well as low-power electronics to be compatible with the cooling power of modern refrigerators [11, 12, 13, 14]. Circuits fabricated from advanced nodes CMOS are good candidates to fulfill the specifications for quantum computing applications [15, 16, 17, 18].
Key advantages of operating at low temperatures include the better electrical performance of MOSFETs, with higher carrier drift velocity and so higher on-state drain current and transconductance, steeper subthreshold slope, lower leakage current [6, 19]. Some works have studied bulk MOSFETs operation at cryogenic temperature emphasizing in particular kink behavior and freeze-out effects in those devices [7, 15, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24]. Recently, outstanding characteristics have been demonstrated at 4.2 K on advanced CMOS technologies [19, 25, 26, 27], in particular for Fully Depleted Silicon-On-Insulator (FDSOI) [28, 29, 30, 31, 32]. Ultrathin film FDSOI devices (with typically silicon thickness less than 10 nm) are immune to kink effects [33], and freeze-out has finally little impact on the DC characteristics of MOSFETs in advanced technologies [34]. Apart from the performance itself of the circuits at these low temperatures, and the figures of merit for analog or digital applications, specific attention to power dissipation has to be brought as well, as the available cooling power is limited in cryostat, and depends of the different cooling stages (typically ≈1 W at 4 K and less than 1 mW below 100mk) [11].
In that context, FDSOI technology offers a significant advantage over other available technologies, as it allows designing low power electronics, threshold voltage tunability thanks to its back bias ability, and offers low variability due to the undoped channel [35]. Extensive electrical characterization of advanced CMOS devices at deep cryogenic operation, including device electrostatics, carrier transport, mismatch and variability, or self-heating, is thus seriously needed.
Numerical issues appears with the modeling and simulation of MOSFETs at cryogenic and deep–cryogenic temperatures, in particular due to energy kBT approaching zero in equations and the extremely small intrinsic carrier density [34, 36]. Besides these difficulties, accurate models must correctly include, among other things, the temperature dependence of the main electrical parameters, such as carrier mobility, saturation velocity, threshold voltage, …, as well as thermal effects [37, 38]. On the other hand, new physical phenomena appear as the device temperature decreases that need to be characterized and properly modeled [19].
Because these aspects are essential for the development of compact models and robust design tools, this chapter presents a review of recent results obtained on 28 nm FDSOI transistors operated down to deep cryogenic temperatures. More specifically, we first discuss in Section 2 the major device electrical properties in terms of transfer characteristics and MOSFET parameters versus temperature. Then, we describe in Section 3 the self-heating phenomena, which could alter the FDSOI device performances. The matching and variability properties of scaled transistors limiting the analog applications are then addressed in Section 4. The development of compact model necessary for FDSOI circuit design at deep cryogenic temperatures is presented in Section 5. Finally, in Section 6, we illustrate the operation of elementary circuits at very low temperatures regarding inverter delay and oscillator frequency.
2. Cryogenic FDSOI device operation
In this section, we present the measurement of the main electrical properties of FDSOI devices operating down to 4.2 K, such as the capacitance and charge control characteristics, the drain current Id(Vg) transfer curves as well as the main MOSFET parameters (threshold voltage Vth, subthreshold swing, mobility).
2.1 Devices under test
The measurements were performed on 28 nm FDSOI MOSFETs with silicon film thickness tsi = 7 nm and buried oxide (BOX) thickness tBOX = 25 nm from STMicroelectronics. NMOS and PMOS transistors were processed from (100) handle substrate, with <100> − oriented channel, and a high-κ/metal gate Gate-First architecture (Figure 1) [39]. Regular-Vth (RVT) and low-Vth (LVT) transistors are available through a doped back plane (NWELL or PWELL, with typically NA,D = 1018 cm−3) below the BOX. Thin (GO1, with equivalent oxide thickness EOT = 1.1 nm) and thick oxide (GO2, EOT = 3.2 nm) devices have been characterized using a cryogenic probe station down to 4.2 K.
Figure 1.
Schematics of 28 nm FDSOI N- and PMOSFETs with regular-VTH (RVT) and low-VTH (LVT) flavors. Forward and reverse back biases (FBB and RBB) can be applied depending on the doping of the back plane.
2.2 Capacitance and charge control
The electrostatic charge control of FDSOI devices has been characterized by split C-V measurements with a conventional LCR meter. To this end, the gate-to-channel capacitance Cgc = dQi/dVg, with Qi the inversion charge in the channel, has been measured at 500 kHz frequency on large area N and P MOS devices as a function of the front gate voltage Vg with body bias Vb = 0 V for several temperatures down 4.2 K (Figure 2). As can be seen, the Cgc(Vg) curves are almost temperature independent above threshold, whereas a strong improvement of the turn-on behavior is obtained at low temperature, related to the subthreshold slope increase. These characteristics have been well reproduced by Poisson-Schrodinger simulations (see Section 5.1), providing precise extraction of front oxide EOT values for GO1 and GO2 transistors [41].
Figure 2.
Cgc(Vg) characteristics (solid lines) for N- and PMOS GO1 and GO2 devices from 300 K down to 4.2 K, at VB = 0 V. the Cgc(Vg) 1D-PS modeling is shown in symbols (frequency = 1 MHz, AC level = 40 mV, W = L = 9 μm). After Cardoso et al. [40].
The influence of the AC level (Vosc) of the LCR meter oscillator used during Cgc measurements at 4.2 K has been studied and is reported in Figure 3a. Indeed, due to the strong non linearity of the Qi(Vg) curves in subthreshold region at very low temperature, the turn-on behavior of the Cgc(Vg) curve below threshold is not well captured for a too large AC level (here 40 mV, currently used at T = 300 K). However, for an AC level of 1 mV, getting closer to the thermal voltage kBT/q at 4.2 K, where kB is the Boltzmann constant and q the magnitude of the electron charge, the turn-on behavior of Cgc(Vg) below threshold is well accounted for. These results can be well modeled by integrating the ideal Cgc(Vg) curve over one period of the AC signal, providing the measured capacitance Cgc,meas as follows [42]:
Figure 3.
Experimental (a) and modeled (b) Cgc(Vg) characteristics for NMOS GO1 devices (W = L = 10 μm) at 4.2 K for two AC levels: 40 mV (red solid lines) and 1 mV (blue dashed lines).
