Conditions of minimal dissipation in thermodynamic processes.
\r\n\tCKs have crucial roles in various viral infections such as influenza, hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), viral meningitis, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and SARS-CoV-2.
\r\n\tCKs mediate the directing of the transport of leukocyte cells into the tumor microenvironment to generate the host response against cancer. CKs can directly modulate tumor tissue expansion by inducing the proliferation of cancerous cells and inhibiting their apoptosis. They can also indirectly modulate the growth of tumor tissue through the effects of CKs on tumor stromal cells, by inducing the release of growth and angiogenic factors of cells that make up the tumor microenvironment.
Applied thermodynamics originates from the work of Sadi Carnot in 1824 [1]. One of the problems of thermodynamics is the study of problems on the limiting possibilities of thermodynamic systems. For a long time, these tasks boiled down to finding the maximum efficiency of heat and refrigeration machines, separation systems, and various chemical processes. The solution of these problems led to the fact that the maximum efficiency value was determined in the case when the process under study was reversible. Reversibility will include processes in which the coefficients of heat and mass transfer are arbitrarily large or the fluxes of energy and matter in the system under study are arbitrarily small. With the development of nuclear energy, a new task was set—to obtain such a cycle of a heat engine that would correspond to its maximum power with certain fixed exchange ratios with sources. This task is due to the fact that the capital expenditures for the construction of nuclear power facilities are high with a relatively low cost of fuel spent. Variants of solving the problem of optimization thermodynamics were proposed in [2, 3].
\nFurther development of finite-time thermodynamics was stimulated by a great deal of work of very many investigators. Here, we list names of just a few first researchers: R.S. Berry, B. Andresen, K.H. Hoffmann, P. Salamon, L.I. Rozonoer, and some others (see [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32]).
\nTypical problems of optimization thermodynamics include the following: processes with minimal irreversibility; determination of the limiting possibilities of heat engines, cold cycles, and heat pumps (maximum power, maximum efficiency, many realizable modes); and analysis of the processes of separation of mixtures.
\nThe general approach to solving problems is as follows. It is assumed that the whole system is divided into subsystems. In each subsystem, at any time moment, the deviations of the intensive variables from their average values over the volume are negligible. Consequently, the change of these variables (temperatures, pressures, etc.) occurs only at the boundaries of the subsystems, which means that the system as a whole is in a nonequilibrium state. This assumption makes it possible to use the equation of state in the description of individual subsystems, which are valid under equilibrium conditions, and ordinary differential equations can be used to describe the dynamics of the subsystems. The solution of extremal problems in this case is performed by methods of the optimal control theory for lumped parameter systems.
\nTo study the limiting possibilities of thermodynamic systems, it is first necessary to make balance relations for matter, energy, and entropy. Moreover, the balance ratio for entropy includes dissipation \n
When a minimum possible dissipation is found as a function of flux intensities, then the inequality \n
In any real system, it is possible to narrow the realizability region if we find the minimum possible dissipation value as a function of the flux intensity (\n
Then, from the balance equations, it is necessary to derive the connection between the system performance indicators and dissipation \n
Next, it is necessary to solve the problem of the organization of processes in such a way that, with the given constraints, the dissipation as a function of the flux intensities is minimal. This is the most difficult step in analyzing the capabilities of thermodynamic systems.
\nConsider the process of studying the limiting possibilities in more detail, and begin with thermodynamic balances. Thermodynamic balances show the relationship between the fluxes (matter, energy, and entropy) that the system exchanges with the environment and the changes in these values in the system [19]. Let us summarize all the fluxes, considering incoming fluxes as positive and outcoming fluxes as negative. Fluxes can be convective and diffusive. Convective fluxes are forced into the system and removed from it. The diffusive flux depends on the differences between the intensive variables of the system at the point where it enters and the intensive variables of the environment.
\nThe energy balance shows the rate of change in the energy of a system, which is determined by the flux of energy that enters or is removed along with the convective fluxes of matter, the change in energy due to the diffusional exchange of matter, the currents of conductively transmitted heat, and the power of the work done. Material balance shows the change in the number of moles of substances in the system. Entropy balance shows the change in the entropy of the system, which occurs due to the influx of entropy together with the incoming substances, the influx or removal of heat, and the production of entropy due to the irreversibility of exchange processes.
\nIf the system operates cyclically, the balances can be recorded on average for the equipment working cycle. In this case, the total change in energy, amount of matter, and entropy per cycle is zero, since the state of the system at the start and the end of the cycle is the same. Balances are transformed into a system of relations of averages over cycle-averaged components.
\nThe equations of thermodynamic balances show the relationship between process efficiency indicators, external fluxes, and the structure of the system. The increase in entropy \n
Consider the operation of a thermal machine that converts the heat received from a hot source with temperature \n
Let us denote the average intensity of the heat flux taken from the hot source \n
and
\nSince the state of the working fluid either does not change in time (for steam and gas turbines) or changes cyclically (for steam engines), then there are zeros in the right parts of the equations.
\nThermal efficiency \n
Taking into account the fact that the Eq. (2) implies
\nTherefore,
\nThermal efficiency \n
The growth of \n
It is known that the maximum efficiency of conversion of thermal energy into mechanical work or separation work is achieved in reversible processes. If the intensity of the target flux is set, the processes in the thermodynamic system are irreversible. In this case, the role of reversible processes is played by the processes of minimal dissipation, so it is necessary to determine conditions under which thermodynamic processes exhibit minimal dissipation for a prescribed average intensity (prescribed averaged value of driving forces).
\nConsider two systems interacting with each other. Intensive variables for the \n
for scalar \n
The difference between vectors \n
where the independent variable \n
We shall assume that in our algorithm (at least) one intensive variable appears, by definition \n
Average values of all or some selected fluxes are prescribed:
\nFurther on, we consider only the case of a scalar flux. The problem for vector fluxes and its solution is considered with details in [32, 33].
\nThe scalar flux problem involves minimizing of the integral
\nsubject to constraining conditions:
\nThe problem (10)–(12) simplifies in an important case when the rate of change of variable \n
In this case the condition of minimal dissipation assumes the form
\nwhereas the condition of prescribed flux intensity can be written as
\nThe value of \n
If the flux is proportional to the driving force with constant coefficient \n
Consider the conditions for the minimum dissipation of heat exchange. Let us take the temperature of the body being heated as the controlling intense variable. The driving force in the minimum dissipation problem is
\nwhereas the heat flux is \n
where \n
If the process takes place in time, then the parameter \n
In agreement with conditions (14), (15) describing the minimum dissipation subject a prescribed average intensity of heat flux \n
The first of these conditions determines \n
For the Newtonian law of heat transfer
\nwith a constant heat capacity (water equivalent) \n
Therefore, for an arbitrary \n
As it follows from Eq. (20), \n
Substituting Eqs. (23) and (24) into the expression
\nminimal entropy production is obtained in the form
\nTable 1 presents analogous conditions of minimal dissipation for some well-known processes and corresponding expressions for minimal entropy production.
\nProcess | \nConditions of minimal dissipation and entropy production | \n
---|---|
Heat transfer \n | \n\n\n \n\n | \n
Vector flux, linearly depending on driving forces \n | \n\n\n | \n
One-sided isothermal mass transfer \n | \n\n\n \n\n | \n
Two-sided isothermal equimolar mass transfer | \n\n\n \n\n \n\n | \n
Conditions of minimal dissipation in thermodynamic processes.
As shown in [34], the conditions of minimal dissipation make it significantly easier to estimate the limiting possibilities of thermodynamic systems. In a system with multithreaded heat exchange [35], the total heat load q and the total heat transfer coefficient \n
The conditions under which the minimum possible production of the entropy of the \n
Computational relations for Newtonian heat transfer are
\nThe system in which the entropy production calculated with parameters of all fluxes
\nis lower than a certain value cannot exist in reality.
\nAnalogous relations can easily be obtained in the case when the inlet parameters of heated fluxes are prescribed.
\nIn [36] the problem of the limiting possibilities of the heat exchange system (“ideal” heat exchange) was considered. The minimum possible entropy production \n
Conditions of ideal heat exchange impose very strict requirements on the characteristics of the system:
\n—Each double-flux cell must be a counter-flux heat exchanger.
\n—The ratio of the water equivalents of the hot and cold flux in it should be equal to the ratio in degrees Kelvin of the temperature of the cold flux at the outlet of the heat exchange cell to the temperature of the hot flux at its inlet—conditions of thermodynamic consistency.
\n—This ratio and its corresponding minimum possible entropy production at fixed temperatures and water equivalents of hot fluxes are related to their inlet temperatures \n
—The temperature of the hot streams at the outlet should be the same and, as it follows from the conditions of the energy balance, is equal to:
\n—Hot fluxes with initial temperatures less than \n
If a part of the hot fluxes condenses in the process of heat transfer, then in the expression for \n
\n\n
Here, it is taken into account that the temperature \n
Thus, the expression for \n
In a multithreaded system integrated with the technological process, the values of water equivalents of both hot and cold fluxes are set, and often their outlet temperatures are set. Therefore, the performance of the ideal heat exchange system cannot be achieved. It is natural to set the task of synthesis of the heat exchange system of the minimum irreversibility at more rigid restrictions on characteristics of streams. The conditions of ideal heat transfer can only serve as a “guiding star” like Carnot’s efficiency for thermal machines, and the value of the ratio \n
Next, we propose the calculated relations for the bottom estimate of the minimum dissipation in the system with the above restrictions and the synthesis of a hypothetical system in which such an estimate is implemented.
\nConsider a multithreaded heat exchange system containing a set of hot (index \n
For hot (cooled) fluxes, except for water equivalents, their temperatures at the inlet to the heat exchanger \n
Under these conditions, the thermal load of the system is equal to the total energy required for heating all cold fluxes and is determined by the equality:
\nThe difference in the conditions imposed on the hot and cold fluxes is due to the fact that for cold fluxes leaving the system with a temperature less than a predetermined one, heating is required, i.e., additional energy costs, and for hot ones, if their outlet temperature is greater than a predetermined one, cooling is required, which is much easier.
\nEntropy production is the difference between the total entropy of outgoing fluxes and the total entropy of incoming fluxes. Initially, we assume that all fluxes enter and leave the system in the same phase state, the pressure change in the system is small, and the heat capacity is constant. Then, the change in the entropy of each flux is the product of its water equivalent by the logarithm of the ratio of its inlet and outlet temperatures in degrees Kelvin [37]. So, it follows from the conditions of the thermodynamic entropy balance that:
\nThe first of these terms is negative, the second is positive, and their sum is always greater than \n
Note that all variables determining the value of the entropy growth of cold fluxes are given by the conditions of the problem, so that the minimum entropy production corresponds to the minimum at a given thermal load of the first summand by temperatures \n
The formal statement will take the form:
\nThe Lagrangian of this problem
\nThe conditions of its stationarity in \n
Thus,
In general, coolant fluxes at the system inlet can have different phase states: vapor, liquid, or vapor-liquid mixture. The same states can be at the output of the stream.
\n—If the flux does not change its phase state, but changes only the temperature, then we assume that its temperature at the input to the cell \n
—If the cold flux changes its phase state so that at the inlet it is a liquid at boiling point and at the outlet it is saturated with steam (let us define it as “evaporating”), the weight flux rate \n
Thus, the first step in the synthesis algorithm of heat exchange systems is the preparation of initial data, in which actual fluxes and their characteristics are converted into calculated fluxes. They can be of two types: those that do not change their phase state (heated and cooled) and those that change it at the boiling point (evaporating and condensing). End-to-end fluxes are not included in the calculation. To calculate the total heat load production, use the following expression:
\nMinimum dissipation implies fulfillment of the “counterflow principle”: the cold streams with higher temperatures must be in contact with the hot flux with a higher temperature. The latter requirement, as well as the equality of temperatures of hot streams at the outlet, corresponds to the conditions of the ideal heat transfer [36].
\nAs the hot fluxes move from one contact cell to the next, their temperature changes due to the recoil of the heat flux. At the output of the system, the heat flux given by them is \n
In this case, we assume that when the hot flux with the highest input temperature (first) is cooled to a temperature of \n
Cold fluxes are ordered by their outlet temperature, so that \n
Its temperature will drop to the set temperature at the output of the second stream.
Its temperature will drop to its initial temperature.
In the first case, the first cold flux is calculated combined with the second. In the second case, it is excluded from the system and transferred to the heating of the second stream. This procedure continues until an equivalent cold flux reaches the lowest cold flux temperature at the system inlet. The number of threads included in the equivalent cold flux is changed by adding fluxes with lower temperatures at the outlet and due to the exclusion from streams with the highest temperatures at the entrance. But each value of \n
The dependencies of the current contact temperatures can be calculated from energy balance conditions similar to the expression (25). For equivalent hot flux:
\nwhere \n
Similarly, for the contact temperature of the equivalent cold flux, we have:
\nwhere \n
The curves of the current contact temperatures decrease monotonically with the growth of \n
The interval \n
For each such interval of \n
Both equivalent fluxes change their phase states.
