Key differences between generic medicines and biosimilar agents.
\r\n\t
\r\n\t-production; advances in decline curve analysis, determining of optimal well spacing, parent-child wells relation, frat hit, stress shadowing, well interference,
\r\n\t-completion; determining optimal fracture spacing, optimal pad volume, optimal proppant volume, size and type, fiber optics,
\r\n\t-environmental aspects; produced water management, environmentally sustainable operation, footprint, and water consumption,
\r\n\t-improved oil recovery; Huff and Puff gas injection, surfactant injection, pilot tests, upscaling of lab-results to pilot-scale and field-scale,
\r\n\t-economics; integration of gas utilization, reducing operational costs, and water treatment.
Public policy is a complex, global phenomenon. This means that it exhibits complex and chaotic behaviors that cannot be fully uncovered and understood through the traditional linear observation which promotes concepts such as control, local causality, instrumentalism and breaking the whole into building blocks. This article addresses the inability of the linear model in observing public policy and its global flux and unpredictable nature. The article offers a strategy to apply complexity dimensions in observing of public policy in global context that emphasizes autonomy, network, relationships, flexibility, forecast, and subjectivity. The research design used in this article is qualitative because of the depth of information that words and content analysis can provide in explaining the application strategy of a complexity-based model in observing public policy. The article does not suggest that the current strategy in observing public policy to be abandoned or replaced by a complexity-based model. Rather, the non-linear and unpredictable nature of public policy can benefit much more if examined by incorporating dimensions from the complexity sciences.
The world of public policy, like any other living system, is not static and continually changing, moving through cycles of equilibrium, oscillation, chaos, collapse, emergence, equilibrium-disequilibrium-equilibrium, oscillation, and so on. The cycle of birth and rebirth is continuous in order for public policy as a dynamic system to live within changing conditions in its environment (Smith, 2007). Such transformation is irreversible, non-predictable, determined, and interconnected (Richardson and Goldstein, 2007). Delaying the systemic evolution of public policy through artificial engineering will create catastrophic results (Brown, 1995). This is why studying public policy through complex models is important in order to allow for the participant/observers to examine its natural progression and cyclical dynamics and prevent any attempt artificial engineering that will result in more harm than good (Harrison, 2006).
Systems, including public policy, do not live independently in the world (Harrison, 2006). There is no starting or ending points in the system’s web of associations and interconnected networks (Newman, Barabasi and Watts, 2006). Changes within these systems are not predictable and thus it is fruitless trying to anticipate the nature and timing of these changes or planning ahead to dealing with them (Miller and Page, 2007). Rather, these systems are in continuous state of flux, unpredictable, interconnected, and involve mutual causality through negative and positive feedback that trigger multiple internal and external changes within a pattern of association and interconnected relations (Morgan, 2006). Every trigger in the environment will be corresponded with changes within the system’s internal dynamics, while such changes result in impacting the environment in return within series of interactions and feedback. Triggers can vary in size and magnitude (Nowak, 2006). Most triggers are small in magnitude yet the resulting changes within the system’s internal dynamics can be large (Lorenz, 1996). Hence, Lorenz’s famous question “Does the flapping of the butterfly wings in Brazil cause a title wave in Texas?”
Most natural sciences are linear. Social sciences, on the other hand, are complex (Miller and Page, 2007). Yet, the complex nature of social sciences is often misunderstood. This is because we, as human beings, inherit our knowledge linearly and it is difficult transferring it to complex domain (Taleb and Blyth, 2011). Nevertheless, we live in both the linear and non-linear worlds simultaneously. Our linear domain is characterized by predictability and the low degree of interaction among its components. This allows us use mathematical methods to make forecasts (Guastello, 2002). In the complex domain, we are devoid of visible causal links between elements and rely, instead, on interdependence and extremely low predictability (Kauffman, 1993). This is where a complexity-based model can become useful in explaining causality, interdependence, and low predictability.
One of the errors we do when we are in the linear domain is we have an urge to control (Capra, Juarrero, and Uden, 2007). We do this in our daily routine interactions, or in public and economic policies (Harrison, 2006). Although all indicators point to the contrary and results demonstrate the fatality of such behavior, we, nevertheless, persist on maintaining this trait (Buchanan, 2003). In addition to control, we also exhibit another fatal tendency that we inherit from the linear domain, which is the propensity to predict (Brown, 1995). After the financial crisis of 2007-8, for example, many people though that predicting the subprime meltdown would have helped. It would not have, since it was a symptom of the crisis, not its underlying cause (Taleb and Blyth, 2011). Life is not predictable (Barabasi, 2003). No matter how much time we spend on devising models and instruments for predictability, we will never be able to trace chance (Capra, 2004). Because of this, we fear chance and randomness (Juarrero and Rubino). However, when we live in our complex domain and allow for complexity to assist our analyses and observations we can rescue ourselves from control, prediction, and fear of randomness. Therefore, we ought to welcome variation as the source of information. We also ought to observe the system itself and its fragility, not events. And, we ought to apply percolation theory by studying the properties of the terrain rather than single elements (Capra, Juarrero, and Uden, 2007).
