Electrical parameters of ITO films deposited by PLD on flat and nanopatterned glass substrates evaluated from Hall investigations.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10989",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"New Generation of Organic Fertilizers",title:"New Generation of Organic Fertilizers",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book provides a comprehensive overview of organic fertilizers and their importance in sustainable agriculture, biodiversity, and the environment. It presents new approaches, ideas, and trends on how to increase the effectiveness of chemical fertilizers as well as the resistance of plants against biotic and abiotic stress conditions. Chapters address such topics as the benefits of organic fertilizers over their chemical counterparts, vermicomposting, organic farming, insects in organic fertilizer production, and much more.",isbn:"978-1-83969-213-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-212-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-938-2",doi:null,price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"new-generation-of-organic-fertilizers",numberOfPages:174,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"9a7b41148215b7acb9d8b37e92dfa896",bookSignature:"Metin Turan and Ertan Yildirim",publishedDate:"July 6th 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10989.jpg",numberOfDownloads:604,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:1,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:null,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:2,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 27th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 24th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 23rd 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 11th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 10th 2022",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"140612",title:"Prof.",name:"Metin",middleName:null,surname:"Turan",slug:"metin-turan",fullName:"Metin Turan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/140612/images/system/140612.jpg",biography:"Metin Turan received his Ph.D. from the Department of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, Atatürk University, Turkey in 2002. He is currently a professor in the Department of Genetics and Bioengineering, Yeditepe University, Turkey. His research mainly focuses on soil ecology and biological fertilizer applications. Dr. Turan has more than 100 research publications to his credit. He is a member of many international organizations such as the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM), Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL), and European Biostimulants Industry Council (EBIC), and he has chaired many conferences in Turkey and Europe.",institutionString:"Yeditepe University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Yeditepe University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"186639",title:"Prof.",name:"Ertan",middleName:null,surname:"Yildirim",slug:"ertan-yildirim",fullName:"Ertan Yildirim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186639/images/system/186639.jpg",biography:"Ertan Yildirim is a full professor in the Department of Horticulture, Atatürk University, Turkey. He received his Ph.D. in Horticulture from the same university in 2003. His research focuses on vegetable growing, vegetable breeding, greenhouse management, seed germination and physiology, organic agriculture, and stress physiology. Dr. Yildirim has more than 200 publications to his credit.",institutionString:"Atatürk University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Atatürk University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"28",title:"Agrochemical",slug:"agrochemical"}],chapters:[{id:"81931",title:"Improving Soil Fertility with Organic Fertilizers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103944",slug:"improving-soil-fertility-with-organic-fertilizers",totalDownloads:15,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Organic fertilizers with low C:N ratios can be applied to supply both macro and micronutrients to the soil. Aside nutrient supply, they can improve soil structure, texture, water holding capacity and nutrient holding capacity. The mechanisms that may interplay to allow organic fertilizers to affect the soil and crop yields may include improved nutrient synchrony, general improvement in fertility and/or priming effects. The rate, timing and method of organic fertilizer application must be considered to reduce N and P losses during organic fertilizer application. To meet the nutrient requirement of crops, organic fertilizers must be applied in large quantities, so it is more prudent to apply locally available resources. In a case study where sole organic fertilizer, sole inorganic fertilizer and their combinations were applied under rain-fed conditions, it was observed that manure had the potential to hold nutrients longer. This is a positive finding for drought prone areas.",signatures:"Mavis Badu Brempong and Abigail Addo-Danso",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81931",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81931",authors:[{id:"422879",title:"Dr.",name:"Mavis",surname:"Badu Brempong",slug:"mavis-badu-brempong",fullName:"Mavis Badu Brempong"},{id:"426798",title:"Mrs.",name:"Abigail",surname:"Addo-Danso",slug:"abigail-addo-danso",fullName:"Abigail Addo-Danso"}],corrections:null},{id:"78735",title:"Restoration of Soil Organic Carbon a Reliable Sustenance for a Healthy Ecosystem",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100188",slug:"restoration-of-soil-organic-carbon-a-reliable-sustenance-for-a-healthy-ecosystem",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:null,totalDimensionsCites:null,hasAltmetrics:null,abstract:"Agricultural sustainability is an indicator for economic prospect across the globe. The revolution of industrial development and the growth of annual crop to meet the need of increasing world population is a determining factor for SOC availability. Sustainability of agriculture is largely related to SOC and management practices. Agro-ecological stability is significant to soil type and fertility input. Organic matter is a combination of plant residue and/ or animal waste. This is capable of accumulating carbon and nitrogen in the soil. It retains water and support the buildup of organic carbon. It enhances the stability of SOC and crop yield. The use of organic matter is effective at stabilizing the microbial communities. Carbon sequestration is high with crops that have abundant residues. SOC can potentially mitigate climate change. It prevents the use of minimum and conventional tillage. Higher deposit of SOC is associated with crop yield. Perennial crop cultivation such as cup plant (Siliphium perforliatum. L.) can potentially sequestrate carbon into the soil than annual crop. SOC are often exhausted with the cultivation of annual crop such as maize. However, SOC can be retained by growing clover in between harvests and the next sowing. Mineral fertilizer can likewise accumulate SOC but not as efficient as the use organic manure and plant residue. Perennial crop was found useful at preventing environmental degradation and soil compaction. Consistent assessment of SOC is essential for continuous food production and plant growth. This can be achieved through a multidimensional software called multiple linear regression.",signatures:"Alabi Olusoji David",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78735",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78735",authors:[{id:"339497",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Alabi Olusoji",surname:"David",slug:"alabi-olusoji-david",fullName:"Alabi Olusoji David"}],corrections:null},{id:"78888",title:"Organic Farming for Sustainable Agriculture Using Water and Soil Nutrients",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100319",slug:"organic-farming-for-sustainable-agriculture-using-water-and-soil-nutrients",totalDownloads:1,totalCrossrefCites:null,totalDimensionsCites:null,hasAltmetrics:null,abstract:"The agricultural community/farmers are struggling to obtain higher rate of yield due to lack of poor knowledge about the soil and water nutrients and suitability of the organic crop for the soil. Most of the farmers use excessive chemical fertilizers in-order to increase productivity of their yield, without aware of side effects. The excess usage of chemical fertilizers by the farmers will have impact on the quality, fertility, and salinity of the soil. To overcome these issues and to promote Digital Agriculture concept we propose an IoT enabled sensor system for monitoring soil nutrient [NPK] and pH of irrigation water to reduce the manual laboratory method of testing and get the results via mobile application and to promote organic farming in the agricultural field. Smart organic farming based mobile application will further process these nutrients value to predict and suggests the suitable crop to grow and the usage of appropriate amount of fertilizer to maintain the soil fertility there by achieving optimum usage of chemical fertilizer because continuous and wrong usage of these chemical fertilizer have a harmful effect not only on soil but also on crops, we consume leading to unhealthy human life. The proposed mobile application also helps in establishing the connection between farmers and Agricultural Produce Market Committee (APMC) in order to avoid fragmentation of profit shares and attain Pricing uncertainty and marketing of the yields by avoiding the middle man. APMC is a state government body which ensures safeguard to the farmers from exploitation by large retailers and suggest the kind of crop to be grown with organic farming. India is well known to produce organic fertilizer which is produced by the waste of slaughterhouses, plant and animal residues, biological products and other natural resources. Thus, the proposed work helps the farmers in adopting stress-free organic farming practice by self-testing their field soil parameters for generating quick soil analysis reports and also helps in connecting with APMC to know the suitable crop for their agriculture land based on the soil and water analysis (SWA) report, dispensing the required amount of organic fertilizer to the soil based on soil and water nutrients analysis using IoT enabled sensor, funding/insurance to the crops in case of occurrence of unpredictable natural disaster in future and direct marketing facility without middle man and maintain sustainable agriculture. In the present era, the industry is at 5.0 levels but agricultural production is still at 2.0 levels. In this chapter a methodology for sustainable agriculture and increase the organic yield of the organic farming using the mobile and IoT technological approaches is presented. A former can obtain the advice and other information for growing the organic crop, organic certification, pricing for the organic yield, selling and other activities by using mobile application in his/her local language. By the proposed work with the ease of mobile application the farmers can perform self-test of their field parameters for generating quick soil and water analysis report, predicts and suggest the suitable organic crop, obtaining the suitable pricing by the APMC and organic certification and agreement to meet the sustainable agriculture. Further the soil fertility of the organic farm can be monitored using IoT enabled sensors which are remotely connected with the mobile application. The experimentation is performed at different agriculture fields with organic farming at six geographical separated villages at Bagalkot district of Karnataka state, India. The different agricultural lands with variety of soil samples is tested to measure the soil parameter such as moisture, temperature, humidity and NPK nutrient values. The pH value of the irrigation water is also determined including borewell, pond, rain, river water etc. available in the reservoirs and promising sustainability in the organic yield is obtained.",signatures:"Sanjeevakumar M. Hatture, Pallavi V. Yankati, Rashmi Saini and Rashmi P. Karchi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78888",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78888",authors:[{id:"280436",title:"Dr.",name:"Rashmi P.",surname:"Karchi",slug:"rashmi-p.