The hot equivalent flux is cooled and the cold is heated.
One of the fluxes changes its phase state, and the other is cooled or heated.
Contact temperature curves provide all the data necessary to calculate the heat transfer coefficient of the cell in which the contact is made:
\n—Water equivalents of \n
—Temperatures of equivalent fluxes at the inlet and outlet of the interval of homogeneity is known.
\n—The thermal load of such a computational cell is \n
Depending on which of these contact combinations is implemented, it is possible to select the type of cell hydrodynamics and find \n
An irreversible factor affecting machine power or pump performance is finite heat transfer coefficients \n
As \n
To minimize the production of entropy, it is necessary that with each contact of the working medium with the sources the conditions of minimum dissipation, which depend on the dynamics of heat transfer, are met. For a source of infinite capacity and the temperature of the working fluid in contact with, it should be constant. For Newtonian dynamics, the ratio of working fluid temperature and sources should have been constant. So, if the temperature of the source changes due to the final capacity, then the temperature of the working fluid should change, remaining proportional to the temperature of the source.
\nFor sources of infinite capacity, the optimal cycle of a heat machine with maximum power for any heat transfer dynamics should consist of two isotherms and two adiabats, and it turned out that the efficiency corresponding to the maximum power (it is called the Novikov-Curzon-Ahlborn, \n
The maximum difference between \n
For power that is less than the maximum possible, the maximum efficiency of the heat machine is equal to
\nIn this case, \n
As \n
Corresponding thermal efficiency approaches the efficiency value obtained by Novikov, Curzon, and Ahlborn (42).
\nThe nature of the set of realization modes is shown in Figure 1.
\nPower of thermal machine as a function of driving heat flux.
Similar results can be obtained for the heat pumps. Since the flux of costs is mechanical energy, the set of realizable modes has the form of a convex upward and unbounded parabola.
\nIn the separation process, energy is spending on getting the work of separation. The work of separation can be obtained as an increase in the free energy of the streams leaving the system compared to the energy of the mixture flux at the system inlet. The energy expended can be thermal or mechanical. In systems of separation with thermal energy, the set of realizable modes coincides in the form with heat engines. In this case, the rectification processes will be the most important and energy-intensive. In the section below, the process of thermal separation of a two-component mixture is considered, and considerations which allow one to proceed to the determination of the order of separation of multicomponent mixtures are obtained.
\nLet the following parameters be defined for a mixture of two components: \n
The ratio of target mass flux \n
Using material balances of Eq. (46), we shall express \n
Here, \n
We transform Eq. (48) to the form \n
Here, \n
The entropy of mixing per one mole of mixture is:
\nNote that the ratio T-/F depends on reversible factors only. In the reversible process, the entropy production \n
As a productivity you can take any of the streams, even the stream of a separated mixture, because with given compositions of the streams they are proportional.
\nA reversible estimate of the thermal efficiency of the separation process and the shape of the border of the realizability region can be clarified by finding the minimum possible for a given productivity and dynamics of heat and mass transfer value \n
If the dynamics of heat transfer can be approximated by the Fourier law and the mass transfer flux is proportional to the difference of chemical potentials, then the minimum dissipation is proportional to the square of the cost of heat. The boundary of the set of realizable modes in this case has a parabolic form
\nThen, the efficiency of a separation column in the maximum productivity mode is equal to one half of the reversible efficiency:
\nQualitative expressions linking characteristic coefficients \n
Here, \n
The coefficients \n
In Figure 2 shows an example of the boundaries of realizable sets in cases where \n
With decreasing dynamic coefficients, the entropy production increases. The set of realizable modes is compressed, while the maximum performance points with a corresponding heat flux remain on a straight line with a slope of \n
Nature of change of the realization frontier with the irreversibility increase.
We arrange the substances according to the property \n
Let \n
To determine the separation order, it is necessary to calculate the difference:
\nIf the result of the calculation Eq. (57) is negative, then it is reasonable to choose a direct separation order. If the result is positive—a reverse order.
\nIn the case of a multistage system, this rule applies to each of two successive stages. It is easy to see that the expression in square brackets in Eq. (57) is non-negative. From here follows the rule of temperature multipliers (see [39]): The separation boundaries must be chosen so that the temperature multipliers do not decrease from stage to stage. In the case when the separation efficiency in the maximum performance mode depends only on the reversible efficiency, the rule of temperature multipliers is also valid. It is important that the information that is needed to calculate temperature factors is much more accessible and accurate than the information on the dynamics of the processes in the column.
\nThis chapter discusses the problems of optimization of thermodynamics and methods of analysis of systems and describes the types of thermodynamic balances, the relationship between the performance of the process, and the production of entropy. Also, it is shown that in the absence of irreversibility, the thermal efficiency is equal to the Carnot efficiency.
\nThe conditions are found under which the thermodynamic processes at a given average intensity have minimal dissipation, expressions for determining the minimum dissipation and entropy with the Newtonian heat transfer law are obtained, and expressions for the cases of vector flux, one-sided isothermal, and two-sided equimolar mass transfer are given.
\nThe synthesis algorithm makes it possible to build heat exchange systems with minimal irreversibility, in which restrictions on water equivalents, temperatures, and phase states of the flows are fulfilled, which imply combining the fluxes into two equivalent ones. The nature of the set of realizable modes of heat engines and pumps is described. It is shown that the efficiency corresponding to the maximum power mode does not depend on heat transfer coefficients, but is only a function of the Carnot efficiency.
\nSeparation processes are considered, and estimates of the thermal efficiency of the separation process and the shape of the realizable area boundary are obtained for them. It is shown that the efficiency in the mode of maximum performance depends only on the reversible efficiency. The rule of temperature multipliers is described, which allows to determine the separation order in multistage systems.
\nRabies is a highly fatal viral infection of the central nervous system caused by the Rabies virus, which belongs to the genus Lyssavirus of the
Rabies is sustained in two epidemiological cycles, one urban and the other sylvatic. Dogs are the principal reservoir host in the urban rabies cycle. This cycle is most prevalent in areas of Africa, Asia, Central and South America where there are a large number of unvaccinated, semi-owned or stray dogs. In Europe and North America, the sylvatic (or wildlife) cycle is the most common. In animals, disease patterns might be relatively stable or evolve into a slow-moving epidemic.
The skin or mucous membrane is the most common site of rabies virus entrance in humans and animals, where the virus enters the muscle and subcutaneous tissue through biting, licking or scratching by a rabies-virus-infected animal. Acute encephalomyelitis is the pathogenic manifestation in the CNS. In animals, disease can manifest itself in two ways. The classical or encephalitic (furious) form of rabies accounts for 80–85% of rabies cases. Hydrophobia, pharyngeal spasms and hyperactivity are all symptoms of the furious type of rabies, which can lead to paralysis, coma and death. The dumb type, also known as the paralytic form, is characterised by the development of pronounced and flaccid muscular weakness and is less prevalent. In humans, symptoms of cerebral dysfunction, agitation, anxiety and confusion develop. Later the person experiences abnormal behaviour, delirium, hallucinations, insomnia and respiratory failure. Once the symptoms develop, the disease is often fatal.
Even though Louis Pasteur achieved his first breakthrough against rabies with post-exposure vaccination in 1885, the disease continues to haunt the mankind, particularly in impoverished countries, more than 125 years later [4]. Despite recent advances in diagnosis, post-exposure treatment, the production of human and veterinary vaccines and the control of rabies in dogs and wild animals, rabies remains a major health hazard in many countries in Africa, South America and Asia and an economic burden for both developed and developing countries. Rabies is currently found on all continents except Antarctica, although Asia and Africa account for more than 95% of human mortality. Domestic/wild animals, as well as humans, are the primary transmitters. Many countries, including Japan, the United Kingdom, Denmark, Sweden, Greece, Scandinavia, Iceland, Portugal, New Zealand and Australia, are rabies-free, according to the World Health Organisation (WHO). Vaccination, public awareness, responsible participation, continued cooperation among stakeholders and the removal of the stray dog population are some of the measures to avoid rabies [5].
The deity of death was accompanied by a dog as the ambassador of death in India about 3000 BC. Rabid canines continue to kill 20,000 people each year in modern-day India. The Mosaic Esmuna Code of Babylon, written around 2300 BC, is the first documented record of rabies causing death in dogs and humans. Babylonians had to pay a fine if their dog communicated rabies to another person. Democritus, in the fifth century BC, accurately described the disease in dogs, as did Aristotle in the third century BC [6].
The medical literature of the ancient world was littered with ineffective folk cures. Scribonius Largus, a physician, proposed a poultice of cloth and hyena skin, while Antaeus suggested a concoction prepared from a hung man’s skull. The Roman scholar Celsus correctly predicted that rabies was transmitted through the saliva of the bitten animal in the first century A.D. He wrongly suggested that placing the victim under water would cure rabies. Those who did not drown succumbed to rabies. In eighteenth-century America, the most intriguing rabies therapy was the usage of madstones. Madstones are calcified hairballs found in ruminant stomachs including cows, goats and deer. They were supposed to have healing properties since they drew the craziness from the bite wound.
In the 1880s, the first effective rabies treatment was developed. When Louis Pasteur, a French chemistry instructor, was experimenting with chicken cholera, he discovered that virulent cultures exposed to the elements no longer caused sickness. He also discovered that chickens inoculated with this weaker or ‘attenuated strain’ were immune to fresh, virulent cultures. Pasteur then attempted an attenuated anthrax vaccination in cattle. It was successful! He next turned his attention to the world’s scourge, rabies. Pasteur wanted more time to purify his attenuated vaccine before trying it on himself, despite the positive results of his initial animal experiments. In the year 1885, a rabid dog mauled a 9-year-old kid named Joseph Meister. The wounds were treated by a local doctor, who informed Joseph’s family that Louis Pasteur was the only person who could rescue him. Pasteur consented only after speaking with a few of genuine doctors, who stated Joseph was a ‘dead lad walking’. Joseph recovered completely after receiving 13 inoculations in just 11 days. The nerve tissue vaccine developed by Louis Pasteur in 1885 was a success, and it was modified over time to decrease the typical severe side effects [7].
Although dogs are the predominant reservoirs, other domesticated animals and wildlife also play a role in rabies transmission [8]. The virus can easily be passed from one mammal to another, whether they are of the same species or not. Humans are most infected with rabies after being bitten or scratched by an infected dog or cat. Bats, foxes, coyotes, skunks, raccoons, wolves, opossums and other animals are among the commonly infected wild or feral animals. Rabid dogs infect most people in poor countries. These dogs are frequently aggressive and drool frequently, although they act very withdrawn. Humans and domestic animals contract the disease after coming into contact with infected saliva.
Bites, non-bite exposure and human-to-human transmission are all possible routes for rabies transmission. The most common way to contract rabies is through a bite from a rabid animal, although infection can also be spread through skin wounds contaminated by infected saliva. The incubation period is the time between the bite and the onset of symptoms, and it can span anywhere from weeks to months. Because the virus has not yet made it to the saliva, a bite by the animal during the incubation stage carries no danger of rabies. Other inoculation routes are uncommon. The rabies virus can enter the body through wounds or direct contact with mucous membranes. The virus cannot pass through intact skin. The chance of contracting rabies from a bite (5–80%) is at least 50 times higher than the risk of contracting it from a scratch (0.1–1%). Virus particles are present in all the body secretions 2 days after it first enters the CNS, and the victim is fully contagious. At or shortly after this point, clinical symptoms develop.
Non-bite exposures are uncommon sources of transmission. Non-bite exposure includes scratches, abrasions, open wounds or mucous membranes infected with saliva or materials such as rabid animal brain tissue. Inhalation of aerosolised rabies virus is another non-bite route of infection, although most people, except for laboratory personnel, are unlikely to encounter an aerosolised rabies virus. Rare cases of rabies in humans have been reported because of breathing air in a cave home to thousands of bats. As rabies virus can be found in the milk of infected animals, milk can be a vehicle for virus transmission. During the consumption of infected milk, an ulcer, abscess or other lesion in the mouth may trigger rabies. Transmission between humans is extremely rare, although it can happen through transplant surgery or even more rarely through bites, kisses or sexual relations. There were outlined a number of cases of rabies transmission from human to human through cornea transplant. Some dogs slaughtered for human consumption may be infected with the rabies virus, exposing handlers of dog meat to the disease because the virus may be present in the meat’s nerves. Rabies transmission to butchers is increased during handling, catching, loading, transportation and holding prior to slaughter.