By understanding public policy globally and through a complexity lens we can create a new way of thinking about changes in governance and citizen participatory that will enable us better understand the flux nature of our world and its shared-reality construct (Kiel and Elliott, 1997). A complexity-based model can enrich the observing of public policy by helping us better deal with changes without control, predictions, long-term planning and artificial engineering (Harrison, 2006). Perhaps the most fatal and dangerous element we had inherited from the linear domain is our tendency to prevent systemic volatility and persisting on the illusion of maintaining “stability” through artificial engineering (Goldstein, 2007). This type of error, often adapted by policymakers, is the recipe for disaster and often results in catastrophe (Brown, 1995).
Why the need to examine public policy as a global, non-linear science?
What are the problems caused in observing public policy according to a linear strategy?
What are the benefits gained in applying complexity dimensions to the strategy of observing public policy as a global concept?
This research uses qualitative methodology and analysis with the investigator as a participant-observer. The analysis involves tracing concepts that compose evolving themes. The behavior of these themes is utilized through content analysis in order to explain the contrast between two strategies in observing public policy, one according to a linear model and another according to the application of complexity dimensions within a global context. Ethnograph is used to help in identifying emerging concepts. Group A involves observing public policy as a traditional linear model without emphasis on global context and global interconnectedness to policy issues. Group B involves observing the same subject while applying complexity dimensions to observing strategy and within a global interconnected framework. No personal information of participants is collected. For Group A the investigator assigns a syllabi, readings, textbooks, and assignments. Traditional role of an instructor is emphasized to set objectives, structure, and assess outcomes through evaluating performance, participation, presentation styles, and exams. Policy issues are discussed and analyzed within local, regional, and national levels. Selected areas in foreign policy are applied but only from the local/regional/and national perspectives. For Group B, the investigator restrains from a hierarchal and controlled methodology. Instead, he acts as a facilitator who encouraged autonomy, self-assessment, subjectivity, and growth. Assessments are measured collectively as a network through observers’ interaction and coordination. No textbooks, schedules, or syllabi are assigned by the instructor. Complexity dimensions are introduced in order to observe the complex and unpredictable nature of the non-linear public policy in global context. Globalization is treated as a fluid and flux environment for policy formulation, implementation, maturation, and challenges. Local, regional, and national elements are linked to a global framework in order to understand the multiple forces interplay in producing and impacting a policy. Observation is bottom-up through empowering participants to become active global participant-observers. A new state of awareness is encouraged through dynamic participation (Capra, 2004). Attention is shifting from a particular unit (building-block) that stresses locality in the observation process to the overall global network and relationship (Kelso, 1995). As such, the complexity-based model acts as a pedagogical agent in transforming participants from localized individuals to cognizant global participant-observers (Kiel, 1999).
There are various dimensions driven from complexity sciences that can be applied to the strategy of observing public policy in global context. These included the nature of change, relational operations, non-linearity, continuous flux, the paradigm of Taoism, shifting objects to events, Kondratev Cycle, and removing theory from abstract (Dawoody, 2011).
The Nature of Change is when a dynamic systems exhibit temporal behaviors. Change becomes uncertain, unpredictable, emergent, and transcending and the system’s parameters with its environment become fused, allowing through ongoing relationships. A typical dynamic system can exhibit a variety of temporal behavior. When the behavioral history of a system is examined, the nature of change becomes the core of its inquiry (Brown, 1996). If a system becomes unstable, it will move first into a period of oscillation, swinging back and forth between two different states. After this oscillation stage the next state is chaos, and it is then the wild gyrations begin (Wheatley, 2006). Such dynamic is global in its context and cannot be understood not operated within a local limitation.
If we look at public policy as a dynamic global system and examine the nature of changes within it we can see these changes requiring oscillation, chaos and the birth of new order on global level that can be manifested within the local particularities. However, often these changes are artificially engineered in form of reforms in order to stop the systemic collapse and prolong its decaying structure beyond its natural time. When observing public policy as it reacts and interacts with its global environment, we need to realize that fluctuations can take place (Kendall, Schaffer, Tidd and Olsen, 1997). Fluctuations are initiated by changes in the environment and lead to corresponding changes within the globally interacting system through positive and negative feedback. Positive feedback translates changes in the global environment to more changes in the system’s localized internal dynamics, and fewer changes in the global environment will lead to fewer changes within the localized dynamics of the system. Negative feedback, on the other hand, is when more changes in the global environment lead to fewer changes within the localized dynamics of the system while fewer changes in the global environment lead to more changes within the local dynamics of the system (Morgan, 2006).