Cgc,measVg=1Tp∫0TpCgcVg+δVgtdtE1
where δVg(t) = Vosc.sin(2πt/Tp) is the AC signal of period Tp (Figure 3b).
2.3 Drain current characteristics, threshold voltage and subthreshold slope
The Id(Vg) transfer characteristics of same devices have been measured in linear region (Vd = 50 mV) for various temperatures and are shown in Figure 4. As usually observed in cryo-electronics for bulk CMOS devices [7], the drain current above threshold is highly increased due to mobility improvement of both electrons and holes, resulting from the suppression of phonon scattering. Similarly, the turn-on behavior of the curves below threshold is greatly improved as the temperature is lowered.
Figure 4.
Id(Vg) characteristics for GO1 N and P MOS devices for various temperatures obtained in linear region (Vd = 50 mV).
The threshold voltage Vth of the devices has been extracted by the constant current method (i.e. Vg for which Id = 10−7 × W/L) and typical variations with temperature are shown in Figure 5a. As in bulk MOS devices [7], Vth increases as the temperature is reduced, here with sensitivity around 0.7 to 1 mV/K. It should be mentioned that in FDSOI devices with undoped film as in our case, the Vth variation with T is not explained by the temperature dependence of the Fermi level in the silicon film as for bulk MOS devices [44]. Actually, a simple model for Vth read by constant current method can be derived assuming a single subband for the inversion layer with a critical inversion charge density nth as:
Figure 5.
(a) Experimental Vth extracted on NMOS GO1 transistor (W = 1 μm, L = 24 nm) as a function of T at VDS = 50 mV and 0.9 V, and at Vb = 0 V and 1.4 V. (b) Modeled Vth vs. T for Vds = 50 mV and Vb = 0 and 1.4 V. After Cardoso et al. [43].
Vth=Vsth+q.nthCox+Cb.Vsth−VbCoxE2
withVsth=V0+kBTq.lnenthkBT.A2D−1 being a threshold surface potential associated with a given constant inversion charge density nth (here 1010/cm2), and where V0 is a constant, A2D the 2D subband density of states, Cox and Cbox respectively the front gate oxide and the buried oxide capacitance and Cb = Cbox.Csi/(Csi + Cbox) the body to front channel coupling capacitance. As can be seen from Figure 5b, a good qualitative agreement between model and experiment can be achieved with Eq. (2).
An important feature of FDSOI devices is the strong Vth control allowed by the back bias, which is not possible in FinFET and NW architectures, and very limited in bulk MOS devices [7], especially in forward biasing. Typical dependence of Vth with back bias are illustrated in Figure 6 for both P and N MOS FDSOI devices of various flavors and gate oxide thicknesses (GO1 and GO2), at T = 4.2 K and T = 300 K. As can be seen from this figure, it appears that the threshold voltage control with back biasing (ΔVth/ΔVb) is insensitive to temperature down to cryogenic conditions, and that Vth can be decreased to values close to zero volt. Interestingly, this makes it possible to operate the FDSOI devices at deep cryogenic temperatures with very small supply voltage (≈0.1–0.2 V), enabling low power dissipation.
Figure 6.
Measurements of Vth vs. Vb for N- and P-type, RVT and LVT, GO1 (a) and GO2 (b) MOSFETs, at 300 K and 4.2 K, VDS = 50 mV. As T is decreased, Vb can be used to shift Vth back to its value at room temperature. After Cardoso et al. [40].
Another important parameter in FET operation is the so called subthreshold slope, S = dln(Id)/dVg, or its inverse the subthreshold swing SS, which characterizes the turn-on efficiency of the MOSFET below threshold. Typical subthreshold swing SS (mV/dec) variations with drain current in weak inversion region are shown in Figure 7a, revealing a plateau from which an average subthreshold swing can be extracted and plotted versus temperature (Figure 7b). Indeed, the subthreshold swing SS is varying linearly with temperature down to 25-30 K before plateauing around 10-20 mV/decade at deep cryogenic temperatures. The SS(T) linear behavior is usual for all FET devices and simply related to the Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics prevailing in weak inversion where SS = kT/q.(Cox + Cb + Cit)/Cox, Cit being the interface trap density capacitance [7]. The SS(T) plateau is generally attributed to the presence of an exponential tail of subband states, likely due to potential-fluctuations-induced disorder [46, 47, 48] and that minimizes the drain current turn-on efficiency at deep cryogenic temperatures.
Figure 7.
Extracted subthreshold current vs. Id (a) and SS vs. T (b) for NMOS LVT from 300 K to 4.2 K. After Cardoso et al. [45].
2.4 Carrier mobility
Finally, the effective carrier mobility μeff is investigated as being a driving parameter of MOSFET in linear region. In Figure 8a and b are illustrated typical mobility variations with inversion charge Ninv as obtained by split C-V method in such FDSOI MOS devices for various temperatures. As can be seen, there is a strong improvement (up to 10 times) of the maximum mobility with temperature lowering due to phonon scattering reduction [7]. As already found for bulk Si MOSFET [7], the effective mobility exhibits a bell-shaped behavior with inversion charge at low temperature, where the mobility is limited by combined Coulomb and surface roughness scattering processes. As also shown in Figure 8, the mobility can be well fitted by an empirical model inspired from bulk MOSFET results and written as:
Figure 8.
Experiments and analytical model of μeff vs. Ninv for NMOS GO1 (a) and GO2 (b), varying T. power law exponent (c) vs. T for N and PMOS. After Cardoso et al. [49].
μeff=μm.θ1.QiCoxn−21+θ1.QiCoxn−1+θ2.QiCoxnE3
where μm stands for an amplitude mobility value close to the maximum one, θ1 and θ2 are the first and second order attenuation coefficients and n is a power law exponent varying between ≈2 and ≈3 as the temperature is changed from 300 K down to 4.2 K, as illustrated in Figure 8c. It should be noted that this mobility law vs. inversion charge will be useful for compact modeling purpose (see Section 5).