The virus enters the body via transdermal inoculation (wounds) or direct contact with infectious materials (saliva, cerebrospinal fluid, nerve tissue) on mucous membranes or skin lesions. The virus is incapable of penetrating intact skin. After its entry in the skin, it can undergo eclipse phase, which is not easily detected. Virus replication begins in non-nervous tissue such as striated muscle cells at the site during this phase [9]. The virus can survive for a long time here, influencing the incubation period (the time between exposure and the development of sickness) in different individuals. The virus uses nicotinic acetylcholine receptors to connect to the cells at the inoculation site. The amount of virus acquired through the bite, the amount of tissue innervated and the tissue’s proximity to the brain all influence how long it takes for clinical indications to appear. The faster the signals appear, the higher the dose and the closer it is to the central nervous system. It can last anywhere from 4 days to several years, but it usually lasts between 20 and 90 days. Muscle cell replication occurs without causing any noticeable signs. It normally does not elicit an immunological response at this time, but if antibodies are present, it can be neutralised. Because the virus is neurotropic, its absorption into peripheral neurons is critical for infection progression. The neuromuscular spindles are a critical entrance point for viruses into the neurological system. Motor end plates can also be used to gain access to the nervous system by the virus [9].
The rabies virus can infect a variety of cell types, although it is most seen in neurons. Virus infection and replication include several processes, including:
Adsorption: It is the process of fusing the rabies virus envelope to the host cell membrane, which may entail contact with the G protein and certain cell surface receptors.
Penetration: Infection of the host cell by the virus by pinocytosis (via clathrin-coated pits).
Uncoating: Virions clump together in large endosomes (cytoplasmic vesicles), and viral membranes merge with endosomal membranes, which results in uncoating which exposes the virus’s genetic content.
Transcription:
mRNA: RNA that acts as a template for the synthesis of proteins.
Translation: The process of converting the mRNA code into N, P, M, G and L proteins.
Replication: In the host cell, the virus genetic material is amplified.
Assembly: Virus components are assembled. The ribonucleoprotein (RNP) core is formed by the N–P–L complex encasing negative-stranded genomic RNA, while the M protein forms a capsule, or matrix, surrounding the RNP.
Budding: The completed virus buds from the M–RNP complex’s interaction with the glycoprotein in the plasma membrane.
After replication in the originating neuron’s cell body, infection spreads through multiple neurons by retrograde axonal transport and transsynaptic dissemination. The ability of a virus to proliferate within the CNS via synaptic connections is known as transsynaptic spread. The rabies virus infects neurons, causing changes in neurotransmitter function that impact serotonin, GABA and muscarinic acetylcholine transmission. After that, acinar cells are infected, and the virus is discharged into the oral cavity. This explains why the virus can be found in saliva.
In rabies, there are no visible lesions. Rabies lesions are microscopic, restricted to the CNS and have a wide range of severity. Except for early necrosis of neurons with cytoplasmic inclusion bodies in the afflicted nerve cells, they may be difficult to detect. Pathologic evidence of rabies encephalomyelitis (inflammation) in brain tissue and meninges includes the following:
Mononuclear infiltration
Perivascular cuffing of lymphocytes or polymorphonuclear cells
Lymphocytic foci
Babes nodules consisting of glial cells
Negri bodies
There are diffuse perivascular cuffing, neuronophagic nodules and other alterations for neuron destruction throughout the brain in some cases. The hippocampus in the brain stem and the gasserian ganglia are notably affected. Lesions in the gasserian ganglia are more particular, occur earlier and are more consistent than lesions in other parts of the body. Babes nodules, which are clumps of growing glial cells, are the major lesion. Most of the histopathologic markers of rabies were identified by 1903, but rabies inclusions had yet to be discovered. Dr. Adelchi Negri reported the discovery of the Negri body, which he believed to be the etiologic agent of rabies. Negri bodies are round or oval inclusions within the cytoplasm of nerve cells of rabies-infected animals. The size of Negri bodies can range from 0.25 to 0.27 metres. The pyramidal cells of Ammon’s horn and the Purkinje cells of the cerebellum are the most potential sites for them. They’re also found in medulla cells and a variety of other ganglia. Negri bodies can be detected in the salivary glands, tongue and other organs’ neurons. They’re generally found in the hippocampus in dogs, but they are more common in the Purkinje cell of the cerebellum in cattle. In preparations stained with Mann’s or Seller’s stain, a granular, somewhat basophilic interior structure can be detected. When the virus infects the salivary glands centrifugally, the acinar epithelium undergoes degenerative alterations that lead to necrosis, primarily affecting the mucogenic cells of the mandibular salivary glands. Fluorescent antibody methods and electron microscopy can easily show virus within these cells. The degenerative alterations are accompanied by a moderate infiltration of lymphocytes and plasma cells.
Rabies clinical indications are rarely conclusive. Rabid animals of all species show similar symptoms of CNS abnormalities, with slight differences across species. It’s likely that the animal is seeking solitude. Rabid wild animals may lose their fear of humans, and traditionally nocturnal species may be found walking around during the day. The clinical course can be split into three stages: prodromal, furious and dumb.
Prodromal form—The term prodromal is initial period of rabies with non-specific period.
Furious form—It refers to animals in which the aggression is pronounced.
Dumb form—It refers to animals in which the behavioural changes are minimal, and the disease is manifest principally by paralysis.
It is initiated when rabies virus travels up the peripheral nerve axons to the spinal ganglia which form the junction between the peripheral and central nervous systems.
During this stage, there is very little evidence of paralysis. The animal becomes restless and may lash out with its fangs, claws, horns or hooves at the slightest provocation. These animals lose their fear of other animals and lose their caution. Carnivores infected with this strain of rabies are known to roam freely, attacking other animals, including humans and moving objects. Rabid dogs may shatter their teeth by chewing the wire and frame of their cages. Saliva either flows out of the mouth or is churned into a foam that can stick to the lip and face. Progressive paralysis leads to death.
The paralysis of the throat and masseter muscles is the initial symptom, which is typically accompanied by excessive salivation and the inability to swallow. Dogs tend to drop their lower jaw. These animals aren’t violent and only bite occasionally. The paralysis spreads quickly to all regions of the body and may lead to coma, and many die within a few hours.
Incubation takes about 3 weeks on average, although it can take anywhere from a few weeks to several months. Early indications of paralysis include knuckling of the hind fetlocks, sagging and swaying of the hindquarters while walking and typical deviation or flaccidity of the tail to one side. In this species, yawning is a common phenomenon. Soon after yawning, the animal begins to bellow, which continues until it reaches paralysis. One of the most common symptoms is saliva drooling. The penis of bulls in this stage is paralysed. Animals may attack other animals or inanimate objects with ferocity. Lactation in dairy cows ends abruptly. Sexual arousal is common. These symptoms linger during 24–48 hours, after which the animal collapses in a paralysed state and dies within a few weeks.
The signs are comparable to those of cattle. Sexual arousal, attacks on humans or each other and intense wool pulling have all been observed. There are twitches in the muscles, and salivation is observed. There is no excessive bleating. Most sheep are quiet and anorectic.
Aggressive and continuous bleating seen.
Excitement, a tendency to strike, dullness and incoordination are some of the indications that have been identified. There is nasal twitching, quick chewing movements, profuse salivation and clonic convulsions.
Show signals of anguish and agitation on a regular basis. These indications are frequently accompanied by rolling. They can bite or strike with ferocity. Abnormal postures, frequent whining, kicking, biting, colic and abrupt onset of lameness in limbs followed by recumbency are all the symptoms. Paddling convulsions and ultimate paralysis are followed by sternal and lateral recumbency.
The symptoms are identical to those seen in dogs. Two to four days after the initial symptoms start, the posterior part of the body is paralysed.
Incubation, prodromal stage, acute neurological phase, coma and death are the five stages of clinical manifestations.
It takes 30–90 days for rabies to develop, although it can take anything from 5 days to more than 2 years after initial exposure. It may be slightly shorter in children and vary depending on the bite place.
During this period, the first signs and symptoms appear. Some of the symptoms include fever, fatigue, sore throat, cough, dyspnea, anorexia, dysphagia, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhoea, headache, vertigo, anxiety, irritability and anxiousness. Agitation, photophobia, priapism, increased libido, sleeplessness and depression are all symptoms that could indicate encephalitis, psychiatric problems or brain conditions.
This stage starts with symptoms of central nervous system dysfunction, such as anxiety, insomnia, disorientation, agitation, strange behaviour, paranoia, terror and hallucinations and progresses to delirium. During the later stages, significant amount of saliva is produced together with an inability to swallow, resulting in hydrophobia due to paralysed throat and jaw. If hyperactivity is present, the condition is classed as furious, and if paralysis is present, the disease is categorised as dumb. Periods of rapid, uneven breathing may begin near the end of this phase, followed by coma and death.
Rabies virus is a single-stranded, negative-sense, unsegmented, enveloped RNA virus with a rod or bullet shape. Five proteins are encoded by the viral genome. In the cytoplasm of infected cells, viral RNA uncoils. A virion-associated RNA-dependent RNA polymerase transcribes the genome. Individual viral proteins are subsequently translated from viral RNA. The creation of progeny negative-stranded RNA begins with the synthesis of positive-stranded RNA templates [10]. The RNA is responsible for coding five genes:
Isolated from infected animal or human | Isolated from several intracranial passages from rabbits |
Causes several encephalopathies after varying incubation period | Less infective but cause disease after a fixed incubation of 7–10 days |
Negri bodies can be demonstrated | Negri bodies are not produced |
Not utilised for vaccine production | Suitable and utilised for the vaccine production |
A case of human rabies is described in Siberia’s polar region by Kuzmin [11] In the year 1999. The victim had been bitten by a wolf. Monoclonal antibodies revealed that the isolate was from arctic fox virus strain. This finding reaffirmed the importance of strain typing rabies virus isolates in areas where it has not yet been done: such characterisation is important for identifying the reservoir host, learning about the virus’s natural history in the reservoir and planning future surveillance, post-exposure treatment and public education in the area.
Epidemiology is the study of distribution and the determinants of the disease. For the better understanding of the topic, epidemiology is given in two separate sections.
Rabies is found everywhere across the planet, except for islands. Except for Australia and Antarctica, rabies is endemic in many of the countries. Bahrain, Cyprus, Hong Kong, Japan, Malaysia, Maldives, Qatar, Singapore, Lakshdweep, India’s Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Timor-Leste are among the Asian countries free of rabies. Antigua and Barbuda, the Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Falkland Islands, Jamaica, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Trinidad and Tobago, Uruguay of the Americas subcontinent, and Albania, E.Y.R. of Macedonia, Finland, Gibraltar, Greece, Iceland, Isle of Man, Malta, Portugal, Norway (except Svalbard), United Kingdom and Spain (except Melilla and Ceuta) have all been declared rabies-free. Cape Verde, Congo, Libya, Mauritius, Reunion and Seychelles are the only African countries free of rabies. Fiji, Cook Islands, Vanuatu, Guam, French Polynesia, New Zealand, New Caledonia, Solomon Islands and Papua New Guinea are among the Oceana group of islands that are rabies-free [12, 13]. Bangladesh and India are the most affected, followed by Nepal, Myanmar, Bhutan, Thailand and Indonesia. Nepal is one of the countries in the world with the highest number of human rabies deaths [12, 13].
Rabies is a unique disease as it can contract a wide range of all the warm-blooded hosts.
Children lack fundamental ethology understanding about dogs, children are more vulnerable to the sickness and animal bites. When children disturb dogs while they are feeding, resting, mating or terrified, dogs get violent and bite them. According to research, the disease claimed the lives of 37% of children aged 5–14. [14]. Although the people from all the age groups are susceptible to the disease. The common site of bite in case of children is the face, and often children tend to hide the animal bite marks due to fear of scolds from the parents [15].
Males are more prone to contract to the disease as they are usually accessed to go out of the homes for earning or playing. In a study it was found that the ratio of men to women suffering from the disease was 4:1 [16].
Awareness plays a major role in the succession of the disease. In urbanised area, availability of the medical facilities and awareness is a factor which may show reduced cases of the disease contrary; in rural areas, many socio-economic and religious factors are responsible for the disease spread as in many part of Gujarat, India, there are temples of ‘Hadkai mata’, mythologically protecting the people bitten by dogs from the rabies. The bite of a rabies-infected dog causes over 95% of human cases, which disproportionately afflict rural people, particularly children, in economically challenged countries of Africa and Asia [17].
Majority of the rabies cases are occurring in the Southeast Asia and that too from the dogs. More the dogs are the factors significantly contributing to the spread of the disease. Stray dogs are generally naive towards the disease while only scanty dogs are vaccinated against the disease. The unvaccinated stray dog population is the biggest factor for the spread of the disease. At least 70% vaccination in the canine population will be taking care of spread of the disease in the animal population [18].
