One-way ANOVA for influent and effluent constituent of Typha latifolia planted vertical subsurface flow constructed wetlands treating secondary refinery wastewater.
\r\n\tAlthough the microorganism was later described by several other researchers with multiple synonyms, Escherich was recognized as the first, establishing the definitive name of the microbe as Escherichia coli in 1954.
\r\n\tIn 1933, Alfred Adam showed that certain serotypes of "dyspepsia Koli" (as he called the diarrheagenic E. coli strains) were implicated in epidemics of pediatric diarrhoea. In 1944, Kauffman proposed a classification scheme that is still in use today for the purpose of differentiating commensal types from pathogens and subclassifying them.
\r\n\tEscherichia coli, in its natural habitat, lives in the intestines of most healthy mammals. It is the main facultative anaerobic organism of the digestive system. In healthy individuals, that is, if the bacterium does not acquire genetic elements that encode virulent factors, the bacterium acts as a commensal forming part of the intestinal microbiota and thus helping the absorption of nutrients.
\r\n\tIn humans, E. coli colonizes the gastrointestinal tract of a neonate by adhering to the mucus of the large intestine within a few hours of birth. Since then, it remains in a relationship of mutual benefit. However, these commensal strains can cause infections in immunosuppressed patients.
\r\n\r\n\tPathogenic strains of E. coli, on the other hand, as soon as they colonize a healthy host, can cause infections of varying severity in the intestine, urinary tract, meningitis, and sepsis, among other infections.
\r\n\tDiarrhea caused by pathogenic strains of E. coli is an important cause of death in children under 5 years of age, especially in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, where it is one of the four most important causes of moderate and severe diarrhea, potentially lethal An increase in mortality is associated with enteropathogenic strains.
\r\n\tUrinary tract infections are more common in women because of the short length of the urethra (25 to 50 mm) compared to men (about 15 cm). Among the elderly, urinary infections tend to be of the same proportion between men and women.
\r\n\tBecause the bacteria invariably enter the urinary tract through the urethra (an ascending infection), poor hygiene habits can predispose to infection; however, other factors become important, such as pregnancy, benign or malignant hypertrophy of the prostate, and in In many cases, the initiating event of the infection is unknown. Although ascending infections are the cause of lower urinary tract infections and cystitis, this is not necessarily the cause of upper infections such as pyelonephritis, which may have a hematogenous origin.
The history of urban sprawl is unwritten, and only a small part of the beginning work has been done. The history of urban sprawl dates back from the ancient times of the origin of cities (during what is referred to as the first phase of urbanization in the world). While Gordon and Richardson [1] define urban sprawl as leapfrog development, DiLorenzo [2] defines it as growth with cancer or virus. In the confusion in the definition of urban sprawl, Wilson et al. [3] and Galster et al. [4] state that describing would be more suitable than defining. In this long duration, what was witnessed was the growth of cities from ancestral form to small harbor/rail-based towns and to the present-day cities with skyscrapers adorning landscapes. By the end of the 20th century, urban growth was rapidly pushing cities further and further out, and the cities were expanding spatially, while in the 21st century, the automobile revolution changed the dominant form of city living. This stretched form of the city with low density at the periphery is sometimes called sprawl. Since sprawl is one name for many situations, there has been no clear consensus regarding what exactly “urban sprawl” is or how it is caused. Although many researchers tried to get bring with descriptions of the idea, the fundamental component of most descriptions and most people’s acceptance of sprawl is this: Sprawl is the spread out of an urban area, and it is suburban over more considerable for country land at the fringe of an urban area. Urban sprawl, which is asserted to be carried out for urban growth, is in fact not suitable either for urban growth or rural environments in a real sense. In this sense, since it is carried out in a disorganized and uncontrolled way, it has effects that hinder regional sustainable development [5]. This involves the exchange of open space into various land use purposes, such as housing, building industrial estates and health centers, for sustainable living purposes. Al-Kheder et al. [6] explain urban-growth modeling using multitemporal satellite images.
Urbanization is a metropolitan development that is a response to often less understood implications of technological, economic, social, and political forces and to the physical geography of an area. The pattern of urbanization in India is characterized by a continuous concentration of population and activities in large cities. Kingsley Davis used the term “over-urbanization,” “where in urban misery and rural poverty exist side by side with the result that city can hardly be called dynamic” and where inefficient, unproductive informal sector becomes increasingly apparent [7]. Another scholar, Breese, depicts urbanization in India as pseudo urbanization where people arrive in cities not due to urban pull but due to rural push [8].
The considerable economic and livelihood opportunities in urban areas and an increase in accommodating immigrating populations result in greater urbanization. It is never seen as a vulnerability to environmental growth, but it is the accidental urban area and energetic urban growth, or the sprawl that influences the land use of any area that becomes a substance of concern through its habit in the loss of major farming lands. It is very important to study and determine the information and suggestions interrelated with the problem of unexpected urban growth ensuing sprawl.
Urbanization is a global process in which most developing nations experience that has led to the rise of great metropolitans along with slums and squatter. At the same time, a notice concern is also about the exhaustion of natural resources, increasing pollution and environmental hazards apart from the development of urban-rural fringes and suburban divisions, a host of ecological and socioeconomic factors that have become remarkable challenges of the current era. Chandna highlighted these factors [9].