As was already mentioned, a specific feature of FDSOI devices is their operation in forward back biasing condition, enabling a significant lowering of the threshold voltage as illustrated in Figure 9a for T = 4.2 K. Interestingly, for sufficiently large Vb, the drain current measured at low Vd and very low temperatures (here T = 4.2 K) is increasing above back channel threshold before to decrease significantly and then to increase again well above front channel threshold. Actually, this decrease of the drain current just happens when the front channel is opening and has been attributed to a reduction of the mobility due to remote inter-subband scattering (IS) as well explained in [50]. To better understand this behavior, we have computed the drain current of the back channel after subtraction of the front channel component, taken as being the one in absence of back channel formation i.e. when Vb = 0 V (see Figure 9b). This assumption has been validated by Poisson-Schrodinger simulation (not shown here). Doing the same with Cgc(Vg) characteristics for various Vb’s, the inversion charge in the back channel has also been computed after integration of capacitance vs. Vg as is usual in split C-V technique (Figure 10a). As a result, note that the back channel charge is plateauing after the opening of front channel. The effective mobility in the back channel has been computed and plotted versus inversion charge density in the back channel or versus the front one as shown in Figure 10b and c. As can be seen, μeff first increases with the back channel inversion charge density before to decrease as the back channel charge saturates (Figure 10b). Instead, μeff in back channel decreases with the front channel inversion charge, which clearly indicates that the opening of the front channel is responsible for the back channel mobility decrease. This is precisely the signature of remote inter-subband scattering, which happens when carriers in the back interface 2D subband can interact with the front interface 2D subband. In this situation, some carriers at the back interface can experience scattering mechanisms in the front interface due to the overlap of the back and front subband wave functions. It should be mentioned that this phenomenon of inter-subband scattering is canceling out when the temperature is increased (T > 50 K) due to thermal broadening as well as when the drain voltage is increased due to the averaging over the channel of the conductance by integration over space [50].
Figure 9.
a) Id(Vg) characteristics at 4.2 K for various Vb (= 0, 2 V, 4 V) and b) Back channel Id(Vg) curves after subtraction of front channel component also shown in green dashed line.
Figure 10.
a) Ninv vs. Vg for Back channel for Vb = 2 V, 4 V. Green curve shows Ninv(Vg) for front channel at Vb = 0. b) Back channel μeff vs. back channel Ninv and c) Back channel μeff vs. front channel Ninv for Vb = 2 V, 4 V. Green curves show front channel μeff vs. front channel Ninv at Vb = 0 V.
3. Self-heating phenomena
In FDSOI devices or multi-gate field effect transistors like FinFETs and nanowire FETs, low thermally conductive materials such as the buried oxide (BOX) or the thin Si layer constituting the channel hinder the dissipation of the heat generated in the drain side. Consequently, the channel temperature can significantly rise when the device is in ON operation. This self-heating effect (SHE) can in turn severely affect the device performance, by reducing the carrier mobility, shifting the threshold voltage [51] or degrading the device reliability [52, 53], with implications to IC design. SHE has been widely studied for room temperature operation of circuits [54]. The thermal effects play a more fundamental role in cryogenic electronics – operating at various temperature stages with different available cooling powers –, as the temperature increase due to SH can be of the same order or even higher than the ambient temperature [55]. Furthermore, at very low temperature (well below 1 K), the cooling power drops down drastically (typically, 1 W at 1 K, 1 mW at 100mK) and thermal management thus becomes an additional constraint.
In this regard, the study of self-heating effects at cryogenic temperatures provides valuable information for performance optimization. In addition, to be accurate at cryogenic temperatures, models must take into account these thermal effects, as the device temperature can deviate significantly from the ambient one.
3.1 Self-heating characterization technique
The experimental evaluation of self-heating was performed by using the conventional DC technique based on gate resistance thermometry [56]. In this method, the gate dielectric layer is thin enough to assume that the temperature of the channel is equal to that of the gate electrode. Inset of Figure 11 shows the typical 2-terminal gate structure that we used to measure the gate resistance RG. RG is measured between two contacts G1 and G2 using an LCR-meter. By varying the ambient temperature Tamb from 4.2 K up to 300 K, we record the change in the electrical gate resistance as a function of the input power P = IDS × VDS. The temperature increase ΔT is deduced from RG values at zero power (and so without SHE). Then the differential thermal resistance, RTH* = ∂ΔT/∂P|Tamb can be defined. This differential thermal resistance relates the change of ΔT due to a change in power dissipation P at a given Tamb [55].
Figure 11.
(symbols) Differential thermal resistance RTH* measured as a function of the device temperature Tdevice = Tamb + ΔT from 450 K down to 4.2 K, with a corresponding numerical fitting curve (line).
3.2 Study of thermal resistance
In Figure 11 we have plotted the differential thermal resistance measured on an ultrathin film FDSOI transistor (tSi = 11 nm) as a function of the device temperature defined as Tdevice = Tamb + ΔT. All the RTH* data acquired for various ambient temperatures and dissipated power values merge into a single RTH* versus Tdevice curve, which thus provides a complete description of the temperature dependence of the thermal resistance for a given device. The thermal resistance depends mainly on the device geometry W and L, as well as on the BOX thickness, but not significantly on the Si film thickness in the 7 nm to 24 nm range typical of FDSOI devices (Figure 12) [55].
Figure 12.
Thermal resistance RTH* versus device temperature, for wide and ultrathin FDSOI MOSFETs. After Triantopoulos et al. [55].
Our results show that in thin film devices, the thermal resistance RTH* of the device is strongly temperature dependent, especially at very low temperature, as illustrated in Figures 11 and 12. As the device temperature decreases from 300 K down to 4 K, RTH* is multiplied by 3 to 6. In FDSOI devices, the BOX tends to confine the heat in the channel, and therefore the total thermal resistance depends on both the thermal conductivity of Si and SiO2, which have different temperature dependence and magnitude (Figure 13). RTH* follows the temperature dependence of the inverse of the silicon dioxide thermal conductivity in the whole range of explored temperatures [57].
Figure 13.
Thermal conductivity data versus temperature for bulk and Si-layer compared to that for bulk and SiO2-layer. After Triantopoulos et al. [55].