The disease occurs in two phases. First phase of the disease occurs once rabid dog bites any animal or human. The live viruses travel from the site of the bite to the brain in centripetal manner. The second phase starts when the virus after reaching the brain starts travelling from the brain to the peripheral nerves and induces the clinical signs. The course of the occurrence is directly related to the site of bite. If the site is nearer to the head, disease progression is rapid.
The rabies virus is spread by direct contact with saliva or brain/nervous system tissue from an infected animal (such as through broken skin or mucous membranes in the eyes, nose or mouth). Aside from bites and scrapes, there aren’t many injuries. One non-bite form of exposure is inhalation of aerosolised rabies virus, although most people, except for laboratory personnel, will not meet an aerosol of rabies virus. Rabies has been transmitted through corneal and solid organ transplants, but these cases are extremely rare [19].
Although all warm-blooded animals are susceptible to rabies and can transmit the RABV, there is significant interspecies heterogeneity in the ability of mammals to act as reservoirs. Rabies is mostly spread by carnivores all over the world [12]. Main cause for the transmission of the virus is wildlife or stray animals, lesser than 10% cases are reported from the domesticated animals such as dogs or cats [20]. Equine and bovine are generally susceptible to the disease, but they are considered as the dead end hosts as they generally do not transmit the disease [21].
There are two types of epidemiological cycle for the occurrence of the disease. Urban and Sylvatic cycles, both the cycles are overlapping to each other and interrelated. Dog, cat, fox, raccoon, jackal, wolf, badger, etc. are the reservoir of the disease while bats are the vector of the disease. In Asian subcontinent, majority of the cases are dog-mediated rabies while in American and European countries, bat-mediated rabies is seen [12]. In India, there are some factors which promote the growth of the stray dogs.
Mythologically dogs are related to ‘Kal Bhairav’, a god of Hinduism, and so from almost all the homes, last feed is offered to the dogs, which helps in the maintenance of the dog population.
Vulture population is getting declined day by day which is competitive exclusion parameter for dog food.
Open slaughter policies are providing food for sustainability to the dogs outdoor.
Open garbage disposal attracts dogs, and many a times they can be utilised as a source to the feed.
Accurate and timely diagnosis is very important for proper management of the post-exposure prophylaxis and application of the public health control efforts. The disease is diagnosed using a variety of techniques. However, adequate proper collection and submission of post-mortem materials, particularly brain tissues from animals suspected of having rabies, can provide basis for rabies confirmatory diagnosis [22]. Rabies can be difficult to diagnose because, in the early stages, it is easily confused with other diseases or even with a simple aggressive temperament. The reference method for diagnosing rabies is the fluorescent antibody test (FAT), an immunohistochemistry procedure, which is recommended by the World Health Organisation (WHO).
Primary diagnostic methods, such as the direct fluorescent antibody (DFA) test, the direct rapid immunohistochemistry test (dRIT) or pan-lyssavirus polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays, are used to identify agents. If a proper conjugate or primer/probe is employed, the DFA test, dRIT and PCR offer an accurate diagnosis in 98–100% of cases for all lyssavirus strains. In highly equipped facilities, conventional and real-time PCR may produce speedy results for a large number of samples. Histological procedures such as Seller staining (Negri bodies) are no longer suggested for diagnosis. In the incidence that main diagnostic tests (DFA test, dRIT or pan-Lyssavirus PCR) give unsatisfactory findings, further confirmatory testing (molecular tests, cell culture or mice inoculation tests) on the same sample or repeat primary diagnostic tests on different samples are recommended. Virus isolation in cell culture should be used instead of mice inoculation testing whenever possible. In specialised laboratories, the agent can be characterised utilising monoclonal antibodies, partial and whole genome sequencing and phylogenetic analyses. These approaches can tell the difference between field and vaccine strains, as well as the geographical origin of the field strains. These extremely sensitive tests should only be performed and evaluated by highly experienced experts.
Pre-exposure vaccination and boosters are necessary for all persons and laboratory workers engaged in the management of rabies suspected cases. These individuals are at risk of contracting rabies in a variety of ways. As a result, personal protection equipment (PPE) must be always worn, beginning with the necropsy procedure.
Because the rabies virus inactivates quickly, the specimens should be delivered on ice to the laboratory as soon as possible. Various approaches are used to diagnose rabies, with a focus on brain tissue, although other organs such as salivary glands are also used. Both the cerebellum and the brain stem are recommended for laboratory testing since the virus will be abundant in them and will help in laboratory detection. These portions of the brain can be acquired when the complete brain is removed during necropsy using the skull open approach.
The virus can be found in the brain, spinal cord, saliva and salivary glands of a rabies-infected animal. B rain tissue is the preferred specimen for rabies diagnosis, the animal suspected of having rabies should be euthanised in such a way that the brain is not damaged. Only vaccinated and well-trained veterinarians or animal control personnel should remove the animal heads.
Brain sample collection for the accurate diagnosis of rabies is very difficult work and that can be dangerous in the field or if the person is not properly trained. The occipital foramen route of brain sampling is an alternative way of collecting brain samples that does not need open the skull.
The brain sample is collected through the occipital foramen by inserting a 5 mm drinking straw or a disposable plastic pipette with a capacity of about 2 mL or by inserting an artificial insemination sheath about 10 cm long into the foramen in the direction of the eye. Brain stem and cerebellum samples can be obtained through the juice straw or artificial insemination sheath (Figure 1). This technique of collection should be user-friendly, quick and risk-free for reliable rabies diagnosis [22]. This technique speeds up the more number of brain samples collection simultaneously.
Brainstem collection through the foramen magnum technique in a dog (captured by the authors).
Laboratory procedures for diagnosing rabies were developed as early as 1800 BC. Adelchi Negri discovered the Negri bodies in 1903, and their diagnostic significance was proved by his wife Lina Negri-Luzzani in 1913 [22]. This cleared the way for the development of a multiplicity of laboratory procedures for rabies confirmation, which are described in the WHO book ‘Laboratory Techniques in Rabies’ [23] as well as the ‘OIE Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals’ [24].
Seller’s staining method is a quick and easy test. It is a histological test used on brain impressions to show the unique cell lesions known as ‘Negri bodies’. These are viral particle aggregates visible as intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies ranging in size from 3 to 30 m in infected neural cells. The Negri bodies are round or oval structures that include basophilic granules in an eosinophilic matrix. This technique has relatively poor sensitivity for the diagnosis of rabies, that’s why nowadays this test is no longer recommended [23].
The World Health Organisation (WHO) and the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) both endorse the direct fluorescent antibody assay as the most extensively used test for post-mortem confirming diagnosis of rabies. Goldwasser and Kissling created this gold standard test in 1958. The ‘Nucleoprotein antigen’ (N) of the rabies virus is shown here to be present in fresh brain impressions of rabies suspect animals (Figure 2). Such rabies viral inclusions do not exist in the brain impressions of non-rabid animals (Figure 3). Furthermore, in a normal laboratory, the DFA has a specificity and sensitivity of about 99% [22].
Rabid animal brain impression, counterstained with Evan’s blue and stained with rabies virus antinucleocapsid IgG-FITC conjugate (rabies DFA III, light diagnostics, cat # 6500, captured by authors).
Non-rabid animal brain impression stained with rabies virus anti-nucleocapsid IgG-FITC conjugate (rabies DFA III, light diagnostics, cat # 6500, captured by authors).
The DFA is accurate and sensitive. The sensitivity of this test is determined by the quality of the sample (how carefully the brain is sampled as well as the degree of autolysis), the type of lyssavirus and the diagnostic staff’s expertise. Impressions are obtained from a composite sample of brain tissue that includes the brainstem. It is air-dried before being immersed in 100% high-grade cold acetone for 1 hour to set the impressions. The impression is withdrawn from the acetone, air-dried and stained with a drop of the appropriate conjugate.
The impression is then incubated for 60 minutes at 37°C. Anti-rabies fluorescent conjugates are commercially available as polyclonal or monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) that are specific to whole virus or the N protein of the rabies virus and have been conjugated to the fluorescing dye, fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC). The DFA slides should be inspected under a fluorescent microscope with a filter that corresponds to the wavelength of the fluorescent conjugate employed. FITC, which is stimulated at 490 nm and re-emits at 510 nm, is the most often used fluorescent dye. The presence of nucleocapsid protein aggregates can be seen by the fluorescence of associated conjugate in an apple green colour. When fresh brain tissue is used, this test is reliable. Bacterial contamination of partially decomposed brains causes nonspecific fluorescence that is difficult to differentiate from specific fluorescence owing to N antigen, making it inappropriate for this test.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in Atlanta, Georgia, developed dRIT, which is one of the most important breakthroughs in the diagnosis of Rabies. This test also detects the N protein of the rabies virus in rabies brain impressions. A suspected animal brain smear is fixed with buffered formalin before being processed further. Following appropriate viral fixation, the antigen was treated with a biotinylated monoclonal antibody cocktail that was highly concentrated and purified (to N protein). After that, an indicator and streptavidin peroxidase are added. The aggregation of viral clusters is seen as brick red clusters within the cell, along the axons and throughout the brain impression (Figure 4). Negative brain impressions show no such brick red inclusions.
Rabid animal brain impression tested by dRIT, captured by authors.
This 1-hour test method is helpful in field conditions since the results may be examined with an ordinary light microscope. It has been tested in several nations and confirmed to be 100% as sensitive and specific as DFA. This simple, low-cost test will be extremely useful in enhancing rabies epidemiology monitoring, particularly in underdeveloped countries where expensive fluorescence microscopes and cold storage facilities may not be accessible [22].
The lateral flow assay is a simple and quick immunochromatographic technique. The rabies virus nucleoprotein is recognised by this test kit, which was produced utilising monoclonal antibodies. It has been tested as a quick rabies screening test. This assay is an immunodiagnostic test that provides quick findings in the field by detecting RABV antigen in post-mortem samples without the need of laboratory equipment. In summary, the detector antibodies are coupled to a membrane at two separate zones, and when the processed material is added to the device at the appropriate slot, coloured lines appear, indicating the presence of viral antigen [25].
In the case of rabies-virus-positive brain samples, coloured lines may be observed in both the ‘C’ (Control) and ‘T’ (test) zones; however, in the case of negative samples, only the ‘C’ zone displays colour development (Figure 5). Furthermore, this assay might be used to successfully identify rabies virus in cell culture [26].
Lateral flow test of rabies-positive brain sample suspensions (captured by authors).
Other less common antigen detection techniques are as follows:
A quick sandwich ELISA is used to identify lyssaviruses belonging to all seven genotypes that circulate in Europe, Africa, Asia and Oceania [27]. Dot-blot immunoassay for brain tissues and enzyme immunoassay (EIA) for quick diagnosis in humans and animals [28].
Various PCR-based tests are now being developed for ante-mortem and post-mortem rabies diagnosis. Because the nucleoprotein (N) gene is extremely conserved, most of these PCR variants amplify it. This method has shown to be quite efficient in detecting rabies ante-mortem.
RT-PCR tests based on gels are also used to identify rabies virus RNA in clinical samples [29, 30, 31, 32]. The amplicons produced in these tests, notably those targeting N, G and G-L intergenic regions, have been sequenced in order to characterise the virus and analyse its phylogeny [33]. However, these assays are vulnerable to cross-contamination, which is a major problem that prevents them from being used routinely for rabies diagnosis [27].
Real-time PCR is used to identify and quantify genome copies while reducing the probability of cross-contamination. The SYBR Green real-time PCR technique is applied for rabies ante-mortem diagnosis [34] as well as finding lyssaviruses [35]. TaqMan real-time PCR tests have been shown to have high specificity [27, 36]. This was shown to be 100 times more sensitive than typical nested RT-PCR [36].
Although they have certain drawbacks, the rabies virus neutralisation test, notably FAVN or RFFIT, is the test of choice for determining neutralising antibodies [37]. Various varieties of ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) are also utilised as an alternative since they are safe, simple and quick. Furthermore, because these tests do not involve the handling of live virus, they do not require use of high-containment facilities. The ELISA findings are shown to correspond well with the RFFIT results. ELISA based on N and G protein Mab was developed to the specially trap the rabies antigen during ante-mortem diagnosis [38].
A second-generation ELISA kit, the Platelia Rabies II, was designed to detect antibodies against the glycoprotein in blood and CSF samples. This ELISA was tested and shown to correlate well with RFFIT, making it suitable for use in laboratories without cell culture facilities [39]. However, when compared with neutralisation tests, ELISA is less sensitive [40].