-karchi",fullName:"Rashmi P. Karchi"},{id:"424215",title:"Dr.",name:"Sanjeevakumar M.",surname:"Hatture",slug:"sanjeevakumar-m.-hatture",fullName:"Sanjeevakumar M. Hatture"},{id:"424221",title:"Mrs.",name:"Pallavi V.",surname:"Yankati",slug:"pallavi-v.-yankati",fullName:"Pallavi V. Yankati"},{id:"435617",title:"Dr.",name:"Rashmi",surname:"Saini",slug:"rashmi-saini",fullName:"Rashmi Saini"}],corrections:null},{id:"79868",title:"The Role of Organic Fertilizers in Transition to Sustainable Agriculture in the MENA Region",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101411",slug:"the-role-of-organic-fertilizers-in-transition-to-sustainable-agriculture-in-the-mena-region",totalDownloads:136,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Organic fertilizers can serve as an element of transitions to sustainable low-input agriculture in semi-arid regions of the MENA region. They play a key role in supporting soil biota and soil fertility. Yield improvements, availability and relatively low costs make organic fertilizers an attractive alternative for farmers. In semi-arid regions, important considerations are improved soil quality, which in turn affects soil water retention, while better root development helps crops resist heat and water stress. Organic fertilizers thus support climate adaptation and regional food security. Soil quality is crucial for carbon sequestration, at the same time that increased nutrient retention reduces impacts of agricultural runoff on groundwater and water bodies. Factors that impede the generalised use of organic fertilizers include lack of expertise, subsidy structures, constraints of the wider food and agricultural systems, and difficulties in transitioning from conventional agriculture. Such obstacles are aggravated in countries affected by security issues, financial volatility or restrictions in access to market. Against the background of both general and local constraints, the chapter examines possible pathways to benefit from organic fertilizers, in particular synergies with other sustainable agricultural practices, as well as improved access to expertise.",signatures:"Helen Avery",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79868",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79868",authors:[{id:"424255",title:"Dr.",name:"Helen",surname:"Avery",slug:"helen-avery",fullName:"Helen Avery"}],corrections:null},{id:"78744",title:"Farmer’s Perception of Associates Non-Cocoa Tree’s Leaf Litterfall Fertilizing Potential in Cocoa-Based Agroforestry System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100262",slug:"farmer-s-perception-of-associates-non-cocoa-tree-s-leaf-litterfall-fertilizing-potential-in-cocoa-ba",totalDownloads:81,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Investigations to assess farmer’s perceptions on the fertilizing potential of associated trees species in cocoa agroforest of degraded forest ecology were carried out in southern Cameroon. The perception of the farmers was based on the ability of the trees to maintain or improve soil fertility of their farms. The verification of these perceptions was done through an evaluation of litter fall biomass nutrient content (N, P, K, Ca and Mg) of selected trees. The top 5 associates trees ranked by farmers was: Milicia excelsa, Ceiba pentandra, Ficus mucuso, Asltonia boonei, Terminalia superba. The chemical analysis of the leaf litter from the different tree species revealed a significant different between their chemical components. N appeared to have the highest concentrations varying from 2.82 to 5.57% with a mean value of 4.25 ± 1.065%, P had the lowest concentrations typically around 0.001%. The top 5 tree species based on the chemical analysis ranking were: C. pentandra, M. excelsa, Eribroma oblungum, Alstonia boonei, Zanthoxylum heitzi. Farmer’s perceptions thou holistic, are not completely different from scientific finding. Therefore, they should be taken in consideration in management plans for cocoa- based systems in order to enhance their ecological and economic performance.",signatures:"Milie Lionelle Tsouga Manga, René Menoh A Ngon, Etienne Akoutou Mvondo, Eunice Ndo, Bidzanga Nomo and Zachée Ambang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78744",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78744",authors:[{id:"428687",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Milie Lionelle",surname:"TSOUGA MANGA",slug:"milie-lionelle-tsouga-manga",fullName:"Milie Lionelle TSOUGA MANGA"},{id:"428689",title:"MSc.",name:"René",surname:"Menoh A Ngon",slug:"rene-menoh-a-ngon",fullName:"René Menoh A Ngon"},{id:"428691",title:"MSc.",name:"Etienne",surname:"Akoutou Mvondo",slug:"etienne-akoutou-mvondo",fullName:"Etienne Akoutou Mvondo"},{id:"428693",title:"Dr.",name:"Eunice",surname:"Ndo",slug:"eunice-ndo",fullName:"Eunice Ndo"},{id:"428694",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucien",surname:"Bidzanga Nomo",slug:"lucien-bidzanga-nomo",fullName:"Lucien Bidzanga Nomo"},{id:"428695",title:"Prof.",name:"Zachée",surname:"Ambang",slug:"zachee-ambang",fullName:"Zachée Ambang"}],corrections:null},{id:"79002",title:"Vermicompost for Sustainable Agriculture and Bioconversion of Terrestrial Weed Biomass into Vermicompost",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100615",slug:"vermicompost-for-sustainable-agriculture-and-bioconversion-of-terrestrial-weed-biomass-into-vermicom",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:null,totalDimensionsCites:null,hasAltmetrics:null,abstract:"Organic fertilizers are alternative to chemicals used in agriculture which enhance soil quality, prevent harmful chemicals entering into food chain, improve health and contribute to sustainable future socially, economically and ecologically. Vermicompost is a nutrient-rich organic fertilizer which promotes plant growth and improves soil quality. Vermicomposting is an economically feasible and environment friendly technology in which organic wastes are bio-converted into value added product and various organic wastes are used in this process. Terrestrial weeds are the plant species which grow on land and invasive in nature. These plants are responsible for various nuisances in the environment, agriculture and society. The weed biomass generated after various management methods are considered as organic waste. The terrestrial weed biomass is a possible option for the production of vermicompost. In this chapter scope of vermicompost for sustainable agriculture, the vemicomposting mechanism and the bioconversion of terrestrial weed biomass into vermicompost have been discussed.",signatures:"Chaichi Devi and Meena Khwairakpam",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79002",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79002",authors:[{id:"422726",title:"Dr.",name:"Chaichi",surname:"Devi",slug:"chaichi-devi",fullName:"Chaichi Devi"},{id:"423413",title:"Dr.",name:"Meena",surname:"Khwairakpam",slug:"meena-khwairakpam",fullName:"Meena Khwairakpam"}],corrections:null},{id:"78714",title:"Biosynthesis of Zinc Nanocomplex Employing for Plant Growth Promotion and Bio-Control of Pythium ultimum",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100185",slug:"biosynthesis-of-zinc-nanocomplex-employing-for-plant-growth-promotion-and-bio-control-of-em-pythium-",totalDownloads:116,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Green Biosynthesis method was used for the preparation of Zn(II) nano complex from the reaction of the schiff base ligand 2,2′-((1E,1′E)-(1,2-phenylenebis (azanylylidene)) bis(methanylylidene))bis(4-bromophenol) and Zn(II)sulphate. The nano complex was characterized by different physicochemical methods. Zinc nanoparticles (ZnNP-T) will be studied as an antifungal agent. In this study, we will investigate the ability of the myogenic Zinc nanoparticles for plant Growth Promotion and Bio-control of Pythium ultimum.",signatures:"Shaima M.N. Moustafa and Rania H. Taha",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78714",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78714",authors:[{id:"238130",title:"Dr.",name:"Shaima M.N.",surname:"Moustafa",slug:"shaima-m.n.-moustafa",fullName:"Shaima M.N. Moustafa"},{id:"422534",title:"Dr.",name:"Rana H.",surname:"Taha",slug:"rana-h.