Urbanization is a universal phenomenon. It is a process of enrich growth in a country’s urban inhabitants accompanied by an even huge development in the financial, political, and cultural importance of cities associated with rural areas. In “The Origin and Growth of Urbanization in the World,” Davis explains and gives the world growth of population and the way of urbanization and growth stages.
The term “urbanization” illustrates a development in the human population associated with the development of energy and resource consumption and widespread land use. Since the rise of population becomes more enrich, the need for goods and services is often driven by addition rather than just rapid population growth. Urbanization refers to a growth in the percentage of a population living in urban areas of an exact size.
The rapid growth of the population is a result of the sparing scientific and medical knowledge and is the fundamental reason for urban growth and population. However, the rapid development of the population in urban centers is also disturbed by economic development, which is decreasing the percentage of the population engaged in agricultural areas. Structural change in employment, especially the growth of the tertiary (service) sector, has led to an improved number of employments in urban areas. Most service firms need to be central business districts (CBDs) to obtain benefits from close communication with each other.
The central business district (CBD) is the main part of the city that contains the major commercial streets and main commercial buildings. Throughout history, the Central Business District has been characterized by land classification and land use changes that include residential, commercial, industrial, and administration purposes. These spatial changes have been used to support Central Business District development. However, in the wake of post war decentralization and the growth popularity of polycentric regions in both Europe and the US, much of this work has itself come under criticism. The main force of the criticism proposes that Central Business Districts are now more likely to practice for the development of suburban lifestyles. However, similar developments, such as core city regeneration, propose that CBDs are now at the heartbeat of a more extensive back to the city movement that (re)promotes the pleasant appearance of city area living through residential expansion, delightful cultural districts, and an urban cool cultural social scene.
The beginning of the 21st century, the Central Business District had turned into a discrete area of the metropolitan city and built-in residencies, retail shops, commercial malls, Central universities, recreational, government, financial institutions, health care centers, and culture centers. The urban area is located at workplaces or educational institutions in the CBD for regular movement. This includes students, doctors, academics, government officials and civil servants, business peoples, formers, and financiers. In the current era, the rapid development of residential expansion and the growth of shopping malls have given a new life to the Central Business District. In addition, multi residential buildings, mega-malls with theaters, Kochi Lulu international shopping mall is an example of a business district area as an entertainment and shopping center. City walk malls are also familiar in central business districts in an attempt to make the CBD a 24 × 7-hour working destination.
Migration is the movement of people from one place to another place for various purposes. Immigrants go away their nation, while migrate peoples enter a country. Migration impacts two nations and places where migrants enter settle. [9] addressed urbanization, migration and economic development and explained the primary stages of urban growth based on the migration of the population and the economic development of a town.
People have so many reasons why they force to move from one nation to another nation. The reasons behind this movement are employment opportunity, economic, education, globalization, and political or environmental condition. Migration is classified as ‘push factor’ and ‘pull factor.’ Push factors force people to migrate; for example, unemployment, lack of infrastructure (such as hospital, education institutions, etc.), natural disasters (such as floods, droughts, earthquakes, cyclones, etc.), local conflicts, war, etc. The people get experience of life and move one place which gives them good life. Pull factors attract people from different places, such as better opportunities for education and employment, better health facilities, and various sources of entertainment.
In India, rapid population growth and migration, greater than before urban population and urbanization, is not predictable. Barnes et al. highlight sprawl development: its patterns, consequences and measures of particular cities and towns of urbanization [10]. Increasing towns and cities are developed with a change in land use along the national highways, and in the nearby surrounding area of the city, this development occurs outside urban areas such as suburban and urban fringes. Urbanization is a structure of metropolitan city growth that is the reason for social, economic, and political forces and to the physical geography of an area. Some of the reasons for the sprawl contain population growth, urban economy, settlement patterns of infrastructure activities such as the construction of bridges, metal and concrete roads and the provision WiFi using public encouraging development. The direct suggestion of such urban sprawl is the land utilization of the region. Sprawl normally infers some type of expansion with impacts such as loss of farmland, open waste space, and environmentally sensitive habitats. Additionally, sprawl is occasionally equal to the growth of towns or cities. In simple words, as a population in an urban area or a city, the border of the city expands to provide accommodation for growth [11, 12]. This extension is measured as sprawl. Generally, sprawl occurs on the sub-urban area, at the edge of an urban fringe or along the highways [13].
The places of sprawl and the region that is impacted by it are distinct from each other [14]. Urban sprawl takes place at the edge of a town or city, and it might have a direct or indirect force on other parts of the urban area within its administrative boundary or on a nearby city. In general, two adjacent views are taken about the outcome or reflection of sprawl. Urban sprawl may have both positive and negative consequences and impacts; however, negative impacts are often more highlighted, as this is uncontrolled or uncoordinated growth, and eventually, the negative impacts obliterate the positive sides. There are some positive impacts of urban sprawl, such as an increase in economic production, an increase in opportunities for employment, better opportunities and better services creating better living conditions, and better lifestyles. Urban sprawl can extend basic services, infrastructure and social capital, such as transportation, sewer, and water, better educational facilities, and health care facilities, to a larger population. However, since it is an uncontrolled and uncoordinated growth resulting in sprawl, the positive impacts are covered up inviting focus only on the negatives [15].