PrEP (vaccination) is the most efficient way of rabies control. It not only saves the budget of the management, but it assures the prevention of the disease. There are several protocols for the prophylaxis of the disease. There are two routes for the vaccination: intra-muscular (IM) and intra-dermal (ID). Intra-dermal vaccine saves the quantity of the vaccine by 80%. The detailed protocol is given below. PrEP is recommended to the people who are associated to specific group vulnerable to rabies such as veterinarians, para-vets, animal welfare activists or people residing in endemic area. The dosage for ID is 0.1 ml at two sides while the dose of IM vaccine is whole vial. The vaccine should not be given at gluteal muscle. The protocol suggests two shots of vaccine on 0 and 7 days.
PEP is suggested after the exposure of rabies. There are three categories of the exposure listed in Table 1. There are three dosage regimes given by different institutions, Institut Pasteur du Cambodge regimen, Essen regimen and Zagreb regimen.
Category | Immunologically naive | Previously immunised |
---|---|---|
1 Touching or feeding animals, animal licks on intact skin (no exposure) | Wash exposed skin surfaces. No PEP required. | |
2 Nibbling of uncovered skin, minor scratches, or abrasions without bleeding (exposure) | Wound washing and immediate vaccination: - 2-sites ID on days 0, 3 and 7 OR - 1-site IM on days 0, 3, 7 and between days 14 and 28 OR - 2-sites IM on days 0 and 1-site IM on days 7, 21 RIG is not indicated. | Wound washing and immediate vaccination*: - 1-site ID on days 0 and 3; OR - at 4-sites ID on day 0; OR - at 1-site IM on days 0 and 3); RIG is not indicated. |
3 Single or multiple transdermal bites or scratches, contamination of mucous membrane or broken skin with saliva from animal licks, exposures due to direct contact with bats (severe exposure) | Wound washing and immediate vaccination - 2-sites ID on days 0, 3 and 76 OR - 1-site IM on days 0, 3, 7 and between days 14 and 287 OR - 2-sites IM on days 0 and 1-site IM on days 7, 218 RIG administration is recommended. | Wound washing and immediate vaccination*: - 1-site ID on days 0 and 3; OR - at 4-sites ID on day 0; OR - at 1-site IM on days 0 and 3; RIG is not indicated. |
Suggested PEP according to exposure.
The major between immunologically naïve and previously immunised person with the PEP is no requirement of RIG in previously immunised person. The maximum dose of RIG is 20 (hRIG) or 40 (eRIG). If RIG is not available, thorough, prompt wound washing, together with immediate administration of the first vaccine dose, followed by a complete course of rabies vaccine, is highly effective in preventing rabies. Vaccines should never be withheld, regardless of the availability of RIG. Rabies virus is enveloped virus and so through washing of bite wound with soap solution under running tap water is advised. (Adopted from [41])
The rabies vaccine with the potency of RIVM >2 I.U. may be used for the vaccination. The vaccine is approved for the use for the prophylaxis of apparently healthy mammals. The vaccine may be given by the IM or SC route. Generally, a temporary palpable nodule at the site of the SC injection may be noticed, which will disappear by the time. Rarely anaphylactic reaction can be seen which can be managed by SC injection of adrenalin. It is always recommended to give the vaccine a bit earlier than the due date to ensure the protection. Many a times it is possible that the whole dose of vaccine may be failed to be administered to the animals due to faulty administration. Vaccination can begin as early as 3 months of age in dogs, ferrets and livestock. Vaccines for cats can be administered as early as 2 months of age [42].
The schedule is given below in Table 2.
Species | Age at Primary Vaccination | Revaccination |
---|---|---|
Dog & Cat | After 3 months of age* | 3 years** |
Cattle, Horse, Sheep & Goat | After 6 months of age* | 2 years** |
Ferret | After 3 months of age* | 1 year** |
Vaccination schedule for animals.
Primary vaccination can be administered at an earlier age, but then a repeat vaccination must be given at the age of 3 or 6 months depending on the species.
Annual revaccination is recommended in endemic areas.
Source: [43].
The rabies vaccine bait RABORAL V-RG® contains an attenuated (‘modified-live’) recombinant vaccinia virus vector vaccine that expresses the rabies virus glycoprotein gene (V-RG). Since 1987, when the first licenced recombinant oral rabies vaccine (ORV) was released into the environment to immunise wildlife populations against rabies, over 250 million doses have been distributed globally with no reports of adverse responses in wildlife or domestic animals. V-RG is genetically stable, does not remain in the oral cavity for more than 48 hours after ingestion, is not shed into the environment by vaccinated animals and has been tested for thermostability in a variety of laboratory and field settings. V-RG has been tested in over 50 vertebrate species, including nonhuman primates, and no adverse effects have been reported regardless of method or dose. Immunogenicity and efficacy in a variety of target species have been established in the lab and in the field (including fox, raccoon, coyote, skunk, raccoon dog and jackal). The liquid vaccine is placed within edible baits (such as RABORAL V-RG, the vaccine-bait product) that are released into animal areas for target species to consume. The use of RABORAL V-RG in the field has helped to eradicate wildlife rabies in three European nations (Belgium, France and Luxembourg), as well as the dog/coyote rabies virus form in the United States (USA). With the final case reported in a cow in 2009, an oral rabies vaccination programme in west-central Texas has effectively removed the grey fox rabies virus strain from Texas. In the United States, a long-term ORV barrier effort using RABORAL V-RG is preventing significant geographic spread of the raccoon rabies virus strain. For more than a decade, RABORAL V-RG has been used in Israel to control wildlife rabies [44].
PEP of the rabies should include five administrations of the vaccine on the days 0, 3, 7, 14, 28/90 days. If the animal is not immunised previously, eRIG is advised to be administered at the site of bite.
The disease is a classical example of neglected zoonosis. The disease can be well managed by the multi-disciplinary approach. Control of the rabies in the dogs is very important. World Health Organisation (WHO) has strong measures in place to prevent rabies in dogs. These guidelines include:
Notification of suspected cases, with euthanasia of dogs with clinical signs and those bitten by suspected rabid animals
Leash laws and quarantine to limit contact between susceptible dogs
A mass immunisation programme with ongoing boosters
Stray dog control and euthanasia of unvaccinated dogs roaming freely
Dog registration programmes [45].
If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links.
",metaTitle:"List of Institutions by Country",metaDescription:"If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. However, if your research is financed through any of the below-mentioned funders, please consult their Open Access policies or grant ‘terms and conditions’ to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"open-access-funding-institutions-list",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Book Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\nBook Chapters
\\n\\nMonographs Only
\\n\\n\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\nMonographs Only
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\n\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\n\\n\\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\\n\\nCSIC affiliated authors can also take advantage of a central Open Access fund (amounting to 10,000 EUR) to cover up to 50% of the rest of the OAPF until it expires. Effective for chapters accepted from January 1, 2020.
\\n\\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\\n\\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\\n\\n\\n\\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\nThe Claremont Colleges are pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\\n\\nCorresponding authors will receive a 15% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\\n\\nThe University of Massachusetts, Amherst is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\\n\\nCorresponding authors will receive a 10% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\\n\\nThe University of Surrey is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\\n\\nCorresponding authors will receive a 10% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\\n\\nMonographs Only
\\n\\n\\n\\nImportant: You must be a member or grantee of the above listed institutions in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Book Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\nBook Chapters
\n\nMonographs Only
\n\n\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\nMonographs Only
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\n\nCSIC affiliated authors can also take advantage of a central Open Access fund (amounting to 10,000 EUR) to cover up to 50% of the rest of the OAPF until it expires. Effective for chapters accepted from January 1, 2020.
\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\n\n\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\nThe Claremont Colleges are pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 15% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\n\nThe University of Massachusetts, Amherst is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 10% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\n\nThe University of Surrey is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 10% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\n\nMonographs Only
\n\n\n\nImportant: You must be a member or grantee of the above listed institutions in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{mdrv:"www.intechopen.com"},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. In the Engineering side, Digital Signal Processing, Computer Architecture, Electronics Devices, Digital Filtering and Engineering Management.\nApart from his Academic Interest and activities he loves sport especially, Cricket, Football, Snooker and Squash. He plays cricket for Esbjerg city in the second division team as an opener wicket keeper batsman. He is a very good player of squash but has not played squash since his arrival in Denmark.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"611",title:"Prof.",name:"T",middleName:null,surname:"Nagarajan",slug:"t-nagarajan",fullName:"T Nagarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Teknologi Petronas",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:6675},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5955},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:2458},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:12717},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:1017},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:17720}],offset:12,limit:12,total:134177},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"0",sort:"-dateEndThirdStepPublish",src:"S-F-0"},books:[{type:"book",id:"9985",title:"Geostatistics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"423cb3896195a618c4acb493ce4fd23d",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Jeffrey M. Yarus, Dr. Marko Maucec, Dr. Timothy C. Coburn and Associate Prof. Michael Pyrcz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9985.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"78011",title:"Prof.",name:"Jeffrey M.",surname:"Yarus",slug:"jeffrey-m.-yarus",fullName:"Jeffrey M. Yarus"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12058",title:"Future Housing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"e7f4a1e57fab392b61156956c1247b9e",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Ivan Oropeza-Perez and Dr. Astrid Helena Petzold-Rodríguez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12058.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"282172",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",surname:"Oropeza-Perez",slug:"ivan-oropeza-perez",fullName:"Ivan Oropeza-Perez"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12215",title:"Cell Death and Disease",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"dfd456a29478fccf4ebd3294137eb1e3",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Ke Xu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12215.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"59529",title:"Dr.",name:"Ke",surname:"Xu",slug:"ke-xu",fullName:"Ke Xu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12112",title:"The Colorectal Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"21c65e742d31d5b69fb681ef78cfa0be",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Muhammad Shamim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12112.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"235128",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Shamim",slug:"muhammad-shamim",fullName:"Muhammad Shamim"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11998",title:"Biocomposites - Recent Advances",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"8bc7ffd7544fff1901301c787e64fada",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Magdy Elnashar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11998.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"12075",title:"Prof.",name:"Magdy",surname:"Elnashar",slug:"magdy-elnashar",fullName:"Magdy Elnashar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12079",title:"Strategies Towards the Synthesis of Heterocycles and Their Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"bc4022af925c0883636e0819008971ee",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Premlata Kumari and Dr. Amit B Patel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12079.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"177041",title:"Dr.",name:"Premlata",surname:"Kumari",slug:"premlata-kumari",fullName:"Premlata Kumari"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11999",title:"Earthquakes - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"b2af07109b13b76e5af9583532ab5bee",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Walter Salazar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11999.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"236461",title:"Dr.",name:"Walter",surname:"Salazar",slug:"walter-salazar",fullName:"Walter Salazar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12102",title:"Current Trends in Ambulatory Care",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"fa37d79f81893fd0a9ab346ae1c3e4a9",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Xin-Nong Li",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12102.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"345917",title:"Dr.",name:"Xin-Nong",surname:"Li",slug:"xin-nong-li",fullName:"Xin-Nong Li"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12050",title:"Advanced Biodiesel - Technological Advances, Challenges, and Sustainability Considerations",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"bb86ab5c5ca0dab95f01941eb350f920",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. IMR Fattah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12050.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"463663",title:"Dr.",name:"IMR",surname:"Fattah",slug:"imr-fattah",fullName:"IMR Fattah"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12208",title:"Metformin - A Prospective Alternative for the Treatment of Chronic Diseases",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"aa4b8aac3f44ba3ab334530c5d5646ea",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Farid A. Badria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12208.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12172",title:"Health Risks of Food Additives - Recent Developments and Trends in Food Sector",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f6aa23b1045d266d0928fcef04fa3417",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Muhammad Sajid Arshad and Mr. Waseem Khalid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12172.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"192998",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Sajid",surname:"Arshad",slug:"muhammad-sajid-arshad",fullName:"Muhammad Sajid Arshad"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11500",title:"Multi-Objective Optimization - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"842f84f308439c0a55c4e8e6a8fd9c01",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Adel El-Shahat",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11500.