-taha",fullName:"Rana H. Taha"}],corrections:null},{id:"79041",title:"Organic Fertilization with Residues of Cupuassu (Theobroma grandiflorum) and Inga (Inga edulis) for Improving Soil Fertility in Central Amazonia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100423",slug:"organic-fertilization-with-residues-of-cupuassu-em-theobroma-grandiflorum-em-and-inga-em-inga-edulis",totalDownloads:53,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The cupuassu (Theobroma grandiflorum (Willd. Ex Spreng.) K. Schum.) is a native fruit tree which has, in the past years, acquired great social and economic importance for the regional farmers. The nutrient-rich and often wasted cupuassu tree fruit shell residues can contribute to the improvement of the low fertility soil of Amazonia. A trial was carried out on a small holder’s cupuassu plantation in Central Amazonia to ascertain the effect of organic fertilization on the recovery of soil fertility and plant nutrition by using material from cupuassu shell residues and Inga edulis pruning (branches and leaves). The fertilization with cupuassu rinds + Inga prunings improved soil fertility, mainly by the increase of K and Ca in the soil, but only with liming, which appears to favor the mineralization of these nutrients. At the 0–10 cm depth, the Ca level increased about 50% compared to the control and the K level increased 75% compared to the cupuassu shell treatments. The significant increase of about 30% in N absorption by trees in the plots without liming shows that the application of green manure can increase the mineralization of N in Oxisols. These results show that the organic residue sources used can result in a nutrient-bearing organic fertilizer and become a low-cost alternative for recycling cupuassu processing residues.",signatures:"Eleano Rodrigues da Silva, Marta Iria da Costa Ayres, Acácia Lima Neves, Katell Uguen, Luiz Antonio de Oliveira and Sonia Sena Alfaia",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79041",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79041",authors:[{id:"82384",title:"Dr.",name:"Sonia",surname:"Sena Alfaia",slug:"sonia-sena-alfaia",fullName:"Sonia Sena Alfaia"},{id:"422053",title:"Dr.",name:"Katell",surname:"Uguen",slug:"katell-uguen",fullName:"Katell Uguen"},{id:"422054",title:"MSc.",name:"Marta",surname:"Iria da Costa Ayres",slug:"marta-iria-da-costa-ayres",fullName:"Marta Iria da Costa Ayres"},{id:"435719",title:"MSc.",name:"Eleano",surname:"Rodrigues Da Silva",slug:"eleano-rodrigues-da-silva",fullName:"Eleano Rodrigues Da Silva"},{id:"435720",title:"MSc.",name:"Acácia",surname:"Lima Neves",slug:"acacia-lima-neves",fullName:"Acácia Lima Neves"},{id:"435721",title:"Dr.",name:"Luiz Antônio",surname:"Oliveira",slug:"luiz-antonio-oliveira",fullName:"Luiz Antônio Oliveira"}],corrections:null},{id:"78833",title:"The Insects as a Workforce for Organic Fertilizers Production – Insect Frass",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100144",slug:"the-insects-as-a-workforce-for-organic-fertilizers-production-insect-frass",totalDownloads:206,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Following the evolution of composting technology, the process of digestion of a biological substrate by insects (entomocomposting) represents the last stage; however, from its initial context of producing an organic fertilizer, the role of entomocomposting has been imposing itself (due to increasing demographic pressure) mainly in the safe disposal of organic waste (in rampant growth) and in the breeding of insects for food and feed, for the sake of food security. Both these last goals converge in the first, as the safest disposal of the compost is its use as organic fertilizer; but the organic substrates are of a diversified nature, as are the species of insects which have already proved themselves in entomocomposting; hence, for each of the purposes in view, the choice is vast and, in the same way, the entomocompost composition is wide-ranging. Furthermore, various types of organic substrates, in addition to a microbial flora with symbiotic effects, may sometimes be able to transmit to the frass a harmful load of heavy metals and/or, depending on the composting insect agents, the presence of microorganisms harmful to crops and to humans and animals; in these situations, the former should be encouraged, and the latter counteracted through appropriate composting technology. Directives and legislation in this area, if properly considered, constitute a fundamental basis for ensuring the appropriate use of this particular kind of organic fertilizer. Apart from the production of insects for food and feed, where the choice of which insect is determined at the outset, the preference for the insect to be used in entomocomposting should be considered according to its proficiency in biological digestion of the organic substrates available for this purpose and the fertilizing quality of the frass produced. Although a multitude of species have been evaluated, to date, for the digestion of organic substrates, most have been used in assessing their specific potential for certain functionalities of frass related to crop nutrition and health, but there are few which, either by prolificacy, proficiency or rapidity in digesting substrates, exhibit capacity to compete in rural environment; nevertheless, new species could be evaluated in the framework of the research of competitors for entomocomposting of all or each substrate type and for each of the main anticipated objectives, meanwhile, genetic improvement to obtain new strains specialized for different organic substrates has already started to take its first steps. In addition to the binomial “insect x substrate” the composting technology constitutes the third fundamental factor for the efficiency of the process. Insects use as a composting agent has been suggested several decades ago, but it was only in the last decade that this process grown from the garden to the factory. Within rural areas, entomocomposting could play a key role within a circular economy, where recycling and reusing potentially polluting wastes safely returns to the land the enduring fertility that enables the sustained production that generated them, requiring no particularly upscale installations, equipment or technical training; it can, therefore, be adapted to any size of agricultural holding, from smallholdings to large industrial holdings, on the other hand, and in order to obtain a controlled production and high quality entomocompost, it is needed to implement industrial technologies and the composting unit can achieve a very high production per square meter, comparing with traditional composting methods. However, whether from the perspective of agriculture, livestock or forestry, the production of waste for entomocomposting always falls far short of the necessary scale, and therefore always requiring the use of biodigested organic waste from agricultural industries, provided that the necessary precautions are taken; in any case, it always constitutes added value, due to the products it generates, in addition to the inestimable value of the productive disposal of potentially polluting products. 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At this stage, in the OPV field, a major concern regards the fabrication of flexible structures with high efficiencies for various applications [3]. Although, OPV with efficiency over 18% has been reported in 2021 [4], further improvements are still needed for making them a real alternative to other photovoltaic cell (PV) technologies (PV based on silicon, PV based on perovskites, etc.). The improvements can be linked to: (i) the type of the organic materials used in the fabrications of the PV structures; (ii) the deposition techniques used to obtain the organic component as films; and (iii) the different approaches used for enhancing the absorption in the PV structure such as antireflection coatings, back-reflectors, or the surfaces patterning (texturing) [5, 6]. In the PV structures, the thickness of the organic active film is limited by the low carrier mobility and the short exciton diffusion length [7]. An increase in the film thickness leads to a lowering in the device efficiency, while a decrease in the film thickness results in a poor absorption. Lately, some studies reported that the nanopatterning of the transparent electrodes increases the optical path length of light inside the active material improving the performances of the devices [6, 8].
Different optical approaches and structures such as microlens, nanostructured electrodes, scattering layers were used in the field of OLEDs to improve the light extraction efficiency of the devices [9, 10]. The light extraction efficiency is one of the most important parameters of OLED, defined as the ratio of the total number of photons emitted by the OLED and the total number of photons generated within the organic emitter [10, 11]. Thus, the majority of the generated photons in the organic layers are confined inside the device due to the total internal reflection, which takes place at the glass/air and organic/layer substrate interfaces owing to the mismatch of the refractive index [12]. In this way, almost 30% of the emitted photons are trapped in the glass substrate (glass mode), while a 50% are trapped at the organic/anode interface (waveguide mode). Therefore, various methods were used to extract more efficiently the light from the OLEDs [9, 13].
Transparent conductive electrodes (TCE) play a key role in the development of optoelectronic devices such as OPVs, OLEDs, touch screens, electrochromic devices, heat mirrors, smart windows, and so on [14, 15, 16]. Over time, various materials such as metal oxides, ultrathin metals, metal nanowires, graphene, carbon nanotubes, conductive polymers, etc., were deposited and investigated as TCE [1, 14]. However, indium tin oxide (ITO) remains the most commonly used TCE due to its remarkable properties such as high transparency (90% at 550 nm wavelength), adequate sheet resistance (10–30 Ω/□), work function (4.7 eV), and reduced roughness (<1 nm) [17, 18]. Besides that, aluminum-doped zinc oxide (AZO) is a suitable metal oxide for replacing ITO since this material met the necessary criteria regarding the high transparency and the electrical resistivity [19, 20].
Transparent conductive oxide (TCO) films can be deposited by numerous chemical and physical methods such as sol-gel [21], spray pyrolysis [22], magnetron sputtering [23], chemical vapor deposition (CVD) [24], atomic layer deposition [25], pulsed laser deposition (PLD) [20], etc., each of them having both advantages and limitations. PLD is a versatile technique used in the deposition of high-quality films based on ITO, AZO, indium-doped zinc oxide (IZO), Ga-doped ZnO (GZO), indium gallium zinc oxide (GIZO), ZnO-Y2O3 (YZO), the obtained TCO layers having adequate properties for optoelectronic device area [26, 27, 28, 29, 30].
Patterning techniques such as X-ray lithography, electron projection lithography, ion beam projection lithography, multiple e-beam lithography, extreme ultraviolet lithography, or nanoimprint lithography (NIL) are essential in the niche technology that manufactures high-volume and low-cost nanoscale devices [31, 32, 33, 34]. The development and improvement of NIL technique have extended the nanoscale fabrication from standard semiconductor devices for electronics and optoelectronics to complex ones for optics, plasmonics, microfluidics, or biomimetic area [35, 36, 37, 38, 39]. Among NIL technologies, ultraviolet nanoimprint lithography (UV-NIL) is an efficient technique because it allows the manufacture of a wide range of pattern sizes and shapes on different rigid or flexible substrates [34, 40].
In this chapter, we present some of our contributions regarding the TCO layers deposited by PLD on flat and UV-NIL nanopatterned glass substrates. Therefore, metal oxides films (ITO and AZO) deposited by PLD were studied for emphasizing their potential applications in the field of optoelectronic devices such as OPVs and OLEDs.