This environmental global stochasticity increases the probability of some policies of program local extinction. Policies and programs that evolve on local levels are those who are selected against (Kendall, Schaffer, Tidd and Olsen, 1997). The evolutionary feedback, according to De Greene, is characterized as non-equilibrium conditioning which leads a global dynamic system toward crossing a critical threshold on a localized level. Beyond this threshold the system becomes structurally and universally unstable, which leads to dissipation for further evolution (1996). The local system’s interactions with its global environment is continuous, fused through its parameters that act as sensory receptors to capture changes in the environment and transmit them to the system’s internal dynamics for corresponding changes both on local and global levels (Kauffman, 1995). The resulting configuration within the system’s internal order is emergent, allowing for new structures, patterns and processes to emerge through self-organization in order to fit best with the changing dynamics in the global environment (Vesterby, 2008). The relationship between the local system and its global environment is as such an active relationship that benefits from feedback and translates into systemic morphology (Ruelle, 1993). Stimuli from the global environment and the local system’s response are based on short or long-term transitions and corresponding changes in the system’s internal dynamics can be irreducible, unpredictable, and complex.
Relational Operations on global level is when interactions between a dynamic system and its interconnected global environment are relational based on feedback. Kicks that take place in the system’s global environment are stimuli, causing internal disheveling within the system’s structural order and processes. The self-organization process is the system’s response to globalized environmental stimuli. These relational operations are random and irreducible (Dawoody, 2011).
The relationship between a system and its global environment operates on feedback that is either positive or negative (Morgan, 2006). Feedback as stimuli is retransmitted by the global environment and cause random changes in the agent’s localized internal processes (Wheatley, 2006). This behavior contains the agent’s morphology from static equilibrium to a state of chaos and disorder. Disorder then leads to new structures and practices (Prigogine, 1996). The phase-shifts from equilibrium to disequilibrium to equilibrium are self-organizing and irreducible, and unpredictable (Nicolis and Prigogine, 1989). Understanding public policy through phase-shifts dynamics and relational operations instead enable us capsulate the global picture in change dynamics and have better appreciation of the multilayered dynamics that interplay during their display (Richardson and Goldstein, 2007).
Non-Locality is when the globalization reality has fuzz indeterminacy. Something that occurs in region A can have an effect in region B instantaneously regardless of how far apart these two regions happen to be (Albert, 1999). This notion is known as non-locality or non-local causation. It runs against the traditional local causation in traveling the space between building blocks (Morcol, 1999). No longer are we able to assume that our experiments and observations tell us anything concrete about reality. Whatever reality is out there, it has fuzzy indeterminacy (Evans, 1999). The world is a world of global participatory collusion among local particles in which entities separated by space and possess no mechanism for communicating with one another can exhibit correlations in their behavior (Overman and Loraine, 1996). Structures collapse and evolve because of consistently small reasons that grow larger and become more complex (Brem, 1999).
Continuous Flux is when the nonlocal way of nature is characterized by a continuous flux. A flux system is a dynamic, non-static system. It is always evolving, always changing, and always responding to stimuli from its environment. During such a system one never steps into the same waters twice since these waters are continually moving (Dawoody, 2011).
Public policy is a political process. For a political process to function linearly, incremental measures are taken instead of a comprehensive approach (Lindblom, 1959). Whenever government engages in a comprehensive systemic approach, the result often yields unintended consequences that the linearity-trained decision-makers unable to accept or understand. A Complex approach better understands the flux, interconnected, global, living-in-the moment, and anticipating change than controlling.
Tao is when the flow of opposite energies determines the nature of dynamic system and all trends eventually reverse themselves (Dawoody, 2011). Complexity is an encompassing perspective (Wheatley, 2006). It builds on Western as well as Eastern philosophies. One of those contributors is Taoism. According to this understanding, contradictory elements in the world are actually complimentary elements. The flow of opposite energies determines the nature of a global dynamic system. All trends eventually reverse themselves shaped by the dynamic interplay of yin and yang both on global and local levels, a metaphor referring to the dark and sunny sides of a hill (Capra, 1991). To build on this perspective, public policy can benefit from the understanding that all things are globally relative and all things globally interconnected and matter.
Shifting Objects to Events is when truth is seen not as an attribute inherent in a system but as the meaning we attribute to that system.