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"193331",title:"Dr.",name:"Adel",surname:"El-Shahat",slug:"adel-el-shahat",fullName:"Adel El-Shahat"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:38},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:13},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:23},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:65},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:25},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:116},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:4}],offset:12,limit:12,total:417},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS",subtitle:"New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ed9d96da98233a885bd2869a8056c36",slug:"serotonin-and-the-cns-new-developments-in-pharmacology-and-therapeutics",bookSignature:"Berend Olivier",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg",editors:[{id:"71579",title:"Prof.",name:"Berend",middleName:null,surname:"Olivier",slug:"berend-olivier",fullName:"Berend Olivier"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d7f2aa74874444bc6986e613ccebd7c",slug:"grapes-and-wine",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata, Iris Loira and Carmen González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg",editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11029",title:"Hepatitis B",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"609701f502efc3538c112ff47a2c2119",slug:"hepatitis-b",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11029.jpg",editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9537",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54f05b93812fd434f3962956d6413a6b",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",bookSignature:"Trudy Corrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9537.jpg",editors:[{id:"197557",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",middleName:null,surname:"Corrigan",slug:"trudy-corrigan",fullName:"Trudy Corrigan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11371",title:"Cerebral Circulation",subtitle:"Updates on Models, Diagnostics and Treatments of Related Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d3335445d2852d0b906bb9750e939f",slug:"cerebral-circulation-updates-on-models-diagnostics-and-treatments-of-related-diseases",bookSignature:"Alba Scerrati, Luca Ricciardi and Flavia Dones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11371.jpg",editors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11012",title:"Radiopharmaceuticals",subtitle:"Current Research for Better Diagnosis and Therapy",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f9046d6f96148b285e776f384991120d",slug:"radiopharmaceuticals-current-research-for-better-diagnosis-and-therapy",bookSignature:"Farid A. Badria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11012.jpg",editors:[{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9974",title:"E-Learning and Digital Education in the Twenty-First Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88b58d66e975df20425fc1dfd22d53aa",slug:"e-learning-and-digital-education-in-the-twenty-first-century",bookSignature:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9974.jpg",editors:[{id:"94099",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Mahruf C.",middleName:null,surname:"Shohel",slug:"m.-mahruf-c.-shohel",fullName:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:4431},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1677,editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS",subtitle:"New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ed9d96da98233a885bd2869a8056c36",slug:"serotonin-and-the-cns-new-developments-in-pharmacology-and-therapeutics",bookSignature:"Berend Olivier",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1337,editors:[{id:"71579",title:"Prof.",name:"Berend",middleName:null,surname:"Olivier",slug:"berend-olivier",fullName:"Berend Olivier"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1309,editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:847,editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d7f2aa74874444bc6986e613ccebd7c",slug:"grapes-and-wine",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata, Iris Loira and Carmen González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2273,editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:591,editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:515,editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11029",title:"Hepatitis B",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"609701f502efc3538c112ff47a2c2119",slug:"hepatitis-b",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11029.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:413,editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9537",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54f05b93812fd434f3962956d6413a6b",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",bookSignature:"Trudy Corrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9537.jpg",publishedDate:"June 8th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2194,editors:[{id:"197557",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",middleName:null,surname:"Corrigan",slug:"trudy-corrigan",fullName:"Trudy Corrigan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11371",title:"Cerebral Circulation",subtitle:"Updates on Models, Diagnostics and Treatments of Related Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d3335445d2852d0b906bb9750e939f",slug:"cerebral-circulation-updates-on-models-diagnostics-and-treatments-of-related-diseases",bookSignature:"Alba Scerrati, Luca Ricciardi and Flavia Dones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11371.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:341,editors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"11043",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Treatments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7baf1c70b11d41400bb9302ae9411ca4",slug:"endometriosis-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-treatments",bookSignature:"Giovana Ap. Gonçalves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11043.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"185930",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Giovana",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"giovana-goncalves",fullName:"Giovana Gonçalves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10536",title:"Campylobacter",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c4b132b741dd0a2ed539b824ab63965f",slug:"campylobacter",bookSignature:"Guillermo Tellez-Isaias and Saeed El-Ashram",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10536.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"73465",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Téllez",slug:"guillermo-tellez",fullName:"Guillermo Téllez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10798",title:"Starch",subtitle:"Evolution and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f197f6062c1574a9a90e50a369271bcf",slug:"starch-evolution-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10798.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11083",title:"Hazardous Waste Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d553bd4f6f1c4b115ca69bd19faac7dc",slug:"hazardous-waste-management",bookSignature:"Rajesh Banu Jeyakumar, Kavitha Sankarapandian and Yukesh Kannah Ravi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11083.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"218539",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh Banu",middleName:null,surname:"Jeyakumar",slug:"rajesh-banu-jeyakumar",fullName:"Rajesh Banu Jeyakumar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10848",title:"Tribology of Machine Elements",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3c4ca4c4692ca8d4fa749b4ae81ec1fa",slug:"tribology-of-machine-elements-fundamentals-and-applications",bookSignature:"Giuseppe Pintaude, Tiago Cousseau and Anna Rudawska",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10848.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"18347",title:"Prof.",name:"Giuseppe",middleName:null,surname:"Pintaude",slug:"giuseppe-pintaude",fullName:"Giuseppe Pintaude"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10856",title:"Crude Oil",subtitle:"New Technologies and Recent Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8d0a7ca35b3de95b295dc4eab39a087e",slug:"crude-oil-new-technologies-and-recent-approaches",bookSignature:"Manar Elsayed Abdel-Raouf and Mohamed Hasan El-Keshawy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10856.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"102626",title:"Prof.",name:"Manar",middleName:null,surname:"Elsayed Abdel-Raouf",slug:"manar-elsayed-abdel-raouf",fullName:"Manar Elsayed Abdel-Raouf"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9625",title:"Spinocerebellar Ataxia",subtitle:"Concepts, Particularities and Generalities",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"365a7025fd46eb45de2549bdd9d50b98",slug:"spinocerebellar-ataxia-concepts-particularities-and-generalities",bookSignature:"Patricia Bozzetto Ambrosi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9625.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"221787",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricia",middleName:null,surname:"Bozzetto Ambrosi",slug:"patricia-bozzetto-ambrosi",fullName:"Patricia Bozzetto Ambrosi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10905",title:"Plant Defense Mechanisms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"84ad5b27dde5f01dc76087d0fd6fa834",slug:"plant-defense-mechanisms",bookSignature:"Josphert Ngui Kimatu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10905.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"224171",title:"Prof.",name:"Josphert N.",middleName:null,surname:"Kimatu",slug:"josphert-n.-kimatu",fullName:"Josphert N. Kimatu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10686",title:"Natural Gas",subtitle:"New Perspectives and Future Developments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"581763788a6a59e653a9d1d9b5a42d79",slug:"natural-gas-new-perspectives-and-future-developments",bookSignature:"Maryam Takht Ravanchi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10686.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"2416",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Takht Ravanchi",slug:"maryam-takht-ravanchi",fullName:"Maryam Takht Ravanchi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10988",title:"Railway Transport Planning and Manageme",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5cb54cc53caedad9ec78372563c82e2c",slug:"railway-transport-planning-and-management",bookSignature:"Stefano de Luca, Roberta Di Pace and Chiara Fiori",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10988.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"271061",title:"Prof.",name:"Stefano",middleName:null,surname:"de Luca",slug:"stefano-de-luca",fullName:"Stefano de Luca"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"45",title:"Bioorganic Chemistry",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology-bioorganic-chemistry",parent:{id:"6",title:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology"},numberOfBooks:44,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:1503,numberOfWosCitations:3407,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1596,numberOfDimensionsCitations:4237,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"45",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"10290",title:"Bioactive Compounds",subtitle:"Biosynthesis, Characterization and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3038c0754a98f17e043af911c375ec08",slug:"bioactive-compounds-biosynthesis-characterization-and-applications",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Tatiele Casagrande do Nascimento and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10290.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8805",title:"Toll-like Receptors",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae025ebfc36fd7ebbe1cd53ea11c4dc1",slug:"toll-like-receptors",bookSignature:"Nima Rezaei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8805.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8852",title:"Chemistry and Applications of Benzimidazole and its Derivatives",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e95984a2b87df5a7ca051cb3345d5e7a",slug:"chemistry-and-applications-of-benzimidazole-and-its-derivatives",bookSignature:"Maria Marinescu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8852.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"250975",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Marinescu",slug:"maria-marinescu",fullName:"Maria Marinescu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6914",title:"Proteomics Technologies and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a38a096c9acaf7cad951db42497b23ac",slug:"proteomics-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6914.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"213344",title:"Prof.",name:"Ibrokhim Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Abdurakhmonov",slug:"ibrokhim-y.-abdurakhmonov",fullName:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5855",title:"Protein Phosphorylation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c5f88bc57e9b8606807624451a48a5a1",slug:"protein-phosphorylation",bookSignature:"Claude Prigent",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5855.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"98783",title:"Dr.",name:"Claude",middleName:null,surname:"Prigent",slug:"claude-prigent",fullName:"Claude Prigent"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5935",title:"Solubility of Polysaccharides",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f2e1999c512e400b58f4065789d080ee",slug:"solubility-of-polysaccharides",bookSignature:"Zhenbo Xu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5935.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"176645",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhenbo",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",slug:"zhenbo-xu",fullName:"Zhenbo Xu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5843",title:"Quantitative Structure-activity Relationship",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"009d82593f285d019aaecb2670da39cf",slug:"quantitative-structure-activity-relationship",bookSignature:"Fatma Kandemirli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5843.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"104919",title:null,name:"Fatma",middleName:null,surname:"Kandemirli",slug:"fatma-kandemirli",fullName:"Fatma Kandemirli"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5945",title:"Amino Acid",subtitle:"New Insights and Roles in Plant and Animal",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b7d91fed8804240b70bcc3e803f3b73a",slug:"amino-acid-new-insights-and-roles-in-plant-and-animal",bookSignature:"Toshiki Asao and Md. Asaduzzaman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5945.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"106510",title:"Dr.",name:"Toshiki",middleName:null,surname:"Asao",slug:"toshiki-asao",fullName:"Toshiki Asao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5769",title:"Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"026ff00026816b4cca7116ca6e1e7fbd",slug:"fatty-acids",bookSignature:"Angel Catala",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5769.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5797",title:"Carotenoids",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"95f1843c0526c96e4aa0be620d8db749",slug:"carotenoids",bookSignature:"Dragan J. Cvetkovic and Goran S. Nikolic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5797.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"195521",title:"Prof.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"J.",surname:"Cvetkovic",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetkovic"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5836",title:"Bisphenol A",subtitle:"Exposure and Health Risks",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"446599b9e5cf929537d445edc546c449",slug:"bisphenol-a-exposure-and-health-risks",bookSignature:"Pinar Erkekoglu and Belma Kocer-Gumusel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5836.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoğlu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoğlu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5497",title:"Nitric Oxide Synthase",subtitle:"Simple Enzyme-Complex Roles",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"be2bf109fabe37c7514acc5712b9995b",slug:"nitric-oxide-synthase-simple-enzyme-complex-roles",bookSignature:"Seyed Soheil Saeedi Saravi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5497.