Pulsed laser deposition (PLD) is a well-established method used to grow thin films from a wide range of materials, enabling a stoichiometric transfer of these. Although PLD was introduced in 1965, it was applied intensively in the late 1990s [41, 42]. PLD is a physical vapor deposition technique where an external high-power laser (typically an UV laser source) ablates a target based on a single or a combination of compounds depending on the desired composition of the film [43]. In comparison with other deposition methods such as sputtering, molecular beam epitaxy, chemical vapor deposition, or thermal evaporation, PLD has the following advantages: (i) any type of substrate can be used for depositing thin films; (ii) by using UV laser sources, a wide range of materials can be ablated; (iii) the pressure during the deposition process can be choose from 10−7 mbar up to 1 mbar; (iv) due to progressive growth with each laser pulse, a rigorous control of the thickness is possible; (v) the stoichiometry can be preserved or changed in a controlled manner during the deposition; (vi) the kinetic energy of the evaporated species can be moderated in order to control the film growth properties; (vii) a background gas can be used in order to obtain the adequate reactive atmosphere; (viii) multilayered thin films can be obtained by switching different target materials in the deposition cycle; and (ix) assure the purity of the initial composition because the ablation source is the light [42, 43, 44, 45]. As any deposition technique, the PLD process has also some drawbacks: (i) limited deposition area for standard setups; (ii) the uniformity of the deposition is influenced by energy profile and inhomogeneity of the laser pulse; (iii) macroscopic and microscopic droplets are sometimes ejected from the target [45, 46].
PLD is a versatile method that proved its potential in different research areas considering that a wide class of the materials can be ablated using excimer lasers and deposited as thin films [42, 44, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53]. Thus, metal films, semiconductor films, superconductors, ceramic layers, oxides, insulators can be easily obtained by this laser technique [54, 55]. Moreover, nanostructures with different morphologies such as nanowires, nanoflowers, nanorods, nanotubes, and even quantum dots based on ZnO, ITO, graphene, molybdenum disulfide (MoS2), tungsten disulfide (WS2), cadmium selenide (CdSe) can be deposited by PLD [45, 47, 56, 57, 58]. The thin films or nanostructures fabricated by PLD were integrated in various devices: photovoltaics, environmental sensors, actuators, light emitters, ferroelectrics, photocatalysis, biomaterials, medical implants, etc. [45, 47, 59].
A common PLD deposition setup is depicted in Figure 1. Hence, the growth of the thin film is the result of the interaction between the laser beam and the target. When the laser fluence (the energy delivered per unit area at given pulse duration) reaches the ablation threshold, the vaporization of the material from the target surface takes place, process followed by the generation and expansion of the plasma plume. Further, the plasma species (free electrons, ions, neutral atoms, molecules) with appropriate energy nucleates on the deposition support [45, 59, 60]. In PLD, the film growth and the film quality depend generally on various experimental parameters: laser fluence, laser wavelength, pulse duration, repetition rate, target-substrate distance, background gas and its pressure, quality of the target substrate temperature, etc. Because the influence of each deposition parameter on the properties of films deposited by PLD, from specific materials, was extensively discussed and analyzed in literature, in the following we briefly resumed their importance [42, 44, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53].
Schematic representation of PLD deposition chamber.
The laser fluence is one of the principal parameters because it impacts the kinetic energy of the species presented in the plasma plume and their movement toward the deposition substrate [52]. As was discussed by Schou, the chosen laser fluence must be high enough to induce target ablation but not so high to avoid the re-sputtering and possible implantation of some species in the film [53].
The laser wavelength is connected with the energy absorbed by the target material [61], thinner films being obtained when the target material is transparent to the laser wavelength used during the deposition. Lower threshold fluences and also low ablation rates are obtained when short laser wavelengths are used [48]. Thus, the laser wavelength must be selected depending on the material type intended to be deposited.
The pulse duration parameter can be controlled to prepare films with expected performances. In general, nanosecond pulse lasers are implied in the PLD deposition [48]. When long laser pulses are implied, the absorbed laser energy firstly heats the target surface to the melting point, and afterward at the vaporization temperature, the thermal wave penetrates the target and produces the melting of the material, evaporation appearing from the liquid phase. In the case of the femtosecond-pulse lasers, the vapor and plasma phases appear quickly, therefore the heat conduction is negligible, and as a consequence, the liquid phase is absent [62].
The pulse repetition rate influences the deposition rate, this being related to the duration necessary to get a specific thickness of the film [63]. The number of the particles, which are found as islands, grown firstly on the deposition substrate, subsequently tend to diffuse and aggregate depending on the pulse repetition rate, a higher density of islands being favored by the increase of this parameter. Moreover, it was emphasized that using higher pulse frequencies, a high density of small-size islands can be obtained facilitating the diffusion of some adatoms from islands top to the substrate, in this way films characterized by a smooth surface being obtained. At lower pulse frequencies, a low density of islands is formed resulting in rougher surfaces [64].
Although some PLD films can be fabricated just in ultrahigh vacuum, most of them required a background gas; this parameter affects the plume dynamics and furthers the growth and properties of the films [52, 65]. The background gas decreases the kinetic energy of the species presented in the plasma plume, a high pressure of this can decrease the sputtering of the film, but at the same time can lead to the preferential diffusion of some species to the deposition support [53, 66]. Argon, helium, or nitrogen is frequently used in the PLD deposition, but the most studied gas is still oxygen, due to the possibility of producing films with controlled oxygen content [50].
The target-substrate distance influences the mass ratio of the species that reach the substrate, thus influencing the thickness of the obtained film. A higher distance is equivalent with a reduction of the deposited material while a lower distance has as effect a rebound of the species due to their high kinetic energies [67]. Thus, it is essential to choose an optimal target-substrate distance. Some studies show that TCO layers on flexible substrate characterized by cracks or peeling off are obtained when the deposition is performed at lower target-substrate distance (4 cm) while cracks-free, smoother films are obtained at higher target-substrate distances (6 or 8 cm) [26].
The substrate temperature can influence the film growth and its surface morphology [67]. Even if the deposition can be carried on at room temperature leading usually to amorphous films, it was highlighted that at higher substrate temperatures, the adatom mobility increased resulting in crystalline films [52, 67]. When the temperature of the deposition substrate is increased, even the low kinetic energy species can be capable of constituting uniform layers [47].
Accordingly, the optimal PLD deposition conditions for developing high-quality complex films from a large number of materials can be found by tuning the experimental parameters involved in this laser process [50, 67].
Nowadays, the transition from millimeter to micro and further to nano dimensions, the tendency to pass from rigid to flexible electronics, and also the continuous need of device enhanced efficiencies based on surface patterning using the principles of the plasmonic and photonic theories have forced the industry to search nanopatterning techniques that can be used in volume manufacturing [68]. In order to gain the industrial attention, these patterning techniques need to fulfill at least some key attributes such as: (i) high resolution; (ii) ability to simultaneously pattern different types of structures; (iii) high throughput and low defectivity; and (iv) reduced costs [69].
Under the name “NIL” can be found the classical thee imprint techniques: micro-contact printing (μ-CP), hot-embossing (also known as thermal NIL), and UV-NIL, but also the newly added roll imprint process, laser-assisted direct imprint, reverse imprint lithography, substrate conformal imprint lithography, ultrasonic NIL [32]. As a general definition, the nanoimprint lithography can be understood as a physical pressing process to replicate the master patterns into a polymer negative resist by thermal or ultraviolet curing [38]. Master is the name of the so called “mother” template that is usually fabricated using electron beam lithography on silicon substrates. From this master, in the case of UV-NIL, rigid or soft stamps (negative copies of the master pattern designs) based on elastomeric materials can be manufactured. Thus, common materials based on silicone polymers (usually modified formulas of polydimethylsiloxane), polyimides, or polyurethanes are applied as free-standing membranes or attached to a flexible or rigid backplane [33, 37, 38, 70]. Actually, these cheaper manufactured stamps are used in the lithography process reducing the production costs and thus prolonging the lifetime of the master, this being fabricated by more time-consuming and expensive methods.
The steps involved usually in the UV-NIL process are presented in Figure 2. Relatively simple, they can be described as follows: (i) spin-coating deposition of both primer and photoresist on the desired substrate, each followed by a heat treatment; (ii) alignment of the stamp with the coated substrate; (iii) adding them in contact, pressing and irradiating them with UV radiation; and (iv) detaching the mask after UV curing.
Schematic representation of UV-NIL process.
The advantages of using NIL in comparison to other photolithography techniques are arising from the fact that using a direct contact between the stamp and the coated substrate, the resolution is given by the resolution of the patterns existing on the surface of stamp, which can be beyond the diffraction limits or beam scattering. However, exactly this advantage can easily become the disadvantage of the technique due to the resist filling rheology behavior and demolding capabilities [32, 33]. Therefore, one of the common defect mechanisms that appear in the NIL processes is connected with the detachment of the stamp after resist curing, when the polymer may stick on the stamp surface due to the interfacial forces (adhesion and friction forces) that appear between the resist and the stamp material. Interfacial forces are strongly linked to the quality of the stamp (design, roughness, antisticking layer, and material type), to the resist material and to the residual stress that appears during the UV irradiation due to the shrinkage of the resist that makes the stamp to adhere more to the resist surface. Taking into account all these aspects, a special attention must be paid to the selection of the materials and the process parameters that must be optimized in function of the stamp characteristics and pattern design [71, 72].
ITO is the most widely used TCO due to its exceptional properties, a large number of papers being focused on it [73, 74, 75, 76]. Several works reported on the PLD deposition of ITO films and on the correlation between the experimental parameters and their optical, structural, morphological, and electrical properties, some results being well summarized by Yap and Kim [47, 77, 78]. The best properties achieved for the ITO films deposited by PLD had over 90% transparency and 7.2 × 10−5 Ωcm electrical resistivity [18].