Besides considerations over the dominant thermal path in the device, the RTH* vs. Tdevice plot can be used into thermal model in order to reconstruct the channel temperature increase ΔT as a function of operating ambient temperature Tamb and input power P using the following expression,
P=∫0∆Td∆T′RTH∗Tamb+∆T′E4
Substituting a given analytical expression of RTH*(Tdevice) in Eq. (4) the value of ΔT at each Tamb and for each value of dissipated power can be calculated (Figure 14). This leads in particular to a nonlinear temperature increase of the device with the dissipated power. In this specific low temperature environment, the device temperature can significantly increase and thus highly deviate from the ambient temperature, depending on the applied gate and drain voltages, as illustrated in Figures 15 and 16.
Figure 14.
Calculated channel temperature increase ΔT (line) as a function of the dissipated power P using Eq. (4) and a fitting expression for RTH*(Tdev). Experimental data (symbols) are also shown for a direct comparison. After Triantopoulos et al. [55].
Figure 15.
(a) IDS vs. VGS measured on NMOS at Tamb = 4.2 K and VDS = 0.9 V for different gate lengths, and (b) corresponding device temperature, Tdev vs. VGS.
Figure 16.
(a) IDS vs. VDS measured at Tamb = 4.2 K on NMOS with L = 60 nm for different VGS values, and (b) corresponding Tdev. Vs. VDS.
4. Mismatch and variability properties
The device mismatch is a key property to be known for the development of transistor compact models and the design of electronic circuits [58, 59, 60]. This section presents variability results obtained on FDSOI MOSFETs down to 4.2 K. To this end, an integrated on-chip matrix of individually addressable transistors has been used to increase the sample size statistics.
4.1 Devices under test
The measurements were performed on both N- and P-type transistors fabricated using the same 28 nm FDSOI technology as those described in Section 2.1. In order to provide statistical analysis on variability and mismatch at low temperature, matrices of transistors were produced with integrated addressability in an approach similar to [61]. An automated measurement system was implemented thanks to the on-chip multiplexed arrangement. The device chips were wire-bonded on a chip carrier connected to a printed circuit board (PCB) and mounted on a dipstick to reach 4.2 K in a liquid helium bath. Each die comprises 512 matched pairs of MOSFETs (256 pairs of RVT plus 256 pairs of LVT) addressable through 10-bits selection (210 = 1024 transistors).
4.2 Threshold voltage variability
Figure 17.
Id(Vg) curves for 24 short channel (L = 28 nm) N-type LVT MOSFETs at 4.2 K and 300 K, at Vd = 50 mV. After Cardoso et al. [62].
Figure 17 shows typical drain current Id(Vg) characteristics for short channel N-type MOS transistors, at 300 K and at 4.2 K. Twenty four devices were measured for each MOS type at low drain voltage (|Vd| = 50 mV) to illustrate device variability. In Figure 18 the logarithmic scaled Id(Vg) emphasizes the subthreshold oscillation variability at low and high drain voltage (Vd = 50 mV and 0.9 V), at 4.2 K. The oscillations observed in the subthreshold current are a known signature of short channel MOSFETs operating at deep cryogenic temperatures, and could result from the presence of impurities in the channel [63, 64]. The threshold voltage was extracted following the constant current criterion, at Id = 10−7 W/L (A). Such current level represents the standard value used for Vth extraction, and it is well above the region where the oscillations are mainly identified, as highlighted in Figure 18 by a dashed line.
Figure 18.
Id(Vg) curves for 24 short channel (L = 28 nm) N-type LVT MOSFETs at 4.2 K, at Vd = 50 mV and 0.9 V. After Cardoso et al. [62].
Figure 19 shows the Pelgrom plots of the standard deviation of ∆Vth, σΔVT, for NMOS devices (similar results have been obtained for PMOS). It can be seen that σΔVT well follows the area scaling linear dependence with respect to 1/W.L at 4.2 K, as it is the case at 300 K, for all channel dimensions explored in this study (1 μm ≤ L ≤ 28 nm, 80 nm ≤ W ≤ 25 μm). This result does not reveal any specific variation with channel width and channel length due to e.g. line edge roughness (LER) for such geometries. From 300 K to 4.2 K, the extracted linear slopes, ΔσΔVT/Δ(1/W.L), indicates that the threshold voltage mismatch performance degrades by ≈25% for NMOS and PMOS, at |Vd| = 50 mV, when temperature is decreased from 300 K down to 4.2 K. Since the metal gate granularity and the local charges in the gate dielectric are the main sources of threshold voltage variability in FDSOI technology [65], the slight increase of σΔVT at 4.2 K may likely be attributed to the increase of interface charge density [63]. Moreover, in Figure 19, it can be seen that short channel MOSFETs (L = 28 nm) exhibit higher threshold voltage variability at high drain bias (Vd = 0.9 V), which could be due to Drain Induced Barrier Lowering (DIBL).
Figure 19.
Pelgrom plot of threshold voltage variability σΔVT for NMOS at Vd = 50 mV and 0.9 V, 4.2 K (left) and 300 K (right). After Cardoso et al. [62].
Figure 20 shows the threshold voltage individual mismatch parameter, AΔVT = σΔVT.W.L, plotted as a function of 1/W.L, for 28 nm FDSOI transistors studied in this work and 40 nm bulk MOSFETs from [61], at 300 K and 4.2 K. Despite AΔVT degradation at low temperature, FDSOI remains highly competitive compared to bulk technology, mainly due to the suppression of random dopant fluctuation (RDF) induced variability in FDSOI. In Figure 20, it can also be observed that AΔVT does not exhibit higher values for the short channel MOSFETs (i.e. high 1/W.L values), for which subthreshold oscillations have been observed at low temperature (Figure 18). This means that such oscillations do not have a significant impact on the threshold voltage variability, mainly because they occur below the drain current level where the threshold voltage is extracted, as discussed before.
Figure 20.
AΔVT versus 1/W.L for NMOS, at Vd = 50 mV, 4.2 K and 300 K. dashed lines indicate the extracted linear slope values from the Pelgrom plots. Dotted lines show typical 40 nm bulk CMOS technology data [61]. After Cardoso et al. [62].
4.3 Drain current variability
The drain current variability, σ(ΔId/Id), has also been directly measured on the 28 nm FDSOI transistors studied here and their variations with gate voltage overdrive are shown in Figure 21 for 300 K and 4.2 K. As is usual, σ(ΔId/Id) is maximized below threshold before to decrease in strong inversion, where it might slightly increase again due to the contribution of access resistance Rs variability [66]. Actually, these variations can be very well fitted by the model of Eq. (5) developed for room temperature:
Figure 21.