During the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, in developed countries, urbanization was created, and it also led to industrialization. The surplus population from the villages was motivated to make a mass movement towards cities because of new job opportunities created there. For the cities too, these migrants provided cheap labor for the newly established factories. Due to the present globalized scenario and opening up of economies, the circumstances are similar in developing countries. The huge concentration of investments in cities attracts a large number of migrants from villages who are looking for employment. This creates a large surplus labor force, and because of this, the wages remain low. Developed and developing nations of the world are different not only in the percentage of people living in urban areas but also in the way in which urban centers are taking place. Most megacities are developing worldwide, urban sprawl is a universal problem, and a significant number of city inhabitants live in slums within the city or in urban centers in poverty and polluted environments. These large settlements are frequently highly polluted due to the shortage of urban sanitation services, including drinking water, drainage, garbage pickup, electricity or paved roads. However, urban areas give life for poor people with more employment opportunities and better income to renovate their life compared to rural areas.
Some social welfare societies and environmental welfare and helpers claim that for countries such as India with large land areas, there are too large farmlands and open waste spaces to be concerned about how much land is transformed. They also strain the main benefit of sprawl, which is the delegation of employment to various places in urban areas. Most of the urban centers affected by air pollution based on car culture enable people to commute shorter distances at any time and home. Urban areas construct their own buildings or residential villa like better houses. It is not healthy for people to live in areas with increased densities and smaller meter square of space per individual. Therefore, the better suggestion is for those people to live in larger plots with their own green spaces to go away from city centers and work areas.
The percentage of open land space used by each dweller has improved in the last 25 years by two or three times.
The level of pollution due to motorcar needs can more easily be connected to population densities. Currently, the peoples use their own vehicles for transportation purposes to avoid common transport facilities, and the percentage of usage has rapidly increased. This kind of activity polluted the environment hour’s base movement of vehicles.
All spread out directly to the loss of a significant partial resource that is land. Over the years, urban sprawl has openly been given to result in the poverty and decline of natural surroundings such as woodlands, swamp and wildlife habits. It has also reduced open land spaces. Natural resource use has increased. Urban Sprawl guides land-use patterns that are adverse to the development of sustainable transport and increases the use of personal cars, which in turn results in greater than before changes, traffic, rapid use in fuel utilization and air smog. It is in general a hazard to the human environment.
In areas where sprawl is not controlled, the concentration of humans in residential and industrial areas of urban sprawl might directly amend urban ecosystem patterns and processes. Urban growth connected with urban sprawl not only reduces the amount of ecosystem, open farmland woodland, and open space. The arrival of urban sprawl into rural areas and land loss may also raise agricultural lands for the purpose of roads, power (tower) lines, and pipelines. This kind of activity disturbs the rural ecosystem.
Urban sprawl and urbanization contribute to the loss of farmlands and open spaces. Only in the United States is urban sprawl predicted to consume 7 million acres of farmland, 7 million acres of environmentally sensitive land, and 5 million acres of other lands during the period 2000–2025. Preferred taxation and land use policies work in sync to generate economic pressures that force farmers to sale their land to the urban developer. Builders and urban developers are forced to sell land at a low price due to the former economic crises, and the unreasonable prices of farmland often result in far more sales of their land than continuing farming. Additionally, the number of small land parcels of agricultural land is being separated off to create rural residential and industrial development. These small activities guide the loss of a large amount of dynamic farmland each year. The loss of farmland to build up urban sprawl means not only the loss of food sources but also the loss of ecosystems, since farms include plant and animal habitats in woodlots and hedgerows. The presence of farms on the rural landscape provides reimbursement such as green space, urban–rural economic stability, and protection of the traditional rural lifestyle.
It is an economic theory that productivity is much more enhanced with dense development since ideas move quickly when people are in close proximity. However, when jobs move to the suburbs, people follow them. This may reduce productivity in the city, leading to social loss. In addition, authors state that sprawl leads to creating regional imbalances, such as pulling jobs and people further away from poor communities, increasing inequality. Sprawl also creates segregation of rich and poor or social isolation in general. The problem lies not to the people who have moved to the suburbs but rather to the people who have been left behind. The low-income groups are abandoned in the downtown because they cannot afford a car-based lifestyle. The role of transport technology can explain this social fragmentation. The much congested and deteriorated central towns end up being favorable places for crime and social unrest.
Due to climatic changes, urban regions can have warmer temperatures than urban areas, resulting in urban heat land. The heat land outcome is caused by two reasons. First, dark surfaces such as road networks and building terraces efficiently absorb heat from sunlight and reradiate it as thermal infrared; these dark surfaces can reach temperatures higher than environmental air. Second, urban regions are moderately split of urban vegetation, particularly trees that would provide shadow and fresh air through ecological action. As urban sprawl, the heat land results increase, both in larger geographic extent and in intensity. This is especially true if the urban pattern and features develop extensive tree-cutting and wide road construction. Two decades of urban climate research: a review of turbulence, exchanges of energy and water, and the urban heat island. Satellite multisensor data analysis of urban surface temperatures and land cover.