In the last decade, many attempts were made to replace ITO due to the indium sources depletion [79]. An adequate alternative for ITO seems to be AZO, a nontoxic material that can be found at low cost—its precursors being abundant compounds, and already successfully applied in the OPV and OLED areas [80]. AZO transparent films characterized by an adequate electrical resistivity were deposited by different methods on both rigid and flexible substrates, proving its compatibility for wearable electronics [20, 81, 82, 83]. PLD technique was also used in the deposition of AZO layers on either rigid glass or plastic substrates with suitable optical and electrical properties [20, 26, 84].
In the following part, the preparation steps implied in the fabrication of ITO and AZO films by PLD on flat and UV-NIL nanopatterned substrates will be described [85, 86]. The patterns were fabricated on glass by UV-NIL (EVG 620 mask aligner) using the following procedure: (i) preheating of the glass substrate for 2 min at 150°C; (ii) spin coating of a primer to enhance the adherence of the polymeric photoresist film; (iii) deposition by spin coating of the UV-resist film that further is thermally treated for 30 s at 120°C; (iv) pressing the soft stamp (mold) with the pattern model over the photoresist film with an uniform contact pressure (100 mbar); (v) exposure of the photoresist layer at UV light for 90 s; and (vi) removal of the soft mold [87]. As can be seen in the field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) images from Figure 3, a periodic array of pillars having ~350 nm in diameter and ~ 1100 nm distance between pillars were fabricated on glass substrate by this procedure. The height of the pillars was estimated at ~250 nm from the cross-sectional FESEM images given in Figure 4. The quality of the patterns (height, diameter, distance between pillars) imprinted onto photoresist depends on the experimental conditions mentioned above in the UV-NIL process.
FESEM images (at different magnifications) of the periodic pillars array obtained by UV-NIL method on glass substrates.
Cross-sectional FESEM images (at two magnifications) of nanopatterned glass substrates.
Further, TCO layers were deposited on both flat and UV-NIL patterned glass substrates by a PLD system using an excimer laser with KrF (248 nm wavelength, 25 nm pulse duration, COMPex-Pro 205, Coherent Inc.) [85, 86]. The TCO solid targets (SCI Engineered Materials) were formed by In2O3:SnO2 = 90%:10% weight (ITO) and ZnO doped with 2% Al (AZO), the laser beam being directed on the target surface with a MgF2 lens having 300 mm focal length placed outside of the deposition chamber. During the deposition, the solid targets were rotated to avoid their local damage. For comparison, both types of substrates were coated with TCO layers in the same deposition cycle.
The ITO solid target placed at 5 cm distance toward substrate holder was irradiated with 7000 pulses under 45° incidence angle, the laser working at 10 Hz repetition rate into a deposition chamber filled with oxygen 6.0 at 1.5 Pa pressure and working with a low laser fluence of 1.2 J/cm2 [85]. The oxygen pressure was selected in order to obtain a low electrical resistivity, at room temperature (RT), as was mentioned in the reference [78]. The ITO layer thickness was estimated at ~340 nm as average media between the measurements made (with a profilometer) in three different points on the film deposited on flat glass substrate.
The AZO solid target placed at 8 cm distance toward substrate holder was ablated with 8000 laser pulse, a laser fluence of 2 J/cm2, and an oxygen pressure of 1 Pa [86], the values being selected based on other preliminary results where films characterized by a high transmittance were fabricated using these experimental conditions [84]. The AZO layer thickness was estimated at ~300 nm from the interference fringes observed in the UV-VIS spectra considering two consecutive maxima and minima and the refractive index = 1.8 for AZO film with 2% Al content [88].
The TCO layers deposited by PLD were labeled taking into account the substrates type, flat (glass) or nanopatterned (NP-glass), as follows: ITO/glass, AZO/glass and ITO/NP-glass and AZO/NP-glass. The morphology and optical properties of the samples were investigated by field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM, Zeiss Merlin Compact field emission scanning electron microscope), atomic force microscopy (AFM, Nanonics Multiview 4000), and UV-VIS spectroscopy (Carry 5000 Spectrophotometer).
The FESEM images from Figure 5 disclose that the ITO/glass (Figure 5
FESEM images of ITO (left) and AZO (right) films deposited by PLD on flat glass substrates.
The AFM topographic images from Figure 6 were collected on ITO/glass (Figure 6
AFM topographic images of ITO (left) and AZO (right) films deposited by PLD on flat glass substrates.
Analyzing the FESEM images of the ITO/NP-glass and AZO/NP-glass from Figures 7 and 8, respectively, it can be clearly seen that the patterns imprinted onto glass substrate are preserved during the TCO deposition by PLD. Considering that the TCO films are relatively thin (ITO ~ 340 nm and AZO ~300 nm), they tend to copy the topography of the substrate.
FESEM images (at different magnifications) of ITO films deposited by PLD on nanopatterned glass substrates.
FESEM images (at different magnifications) of AZO films deposited by PLD on nanopatterned glass substrates.
However, attention must be paid when the TCO layers are deposited on a patterned surface by PLD because the interaction between the ablated species, presented in the plasma plume, characterized by high kinetic energy and the deposition substrate can affect the growth of the film during the laser deposition [35, 92]. Thus, point defects can be formed due to species kinetic energy transfer toward the surface atoms [92]. In the PLD deposition on nanopatterned substrates, the first encountered layer is that based on photoresist (polymer) nanopillars. Nevertheless, the pillars are clearly observed in the FESEM images of the TCO deposited of nanopatterned glass substrates, only a small change in their shape being noted (in the case of ITO/NP-glass from cylindrical into a pyramid trunk-like one). Both TCO films seem similar at lower magnification, some differences due to the film thickness and the specific morphology being visible only at higher magnification. Thus, in comparison to the nanopatterned glass substrates, an enlargement in the pillars width and a narrowing in the distance between pillars are remarked, the TCO films tending to fill the space between pillars. Although the TCO films have thickness appropriate to the pillars’ height, these are not hidden by the deposited layers.
The optical transmittance is an essential criterion for the selection of the TCO films for their use in the field of OPV and OLED. Hence, the UV-VIS spectra of the prepared samples were presented in Figure 9. The TCO layers deposited on flat glass substrates are characterized by a transmittance over 80% for ITO and 75% for AZO in the visible part of the solar spectrum. Interference maxima are visible for both analyzed materials, their presence being associated with the uniformity of the deposited films [23]. This is not surprising, as it is known that high-quality layers can be obtained by PLD [93]. The refractive index (
UV-VIS spectra of TCO layers (ITO or AZO) deposited by PLD on flat (left) and nanopatterned (right) glass substrates.
Compared with the ZnO band gap value (3.3 eV [96]), the AZO/glass band gap was estimated at ~3.7 eV, similar to the value reported for AZO grown by PLD at room temperature and 1 Pa oxygen pressure [97]. Depending on the experimental conditions, especially by the oxygen pressure and the substrate temperature, the band gap of the AZO films deposited by PLD can take value between 3.32 and 3.77 eV [98].
In the case of the TCO layers deposited on nanopatterned glass substrate, a lowering in the transmittance is noticed in the UV-VIS spectra compared with the ones deposited on flat glass substrates. Moreover, the pillars introduced additional absorptions and reflections at interfaces [35]. The light couples to waveguide modes via diffraction and thus is trapped in the nanostructures, the pattern characteristics (mainly the period) affecting the optical properties of the films deposited on it [99]. Also, a shift of the absorption edge is visible for both transparent electrodes. A possible explanation for the peculiar behavior observed in the absorption edge shift of nanopatterned TCO (ITO/NP-glass to long wavelength region and AZO/NP-glass to short wavelength region) can be linked to the arrangement of the molecules inside the cavities determined by the nanostructuration. Thus, the interaction between the neighboring molecules can modify differently the energy levels of nanopatterned TCO with effect on their band gap.
Electrical properties of the prepared TCO layers are considered key features since, in the field of optoelectronic applications, conductive films are required. Hall measurements were performed on ITO/glass and ITO/NP-glass samples in order to analyze their electrical parameters, the obtained values being presented in Table 1.
Sample | ITO/glass | ITO/NP-glass |
---|---|---|
Resistivity (Ωcm) | 1.8 × 10−4 | 2.8 × 10−4 |
Mobility (cm2/Vs) | 10.6 | 15.1 |
Carrier concentration (cm−3) | 3.3 × 1021 | 1.5 × 1021 |
Sheet resistance (Ω/sq) | 5.3 | 8 |
Electrical parameters of ITO films deposited by PLD on flat and nanopatterned glass substrates evaluated from Hall investigations.
In principle, the electrical resistivity values of ITO films deposited on flat and nanopatterned glass substrates are lower than ~4 × 10−4 Ωcm reported for ITO films deposited at room temperature by PLD [100] in the same conditions (laser wavelength, target composition, and repetition rate) with those used in our study. Interesting, the electrical resistivity value of ITO film deposited on flat glass substrate is nearly to that of ITO films deposited by PLD from targets with different SnO2 content (5 or 10%) but with a heated substrate [18, 91, 101]. Kim carried on a comprehensive study regarding the influence of various experimental parameters such as oxygen pressure, SnO2 content, and deposition temperature on the resistivity of ITO films deposited by PLD [78]. Hence, this work shows that the resistivity of ITO film is influenced by the oxygen pressure through the number of the oxygen vacancies presented in the TCO layer. Also, the resistivity of ITO films is sensitive to the SnO2 content, an increase up to 5% leads to the resistivity decrease while an increase above this percent results in the increase of resistivity because the concentration of the electron traps expands due to Sn excess [91].