Measured and modeled σ(ΔId/Id) variations with Vgt = Vg-Vth. σΔRs varies from 0 to 8% of Rs = 377 Ω.μm (T = 300 K) and 266 Ω.μm (T = 4.2 K). After Cardoso et al. [45].
σ∆IdId2=gmId2.σ∆VT2+1−gd.Rs2.σ∆β/β2+gd2.σ∆Rs2E5
where gm is the transconductance and gd is the output conductance. In this model, the drain current variability is controlled by three matching parameters related respectively to the threshold voltage, σΔVT, the gain factor σ∆β/β (β = W/L.Cox.μ0, with μ0 being the low-field carrier mobility) and to the access resistance σ∆Rs. Typical matching parameters extracted from the drain current modeling, as well as their respective contributions are summarized in Figure 22. It indicates that there is a slight degradation of variability at low temperature and that the matching is mainly dominated by threshold voltage variability in weak inversion and by gain factor and access resistance mismatch at strong inversion.
Figure 22.
Summary of matching performance and respective parameter contributions at 300 K (RT) and 4.2 K (LT) for NMOS (W = 1.39 μm, L = 28 nm). After Cardoso et al. [45].
5. Device compact modeling approach
In previous sections, we focus our efforts on understanding individual device physics and variability at cryogenic temperature. In this section, we present typical Poisson-Schrodinger simulation results for the capacitance and charge control in FDSOI structures operated down to deep-cryogenic temperatures and their application for building up an analytical compact model for charge and drain current in FDSOI MOSFET including back biasing effect.
5.1 Poisson-Schrodinger simulations
Poisson-Schrodinger (PS) simulations were conducted after solving self-consistently the Schrodinger and Poisson equations given below:
Hψ=E⋅ψE6
∇εr∇V=−q⋅nxε0E7
with H the Hamiltonian, E the system energy, ψ the electron wave function, ε0 and εr the vacuum and relative silicon permittivity, n the carrier density as a function of position x in the Si channel depth. The electrical potential V, the subband energies Ei,j and wave functions ψi,j for valley j and level i are numerically calculated in a FDSOI structure for given front and back gate voltages. Then, the electron density is obtained after summing the different valleys and subband contributions as:
nx=∑j=12∑i=1imaxgjA2D,jkBTψi,j2x.F0Ef−Ei,jkBTE8
where kBT is the thermal energy, F0 is the zero-order Fermi-Dirac integral function, Ef the Fermi level, Ei,j the subband energy, gj the valley degeneracy, and A2D,j the 2D density of states of valley j.
It should be noted that in order to compute the PS equations down to very low temperature (1 K), special truncation caution has been taken to avoid numerical overload in the F0 Fermi integral function accounting for Fermi-Dirac statistics. PS simulations were also possible at 0 K by replacing the F0 Fermi-Dirac integral function by a Heaviside function, thus mimicking the fully degenerate metallic statistics.
The 1D FDSOI structure used for PS simulation is depicted in Figure 23, showing the band diagram across the stack and typical electron density profile in the channel obtained at T = 4 K for a given bias condition.
Figure 23.
Typical band diagram and electron distribution from PS simulation for a FDSOI structure (Vg = 1 V, tox = 1 nm, tbox = 25 nm, tsi = 7 nm, Vb = 0 V, T = 4 K). After Aouad et al. [41].
Figure 24 demonstrates the variations of the inversion charge Qi in the Si film as a function of front gate voltage Vg with Vb = +3 V, obtained from PS simulations for various temperatures between 0 K and 60 K. A strong increase of the subthreshold slope with temperature dropping can be noticed, reaching infinity at T = 0 K, which is an interesting feature for transistors operating at such low temperatures.
Figure 24.
Inversion charge Qi(Vg) calculated for different temperatures (tox = 1 nm, tbox = 25 nm, tsi = 7 nm, Vb = +3 V). After Aouad et al. [41].
Figure 25 shows the inversion charge control by field effect through the variations of the gate-to-channel capacitance Cgc(Vg) = dQi/dVg with front gate voltage for various back gate biases Vb. The onset of the back inversion channel for Vb = +3 V is evidenced by an additional plateau in the Cgc(Vg) curve, followed by the front channel opening. This effect clearly demonstrates the capacitive coupling, through the silicon channel, between the front gate and the back channel inversion layer, which leads to a lower capacitance.
Figure 25.
Cgc(Vg) curves for different back biases Vb (tox = 1 nm, tbox = 25 nm, tsi = 10 nm, T = 4 K). After Aouad et al. [41].
The impact of temperature on the Cgc(Vg) characteristics is shown in Figure 26, clearly revealing the rounding of the curves with temperature rise above T = 10 K.
Figure 26.
Cgc(Vg) curves for different temperatures (tox = 1 nm, tbox = 25 nm, tsi = 10 nm, Vb = +3 V). After Aouad et al. [41].
5.2 Compact modeling
Following the PS simulation results, an analytical model has been established considering that front and back channel charges can be evaluated separately at each interface within a single subband approximation with energy level of a triangular potential well [41]. The coupling between the front and back channels is realized owing to the silicon channel capacitance Csi and the charge sheet approximation with Fermi-Dirac statistics.
In this case, the charge conservation equations at front and back interfaces are expressed by:
where the front and back interface 2D charge densities read,
Ninv1,2=A2d.kB.T.F0Vs1,2−V0−ΔVF1,2kBTE11
where Vs1 (Vs2) is the front (back) interface surface potential, Cox (Cbox) the front (back) oxide capacitance, Csi the silicon film capacitance. The front and back electric field are given by:
F1=Vg−Vs1−Vfb3toxE12
F2=Vb−Vs2−Vfb3tboxE13
with the Airy subband potential shift ΔVF=K⋅F+F02/3 with K = 1.75 × 10−5 V1/3 cm2/3 [67]. As the film quantization effect is dominating when the electrical field approaches zero, an offset field F0 is added to the electric field to account for the flat band quantum confinement [41].
Typical Qi(Vg) and Cgc(Vg) characteristics obtained by this Airy-based analytical model are presented in Figures 27 and 28, along with the PS simulation results. As can be seen, the compact model provides a good agreement with PS data, emphasizing its physical consistency in terms of charge and capacitance.