Atash [12] highlighted the deterioration of urban environments in developing countries. The lifestyle need on automobiles for transportation especially cars forced by sprawl guide to increase in fossil fuel utilization and emissions of greenhouse gases Urban sprawl create to poor air quality by accepting more automobile use, thereby adding more air pollutants such as carbon monoxide, volatile organic carbons, ground-level ozone, carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, and microscopic particles. These pollutants can slow plant growth, create air smog and acid rain, cause global warming, and cause serious human health issues.
A new growth be it intended or unexpected could begin on waste land or on land that was before used for some other agricultural purpose. In most cases, however, whenever the need arises, it is the outer edge of the city that provides for “boundless” open land because urban areas are usually unbroken. Urban sprawl is a dynamic process. This results in changes and the transformation of urban areas. Urban sprawl means the migration of people from urban rural areas to suburban or urban fringes. It also defined a small village’s conversion into a town and city. In India, urban settlement is defined as places having minimum inhabitants of 5000, with at least 75% of male employees being occupied in secondary and tertiary activities, and the density of the population should be 400 inhabitants per sq.km. Urban sprawl means unexpected, uncontrolled spreading of urban growth into rural areas sharing the border with the outer edge of a city. Urban migration and dwellers have changed the urban environment due to the overpopulation. If the population increases the need for transportation and space for living, all other needs to be provided. The overpopulation and development of unexpected urban settlements have risen to change the urban environment. Different situations are observed to cause sprawl. In almost all cases, the rise in population plays a major role as a main cause. Urban sprawl has been recognized as a problematic aspect of metropolitan growth and development worldwide. The growing concern about the issue is shared among planners, policy makers, environmentalists and people in general.
Crude oil is Nigerian’s main source of revenue. The Federal Government of Nigeria derive about 90% of its revenue and 35% of its Gross Domestic Products from petroleum industry [1]. Nigeria has four refineries located in Kaduna, Warri and two in Port Harcourt with capacity of 438, 750 billion b/d along with 21 depots and about 5001 km of product pipelines [2]. The Federal Government of Nigeria has absolute ownership of its oil and gas resources, thus, exercises its rights through concessions, joint venture, production sharing contracts and service contracts [3]. The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) ranked Nigeria as the sixth largest producer of oil [1]. Crude oil is essential for modern life for it provision of fuel and raw materials for an immense variety of useful products, from plastics to fertilizers, to pesticides, and medicines that facilitated unprecedented economic growth and improved human health around the world in the 20th century [4, 5]. Also, Globally, it is the most important source of power [5, 6], it represents about 40% of world total energy use [6]. Several nations are excessively reliant on petroleum for their main source of electricity and transportation fuel [7].
Olujobi et al. [1] described the Nigeria oil industry as consisting of three main streams: upstream petroleum sector (exploration, and production), downstream (crude oil refining for domestic consumption, marketing, and transportation) and the midstream (natural gas). The activities of the upstream and downstream sectors are interconnected and interdependent which is done through the establishment of an adequate regulatory framework consisting of laws and regulations setting out rights, obligations, procedures and standards, and regulatory institutions charged with responsibility for monitoring compliance as explained by Ambituuni et al. [2]. Nigeria has gained in economic and technological advancement through upstream and downstream activities and have posed human health, safety, and environmental risks [2]. Aside the gains of petroleum industry to the Nigeria economy, it is also faced with products theft, pipelines vandalism and cross-border smuggling, lack of capacity storage depots and substandard jetties [8]. Furthermore, Niger delta of Nigeria is a wetland consisting of mangroves, freshwater swamps, lowlands rainforest, salt water marshes and derived savanna vegetation covering about 12% (111, 020 km2) of Nigeria’s surface area, however, due to oil and gas exploration and development, Niger Delta is undergoing critical environmental threat, biodiversity extinction, and speedily growing human population [9]. It is important to be able to balance the derived economic and social merits from crude oil and the detrimental outcomes associated with ecotoxicological effects on soil and water environments [6].
Petroleum industries are a major source of environmental pollution. Conversion of crude oil to various beneficial products is responsible for the contamination of air, water, and soil. One of the major effects of oil exploration and exploitation activities is air pollution with the resultant negative effect of health such as exposure to ambient air levels of CO may result into the formation of carboxyhemoglobin and inhaled particles would increase blood viscousity which may hinder oxygen movement to the tissues [7]. The negative impact of contamination of the aquatic ecosystem on fishes was reported in a review on phytoremediation of crude oil spills by Yavari et al. [10] as abnormal neurone development, genetic damage, physical deformities, as well as changes in biological activities such as feeding, reproduction, and migration. Also, oil spills can suffocate aquatic life and renders water unfit for communal and domestic purposes [11]. Other resultant consequences as highlighted by Ite et al. [12] are atmospheric pollution associated with flaring and venting of natural gas, this act can contribute to global climate change, pollution of marine environment which often result in adverse impacts on wildlife and negative impact on tourism, and fishing and other businesses as well as water and soil pollution.