The carrier concentration values of ITO films deposited on flat and nanopatterned glass substrates are in concordance with those reported usually on ITO films deposited by PLD [78]. The refractive index of ITO films is influenced by the carrier density, a reduction of this parameter being possible by increasing the electron density, which can be achieved by enlarging the Sn content from the deposition target up to a certain value [78].
The extracted Hall mobility values of ITO films deposited on flat and nanopatterned glass substrates are just a little smaller than other value reported for ITO films deposited by PLD [91] utilizing the same deposition target with that implied in our work. The low Hall mobility values of ITO films can be related to the carrier-carrier scattering [44].
In the case of AZO film deposited on flat glass substrates, the resistivity was evaluated to be 2.4 × E−4 Ωcm using a Jandel four-point probe, the value being in the same range with others obtained for the AZO layers deposited by PLD on glass substrates [20, 102] using the same oxygen pressure with that applied in our study. A thoroughgoing study regarding the influence of the oxygen pressure on the optical and electrical properties of some AZO layers deposited by PLD was carried on in Ref. [102] pointing out that the films grown at a low oxygen pressure (under 3 Pa) have a compact structure characterized by a low resistivity.
The TCO films (ITO and AZO) deposited by PLD on flat and nanopatterned glass substrates were used for developing organic heterostructures for optoelectronic applications. Schematic representation of two organic heterostructures and their I-V characteristics are given in Figure 10: one based on adenine (Ade), the nucleic acid base film being deposited on ITO by vacuum thermal evaporation [103], and another based on N,N′-di(1-naftalenil)-N,N′-diafenil-(1,1′-bifenil)-4,4′-diamina (α-NPD), 1,4-bis [4-(N,N-diphenylamino)phenylvinyl] benzene (P78) and 4,7 diphenyl-1,10-phenanthroline (BPhen), the three stacked organic films being deposited on AZO by matrix-assisted pulsed laser evaporation (MAPLE) [86]. For both organic structures, aluminum electrode (100 nm) was deposited by vacuum thermal evaporation.
Schematic representation of the organic structures using TCE deposited by PLD on flat and nanopaterned glass substrates and I-V characteristics recorded on representative organic structures (single organic film – blue curve and three stacked organic films – green curve).
Hence, in the case of adenine deposited on ITO/glass substrate, the I-V characteristic (recorded in dark between −1 V and 1 V applied voltage) is changed from linear (at small voltage) to nonlinear at higher voltage (>0.5 V) probably due to the different properties shown by the contacts ITO/adenine and adenine/Al [103]. Regarding the electrode patterning, it is expected that this effect induces some changes in the electrical properties of the investigated structures by modifying the electrical field, which in turn can affect the charge carrier transport and their collection [104]. The scattering/recombination processes can be influenced by (i) the enlargement of the contact area between the nanopatterned TCO and the organic film, (ii) the change in the pathway of the charge carriers to the electrodes due to the presence of pillars; and (iii) the morphology of films characterized by grain boundaries. Compared with the structure prepared on ITO/glass electrode, the shape of the I-V characteristic of the structure deposited on ITO/NP-glass electrode was changed into a very close rectifying diode behavior. At small voltage, a slow increase in the current value is noted at the same time with the voltage increase, while a faster increase in the current is obtained after 0.5 V probably due to the growth of the number of electrons that cross the barrier and are more easily collected to the patterned electrode [103].
Concerning N,N′-di(1-naftalenil)-N,N′-diafenil-(1,1′-bifenil)-4,4′-diamina, 1,4-bis [4-(N,N-diphenylamino)phenylvinyl] benzene and 4,7 diphenyl-1,10-phenanthroline, an OLED-type structure was practically obtained using a hole transport layer (α-NPD), an emissive film (P78), and an electron transport layer (BPhen), respectively. Hence, the I-V characteristic plotted for the structure prepared on AZO/glass electrode presents a diode behavior. The structure fabricated on AZO/NP-glass electrode evidenced an improvement in the current value (at 1 V), meaning that the electrode patterning influences positively the electrical properties of the organic structures obtained on it [86], the charge transport being favored by the enlargement of the contact area between the nanopatterned AZO and the organic films [35]. This improvement recorded in the current value could be reflected in the final performances of the organic device fabricated on this type of nanostructured TCO.
Consequently, the optical and electrical properties of the organic structures fabricated on nanopatterned transparent electrodes can be enhanced due to the nanopatternation process. Taking into consideration that the organic heterostructures developed on TCO substrates are already part of our daily life (Heliatek company develops projects based on OPV solar films that can be attached in different locations or building facades or roofs [105], and LG Display produces OLED TV panels offering its OLED panels to other companies such as LG Electronics, Sony, Vizio, and Panasonic [106]), the organic layers deposited on patterned TCO can be also applied in the field of the organic optoelectronic devices.
TCO films (ITO and AZO) were deposited by PLD on flat and UV-NIL nanopatterned glass substrates, further these being used for developing organic heterostructures, which can find applications in optoelectronic device area. Thus, the glass substrates were patterned by UV-NIL technique, nanopillars arrays with suitable dimensions (width ~350 nm, height ~250 nm, and separation step(pitch) ~1100 nm) being fabricated. Although, the magnetron sputtering is preferred as deposition technique on large substrates, PLD is a viable alternative for fabricating high-quality TCO films with reduced roughness and appropriate optical and electrical properties by tuning the experimental deposition parameters such as: substrate temperature, oxygen pressure, target content, and laser fluence. Moreover, because the deposition of TCO films was carried at room temperature and the obtained TCO layers are characterized by low electrical resistivity, this laser technique can be also applied in the TCO deposition on plastic substrates for developing flexible devices.
The investigations prove that AZO is suitable for replacing ITO in TCO domain considering that the deposited AZO layers are featured by similar optical and electrical properties to those revealed by ITO layers.
Organic heterostructures were deposited on the fabricated TCO films (ITO and AZO) by vacuum thermal evaporation or matrix-assisted pulsed laser evaporation. The electrical measurements show that the patterning effect improves the optical and electrical properties of the organic heterostructures obtained on the TCO layers. Consequently, compared with an organic structure developed on a flat TCO electrode, an organic structure fabricated on a nanopatterned TCO electrode can be more efficient in the optoelectronic device area.
This research was funded by the Romanian Ministry of Research, Innovation and Digitization through the National Core Program PN19-03 (contract no. 21 N/2019) and PN-III-P4-IDPCE-2020-1691 (contract no. 66/2021).
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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\\n\\nBut, one thing we have in common is -- we are all scientists at heart!
\\n\\nSara Uhac, COO
\\n\\nSara Uhac was appointed Managing Director of IntechOpen at the beginning of 2014. She directs and controls the company’s operations. Sara joined IntechOpen in 2010 as Head of Journal Publishing, a new strategically underdeveloped department at that time. After obtaining a Master's degree in Media Management, she completed her Ph.D. at the University of Lugano, Switzerland. She holds a BA in Financial Market Management from the Bocconi University in Milan, Italy, where she started her career in the American publishing house Condé Nast and further collaborated with the UK-based publishing company Time Out. Sara was awarded a professional degree in Publishing from Yale University (2012). She is a member of the professional branch association of "Publishers, Designers and Graphic Artists" at the Croatian Chamber of Commerce.
\\n\\nAdrian Assad De Marco
\\n\\nAdrian Assad De Marco joined the company as a Director in 2017. With his extensive experience in management, acquired while working for regional and global leaders, he took over direction and control of all the company's publishing processes. Adrian holds a degree in Economy and Management from the University of Zagreb, School of Economics, Croatia. A former sportsman, he continually strives to develop his skills through professional courses and specializations such as NLP (Neuro-linguistic programming).
\\n\\nDr Alex Lazinica
\\n\\nAlex Lazinica is co-founder and Board member of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his Ph.D. in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. There, he worked as a robotics researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group, as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and, most importantly, co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, the world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career since it proved to be the pathway to the foundation of IntechOpen with its focus on addressing academic researchers’ needs. Alex personifies many of IntechOpen´s key values, including the commitment to developing mutual trust, openness, and a spirit of entrepreneurialism. Today, his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"Our business values are based on those any scientist applies to their research. We have created a culture of respect and collaboration within a relaxed, friendly and progressive atmosphere, while maintaining academic rigour.
\n\nCo-founded by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic: “We are passionate about the advancement of science. As Ph.D. researchers in Vienna, we found it difficult to access the scholarly research we needed. We created IntechOpen with the specific aim of putting the academic needs of the global research community before the business interests of publishers. Our Team is now a global one and includes highly-renowned scientists and publishers, as well as experts in disseminating your research.”
\n\nBut, one thing we have in common is -- we are all scientists at heart!