Figure 27.
Qi(Vg) curves obtained from PS simulations (solid lines) and analytical modeling (dashed lines) for various Vb = −3, 0, +3 V (T = 4 K, tox = 1 nm, tbox = 25 nm, tsi = 10 nm). After Aouad et al. [41].
Figure 28.
Cgc(Vg) curves obtained from PS simulations (solid lines) and analytical modeling (dashed lines) for various parameters Vb = −3, 0, +3 V (T = 4 K, tox = 1 nm, tbox = 25 nm, tsi = 10 nm). After Aouad et al. [41].
The total drain current in the channel can then computed, within the gradual channel approximation, by integrating the channel conductance between source and drain for the front and back channel and by adding their contribution as:
where Uc is the quasi Fermi level shift between source and drain common to both channels, Qi1,2 = q.Ninv1,2 are the front and back inversion charges obtained from Eq. (11) and μeff1,2 are the front and back channel effective mobility evaluated separately using Eq. (3). In absence of inter-subband scattering, the drain current calculated using Eqs. (3) and (14) does not exhibit a decrease for Vb = 4 V when the front channel is opening, in contrast to the experimental results discussed in Section 2.3 (see Figure 29). Inter-subband scattering can be taken into account through an additional explicit dependence of the back channel mobility with the front inversion charge density of the form, μeff2,IS = μeff2.[a + b.exp.(-Ninv1/c)], with a, b and c being fitting parameters (Figure 30). By this way, the drain current can reasonably be well modeled as shown in Figure 29 (dashed blue line), inferring the crucial role of remote inter-subband scattering in the back channel mobility.
Figure 29.
Drain current vs. front gate voltage Vg: Experimental (red solid line) and modeled with IS (dashed blue line) and modeled without IS (green dashed line) for Vb = 4 V and 0 V at T = 4.2 K.
Figure 30.
Experimental (red solid line) and modeled (dashed blue line) back channel mobility μeff vs. front channel inversion charge density Ninv1 for Vb = 4 V at T = 4.2 K. model parameters: A = 0.45, b = 0.55 and c = 1.5 × 1012/cm2.
6. Basic circuit operation at cryogenic temperatures
Although operational cryo-CMOS circuits have been demonstrated down to 30 mK [17, 30, 68, 69, 70], unfortunately no mature models are yet available to accurately predict the behavior of passive and active devices at cryogenic temperatures [71, 72]. Due to this lack of compact models at cryogenic temperatures, designers are faced to a blind-design procedure, which reduces the optimization of cryogenic integrated circuits [12, 30, 32, 58, 73, 74, 75]. Using the extensive electrical characterizations of single FDSOI transistors at cryogenic temperatures, it is however possible to already design efficient circuits.
Among them oscillators are essential building blocks in many digital and analog circuits. They are required for example to generate a clock signal in the control circuit of quantum computers [30, 76], and so must be also efficient at cryogenic temperature. Here we have electrically characterized ring oscillator (RO) fabricated from 28 nm-FDSOI technology [30, 77]. Figure 31a shows the delay per stage of a 101-stages RO as a function of temperature from 300 K down to 4.2 K. Without any back-biases applied on the MOSFETs composing the inverter stages, decreasing the temperature results in slowing down the RO. This can be explained by the threshold voltage shift at cryogenic temperature, which leads to a decrease of the effective current evaluated from the single characteristics of NMOS and PMOS transistors.
Figure 31.
(a) Delay per stage versus temperature of a 101-stages RO (L = 34 nm, WNMOS = 420 nm, WPMOS = 600 nm) for different supply voltages VDD = 0.8, 1, and 1.2 V showing the RO slowing down due to the increase of VTH at low temperature. (b) Delay per stage versus temperature for VDD = 0.8, 1, and 1.2 V in the case of compensated VTH. The RO speeds up at low temperature due to the carrier mobility enhancement (from Bohuslavskyi et al. [77]).
The effective drive current IEFF, which is a measure of the current drive of the MOSFET during switching and correlates well to circuit delay, can be defined for a single inverter as [78],
IEFF=1IEFF,NMOS+1IEFF,PMOS−1E15
with
IEFF,NMOS/PMOS=IH+IL2E16
where
IH=IDSVGS=VDDVD=VDD/2IL=IDSVGS=VDD/2VD=VDDE17
Figure 32a shows the evolution of IEFF as a function of temperature, in the case where no VBG is applied. We observed that IEFF decreases with temperature, and this decrease is stronger as VDD is decreased (3 decades degradation from 300 K to 4.2 K for VDD = 0.8 V). This IEFF variation is linked with the temperature dependence of IDS-VGS curves. A zero-temperature coefficient point (ZTC), corresponding to a gate voltage for which the drain current exhibits no temperature dependence, is systematically observed on the measured IDS vs. VGS curves, as illustrated in Figure 33 and already evidenced in Figures 4 and 17 [79]. For |VGS| < |VZTC| the drain current decreases as T decreases (∂IDS/∂T|VGS = cte > 0), whereas for |VGS| > |VZTC| the drain current exhibits an opposite temperature behavior (∂IDS/∂T|VGS = cte < 0).
Figure 32.
(a) Effective current IEFF measured on single NMOS and PMOS transistors (L = 34 nm, WNMOS = 210 nm, WPMOS = 300 nm) for different supply voltages VDD = 0.8, 1, and 1.2 V; the effective current decreases as the temperature is reduced. (b) IEFF versus temperature for VDD = 0.8, 1, and 1.2 V in the case of compensated VTH; in that case the effective current increases as the temperature is reduced (from Bohuslavskyi et al. [77]).
Figure 33.
(a) Drain current IDS measured on single NMOS and PMOS transistors (L = 30 nm, WNMOS=WPMOS = 210 nm) as a function of gate voltage VGS for different temperature from 300 K down to 4.2 K. a zero temperature coefficient (ZTC) point for which the drain current (IDS) is independent of the temperature is evidenced for NMOS and PMOS.
It is worth noticing that for the pMOS the ZTC point is located at higher |VGS| (≈1.1 V) compared to the nMOS devices (≈0.7 V). The IEFF temperature dependence is mainly driven by the region with positive T-dependence ∂ IDS/∂T|VGS = cte, i.e. for |VGS| below |VZTC|.