Produced water is a byproduct of oil and gas production and it is the largest wastewater produced by the petroleum industry [13]. Igunnu and Chen [14] estimated that about 250 million barrels of it is generated daily from oil and gas fields worldwide with 40% of it discharged into the environment. Similarly, Allison and Mandler [4] stated that on the average, 10 barrels of wastewater is generated for each barrel of crude oil processed. These large volumes of wastewater produced during petroleum production is either discharged into the sea or re-injected into production or disposal reservoirs [15] or for reuse purposes. The contaminants in the produced water are harmful to human, plants, animals [16] as well as public health and the environment are threatened by its presence [17]. However, if produced water is adequately treated, it can be put to beneficial uses such as irrigation, wildlife consumption, industrial water and for domestic purposes [14].
Produced waters contain varying levels of organic and inorganic contaminants that can pose serious hazard to the environment when discharged untreated [18]. Accordingly, organic contaminants are classified as toxic, teratogenic, and carcinogenic [19]. The toxicity of petroleum wastewater depends on several factors including quantity, volume, and variability of discharge [20]. Thus, the effects of produced water on the environment cannot be overemphasized. Soil, an important medium for crop cultivation and habitat for living organisms is the most affected by the discharge of produced water [21]. The potential effects of produced water on soil quality and plants were reported by Pichtel [17] as low permeability of soil to air and water due to excessive sodicity, high accumulation of salts in soil causing plants to desiccate and die, and replacement of existing plant species by new species because of chemical changes in the soil. Contamination of soil by hydrocarbon can affect the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of the soil [10]. Also, reduction of dissolved oxygen in waterbodies as mentioned by Abbas [22] which is considered as detrimental to the aquatic ecosystem. Health hazards due to contaminants from petroleum wastewater may have short term (death at high concentrations of hydrogen sulphide gas) or long-term effects (cancer from benzene) [4].
The quality of produced water varies from region to region depending on the type of extracted hydrocarbons, extraction methods and the minerals present in geologic formation [13, 14]. Lin et al. [13] also stated that produced wastewater is characterized by high TDS, oil and grease, benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes (BTEX), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs); organic acids; and waxes as well as heavy metals, ammonia and hydrogen sulfide. Abbas et al. [22] reported the characteristics of produced water in varied ranges composing of 1220–2600 mg/L COD, 2–565 mg/L O&G, 0.026–778.51 mg/L BTEX, 1.2–1000 mg/L TSS, and metals ranging from 0 to 150, 000 mg/L. They however, stated that the composition was highly depended on the crude oil quality, origin of wastewater contaminants and operating conditions of the refineries. Similarly, Mustapha [23], characterized secondary refinery wastewater and found that the wastewater was composed of organic and inorganic compounds including salts, suspended solids and metals varying from 12.2 ± 0.3 to 253.0 ± 0.7 NTU, 146.7 ± 0.1 to 446.0 ± 0.4 mg/L TDS, 161.7 to 782.5 mg/L TS, 10.4 to 283.1 mg/L BOD, 40.2 to 520.8 mg/L COD, 0.01 to 3.4 mg/L Cr, 0.01 to 0.06 mg/L Pb0.01 to 1.16 mg/L phenol and 0.7 to 14.2 mg/L O&G, suggesting that the secondary wastewater can adequately be treated with CWs for reuse purposes or safely discharge into the environment. Consequently, Lin et al. reported that about 45% of produced water from onshore activities is reused for conventional oil and gas operations.
Natural resources are valuable resources of the world. They represent vital resources for a variety of human activities and also provide a living environment for a range of aquatic organisms. The deterioration of our environment due to pollution is most pronounced in developing countries. This has become a persistent problem that needs to be given priority attention. Thus, prolong utilization of water and soil resources would necessitate the application of sustainable techniques such as green technology. Green technology is a natural process that provide high quality outcomes without compromising on environmental sustainability [24]. They serve as alternative method for the treatment of wastewater. Several types of green technologies have been applied for the remediation of polluted sites. Examples include but not limited to phytoremediation, bioremediation, biostimulation, bioaugmentation, natural attenuation, constructed wetlands, vermifiltration, nanotechnology, membrane filtration, and microbial fuel cells [19, 21, 24, 25, 26, 27]. Phytoremediation is a cost-effective, plant-based technique of environmental remediation that uses the ability of plants and indigenous microorganisms in the rhizosphere to treat different types of contaminants [26]. More advantages of phytoremediation include public acceptance and ability to simultaneously treat organic and inorganic contaminants [28].