\n\nSara Uhac, COO
\n\nSara Uhac was appointed Managing Director of IntechOpen at the beginning of 2014. She directs and controls the company’s operations. Sara joined IntechOpen in 2010 as Head of Journal Publishing, a new strategically underdeveloped department at that time. After obtaining a Master's degree in Media Management, she completed her Ph.D. at the University of Lugano, Switzerland. She holds a BA in Financial Market Management from the Bocconi University in Milan, Italy, where she started her career in the American publishing house Condé Nast and further collaborated with the UK-based publishing company Time Out. Sara was awarded a professional degree in Publishing from Yale University (2012). She is a member of the professional branch association of "Publishers, Designers and Graphic Artists" at the Croatian Chamber of Commerce.
\n\nAdrian Assad De Marco
\n\nAdrian Assad De Marco joined the company as a Director in 2017. With his extensive experience in management, acquired while working for regional and global leaders, he took over direction and control of all the company's publishing processes. Adrian holds a degree in Economy and Management from the University of Zagreb, School of Economics, Croatia. A former sportsman, he continually strives to develop his skills through professional courses and specializations such as NLP (Neuro-linguistic programming).
\n\nDr Alex Lazinica
\n\nAlex Lazinica is co-founder and Board member of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his Ph.D. in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. There, he worked as a robotics researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group, as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and, most importantly, co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, the world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career since it proved to be the pathway to the foundation of IntechOpen with its focus on addressing academic researchers’ needs. Alex personifies many of IntechOpen´s key values, including the commitment to developing mutual trust, openness, and a spirit of entrepreneurialism. Today, his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.
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Kazi",authors:[{id:"93483",title:"Prof.",name:"Md Salim Newaz",middleName:null,surname:"Kazi",slug:"md-salim-newaz-kazi",fullName:"Md Salim Newaz Kazi"}]},{id:"19429",doi:"10.5772/21594",title:"Fundamentals of Paper Drying – Theory and Application from Industrial Perspective",slug:"fundamentals-of-paper-drying-theory-and-application-from-industrial-perspective",totalDownloads:46929,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:null,book:{id:"531",slug:"evaporation-condensation-and-heat-transfer",title:"Evaporation, Condensation and Heat transfer",fullTitle:"Evaporation, Condensation and Heat transfer"},signatures:"Ajit K Ghosh",authors:[{id:"43882",title:"Dr.",name:"Ajit K",middleName:null,surname:"Ghosh",slug:"ajit-k-ghosh",fullName:"Ajit K Ghosh"}]},{id:"24523",doi:"10.5772/27970",title:"Heat Conduction Problems of Thermosensitive Solids under Complex Heat Exchange",slug:"heat-conduction-problems-of-thermosensitive-solids-under-complex-heat-exchange",totalDownloads:2885,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:null,book:{id:"625",slug:"heat-conduction-basic-research",title:"Heat Conduction",fullTitle:"Heat Conduction - Basic Research"},signatures:"Roman M. Kushnir and Vasyl S. Popovych",authors:[{id:"72236",title:"Prof.",name:"Roman",middleName:"Mykhajlovych",surname:"Kushnir",slug:"roman-kushnir",fullName:"Roman Kushnir"},{id:"75920",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasyl'",middleName:null,surname:"Popovych",slug:"vasyl'-popovych",fullName:"Vasyl' Popovych"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"62059",title:"Types of HVAC Systems",slug:"types-of-hvac-systems",totalDownloads:12245,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"HVAC systems are milestones of building mechanical systems that provide thermal comfort for occupants accompanied with indoor air quality. HVAC systems can be classified into central and local systems according to multiple zones, location, and distribution. Primary HVAC equipment includes heating equipment, ventilation equipment, and cooling or air-conditioning equipment. Central HVAC systems locate away from buildings in a central equipment room and deliver the conditioned air by a delivery ductwork system. Central HVAC systems contain all-air, air-water, all-water systems. Two systems should be considered as central such as heating and cooling panels and water-source heat pumps. Local HVAC systems can be located inside a conditioned zone or adjacent to it and no requirement for ductwork. Local systems include local heating, local air-conditioning, local ventilation, and split systems.",book:{id:"6807",slug:"hvac-system",title:"HVAC System",fullTitle:"HVAC System"},signatures:"Shaimaa Seyam",authors:[{id:"247650",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Shaimaa",middleName:null,surname:"Seyam",slug:"shaimaa-seyam",fullName:"Shaimaa Seyam"},{id:"257733",title:"MSc.",name:"Shaimaa",middleName:null,surname:"Seyam",slug:"shaimaa-seyam",fullName:"Shaimaa Seyam"},{id:"395618",title:"Dr.",name:"Shaimaa",middleName:null,surname:"Seyam",slug:"shaimaa-seyam",fullName:"Shaimaa Seyam"}]},{id:"54521",title:"Basic Design Methods of Heat Exchanger",slug:"basic-design-methods-of-heat-exchanger",totalDownloads:7163,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Heat exchangers are devices that transfer energy between fluids at different temperatures by heat transfer. These devices can be used widely both in daily life and industrial applications such as steam generators in thermal power plants, distillers in chemical industry, evaporators and condensers in HVAC applications and refrigeration process, heat sinks, automobile radiators and regenerators in gas turbine engines. This chapter discusses the basic design methods for two fluid heat exchangers.",book:{id:"5395",slug:"heat-exchangers-design-experiment-and-simulation",title:"Heat Exchangers",fullTitle:"Heat Exchangers - Design, Experiment and Simulation"},signatures:"Cüneyt Ezgi",authors:[{id:"187086",title:"Prof.",name:"Cüneyt",middleName:null,surname:"Ezgi",slug:"cuneyt-ezgi",fullName:"Cüneyt Ezgi"}]},{id:"48647",title:"Modeling and Design of Plate Heat Exchanger",slug:"modeling-and-design-of-plate-heat-exchanger",totalDownloads:9589,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:null,book:{id:"4563",slug:"heat-transfer-studies-and-applications",title:"Heat Transfer",fullTitle:"Heat Transfer Studies and Applications"},signatures:"Fábio A.S. Mota, E.P. Carvalho and Mauro A.S.S. Ravagnani",authors:[{id:"35110",title:"Prof.",name:"Mauro",middleName:null,surname:"Ravagnani",slug:"mauro-ravagnani",fullName:"Mauro Ravagnani"}]},{id:"53559",title:"Design of Heat Transfer Surfaces in Agitated Vessels",slug:"design-of-heat-transfer-surfaces-in-agitated-vessels",totalDownloads:4469,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The project on heat transfer surfaces in agitated vessels is based on the determination of the heat exchange area, which is necessary to abide by the process conditions as mixing quality and efficiency of heat transfer. The heat transfer area is determined from the overall heat transfer coefficient (U). The coefficient (U) represents the operation quality in heat transfers being a function of conduction and convection mechanisms. The determination of U is held from the Nusselt’s number, which is related to the dimensionless Reynolds and Prandtl’s, and from the fluid’s viscosity relation that is being agitated in the bulk temperature and the viscosity in the wall’s temperature of heat exchange. The aim of this chapter is to present a summary for the literature concerning heat transfer in agitated vessels (equipped with jackets, helical coils, spiral coils, and vertical tube baffles) and also the many parameters of Nusselt’s equation for these surfaces. It will present a numerical example for a project in an agitated vessel using vertical tube baffles and a 45° pitched blade turbine. Subsequently, the same procedure is held with a turbine radial impeller, in order to compare the heat transfer efficiencies.",book:{id:"5395",slug:"heat-exchangers-design-experiment-and-simulation",title:"Heat Exchangers",fullTitle:"Heat Exchangers - Design, Experiment and Simulation"},signatures:"Vitor da Silva Rosa and Deovaldo de Moraes Júnior",authors:[{id:"187128",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Vitor",middleName:null,surname:"Rosa",slug:"vitor-rosa",fullName:"Vitor Rosa"},{id:"188792",title:"Dr.",name:"Deovaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Moraes Júnior",slug:"deovaldo-moraes-junior",fullName:"Deovaldo Moraes Júnior"}]},{id:"40354",title:"Calculation Methods for Heating and Ventilation System of Electrical Machines",slug:"calculation-methods-for-heating-and-ventilation-system-of-electrical-machines",totalDownloads:5415,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"3091",slug:"heat-transfer-phenomena-and-applications",title:"Heat Transfer Phenomena and Applications",fullTitle:"Heat Transfer Phenomena and Applications"},signatures:"Otilia Nedelcu and Corneliu Ioan Sălişteanu",authors:[{id:"142213",title:"Dr.",name:"Otilia",middleName:null,surname:"Nedelcu",slug:"otilia-nedelcu",fullName:"Otilia Nedelcu"},{id:"154781",title:"Dr.",name:"Ioan Corneliu",middleName:null,surname:"Salisteanu",slug:"ioan-corneliu-salisteanu",fullName:"Ioan Corneliu Salisteanu"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"826",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"80334",title:"Zero Emission Hydrogen Fuelled Fuel Cell Vehicle and Advanced Strategy on Internal Combustion Engine: A Review",slug:"zero-emission-hydrogen-fuelled-fuel-cell-vehicle-and-advanced-strategy-on-internal-combustion-engine",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102057",abstract:"Global energy consumption has gradually increased as a result of population growth, industrialization, economic development, and rising living standards. Furthermore, as global warming and pollution worsen, the development of renewable energy sources is becoming more essential. Hydrogen is one of the most promising clean and sustainable energy carriers because it emits only water as a byproduct without carbon emission and has the highest energy efficiency. Hydrogen can be produced from a