If a back bias VBG is applied, it is possible to shift the threshold voltage back to its room temperature value (Figure 6). In that configuration, the drain current IDS increases with the temperature decrease whatever VGS and VDS values, due to mobility and saturation velocity improvement with T decrease at a given |VGS-VTH| overdrive gate voltage (see Section 2.4). Consequently, the effective current IEFF follows the same trend with respect to T (Figure 32b). Thus a correctly chosen forward back bias on NMOS and PMOS will lead to a speed-up of the RO as T decreases (Figure 31b). At a given temperature, the back biasing VBG allows to tune the frequency as illustrated in Figure 34. Finally by playing with the supply voltage VDD and VBG it is also possible to manage power consumption and performance [30, 77]. It has been illustrated at 110mK on a VCO RO (Figure 35) where back bias allows switching from low power mode (e.g. 27 μW at 2GHz) to high performance mode (e.g. 6.9GHz for 268 μW).
Figure 34.
Oscillating frequency as a function of VCO voltage for a VCO RO (L = 28 nm). Forward Back-biasing increases maximal frequency (from Guevel et al. [30]).
Figure 35.
Power as a function of supply voltage VDD and back bias voltage VBGRO (L = 28 nm). Forward back-biasing decreases power for same frequency (from Guevel et al. [30]).
7. Summary and conclusions
A review of recent results obtained on 28 nm FDSOI transistors operated down to deep cryogenic temperatures has been presented. First, the main device electrical properties in terms of gate capacitance and charge control and drain current transfer characteristics have been discussed along with the temperature dependence of the major MOSFET parameters (threshold voltage, subthreshold swing and mobility). Then, the self-heating phenomena were characterized in details, providing valuable information about the actual device temperature versus power dissipation, as well as the thermal resistance that limits the heat dissipation in the FDSOI structure, especially at low temperature. The matching properties have then been studied owing to threshold voltage and drain current statistical variability analysis, revealing that the mismatch in FDSOI transistors only increases of about 30–40% at deep-cryogenic temperatures. Besides, Poisson-Schrodinger simulations have been carried out with success down to zero Kelvin, giving access to valuable information about the gate charge control in FDSOI structures versus temperature, and, providing physical insight to the development of compact model mandatory for FDSOI circuit design at deep cryogenic temperatures. Finally, the operation of elementary circuits such as ring oscillators and voltage controlled oscillators has been demonstrated in terms of inverter delay and clock frequency down to deep-cryogenic temperatures.
This work highlights the powerful advantage of FDSOI over bulk technology, led by the back biasing capability. It offers in particular an efficient way to manage power consumption and performance, thus mitigating thermal effects, which are crucial aspects in cryo-electronics.
Acknowledgments
This work was partially supported by the French Authorities within the frame of NANO2022 project, and by the ERC Synergy QuCube (Grant No. 810504 — QUCUBE — ERC-2018-SyG), and EU H2020 RIA project SEQUENCE (Grant No. 871764).
\n',keywords:"Cryogenic CMOS, FDSOI, MOSFET, characterization, modeling",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/77021.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/77021.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77021",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77021",totalDownloads:364,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:2,dateSubmitted:"January 19th 2021",dateReviewed:"May 15th 2021",datePrePublished:"June 7th 2021",datePublished:"March 30th 2022",dateFinished:"June 3rd 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The wide range of cryogenic applications, such as spatial, high performance computing or high-energy physics, has boosted the investigation of CMOS technology performance down to cryogenic temperatures. In particular, the readout electronics of quantum computers operating at low temperature requires larger bandwidth than spatial applications, so that advanced CMOS node has to be considered. FDSOI technology appears as a valuable solution for co-integration between qubits and consistent engineering of control and read-out. However, there is still lack of reports on literature concerning advanced CMOS nodes behavior at deep cryogenic operation, from devices electrostatics to mismatch and self-heating, all requested for the development of robust design tools. For these reasons, this chapter presents a review of electrical characterization and modeling results recently obtained on ultra-thin film FDSOI MOSFETs down to 4.2 K.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/77021",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/77021",signatures:"Mikaël Cassé and Gérard Ghibaudo",book:{id:"9889",type:"book",title:"Low-Temperature Technologies and Applications",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Low-Temperature Technologies and Applications",slug:"low-temperature-technologies-and-applications",publishedDate:"March 30th 2022",bookSignature:"Salim Newaz Kazi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9889.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83968-585-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-584-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-586-6",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"93483",title:"Prof.",name:"Md Salim Newaz",middleName:null,surname:"Kazi",slug:"md-salim-newaz-kazi",fullName:"Md Salim Newaz Kazi"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"335969",title:"Prof.",name:"Gérard",middleName:null,surname:"Ghibaudo",fullName:"Gérard Ghibaudo",slug:"gerard-ghibaudo",email:"ghibaudo@minatec.inpg.fr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"335970",title:"Dr.",name:"Mikaël",middleName:null,surname:"Cassé",fullName:"Mikaël Cassé",slug:"mikael-casse",email:"mikael.casse@cea.fr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Cryogenic FDSOI device operation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Devices under test",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Capacitance and charge control",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Drain current characteristics, threshold voltage and subthreshold slope",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4 Carrier mobility",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"3. Self-heating phenomena",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.1 Self-heating characterization technique",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.2 Study of thermal resistance",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"4. Mismatch and variability properties",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.1 Devices under test",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.2 Threshold voltage variability",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.3 Drain current variability",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"5. Device compact modeling approach",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"5.1 Poisson-Schrodinger simulations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"5.2 Compact modeling",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17",title:"6. Basic circuit operation at cryogenic temperatures",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"7. Summary and conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_19",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'R. R. Green, “MOSFET operation at 4.2 K,” Review of Scientific Instruments, vol. 39, no. 10, pp. 1495–1497, 1968, doi: 10.1063/1.1683144'},{id:"B2",body:'C. G. Rogers, “MOST’s at cryogenic temperatures,” Solid-State Electronics, vol. 11, no. 11, pp. 1079–1091, 1968, doi: 10.1016/0038-1101(68)90130-5'},{id:"B3",body:'W. E. Howard and F. F. Fang, “Low temperature effects in Si FETs,” Solid-State Electronics, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 82–83, 1965, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/0038-1101(65)90011-0'},{id:"B4",body:'K. v. Klitzing, G. Dorda, and M. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
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\r\n\t
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\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