Constructed wetlands (CWs) are man-made wastewater treatment facilities duplicating the processes occurring in natural wetlands. They consist of shallow ponds or channels, which have been planted with aquatic plants and rely on natural microbial, biological, physical and chemical processes to treat wastewater [23]. This process is a complex, integrated system in which water, plants, animals, and microorganisms and natural elements interact to improve water quality [29]. CWs are a promising green technology that can decrease the adverse effect brought about by anthropologic activities. This technology has been used extensively for petroleum wastewater treatment. They have however has been largely ignored in developing countries where effective; low-cost wastewater treatment strategies are critically needed. CWs are lower in energy consumption, cost of investment, cost of operation and maintenance [18]. They are also known for their effective treatment, simplicity, low sludge production, high nutrient absorption capacity, process stability and its potential for creating biodiversity [18, 30]. Constructed wetlands are used for all types of wastewater treatment around the world. If they are correctly built, operated, and maintained [23] they can effectively restore sites of a wide variety of contaminants ranging from BOD, suspended solids, nitrogen, phosphorus, heavy metals, volatile organics, semi-volatile organics, petroleum hydrocarbons, pesticides and herbicides, PAHs, chlorinated solvents, to non-chlorinated solvents in storm water or municipal, agricultural and industrial wastewaters. Paz-Alberto et al. [31] mentioned that the effectiveness of a green technology such as CW is dependent on sufficient biomass production and contaminant accumulations into its tissues. In addition, effective treatment is based on the characteristics of the wastewater and treatment methods [32]. Additionally, effectiveness of remediation is usually judged by the level of reduction of contaminants and degradation of organic contaminants [6]. Also, the use of CWs for wastewater treatment can revitalize the environment, generate a water source or restore a marsh habitat during the course of treatment [32].
There are several studies on the use of different types of CWs for petroleum wastewater in developed countries with few reported researches in the developing countries. These researches are focused on constituents and effective treatment of petroleum contaminated wastewater. For instance, Stefanakis et al. [33] used horizontal subsurface flow CWs to effectively treat groundwater containing influent quality of 0.009 ± 0.004 mg/L methyl
The objectives of the study in this book chapter are to showcase constructed wetland as a promising, effective and environmentally friendly alternative for petroleum refinery wastewater treatment, investigate the contaminant pathways using mass balance approach. The outcomes of the study can prove to be beneficial to petroleum industry especially for Nigeria, water resources departments, environmental managers and researchers in the field of environmental Engineering and management. The application of the study will ensure reduction of hazardous constituents into water bodies and soil and assure improved water quality by the discharge of treated wastewater into the environment. The adequately treated wastewater from constructed wetland systems can be reused and/or safely discharged into water bodies, this can drastically reduce the cost of production of potable water. Additionally, health problems and diseases associated with the discharge of untreated or inadequately treated wastewater can be minimized and treated water can also be reused. Thus, field experiment using mesocosm scale experiment with real refinery effluent collected from the effluent discharged point of the Kaduna refinery and petrochemical industry was conducted for the purpose of the study.
This study was conducted offsite of the refinery (Minna, Nigeria) about 150 km from the Kaduna Refinery and Petrochemical Company which lies between latitude 10°31′35″ N and Longitude 7°26′19″ E and Minna is within 9° 36′ 54″ N and 6° 33′ 51″ E within the Northern guinea savannah ecological zone of Nigeria. Kaduna and Minna (Nigeria) have a tropical climatic condition with temperature ranging between 13 and 35°C and average accumulated rainfall of 306 mm and Minna with average high temperature of 34°C and low of 22°C with total rain accumulation of 256 mm (NIMET 2010). The Kaduna refinery and petrochemical (KRPC), Kaduna is the third largest refinery Nigeria with a capacity of 110, 000 barrels per stream day (BPSD). The type of crude oil processed by the refinery are Escravos light crude and Ughelli Quality Control Centre (UQCC) crude oil [25]. The refinery uses large volume of water for processing crude oil into its finished products and it discharges large quantities of wastewater into the environment. It discharges approximately 100, 000 m3/day of secondary treated wastewater [23]. The discharged effluent is composed of oil and grease, hydrocarbons, phenols, nutrients, and heavy metals [34]. The refinery treats its effluents by chemical addition, clarification, oxidation, oil skimming, filtration and evaporation before being discharged via drainages into the Romi stream. More details on the process and characteristics of the petroleum refinery effluent are given in Mustapha et al. (2015).