We are no longer constrained by a single ontological model. Truth can now be seen not as an attribute inherent in a system or event but as the meaning we attribute to that system’s interplay in an interconnected universal/global network (Buchanan, 2003). This kind of ontological liberation is evident in the paradigm shift from linear and local observation to the globalized world of complexty sciences (Evans, 1999; Wheatley, 2006). Complexity and its interconnected universal model free us from the burden that comes from needing to control and remain local rather than to evoke process and relationship on global level within a flux and interconnected dynamic network (Overman and Loraine, 1996). This understanding forces us to examine public policy not through the isolated and localized observation of its building-blocks, but in relationship of these particles with themselves and the global environment of the system as a whole (Johnson, 2002).
Kondratev Cycle is when evolution shows movement from non-equilibrium to equilibrium to equilibrium, and so on. This process is irreversible. Because of the irreversibly of structural change, the specific structures would not be the same and cannot remain local. Features within a cycle can spill over to the next cycle within the interconnected global network. These cycles of non-equilibrium, complexity, instability, and structural change is known as the Kondratev Cycles (De Greene, 1996). This understanding makes public policy an element of evolving global complex system.
Finally, Removing Theory from Abstract is when the purpose of theory becomes making the globe stand still while our backs are turned. Complexity shifts theory to an engaging and participatory forum that will change agents from observers to global citizen participant-observers capable of cycling theory through practical observation (Dawoody, 2011). Complexity enables us to transform theory from an abstract notion to an engaging and participatory international and interconnected forum (Barabasi, 2003). This understanding will enable us learn how chaos really works, and the forces that interplay in shifting a system through continuous cycle of change on global level while manifesting within local particularities (Buchanan, 2003). Out of this chaotic behavior new structures will emerge that can be sustainable since they will better fit with the changing global environment (Strogatz, 2001). This understanding can transform observers from localized blank-slates into autonomous global agents of change within the dynamic and evolving system of public policy.
Data resulted in identifying 97 linear/localized concepts that were utilized by Ethnograph in the content analysis. These linear concepts formed eight linear/localized themes that included control, breaking the whole into parts, one-best-way, prediction and planning, clockwise movement, artificial engineering, instrumentalism, and one-dimensional. By observing the application of these localized/linear themes between in understanding public policy, a contrast was drawn between two strategies in observing of such public: a strict linear and localized strategy that made full use of the linear themes, and a globalized perspective that utilized complexity-dimensions.
In relation to Control, for example, observing public policy as a complex system required empowering members of Group B to be autonomous, self-organizing within groups, self-governing during the observation process, and examining the administrative system as an interconnected web (Dawoody, 2011). The educator\'s role was to be a facilitator in order to guide the observational trajectory. In serving as a facilitator, the educator became a strange attractor (Gleick, 1988), thereby creating instability within the status quo of the members’ observation that eventually led toward the emergence of new form of observation that is complex, in-depth, holistic, and comprehensive (Wheatley, 2006). This new form of observation and the resulting awareness identified internal patterns of adaptation (Juarrero and Rubino, 2008) within the agents through networking and engagement. Participants acted as a network in order to observe public policy as a global complex system (Miller and Page, 2007). The autonomous and empowered members in Group B and while interacting with one other and perceiving their subjective views were encouraged and welcomed, they were able to demonstrate their potentials for generating findings in ways that was not possible in Group A whereby “control” was applied, the instructor acted as a guru (Caplan, 2002), and agents behaved as localized blank-slates in a top-down methodology.
Controlling the systemic order within an autocratically structured dynamics deprived members in Group A from autonomous decision-making process of the affected agents (Gilbert, 2008). This rigidity had opposed internal changes necessary to deal with environmental changes outside the group (Vesterby, 2008) and rendered the observation process incapable of dealing with emerging conditions (Johnson, 2002). Because of this, the second strategy applied in Group B opposed control (Lewin, 1999) and encouraged the members’ autonomy (Gilbert, 2008) and networking (Kelso, 1995). Under this strategy control shifted to influence with agents moving through the processes of observation to acquire awareness of emerging dynamics (Buchanan, 2003).
In relation to Breaking the Whole into Parts, the linear strategy applied in Group A had adapted the methodology of inquiry by breaking a system into parts, studying each part separately, and then composing all parts together in order to understand the whole (Wheatley, 2006). This methodology, however, was ineffective and observers missed the “bigger” picture when they broke it into parts (Dawoody, 2011). In order to understand the function of a system it must be studied as a functional whole (global context), not through isolated and separated local parts (Richardson, 2005). It is the interconnectedness of the various complements of a system while globally interconnected gives us an understanding of how the whole works and functions, not the other way around (Kauffman, 1995). The second strategy applied in Group B had resolved the linear dilemma with agents observing issues in public policy as a global system and within its entirety as series of local/global interactions and process (Barabasi, 2003), connecting both internal and external factors and players (Nowak, 2006), and observing local and global changes that morphed through phase shifts, continuous cycles of structural changes (Miller and Page, 2007), birth and rebirth (Smith, 2007), and equilibrium-disequilibrium-equilibrium (Prigogine and Stengers, 1984).