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His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 255 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 2 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",institution:{name:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. degree in chemistry in 2000 and Ph.D. degree in physical chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. He moved to School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia in 2009 and joined Dr. Ron Clarke as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+/K+-ATPase and dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+/K+-ATPase by ATP; then he went back to Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum as an assistant professor, and in 2014 he was promoted as an associate professor. In 2011, he joined the staff of Department of Chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently an assistant professor. His research interests include the following: P-Type ATPase enzyme kinetics and mechanisms, kinetics and mechanisms of redox reactions, autocatalytic reactions, computational enzyme kinetics, allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP, exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases, and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. The interest of Javier's lab is the study of cell signaling with a special focus on Ca2+ signaling, and how Ca2+ transport modulates the cytoskeleton, migration, differentiation, cell death, etc. He is especially interested in the study of Ca2+ channels, and the role of STIM1 in the initiation of pathological events.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217323/images/8027_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148546/images/4640_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272889/images/10758_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",middleName:null,surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda",position:"Investigador Cinvestav 3B",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242491/images/6765_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"88631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Petyaev",slug:"ivan-petyaev",fullName:"Ivan Petyaev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lycotec (United Kingdom)",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"423869",title:"Ms.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Rai",slug:"smita-rai",fullName:"Smita Rai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424024",title:"Prof.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"swati-sharma",fullName:"Swati Sharma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"439112",title:"MSc.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"touseef-fatima",fullName:"Touseef Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424836",title:"Dr.",name:"Orsolya",middleName:null,surname:"Borsai",slug:"orsolya-borsai",fullName:"Orsolya Borsai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"422262",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Paola Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Palmeros-Suárez",slug:"paola-andrea-palmeros-suarez",fullName:"Paola Andrea Palmeros-Suárez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Guadalajara",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"93",type:"subseries",title:"Inclusivity and Social Equity",keywords:"Social contract, SDG, Human rights, Inclusiveness, Equity, Democracy, Personal learning, Collaboration, Glocalization",scope:"
\r\n\tThis topic is dedicated to the efforts and promotion of UNESCO SDG4, the UNESCO initiative on the future of education, and the need for a new social contract for education. It aims to disseminate knowledge on policies, strategies, methods, and technologies that increase the resilience and sustainability of the development of the future of education and the new social contract for education. It will also consider the global challenges such as globalization, demographic change, digital transformation, climate change, environment and the social pillars of sustainable development.
\r\n
\r\n\tResponses to the pandemic and the widespread discontent that preceded it must be based on a new social contract and a New Global Deal for education that ensures equal opportunities for all and respects all people’s rights and freedoms (UNESCO; 2021). Such a new social contract, as proposed by UNESCO, must be based on the general principles underlying human rights - inclusion and equality, cooperation and solidarity, and collective responsibility and interconnectedness - and be guided by the following fundamental principle: Ensure that everyone has access to quality education throughout their lives.
\r\n
\r\n\tWe face the dual challenge of delivering on the unfulfilled promise of ensuring the right to quality education for every child, youth, and adult, as well as fully realizing the transformative potential of education as a pathway to a more sustainable collective future. To achieve this, we need a new social contract for education that eliminates inequities while transforming the future. This new social contract must be based on human rights and the principles of non-discrimination, social justice, respect for life, human dignity, and cultural diversity. It must include an ethic of care, reciprocity and solidarity. The new social contract builds on inclusiveness, equity, lifelong learning, SDG, collaboration and personal learning in a global context for democracy.
\r\n
\r\n\tAt an international level, the adoption of the Open Educational Resources recommendation and the Open Science recommendation represents an important step towards building more open and inclusive knowledge societies as well as the achievement of the UN 2030 Agenda. Indeed, implementing the recommendations will help to achieve at least five more Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) that are intertwined with the topic of this book series, namely SDG 5 (Gender equality), SDG 9 (Industry, innovation and infrastructure), SDG 10 (Reduced inequalities within and across countries), SDG 16 (Peace, justice and strong institutions) and SDG 17 (Partnerships for the goals).
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/93.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11977,editor:{id:"210060",title:"Prof. Dr.",name:"Ebba",middleName:null,surname:"Ossiannilsson",slug:"ebba-ossiannilsson",fullName:"Ebba Ossiannilsson",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6LkBQAU/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:31:48.png",biography:'Professor Dr. Ebba Ossiannilsson is an independent researcher, expert, consultant, quality auditor and influencer in the fields of open, flexible online and distance learning (OFDL) and the "new normal". Her focus is on quality, innovation, leadership, and personalised learning. She works primarily at the strategic and policy levels, both nationally and internationally, and with key international organisations. She is committed to promoting and improving OFDL in the context of SDG4 and the future of education. Ossiannilsson has more than 20 years of experience in her current field, but more than 40 years in the education sector. She works as a reviewer and expert for the European Commission and collaborates with the Joint Research Centre for Quality in Open Education. Ossiannilsson also collaborates with ITCILO and ICoBC (International Council on Badges and Credentials). She is a member of the ICDE Board of Directors and has previously served on the boards of EDEN and EUCEN. Ossiannilsson is a quality expert and reviewer for ICDE, EDEN and the EADTU. She chairs the ICDE OER Advocacy Committee and is a member of the ICDE Quality Network. She is regularly invited as a keynote speaker at conferences. She is a guest editor for several special issues and a member of the editorial board of several scientific journals. She has published more than 200 articles and is currently working on book projects in the field of OFDL. Ossiannilsson is a visiting professor at several international universities and was recently appointed Professor and Research Fellow at Victoria University of Wellington, NZ. Ossiannilsson has been awarded the following fellowships: EDEN Fellows, EDEN Council of Fellows, and Open Education Europe. She is a ICDE OER Ambassador, Open Education Europe Ambassador, GIZ Ambassador for Quality in Digital Learning, and part of the Globe-Community of Digital Learning and Champion of SPARC Europe. On a national level, she is a quality developer at the Swedish Institute for Standards (SIS) and for ISO. She is a member of the Digital Skills and Jobs Coalition Sweden and Vice President of the Swedish Association for Distance Education. She is currently working on a government initiative on quality in distance education at the National Council for Higher Education. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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