variety of raw resources, including water and biomass. Water electrolysis is one of many hydrogen production technologies that is highly recommended due to its eco-friendliness, high hydrogen generation rate, and high purity. However, in terms of long-term viability and environmental effect, Polymer Electrolyte Membrane water electrolysis has been identified as a potential approach for producing high-purity, high-efficiency hydrogen from renewable energy sources. Furthermore, the hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2) produced are directly employed in fuel cells and other industrial uses. As a result, an attempt has been made in this work to investigate hydrogen synthesis and utilization in fuel cell vehicles. Low-temperature combustion technology has recently been applied in engine technology to reduce smoke and NOx emissions at the same time. The advantages and limitations of homogeneous charge compression ignition, partially premixed charge compression ignition, premixed charge compression ignition, and reactivity regulated compression ignition are described separately in low-temperature combustion strategy.",book:{id:"11164",title:"Diesel Engines and Biodiesel Engines Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11164.jpg"},signatures:"Babu Dharmalingam, Ramakrishna Reddy Ramireddy, Santhoshkumar Annamalai, Malinee Sriariyanun, Deepakkumar Rajagopal and Venkata Ramana Katla"},{id:"82176",title:"Replacement of Diesel Fuel by DME in Compression Ignition Engines: Case for India",slug:"replacement-of-diesel-fuel-by-dme-in-compression-ignition-engines-case-for-india",totalDownloads:13,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104969",abstract:"Decarbonising of transport, industrial and all sectors of economy is a necessity to stop or reverse global warming. Use of batteries, fuel-cells, hybrid topographies with smaller IC engines and use of alternative fuels like methanol, ethanol, DME in the IC engines are some of the ways through which emission of green-house gases can reduced/eliminated. Diesel engines are highly efficient due to higher compression ratios and are used in the heavy-duty transportation vehicles. DME is a single molecule fuel having high cetane number and which can be used as a drop-in fuel on the diesel engines albeit with retro-fitment of these engines with a new pressurized fuel system. DME with a chemical formula CH3-O-CH3 can be produced by different feedstocks such as coal, natural gas, biomass and bio-waste and municipal solid waste. India has a large reserve of high ash coal and generates high quantities of biomass and MSW, all of which can be converted to DME by use of clean production technologies. India’s transport and industrial sectors consume about 100 billion liters of diesel fuel per year produced entirely from imported petroleum. This amount of diesel can be replaced by indigenously produced DME from locally available coal, biomass and MSW.",book:{id:"11164",title:"Diesel Engines and Biodiesel Engines Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11164.jpg"},signatures:"Anirudh Gautam and Ankita Singh"},{id:"81979",title:"The Influence of Exhaust Gas Recirculation on Performance and Emission Characteristics of a Diesel Engine Using Waste Plastic Pyrolysis Oil Blends and Conventional Diesel",slug:"the-influence-of-exhaust-gas-recirculation-on-performance-and-emission-characteristics-of-a-diesel-e",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105011",abstract:"Through an experimental study, this work focused on finding the influence of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) on waste plastic pyrolysis oils (WPPOs) with diesel as a base comparison fuel. The results show the amount of carbon monoxide emissions seemed to decrease at low engine loads up to intermediate loads of (50%), thereafter continued to increase significantly but marginally. Among fuels tested, blend WPPOB100 reported the highest BSFC, at 0% EGR flow rate. The value was 0.4751g/kW.hr. compared with 0.7235 g/kW.hr. at 30% EGR flow rate. Increased blend ratio had a direct decrease in brake power linearly. At 30% engine load, CD, WPPOB10, WPPOB20, WPPOB30 and WPPOB40 recorded values of 2.125 kW, 2.15 kW, 2.05 kW, 1.98 kW, 1.86 kW and 1.75 kW, respectively. Exhaust gas temperature (EGT) at 30% EGR flow rate, blend WPPOB10 had the highest reduction in temperature compared with the any other WPPO blends at 320°C. Increased blend ratio and EGR percentage flow rate increased smoke emissions within the test fuels blends. At 15% EGR flow rate, the following data were recorded: 7.53%, 7.1%, 6.72%, 6.25%, 6.0% and 5.4% for CD, WWPO10, WPPO20, WPPO30, WPPO40 and WPPO100, respectively.",book:{id:"11164",title:"Diesel Engines and Biodiesel Engines Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11164.jpg"},signatures:"Semakula Maroa and Freddie Inambao"},{id:"81895",title:"Performance and Emission Characteristics of Hydrogenation Derived Renewable Diesel as Diesel Engine Fuel",slug:"performance-and-emission-characteristics-of-hydrogenation-derived-renewable-diesel-as-diesel-engine-",totalDownloads:8,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104820",abstract:"Growing anxieties about the continued depletion of fossil fuel reserves, improving the performance of diesel engines, and mandates to reduce greenhouse gas emissions have made the search for alternative fuels for diesel engines more imperative. Hydrogenation Derived Renewable Diesel (HDRD) is recognized as a sustainable, reliable, and cost-effective alternative to petroleum-based diesel (PBD) fuel for compression ignition (CI) engines. This may be because the physicochemical properties of HDRD are similar to that of PBD fuel. The current effort examines the performance and emission characteristics of HDRD in unmodified CI engines. Performance emissions characteristics such as power, torque, brake specific fuel consumption, thermal efficiency, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, particulate matter, and exhaust gas temperature were interrogated and compared with that of PBD fuel in a CI engine. The outcome of the study shows that HDRD is better than biodiesel and a sustainable replacement for PDB fuel to achieve improved performance and reduced emissions of CI engines. Going forward, more investigations are needed to further simplify the preparation and democratize the utilization of HDRD as CI fuels for various applications.",book:{id:"11164",title:"Diesel Engines and Biodiesel Engines Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11164.jpg"},signatures:"Omojola Awogbemi, Daramy Vandi Von Kallon and Josiah Pelemo"},{id:"81114",title:"Research and Innovation to Improve the Efficiency of Modern Diesel Engines",slug:"research-and-innovation-to-improve-the-efficiency-of-modern-diesel-engines",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102759",abstract:"Modern diesel engines are one of the main mobile energy sources and are characterized by a high degree of workflow completeness, design, and manufacturing technology. The chapter summarizes the authors’ experience in improving diesel engines, increasing specific volume power, and reliability, ensuring a low level of environmental pollution emissions. The results of research using industry 4.0 technologies for systematization, choice of directions, and the search for rational ways to improve the efficiency of diesel engines are presented. The application of anergo-exergy method for analyzing the efficiency of the working process of the engine and its systems is considered. Taking into consideration the operating conditions, technical solutions are proposed to improve the reliability of the most heat-stressed parts of high-powered engines. The possibilities for a comprehensive assessment of the fuel efficiency and environmental qualities of diesel engines have been expanded taking into account CO2 emissions when using traditional, alternative, and hybrid diesel fuel.",book:{id:"11164",title:"Diesel Engines and Biodiesel Engines Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11164.jpg"},signatures:"Andrіy Marchenko, Igor Parsadanov, Volodymyr Pylyov, Oleksandr Osetrov, Linkov Oleh, Serhii Kravchenko, Oleksandr Trynov, Denys Meshkov, Serhii Bilyk, Anatolii Savchenko, Inna Rykova and Rasoul Aryan"},{id:"81849",title:"A Comparative Evaluation of Biodiesel and Used Cooking Oil as Feedstock for HDRD Application: A Review",slug:"a-comparative-evaluation-of-biodiesel-and-used-cooking-oil-as-feedstock-for-hdrd-application-a-revie",totalDownloads:11,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104393",abstract:"The search for clean energy for transportation fuel across the globe has grown in intensity. The use of biodiesel as a fuel for compression ignition (CI) engines has shown some deficiencies, e.g., poor storage, and poor pour point. The carbon chain of biodiesel is one of the factors to be considered; the longer carbon chain length leads to decreased ignition delay, which leads to the formation of OH during the premixed combustion phase. The major challenges that render biodiesel inefficient are discussed, like higher viscosity, lower energy content, higher nitrogen oxide (NOX) emissions, lower engine speed and power, injector coking, engine compatibility, high cost, and higher engine wear. The novelty of this work is that it shows that biodiesel conversion to green diesel is possible using a biowaste heterogeneous catalyst to obtain quality and high yield of HDRD with lower cost. This renewable energy (HDRD) possesses properties that are directly compatible with CI engines and transportation engines. This research reviewed biodiesel and UCO as feedstocks for the production of HDRD, including the cost–benefit of these feedstocks. Hydrogenation of biodiesel has the potential to overcome the drawbacks of conventional chemically catalyzed processes.",book:{id:"11164",title:"Diesel Engines and Biodiesel Engines Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11164.jpg"},signatures:"Josiah Pelemo, Kayode Timothy Akindeji, Freddie L. Inambao, Omojola Awogbemi and Emmanuel Idoko Onuh"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:12},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:320,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:133,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:17,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,editor:null,editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. 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