In relation to One-Best-Way, public policy is often examined according to one-best methodology. One-best-way finds its roots in Scientific Management (Taylor, 2010). This approach was also used in Group A, emphasizing time and motion, division of labor (such as assigning team leaders, moderators, and presenters in groups), breaking the system into localized parts and then analyzing each part independently, managing information and its flow, and emphasizing bureaucratic structures over processes, methods over substance and instrumentalism over human factor (Dawoody, 2011). This approach stood in contrary to common sense. How could a single methodology apply to all areas in public policy that operate within a global dynamic? How could one tool be adequate to be used in all applications? The complexity-based model in Group B offered members a new direction. It was perceived as a perspective that opened up possibilities for consideration of multiple universal perspectives and unexpected orders (Wheatley, 2006). In Group B, there was no one-best-way. Instead, observation emphasized the approach of “it depends”, especially when every situation and condition examined within a global context was different and unique that required unique observation and solutions (Lewin, 1999). “It Depends” lacked control, rigidity, top-down, and one-size-fits-all methodology.
The application of complexity dimensions to the observation strategy for Group B had utilized the Agent-Based Model instead of one-best-way approach (Gilbert, 2008). Each agent in the group was autonomous and interacted with other agents and the environment outside the group through networking. Each agent had the potential of influencing the entire network as well as other associated networks in the environment, benefiting from the “butterfly effect” in which a single event can be dramatically magnified into an exponentially increasing dynamic. Within this transformation, both the agent and the network went through self-reorganization and restructuring in order to cope with the changes in the environment (Goldstein, 1994). Within this model, there was no starting or ending point, top-down relationships, control, or one-size-fits it. Each event that was observed by any agent in the network was the shared experience of the entire network (Newman, Barabasi, and Watts, 2006). Solutions were applied as situation dictated and required by each autonomous agent. Decisions were also made by each agent autonomously and while in cooperation with other agents in the network. These decisions were process-based and responded to changes both internally within the group’s global observational dynamics (Hazy, Goldstein and Lichtenstein, 2007).
In relation to Prediction and Planning, in a world of uncertainty we can no longer rely on a naïve confidence that long term results can be accurately predicted (Strogatz, 2000). Instead, the emphasis needs to shift to a much greater flexibility which prepares any current structure to respond to unprecedented changes (Dawoody, 2011). When changes occur in the environment (whether local or global), we need to allow a dynamic system the capacity to change from within to the degree of collapsing its existing order in order to for the new order to emerge (Vesterby, 2008).
Lorenz’s butterfly effect teaches us that small changes within the initial conditioning will result in larger changes in the longer trajectory of a dynamic system’s morphology (Lorenz, 1996). Since many forces interplay in the system’s morphology, attempting to map out its long-term trajectory is fruitless because such a trajectory is always changing due to the constant interplay of internal and external forces (Saunders, 1980). In public policy, Lorenz’ formula holds. If it is fruitless trying to predict the weather accurately beyond five days, it is also fruitless trying to predict changes in policy dynamics beyond the foreseeable future. This will also negate the necessity for long-term planning (Juarrero and Rubino, 2008). Instead of prediction and long-term planning, complexity moves us to anticipation and prepares us live in-the-movement (Richardson and Goldstein, 2007). The outcome of this was to accept the unexpected consequences, acknowledge the uncertain outcome of deterministic system, and include patterns of observation in uncovering the processes of change within an interconnected global network (Kelso, 1995).
In relation to Clock-Wise Movement, the linear application in Group A described a phenomenon clock-wise. Time and motion, according to this model were reversible (Hawking, 1998). A phenomenon was reduced to localized parts, functions, and building blocks (Wheatley, 2006). The complexity-based application in Group B, however, did the opposite (Dawoody, 2011). It welcomed pluralistic and multi-dimensional global view of an observed phenomenon (Lewin, 1999). Time and motion, according to the complexity-based model were irreversible. The main prism of such approach was that simple local systems demonstrated complex global behaviors which were self-organizing (Morcol, 1999). The Arab Spring is an example of such localized systems with complex global behavior.
Self organization is the idea that living systems are capable of self-organize themselves in ways that all their components and processes can jointly produce the same components and processes as autonomous agents (Vesterby, 2008). This concept is also known as autopoiesis (Maturana and Varela, 1991). A key notion of this concept is self-referentiality (Sandri, 2008). The idea of self-reference designates the unity that a dynamic system is for itself, and that unity can be produced through relational operations (Little, 1999).