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14680",title:"Dr.",name:"Seyed Soheil",middleName:null,surname:"Saeedi Saravi",slug:"seyed-soheil-saeedi-saravi",fullName:"Seyed Soheil Saeedi Saravi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:44,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"38477",doi:"10.5772/45943",title:"Lipid Peroxidation: Chemical Mechanism, Biological Implications and Analytical Determination",slug:"lipid-peroxidation-chemical-mechanism-biological-implications-and-analytical-determination",totalDownloads:13442,totalCrossrefCites:79,totalDimensionsCites:217,abstract:null,book:{id:"2553",slug:"lipid-peroxidation",title:"Lipid Peroxidation",fullTitle:"Lipid Peroxidation"},signatures:"Marisa Repetto, Jimena Semprine and Alberto Boveris",authors:[{id:"36452",title:"Dr.",name:"Marisa",middleName:"Gabriela",surname:"Repetto",slug:"marisa-repetto",fullName:"Marisa Repetto"}]},{id:"41116",doi:"10.5772/51572",title:"Algal Polysaccharides, Novel Applications and Outlook",slug:"algal-polysaccharides-novel-applications-and-outlook",totalDownloads:14037,totalCrossrefCites:70,totalDimensionsCites:184,abstract:null,book:{id:"2323",slug:"carbohydrates-comprehensive-studies-on-glycobiology-and-glycotechnology",title:"Carbohydrates",fullTitle:"Carbohydrates - Comprehensive Studies on Glycobiology and Glycotechnology"},signatures:"Stefan Kraan",authors:[{id:"142720",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:null,surname:"Kraan",slug:"stefan-kraan",fullName:"Stefan Kraan"}]},{id:"40938",doi:"10.5772/48294",title:"Dehydrogenase Activity in the Soil Environment",slug:"dehydrogenase-activity-in-the-soil-environment",totalDownloads:6884,totalCrossrefCites:70,totalDimensionsCites:177,abstract:null,book:{id:"2524",slug:"dehydrogenases",title:"Dehydrogenases",fullTitle:"Dehydrogenases"},signatures:"Agnieszka Wolińska and Zofia Stępniewska",authors:[{id:"141696",title:"Dr.",name:"Agnieszka",middleName:"Maria",surname:"Wolinska",slug:"agnieszka-wolinska",fullName:"Agnieszka Wolinska"}]},{id:"57644",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71570",title:"Polysaccharides: Structure and Solubility",slug:"polysaccharides-structure-and-solubility",totalDownloads:4410,totalCrossrefCites:40,totalDimensionsCites:112,abstract:"Understanding the solubility of polysaccharides is extremely important for their food applications as most functions of polysaccharides including stability, emulsifying property, drug delivery, membrane forming properties, etc., are all achieved in aqueous solution. This chapter aims specifically at the mechanism of solubility of polysaccharides from the molecular level. General understandings of the solubility including definition, testing methods, and the solution behaviors were provided; the relationships between polysaccharide solubility and the structural features in terms of molecular weight, degree of branching, charging properties, chain flexibility, and the special groups were all discussed. With all the information provided, the molecular modification and further applications of polysaccharides in both food and nonfood areas could be promoted.",book:{id:"5935",slug:"solubility-of-polysaccharides",title:"Solubility of Polysaccharides",fullTitle:"Solubility of Polysaccharides"},signatures:"Mark Q. Guo, Xinzhong Hu, Changlu Wang and Lianzhong Ai",authors:[{id:"202384",title:"Dr.",name:"Qingbin",middleName:null,surname:"Guo",slug:"qingbin-guo",fullName:"Qingbin Guo"},{id:"203883",title:"Dr.",name:"Changlu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"changlu-wang",fullName:"Changlu Wang"},{id:"203884",title:"Prof.",name:"Xinzhong",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"xinzhong-hu",fullName:"Xinzhong Hu"}]},{id:"25554",doi:"10.5772/29982",title:"Haploids and Doubled Haploids in Plant Breeding",slug:"haploids-and-doubled-haploids-in-plant-breeding",totalDownloads:28042,totalCrossrefCites:51,totalDimensionsCites:86,abstract:null,book:{id:"880",slug:"plant-breeding",title:"Plant Breeding",fullTitle:"Plant Breeding"},signatures:"Jana Murovec and Borut Bohanec",authors:[{id:"80213",title:"Prof.",name:"Borut",middleName:null,surname:"Bohanec",slug:"borut-bohanec",fullName:"Borut Bohanec"},{id:"127399",title:"Dr.",name:"Jana",middleName:null,surname:"Murovec",slug:"jana-murovec",fullName:"Jana Murovec"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"33046",title:"Affinity Chromatography: Principles and Applications",slug:"affinity-chromatography-principles-and-applications",totalDownloads:48610,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:null,book:{id:"1490",slug:"affinity-chromatography",title:"Affinity Chromatography",fullTitle:"Affinity Chromatography"},signatures:"Sameh Magdeldin and Annette Moser",authors:[{id:"123648",title:"Dr.",name:"Sameh",middleName:null,surname:"Magdeldin",slug:"sameh-magdeldin",fullName:"Sameh Magdeldin"},{id:"136483",title:"Dr.",name:"Annette",middleName:"C.",surname:"Moser",slug:"annette-moser",fullName:"Annette Moser"}]},{id:"50574",title:"Bioinformatics for RNA‐Seq Data Analysis",slug:"bioinformatics-for-rna-seq-data-analysis",totalDownloads:5932,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"While RNA sequencing (RNA‐seq) has become increasingly popular for transcriptome profiling, the analysis of the massive amount of data generated by large‐scale RNA‐seq still remains a challenge. RNA‐seq data analyses typically consist of (1) accurate mapping of millions of short sequencing reads to a reference genome, including the identification of splicing events; (2) quantifying expression levels of genes, transcripts, and exons; (3) differential analysis of gene expression among different biological conditions; and (4) biological interpretation of differentially expressed genes. Despite the fact that multiple algorithms pertinent to basic analyses have been developed, there are still a variety of unresolved questions. In this chapter, we review the main tools and algorithms currently available for RNA‐seq data analyses, and our goal is to help RNA‐seq data analysts to make an informed choice of tools in practical RNA‐seq data analysis. In the meantime, RNA‐seq is evolving rapidly, and newer sequencing technologies are briefly introduced, including stranded RNA‐seq, targeted RNA‐seq, and single‐cell RNA‐seq.",book:{id:"5160",slug:"bioinformatics-updated-features-and-applications",title:"Bioinformatics",fullTitle:"Bioinformatics - Updated Features and Applications"},signatures:"Shanrong Zhao, Baohong Zhang, Ying Zhang, William Gordon,\nSarah Du, Theresa Paradis, Michael Vincent and David von Schack",authors:[{id:"176364",title:"Dr.",name:"Shanrong",middleName:null,surname:"Zhao",slug:"shanrong-zhao",fullName:"Shanrong Zhao"}]},{id:"49705",title:"Nucleic Acid Isolation and Downstream Applications",slug:"nucleic-acid-isolation-and-downstream-applications",totalDownloads:3498,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Nucleic acids are not only a source of life but also a means of observing, understanding, and regulating it. Nucleic acids, DNA and RNA, and their characteristics are discussed in other chapters of the book. This chapter describes the fundamental principles of different methods for nucleic acid sample preparation / nucleic acid extraction, such as column-based methods using silica membranes and traditional ones without a column purification procedure (commercially available or homemade). Other topics discussed here include comparative analysis of the use of these methods in DNA and RNA extraction from a variety of biological and clinical samples, as well as the relationship between the type of sample, the method used and the quality and amount of extracted DNA or RNA. Finally, the chapter outlines the application of nucleic acids in the diagnosis of various diseases, in scientific research, and bird sex determination by downstream applications such as restriction enzyme analysis, polymerase chain reactions (PCR, reverse transcription-PCR, real-time PCR), and different sequencing methods (Sanger, cycling sequencing, and next-generation sequencing).",book:{id:"5092",slug:"nucleic-acids-from-basic-aspects-to-laboratory-tools",title:"Nucleic Acids",fullTitle:"Nucleic Acids - From Basic Aspects to Laboratory Tools"},signatures:"Ivo Nikolaev Sirakov",authors:[{id:"176634",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ivo Nikolaev",middleName:null,surname:"Sirakov",slug:"ivo-nikolaev-sirakov",fullName:"Ivo Nikolaev Sirakov"}]},{id:"57644",title:"Polysaccharides: Structure and Solubility",slug:"polysaccharides-structure-and-solubility",totalDownloads:4412,totalCrossrefCites:40,totalDimensionsCites:112,abstract:"Understanding the solubility of polysaccharides is extremely important for their food applications as most functions of polysaccharides including stability, emulsifying property, drug delivery, membrane forming properties, etc., are all achieved in aqueous solution. This chapter aims specifically at the mechanism of solubility of polysaccharides from the molecular level. General understandings of the solubility including definition, testing methods, and the solution behaviors were provided; the relationships between polysaccharide solubility and the structural features in terms of molecular weight, degree of branching, charging properties, chain flexibility, and the special groups were all discussed. With all the information provided, the molecular modification and further applications of polysaccharides in both food and nonfood areas could be promoted.",book:{id:"5935",slug:"solubility-of-polysaccharides",title:"Solubility of Polysaccharides",fullTitle:"Solubility of Polysaccharides"},signatures:"Mark Q. Guo, Xinzhong Hu, Changlu Wang and Lianzhong Ai",authors:[{id:"202384",title:"Dr.",name:"Qingbin",middleName:null,surname:"Guo",slug:"qingbin-guo",fullName:"Qingbin Guo"},{id:"203883",title:"Dr.",name:"Changlu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"changlu-wang",fullName:"Changlu Wang"},{id:"203884",title:"Prof.",name:"Xinzhong",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"xinzhong-hu",fullName:"Xinzhong Hu"}]},{id:"52716",title:"The Advantages of Using Multiplex PCR for the Simultaneous Detection of Six Sexually Transmitted Diseases",slug:"the-advantages-of-using-multiplex-pcr-for-the-simultaneous-detection-of-six-sexually-transmitted-dis",totalDownloads:2447,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are among the most common infections. Their clinical identification is difficult because STDs are often asymptomatic. Untreated infections with these pathogens can in time lead to serious consequences. It is documented that isolation of some of these bacteria from cultures is very difficult. Because there is a large number of STD pathogens which can generate coinfections, their simultaneous detection in a unique sample is very important. Multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is an advanced method of molecular biology which allows for simultaneous detection of multiple pathogens in the same sample. The advantages of the multiplex PCR method were assessed by various researchers by comparing the diagnosis results obtained with different other conventional methods. The sensitivity and specificity of these methods were analyzed on different specimens in comparison to traditional methods, such as culture media or direct microscopic examination. These studies demonstrated beyond any doubt that the multiplex PCR system is highly effective in the detection of each of multiple STD pathogens depicted from a single specimen and argued for multiplex PCR superiority in terms of sensitivity and rapidity.",book:{id:"5450",slug:"polymerase-chain-reaction-for-biomedical-applications",title:"Polymerase Chain Reaction for Biomedical Applications",fullTitle:"Polymerase Chain Reaction for Biomedical Applications"},signatures:"Mihaela L. Vică, Horea V. Matei and Costel V. Siserman",authors:[{id:"189561",title:"Dr.",name:"Mihaela Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Vica",slug:"mihaela-laura-vica",fullName:"Mihaela Laura Vica"},{id:"192251",title:"Dr.",name:"Horea Vladi",middleName:null,surname:"Matei",slug:"horea-vladi-matei",fullName:"Horea Vladi Matei"},{id:"192252",title:"Dr.",name:"Costel Vasile",middleName:null,surname:"Siserman",slug:"costel-vasile-siserman",fullName:"Costel Vasile Siserman"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"45",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. His research interests are focused on modern imaging methods used in medicine and pharmacy, including in particular hyperspectral imaging, dynamic thermovision analysis, high-resolution ultrasound, as well as other techniques such as EPR, NMR and hemispheric directional reflectance. Author of over 100 scientific works, patents and industrial designs. Expert of the Polish National Center for Research and Development, Member of the Investment Committee in the Bridge Alfa NCBiR program, expert of the Polish Ministry of Funds and Regional Policy, Polish Medical Research Agency. Editor-in-chief of the journal in the field of aesthetic medicine and dermatology - Aesthetica.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Villarreal is a research professor from the Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, México. Dr. Villarreal is the editor in chief and founder of the Revista de Ciencias Tecnológicas (RECIT) (https://recit.uabc.mx/) and is a member of several editorial and reviewer boards for numerous international journals. He has published more than thirty international papers and reviewed more than ninety-two manuscripts. His research interests include biomaterials, nanomaterials, bioengineering, biosensors, drug delivery systems, and tissue engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:23,paginationItems:[{id:"82392",title:"Nanomaterials as Novel Biomarkers for Cancer Nanotheranostics: State of the Art",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105700",signatures:"Hao Yu, Zhihai Han, Cunrong Chen and Leisheng Zhang",slug:"nanomaterials-as-novel-biomarkers-for-cancer-nanotheranostics-state-of-the-art",totalDownloads:13,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11405.jpg",subseries:{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering"}}},{id:"82184",title:"Biological Sensing Using Infrared SPR Devices Based on ZnO",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104562",signatures:"Hiroaki Matsui",slug:"biological-sensing-using-infrared-spr-devices-based-on-zno",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Hiroaki",surname:"Matsui"}],book:{title:"Biosignal Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11153.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}},{id:"82122",title:"Recent Advances in Biosensing in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104922",signatures:"Alma T. Banigo, Chigozie A. Nnadiekwe and Emmanuel M. Beasi",slug:"recent-advances-in-biosensing-in-tissue-engineering-and-regenerative-medicine",totalDownloads:13,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Biosignal Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11153.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}},{id:"82080",title:"The Clinical Usefulness of Prostate Cancer Biomarkers: Current and Future Directions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103172",signatures:"Donovan McGrowder, Lennox Anderson-Jackson, Lowell Dilworth, Shada Mohansingh, Melisa Anderson Cross, Sophia Bryan, Fabian Miller, Cameil Wilson-Clarke, Chukwuemeka Nwokocha, Ruby Alexander-Lindo and Shelly McFarlane",slug:"the-clinical-usefulness-of-prostate-cancer-biomarkers-current-and-future-directions",totalDownloads:14,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Cancer Bioinformatics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10661.