The mesocosm-scaled subsurface flow constructed wetland (SSF) systems were composed of four VSSF constructed wetlands connected in parallel to each other. The VSSF wetlands were cylindrical in shape and made of plastic material (44 cm diameter and 88 cm height). The media type used for the VSSF CWs was gravel with coarse sand. Coarse size gravel of 25–36 mm was used near the middle and outlet of the VSSF CW cells and the inlet parts were filled with 6–10 mm gravel to support the plant roots. The bottom of the VSSF CWs were fitted with perforated PVC pipes of diameter 50 mm about 10 cm above the media connected to the collection chamber. The VSSF wetland cells had an effective volume of 123 L with a porosity of 0.40. It has a designed flow rate of 0.0048 m3/h, hydraulic loading rate of 0.0032 m3/m2 h and a theoretical hydraulic retention time of 48 hours. The VSSF CWs were planted with
The experiment started up by first counting and weighing
Statistical analysis was performed using the IBM SPSS 20 (IBM SPSS Inc.). All experiments were performed in replicates. One way analysis of variance (ANOVA) at 95% (p < 0.05) was used to determine the significance of the data, multiple comparisons of means of the experimental parameters for the planted and unplanted VSSF CWs using Duncan multiple range test and Tukey honest significant difference. The treatment efficiency of the VSSF CWs were calculated as the percent of the contaminant removal, R and mass removal percent, M as presented below:
Where R and M are contaminant removal percent and mass removal percent, Ci and Co are influent and effluent concentrations and Vi and Vo are influent and effluent volumes of the
Constructed wetlands are a promising and suitable technology for wastewater treatment. This is evident from the results collated from the field analysis conducted in a 184-day experiment using secondary refinery wastewater from Kaduna refinery, Nigeria. Thus, Table 1 present the qualities of secondary refinery wastewater before and after treatment with vertical subsurface flow constructed wetlands (VSSF CWs). The secondary refinery wastewater, the treated wastewater (
Parameter | Influent | Control | Allowable limits | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Temp (°C) | 31.08b ± 3.41 | 27.13a ± 1.71 | 29.13ab ± 2.10 | 30–36 |
pH | 7.48b ± 0.14 | 7.19a ± 0.06 | 7.32a ± 0.122 | 6.0–9.0 |
DO (mg/L) | 1.13a ± 0.46 | 2.53b ± 0.88 | 1.70ab ± 0.67 | <0.2 |
EC (μs/cm) | 1350.17c ± 182.43 | 998.00a ± 113.56 | 1176.50b ± 81.28 | 1000 |
TSS (mg/L) | 66.17b ± 18.92 | 30.83a ± 8.45 | 46.17a ± 16.92 | 30–50 |
COD (mg/L) | 310.67c ± 111.07 | 67.00a ± 27.55 | 204.50b ± 55.15 | 60–100 |
TPH (mg/L) | 1.19b ± 0.87 | 0.18a ± 0.17 | 0.74ab ± 0.79 | — |
O&G (mg/L) | 3.91b ± 1.22 | 2.01a ± 0.71 | 2.84a ± 0.47 | 10.0 |
One-way ANOVA for influent and effluent constituent of Typha latifolia planted vertical subsurface flow constructed wetlands treating secondary refinery wastewater.
Mean ± standard deviation. Values are means of two replicates (n = 2). Values on the same row with different superscript are significantly different (P ≤ 0.05) while those with the same superscript are not significantly different (P ≥ 0.05) as assessed by Tukey (HSD) and Duncan’s Multiple Range Test.
The treatment performance of
Performance evaluation of T. latifolia planted and control (unplanted) VSSF CWs.
Constructed wetlands uses natural processes in plants, soil, and organisms for the removal of contaminants in wastewater [32]. It is composed of complex biogeochemical mechanisms and the removal processes of the different types of CWs varies and could be attributed to the difference in loading rate, nutrient species and abiotic environment [32]. Hence, in order to determine the removal pathways for the contaminants removal in VSSF CW treatment system mass balance approach was used. CWs can identify the potential sources and sinks of contaminants through the transfer and transformation of the contaminants in the wetland cells [32]. Tables 2 and 3 present the fate of TPH and O&G in water, plants and sediment loads. Table 2 showed the input variables and Table 3 showed the output variables and mass removal percentage of the CW treatment systems. The input variables ranged from 1874.16 (O&G) to 568.84 (TPH) mg. The tissues of
Sample | Contaminant | Influent | Root | Stem | Leaf | Sediment | Input |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
TPH | 568.72 | 0.085 | 0.010 | 0.023 | 0.000 | 568.84 | |
Control | 568.72 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 568.72 | |
O&G | 1874.16 | 0.126 | 0.005 | 0.080 | 0.000 | 1874.37 | |
Control | 1874.16 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 1874.16 |
Mass balance approach for input parameters in mg.
Sample | Contaminant | Effluent | Root | Stem | Leaf | Sediment | Output | Removal, % |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
TPH | 19.570 | 2.576 | 0.526 | 0.382 | 17.40 | 40.45 | 92.89 | |
Control | 88.82 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 21.60 | 110.42 | 80.58 | |
O&G | 235.430 | 3.801 | 0.918 | 0.444 | 21.00 | 261.59 | 86.04 | |
Control | 340.420 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 34.80 | 375.22 | 79.98 |
Mass balance approach for output parameters in mg.
The contaminant removal pathways were segregated into plant parts, sediment and other sources. The results are presented in Table 4. The plant contribution to the removal process was approximately 8 and 2% TPH and O&G and sediment exhibited the highest percent. Removal pathways by other sources that were not determined in the experiment also showed high removal performance.
Sample | Contaminant | Total input, mg | Total output, mg | Plant removal, % | Sediment, % | Other sources, % |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
TPH | 568.84 | 40.45 | 8.32 | 43.01 | 41.56 | |
Control | 568.72 | 110.42 | 0.00 | 8.03 | 72.55 | |
O&G | 1874.37 | 261.59 | 1.89 | 19.02 | 65.13 | |
Control | 1874.16 | 375.22 | 0.00 | 9.28 | 70.70 |
Removal pathways for contaminants in vertical flow constructed wetlands.
The health of the plants used in constructed wetlands is reflected in its growth. The
Plant stem and canopy height for Typha latifolia planted constructed wetlands.