Autopoiesis and self-referentiality cannot be observed clock-wise. They must be understood within processes of change that are multi-dimensional, multi-layered, multi-directional, and continually morphing in a state of flux within an irreversible trajectory of time and motion. Group B followed this multi-dimensional, multi-layered, and multi-directional trajectory of irreversible movement in time. Group A, however, and by observing public policy clock-wise, had deprived its members seeing the entire encompassing picture of public policy and captured only a glimpse of its trajectory within limited sectional aspect that was both incomplete and inadequate.
In relation to Artificial Engineering, linearity is the science of mapping events along a localized linear line. Causal relations between these events are singular. There is corresponding elements along the line between events and their environments. However, emphases are on gravity, inertia, control, goals, future, and predictability (Wheatley, 2006). The line has both starting and ending points and it is one directional (Dawoody, 2011).
In Group A, members observed linear trajectories adhering to rigid structures for the purpose of setting goals to localized projects (Morgan, 2006). However, when the structural elements in these projects were incapable of dealing with continuous global environmental changes, more modifications (artificial engineering) were induced in order to sustain these projects beyond their natural lives (Saunders, 1980). Emphases in Group B, on the other hand, were on synergy, in-the-moment, self-organization, relationships, patterns of similarities and differences across time and space, mutual causality, awareness, and transformation through emergence (Juarrero and Rubino, 2008; Nicolis and Prigogine, 1989). Instead of a line, there were universal loops in the agents’ observations and analyses. Agents in Group B utilized networks and interconnected dialogue with one another (Brown, 1995). Interactions with the global environment were on-going based on continuous relationships that the agents had established within a global network of observers (Johnson, 2002). Changes that took place outside the group acted as “kicks” to generate changes within the group’s observational dynamics and internal dialogue. Communications, as such, was based on positive and negative feedback (Morgan, 2006).
Environmental kicks were received by the members in Group B through the group’s sensory receptors (personal relationships, professional association, and ICT) which acted as strange attractors in order to prepare the group internally to reshuffle its internal dynamics and change its older to correspond with global changes. If the internal order in the group was incapable of change, the group’s entire structural order had to collapse in order to allow for a new structural order emerge and deal with the new environmental changes (Prigogine and Stengers, 1984). Sustaining the older structures through artificial engineering may had bought the group some time, but it would not prevented its ultimate collapse (Brown, 1995). Group A, instead, had refused the concept of collapse in totality and focused instead of series of modifications to its group dynamics and project goals.
Without the collapse of older structure there will be no birth of a new order. This concept is also referred to as bifurcation (Kuznetsov, 2010), and translated in phase shifts in the order of the system’s dynamics (Wheatley, 2006). As the self-organizing order emerges out of the interaction of elements within the system, the system own parameters become unstable and the older order starts to collapse (Brem, 1999). Public policy must be understood according to this perspective in order to safeguard it from costly errors of resisting change or attempting artificial engineering (Richardson and Goldstein, 2007). This is what Group B had understood best and was ready to apply to their project and anticipate the consequences of collapse.
In relation to Instrumentalism, in Group A, the “instruments” used for the study of public policy became the ends of the group’s function (Dawoody, 2011). The purpose of the study or the administrative function was no longer considered to be the objects of the performance. Rather, instrumentalism on its own emerged both as means and the ends (Setiya, 2010). This approach created divisions, rifts and conflicts among members that diverted their focus from stated goals toward the secondary issue of “tools.” Group B, on the other hand, regarded itself as part of the process. Instruments were interactive parts of observations, not independent of it. The validity of instrumentalism held true as long as it was useful to the observation process. It did not replace the process nor did it become its goal (March and Simon, 1993). Instrumentalism, in Group B, was part of the process evolving toward better observance of global complex changes (Wheatley, 2006). Most importantly, members of the group put themselves within the process of pattern-forming as tools and transformed as well during their observation of the phenomenon.
In relation to One-Dimensionalism, linearism is based on one-dimensional approach toward observing a phenomenon locally (Dawoody, 2011). Within Group A there was no room for subjective views or pluralism of ideas. Possible interpretations outside the group collapsed into one localized linear approach in sake of one-dimensional observation (Simon, 1997). Group B, on the other hand, looked at a dynamic system as a composite of interconnected global relationships (Miller and Page, 2007). What the contrast between Groups A and B had demonstrated is that public policy suffers greatly if observed solely through a strict localized linear approach. The world of policies and governments, according to Little (1999) is unclear, interconnected, complex, often conflicting with top-down systems of accountability that are easily transformed into constraints. As such, this world produces policies that are inherently less responsive, less effective, less local, and less efficient. Any attempt to observe this uncertain world and its policies through predictable localized lenses will be pure theoretical and lack validity in the real interconnected world. Group B emphasized on welcoming uncertainty and the shade of “gray” into its global observation and shy away from abstract (Wheatley, 2006). Group members learned to shift their attention toward interconnected global process and patterns building, chance, phase shifts, coordination, multiple binders (strange attractors), collapse of older orders and welcoming the emergence of new, random structures and processes both on local and global levels (Harrison, 2006). This type of observation and examination is self-transcending, self-organizing, irreducible, unpredictable, incommensurable (does not have common measures), and evolving (Johnson, 2002).