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:12,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"6692",title:"Medical and Biological Image Analysis",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6692.jpg",slug:"medical-and-biological-image-analysis",publishedDate:"July 4th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Robert Koprowski",hash:"e75f234a0fc1988d9816a94e4c724deb",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Medical and Biological Image Analysis",editors:[{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",slug:"robert-koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7218",title:"OCT",subtitle:"Applications in Ophthalmology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7218.jpg",slug:"oct-applications-in-ophthalmology",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Michele Lanza",hash:"e3a3430cdfd6999caccac933e4613885",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"OCT - Applications in Ophthalmology",editors:[{id:"240088",title:"Prof.",name:"Michele",middleName:null,surname:"Lanza",slug:"michele-lanza",fullName:"Michele Lanza",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240088/images/system/240088.png",biography:"Michele Lanza is Associate Professor of Ophthalmology at Università della Campania, Luigi Vanvitelli, Napoli, Italy. His fields of interest are anterior segment disease, keratoconus, glaucoma, corneal dystrophies, and cataracts. His research topics include\nintraocular lens power calculation, eye modification induced by refractive surgery, glaucoma progression, and validation of new diagnostic devices in ophthalmology. \nHe has published more than 100 papers in international and Italian scientific journals, more than 60 in journals with impact factors, and chapters in international and Italian books. He has also edited two international books and authored more than 150 communications or posters for the most important international and Italian ophthalmology conferences.",institutionString:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institution:{name:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7560",title:"Non-Invasive Diagnostic Methods",subtitle:"Image Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7560.jpg",slug:"non-invasive-diagnostic-methods-image-processing",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mariusz Marzec and Robert Koprowski",hash:"d92fd8cf5a90a47f2b8a310837a5600e",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Non-Invasive Diagnostic Methods - Image Processing",editors:[{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"6843",title:"Biomechanics",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6843.jpg",slug:"biomechanics",publishedDate:"January 30th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hadi Mohammadi",hash:"85132976010be1d7f3dbd88662b785e5",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Biomechanics",editors:[{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"11475",title:"Food Security Challenges and Approaches",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11475.jpg",hash:"090302a30e461cee643ec49675c811ec",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 5th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"292145",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Haseeb Ahmad",slug:"muhammad-haseeb-ahmad",fullName:"Muhammad Haseeb Ahmad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11450",title:"Environmental Impacts of COVID-19 Pandemic on the World",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11450.jpg",hash:"a58c7b02d07903004be70f744f2e1835",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 10th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11477",title:"Public Economics - New Perspectives and Uncertainty",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11477.jpg",hash:"a8e6c515dc924146fbd2712eb4e7d118",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 27th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"414400",title:"Dr.",name:"Habtamu",surname:"Alem",slug:"habtamu-alem",fullName:"Habtamu Alem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11457",title:"Forest Degradation Under Global Change",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11457.jpg",hash:"8df7150b01ae754024c65d1a62f190d9",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"June 1st 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"317087",title:"Dr.",name:"Pavel",surname:"Samec",slug:"pavel-samec",fullName:"Pavel Samec"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11474",title:"Quality of Life Interventions - Magnitude of Effect and Transferability",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11474.jpg",hash:"5a6bcdaf5ee144d043bcdab893ff9e1c",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"July 7th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"245319",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sage",surname:"Arbor",slug:"sage-arbor",fullName:"Sage Arbor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11473",title:"Social Inequality - Structure and Social Processes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11473.jpg",hash:"cefab077e403fd1695fb2946e7914942",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"July 13th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"313341",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yaroslava",surname:"Robles-Bykbaev",slug:"yaroslava-robles-bykbaev",fullName:"Yaroslava Robles-Bykbaev"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:19,paginationItems:[{id:"82196",title:"Multi-Features Assisted Age Invariant Face Recognition and Retrieval Using CNN with Scale Invariant Heat Kernel Signature",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104944",signatures:"Kamarajugadda Kishore Kumar and Movva Pavani",slug:"multi-features-assisted-age-invariant-face-recognition-and-retrieval-using-cnn-with-scale-invariant-",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"82063",title:"Evaluating Similarities and Differences between Machine Learning and Traditional Statistical Modeling in Healthcare Analytics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105116",signatures:"Michele Bennett, Ewa J. Kleczyk, Karin Hayes and Rajesh Mehta",slug:"evaluating-similarities-and-differences-between-machine-learning-and-traditional-statistical-modelin",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11422.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"81791",title:"Self-Supervised Contrastive Representation Learning in Computer Vision",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104785",signatures:"Yalin Bastanlar and Semih Orhan",slug:"self-supervised-contrastive-representation-learning-in-computer-vision",totalDownloads:28,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"79345",title:"Application of Jump Diffusion Models in Insurance Claim Estimation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99853",signatures:"Leonard Mushunje, Chiedza Elvina Mashiri, Edina Chandiwana and Maxwell Mashasha",slug:"application-of-jump-diffusion-models-in-insurance-claim-estimation-1",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Data Clustering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10820.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"81557",title:"Object Tracking Using Adapted Optical Flow",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102863",signatures:"Ronaldo Ferreira, Joaquim José de Castro Ferreira and António José Ribeiro Neves",slug:"object-tracking-using-adapted-optical-flow",totalDownloads:18,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Information Extraction and Object Tracking in Digital Video",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg",subseries:{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision"}}},{id:"81558",title:"Thresholding Image Techniques for Plant Segmentation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104587",signatures:"Miguel Ángel Castillo-Martínez, Francisco Javier Gallegos-Funes, Blanca E. Carvajal-Gámez, Guillermo Urriolagoitia-Sosa and Alberto J. Rosales-Silva",slug:"thresholding-image-techniques-for-plant-segmentation",totalDownloads:20,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Information Extraction and Object Tracking in Digital Video",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg",subseries:{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision"}}},{id:"81471",title:"Semantic Map: Bringing Together Groups and Discourses",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103818",signatures:"Theodore Chadjipadelis and Georgia Panagiotidou",slug:"semantic-map-bringing-together-groups-and-discourses",totalDownloads:20,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Data Clustering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10820.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"79491",title:"Fuzzy Perceptron Learning for Non-Linearly Separable Patterns",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101312",signatures:"Raja Kishor Duggirala",slug:"fuzzy-perceptron-learning-for-non-linearly-separable-patterns",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Raja Kishor",surname:"Duggirala"}],book:{title:"Data Clustering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10820.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"81234",title:"Cognitive Visual Tracking of Hand Gestures in Real-Time RGB Videos",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103170",signatures:"Richa Golash and Yogendra Kumar Jain",slug:"cognitive-visual-tracking-of-hand-gestures-in-real-time-rgb-videos",totalDownloads:39,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Information Extraction and Object Tracking in Digital Video",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg",subseries:{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision"}}},{id:"81331",title:"Machine Learning Algorithm-Based Contraceptive Practice among Ever-Married Women in Bangladesh: A Hierarchical Machine Learning Classification Approach",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103187",signatures:"Iqramul Haq, Md. Ismail Hossain, Md. Moshiur Rahman, Md. Injamul Haq Methun, Ashis Talukder, Md. Jakaria Habib and Md. Sanwar Hossain",slug:"machine-learning-algorithm-based-contraceptive-practice-among-ever-married-women-in-bangladesh-a-hie",totalDownloads:20,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11422.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}}]},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[{caption:"Applied Intelligence",value:22,count:1,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Computer Vision",value:24,count:8,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",value:26,count:10,group:"subseries"}],publishedBooks:{paginationCount:13,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7102",title:"Pneumonia",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7102.jpg",slug:"pneumonia",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Nima Rezaei",hash:"9fd70142814192dcec58a176749f1b60",volumeInSeries:13,fullTitle:"Pneumonia",editors:[{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/116250/images/system/116250.jpg",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9615",title:"Chikungunya Virus",subtitle:"A Growing Global Public Health Threat",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9615.jpg",slug:"chikungunya-virus-a-growing-global-public-health-threat",publishedDate:"February 9th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",hash:"c960d94a63867dd12a8ab15176a3ff06",volumeInSeries:12,fullTitle:"Chikungunya Virus - A Growing Global Public Health Threat",editors:[{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9619",title:"Epstein-Barr Virus",subtitle:"New Trends",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9619.jpg",slug:"epstein-barr-virus-new-trends",publishedDate:"December 22nd 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Emmanuel Drouet",hash:"a2128c53becb6064589570cbe8d976f8",volumeInSeries:11,fullTitle:"Epstein-Barr Virus - New Trends",editors:[{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9525",title:"Insights Into Drug Resistance in Staphylococcus aureus",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9525.jpg",slug:"insights-into-drug-resistance-in-staphylococcus-aureus",publishedDate:"December 8th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Amjad Aqib",hash:"98bb6c1ddb067da67185c272f81c0a27",volumeInSeries:10,fullTitle:"Insights Into Drug Resistance in Staphylococcus aureus",editors:[{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9614",title:"Advances in Candida albicans",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9614.jpg",slug:"advances-in-candida-albicans",publishedDate:"November 17th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Xinhui Wang",hash:"31d6882518ca749b12715266eed0a018",volumeInSeries:9,fullTitle:"Advances in Candida albicans",editors:[{id:"296531",title:"Dr.",name:"Xinhui",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xinhui-wang",fullName:"Xinhui Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/296531/images/system/296531.jpg",institutionString:"Qinghai Normal University",institution:{name:"University of Luxembourg",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Luxembourg"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9528",title:"Current Topics and Emerging Issues in Malaria Elimination",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9528.jpg",slug:"current-topics-and-emerging-issues-in-malaria-elimination",publishedDate:"July 21st 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",hash:"7f178329cc42e691efe226b32f14e2ea",volumeInSeries:8,fullTitle:"Current Topics and Emerging Issues in Malaria Elimination",editors:[{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9613",title:"Dengue Fever in a One Health Perspective",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9613.jpg",slug:"dengue-fever-in-a-one-health-perspective",publishedDate:"October 28th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Márcia Aparecida Sperança",hash:"77ecce8195c11092230b4156df6d83ff",volumeInSeries:7,fullTitle:"Dengue Fever in a One Health Perspective",editors:[{id:"176579",title:"Dr.",name:"Márcia Aparecida",middleName:null,surname:"Sperança",slug:"marcia-aparecida-speranca",fullName:"Márcia Aparecida Sperança",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/176579/images/system/176579.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal do ABC",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7981",title:"Overview on Echinococcosis",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7981.jpg",slug:"overview-on-echinococcosis",publishedDate:"April 22nd 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Fethi Derbel and Meriem Braiki",hash:"24dee9209f3fd6b7cd28f042da0076f0",volumeInSeries:6,fullTitle:"Overview on Echinococcosis",editors:[{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7887",title:"Hepatitis B and C",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7887.jpg",slug:"hepatitis-b-and-c",publishedDate:"April 8th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",hash:"8dd6dab483cf505d83caddaeaf497f2c",volumeInSeries:5,fullTitle:"Hepatitis B and C",editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/73208/images/system/73208.jpg",institutionString:"University of Oviedo",institution:{name:"University of Oviedo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7839",title:"Malaria",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7839.jpg",slug:"malaria",publishedDate:"December 11th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Fyson H. Kasenga",hash:"91cde4582ead884cb0f355a19b67cd56",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Malaria",editors:[{id:"86725",title:"Dr.",name:"Fyson",middleName:"Hanania",surname:"Kasenga",slug:"fyson-kasenga",fullName:"Fyson Kasenga",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/86725/images/system/86725.jpg",institutionString:"Malawi Adventist University",institution:{name:"Malawi Adventist University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malawi"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",hash:"61c627da05b2ace83056d11357bdf361",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",editors:[{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7064",title:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7064.jpg",slug:"current-perspectives-in-human-papillomavirus",publishedDate:"May 2nd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",hash:"d92a4085627bab25ddc7942fbf44cf05",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:148,paginationItems:[{id:"165328",title:"Dr.",name:"Vahid",middleName:null,surname:"Asadpour",slug:"vahid-asadpour",fullName:"Vahid Asadpour",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165328/images/system/165328.jpg",biography:"Vahid Asadpour, MS, Ph.D., is currently with the Department of Research and Evaluation, Kaiser Permanente Southern California. He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:null},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356823",title:"MSc.",name:"Seonghee",middleName:null,surname:"Min",slug:"seonghee-min",fullName:"Seonghee Min",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu University",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"353307",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoosoo",middleName:null,surname:"Oh",slug:"yoosoo-oh",fullName:"Yoosoo Oh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Yoosoo Oh received his Bachelor's degree in the Department of Electronics and Engineering from Kyungpook National University in 2002. He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. His research interests include Activity Fusion & Reasoning, Machine Learning, Context-aware Middleware, Human-Computer Interaction, etc.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"262719",title:"Dr.",name:"Esma",middleName:null,surname:"Ergüner Özkoç",slug:"esma-erguner-ozkoc",fullName:"Esma Ergüner Özkoç",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Başkent University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"346530",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Kaya",slug:"ibrahim-kaya",fullName:"Ibrahim Kaya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"419199",title:"Dr.",name:"Qun",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"qun-yang",fullName:"Qun Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Auckland",country:{name:"New Zealand"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"40",type:"subseries",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",keywords:"Ecosystems, Biodiversity, Fauna, Taxonomy, Invasive species, Destruction of habitats, Overexploitation of natural resources, Pollution, Global warming, Conservation of natural spaces, Bioremediation",scope:"