The environment will continuously be polluted with TPHs and the content will depend on the source of contamination be it crude oil itself or it finished or by-products. Figures 3 and 4 presents the chromatographic profile of TPHs content in the secondary refinery wastewater used for the field experiment. The chromatography for wastewater sample showed a hydrocarbon distribution between n-C9 to n-C24 with a hump between n-C19 and n-C24 (Figure 3). Figure 4 presents the chromatograph for root sample of
Chromatographic profile of secondary wastewater (a), and root of
Chromatographic profile of leaf (a) and stem (b) of
Physical, chemical and biological processes are used in subsurface flow CW treatment systems. Garcia et al. [37] mentioned physical factors as filtration and sedimentation, chemical factors include oxidation and sorption to organic matter while biological mechanisms include oxygen release and bacterial activity in the rhizosphere [37]. The planted system showed a high mean treatment performance for all the measured parameters (COD, TPH, O&G, TSS and EC) (Figure 1). Wastewater treatment occurs as the water flows gradually through the wetlands, consequently, temperature was reduced by 4°C, pH by 0.29 units, DO increased by 1.4 mg/L and EC decreased by 352 μs/cm for the
Organic contaminants such as COD, TPH and O&G removal are favored by VSSF CWs due to it aerobic conditions. These contaminants were effectively removed in this study (Figure 1), suggesting aerobic biodegradation as a removal pathway [37]. High COD removal in this study (Figure 1) is similar to the results reported by Mustapha [23] for
Machado et al. [44] explained that substrate types can affect removal efficiency of a CW. A gravel substrate CW achieved 95.5% COD removal while a gravel-sand substrate achieved a 99% in a VSSF CW planted with
Wetland plants are the most conspicuous component in the wetlands [18]. They have been reported to significantly contribute to the treatment processes. Al-Mansoory et al. [26] identified two major ways for effective treatment by plants namely creating favorable conditions for complex interactions involving rhizobacteria and root exudates to degrade contaminants in the soil. Also, Moubasher et al. [46] have attributed effective remediation to plants, its fibrous root system and rhizosphere. Hence, both plant and microorganisms have key role to play in phytotechnological processes of contaminant removal although, the rhizosphere is the most influential [28]. In this present study, the significant role of
However, the plant contribution as shown by the theoretical mass removal percent were observed to be low for TPH and O&G compared to contribution by sediment and other sources (Table 4). The likely pathway removal of TPH and O&G in the unplanted VSSF CWs be explained by the processes of volatilization, eluviation and photolysis as suggested by Al-Mansoory et al. [26]. This is also in agreement with the findings by [46], as they also added the activity of its original microflora. In that case, the indigenous microorganisms in the soil of the VSSF CWs maybe responsible for the high contaminant degradation as presented in Table 4. In support of this argument, Alsghayer et al. [29] reported that microbial activities are increased in the soil as plant roots provide readily degradable carbon resulting into higher organic contaminant degradation through direct metabolism or a combined metabolism. In addition, Imfeld et al. [38] stated that the removal of toxic organic compounds in CWs are microbially mediated through aerobic and anaerobic microbial degradation processes. TPH are considered as water soluble compounds that display a sorption potential, generally more easily degraded and more readily mineralized under aerobic conditions [38]. This characteristics of TPH may explain its high removal rate in
Sediment or substrates compartment of CWs also have special role in its treatment processes. This could be through precipitation, filtration of suspended solids, sorption of heavy metals and organic matter as well as adhesion of microorganisms and support to root system [49]. The mechanisms for petroleum hydrocarbons in sediment include volatilization, photodegradation, leaching, plant uptake, biodegradation, and abiotic losses according to Al-Mansoory et al. [26]. Supply of oxygen into the substrates favor ideal conditions for the development of important microorganisms that plays vital role in the process of contaminant removal [50]. From the results of the mass balance, TPH and O&G were largely retained in the substrates of both the
The hydrocarbon chains (C9 – C24) of this present study is similar to those identified by Ekperusi et al. [11] in their study (C8 – C40) which is consistent with the hydrocarbons chain present in light crude oil associated with the Niger Delta oil fields, Nigeria. The wastewater, leaf, stem and root samples showed higher rate of lower molecular weight hydrocarbons (<n-C23), this is an indication that all the samples contained light crude oil or by-product of gasoline diesel or jet fuel as suggested by Cortes et al. [52]. Similarly, Khudur et al. [6] also reported diesel as relatively low molecular weight hydrocarbons with typical carbon number of C8 – C28 and they are readily degraded by microorganism. Additionally, the presence of low molecular weight hydrocarbons in the plant tissues of
The role of green technology for petroleum wastewater treatment specifically for Nigeria Petroleum industry was investigated and presented in this book chapter. Constructed wetlands served as the green technological approach for petroleum wastewater treatment. In conclusion,
Tropical climatic temperatures significantly impacted TPH degradation rate in the unplanted control VSSF CWs.
The wastewater contained higher lower molecular weight hydrocarbons (<n-C23), these were translocated into leaf, stem and root samples.
The pathways for TPH in
Finally, constructed wetland treatment system planted with
The author acknowledges the management of Kaduna Refinery and Petrochemical Company, Kaduna. Nigeria for the opportunity to conduct the field study.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
The author also acknowledges Aisha Onkwo Ibrahim with thanks for her encouragement despite my ill health in bringing the work to reality.
Carbon oxygen demand Constructed wetlands Electrical conductivity Horizontal subsurface flow Oil and grease Total petroleum hydrocarbon Total suspended solids Vertical subsurface flow
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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. 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