There are clear differences between public policy systems in different cities, counties, states, nations, and regions. In incorporating complexity dimensions to the understanding of public policy on each of these levels, the systemic behavior of these policies can be better understood while operating within its global context. The theme of “think globally, act locally” will then come alive and the complexity of a dynamic system is better observed.
Complexity dimensions can strengthen the traditional observation and examination strategy of public policy by tapping in to areas that the strict localized linear application is incapable of explaining. This is due to the complex nature of public policy itself. In doing so, new models can be developed in order to move our understanding of public policy toward new awareness and enable observers understand the nexus between a system and its complex global environment. Such an observation will also transform us into global participant-observers. To this end, this paper recommends the following as part of a new strategy in observing public policy as a function of a complex global network:
Encouraging policymakers, public administrators, researchers, analysts, educators, and academic institutions transform their inherent localized linear observation and methodology to properly adapt dimensions from the complexity sciences.
Establishing a symbiotic relationships and engagements between linear and non-linear applications to emerging issues and systemic analysis within a global context.
We ought to be comfortable in simultaneously inhabiting both the linear and complex domains and offer complexity analysis and solutions prior to crisis both on local and global levels.
We need to train policymakers, public administrators, educators, and members of the community avoid control, predictability, the use of catalyst as cause, explaining systems through events (especially last events), or the low degree of interaction among components in a system.
We ought to be comfortable with the absence of visible causal links between elements or masking a high degree of interdependence and extremely low predictability.
We need to welcome randomness, uncertainty, and variation as the source for information.
We need to allow for volatility to take place in order for the complex system self-organize itself.
We need to avoid artificial suppression of volatility as well as artificial engineering of any sort and allow for collapse to occur naturally. This requires us welcoming collapse as a natural consequence in system morphology, instead of massive blowups.
We ought to exposing the illusion of stability and allow the system’s global booms and busts.
We need to welcome conformity with the state of nature of complex global systems, tolerate systems that absorb our localized imperfections rather than seek to change them, and allow uncertainty and low probability risks to be visible.
We ought to avoid confusing one local environment for another.
Generic medicines find application in both chemotherapy and supportive care in oncology. Generics are increasingly available for small molecules and biologic agents used in oncology treatment regimens.
\nGeneric medicines are pharmaceutical drugs that have the same chemical substance, i.e., the same active pharmaceutical ingredient (API), as that of the originator drug. According to the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), “a generic drug is a medication created to be the same as an existing approved brand-name drug in dosage form, safety, strength, route of administration, quality, performance characteristics, and intended use [1].” According to the European Medicines Agency (EMA), “a generic medicine is developed to be the same as a medicine that has already been authorized, called the reference medicine [2].” These regulatory directions of similarity imply the possible substitution of innovator products with generic medicines. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), a generic is a ‘multisource pharmaceutical product which is intended to be interchangeable with the comparator product.’ This also includes an originator brand for which the patent has expired. WHO has distinguished between originator brand, regardless of its patent status, and lowest-priced generic equivalents [3]. Biosimilars are defined as biologic products that are highly similar to reference products, notwithstanding minor differences in clinically inactive components. Biosimilars have no clinically meaningful differences to the reference product in terms of safety profile, purity, and potency [4]. Both generics and biosimilars are widely used in cancer care. However, there are several differences between the two agents (Table 1) [5].
\nParameter | \nGeneric drug | \nBiosimilar | \n
---|---|---|
Manufacturing | \nSimple and predictable | \nStepwise to produce compound as similar as possible to the originator biologic | \n
Immunogenicity | \nLow potential | \nNo increase in comparison to the reference biologic | \n
Regulatory approvals | \nSmall trials in healthy volunteers/patients | \nAt least one study including assessments of pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and immunogenicity | \n
Key differences between generic medicines and biosimilar agents.
Generic medicines may differ from the originator products in the manufacturing processes. There may be subtle differences in the excipients, color, and packaging. Sometimes, generic medicines may also have different formulations. According to the EMA, “a generic medicine’s inactive ingredients, name, appearance and packaging can be different [2].” Approval of generics and biosimilars are granted after confirmation of evidence of biophysical similarity to the originator reference products. This is a proxy to similarity in the clinical effectiveness and safety of generics and biosimilars. Generics and biosimilars are approved only when there is ‘totality of evidence’ for similarity to the reference originator product. This includes robust scientific data for parameters of structural analysis, preclinical, pharmacokinetic, efficacy and safety, and immunogenicity.
\nVarious countries have regulations for the development and availability of generic medicines. Generic medicines can be marked in a country only after a marketing authorization has been obtained. The US FDA requires generics to be identical to the originator products in pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties. There are defined parameters for establishment of bioequivalence of generic medicines to their branded counterparts. The FDA’s Office of Generic Drugs (OGD) has a vigorous review process facilitating the approval of generic medicines of high quality [6]. The FDA also has clear directions for the development, review, and approval of biosimilars [7]. In the EU, the EMA reviews the quality standards and other parameters to establish the equivalence of a generic medicine to its innovator counterpart [8]. Various countries have described regulations for the production, review, and approval of generics though the regulatory frameworks are not equally mature in all countries [9, 10].
\nGeneric medicines are increasingly being used in most countries across the world. In the US, 9 out of 10 prescriptions are said to have a generic drug [1]. In the European Union (EU), about 20–80% prescriptions are filled with generics [11]. However, lower utilization of generics is reported in the lesser developed countries [12]. Not all generic medicines are available in all countries. Both generics and biosimilars are widely used in hematological malignancies. Examples include lenalidomide for multiple myeloma, rituximab for Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, and filgrastim for febrile neutropenia.
\nGeneric medicines are lesser priced when compared to the innovator products and offer affordable options in management of various disease conditions including cancer [4, 13]. This has special relevance in low-income countries as it improves access and compliance to therapeutic options. Treatment regimens are associated with huge costs in oncology settings. The lesser price of generics and biosimilars is reflective of the abbreviated pathways to regulatory approvals.
\nThe widespread use of generics has favorably influenced the national healthcare spending. The utilization of generics is influenced by various factors such as physician recommendations, pharmacy practices, patient preferences, and the economic status of the patient. The use of biosimilars is reported to have an average of 20–30% cost-saving effect [14].
\nThe affordability of generics and biosimilars offers an opportunity for sustained engagement and adherence of patients to the treatment regimens [15]. This is of greater relevance in oncology where therapeutic options are expensive and treatments last long periods [16]. High costs of treatment are a common impediment in the management of cancer. Reduction of costs leads to enhanced access and adoption of generics [17, 18].
\nThough generic medicines have been available for several decades, there is paucity of knowledge about what these medicines are and how these differ from their innovator counterparts. There is also a lack of understanding about the standards described for the approval and market authorization of generics and how these drugs have a lower cost [19].
\nThere are lacunae in knowledge about generics in physicians, healthcare professionals, and patients. This is evident in the perceptions that healthcare professionals and patients have for generics and biosimilars. These perceptions drive the apathy or antipathy for generics and impact the adoption of generics in routine practice. There are mixed perceptions regarding the use of generic medicines. The perceptions differ in various countries. While physicians in the high-income countries generally have positive perceptions for generics, those in the low-income countries generally have more negative perceptions [12, 20]. Controversies have emerged regarding the adoption of generics for brand substitution [21]. The differences in perceptions can be attributed to various factors including the regulatory milieu, healthcare policies, educational initiatives, and drug information sources.
\nPerceptions regarding generics and biosimilars and attitudes of physicians, healthcare providers, and patients impact the use of generics (Figure 1). Several factors may impact the acceptance and use of generics. These factors are diverse and include increased knowledge about the regulated approval of generics and biosimilars and the increased awareness regarding generics from the access to information in social and scientific platforms.
\nUse and adoption of generics and biosimilars. GRAF (generic dRug adoption framework) is a tool to identify and differentiate high quality generics.
Perceptions and levers for adoption of generics may be grouped into four broad categories (Figure 2).
\nComponents of perceptions and levers for adoption of generics.
Though generic medicines have an established equal effectiveness to their innovator counterparts and are intended to be interchangeable with the latter, they are perceived to be less efficacious effective. Physicians and healthcare professionals need to understand how confirmation of similar clinical outcomes is key to the regulatory review process for the approval of generics and biosimilars. Bioequivalence is a standard and reliable measure to confirm the similar effectiveness of generics and their branded counterparts. Bioequivalence is a dependable proxy for similar clinical effects [22]. Therapeutic benefits are maintained when patients receiving innovator drugs are switched over to generic options of the same dosing. In the setting of oncology, this switch is not reported to impact the cytogenetic or molecular response [23]. The demonstration of equivalence and increasing awareness for the same can help physicians and healthcare professionals in easy decision making for a switch to generic options.
\nThe likely differences in manufacturing and excipients between generics and innovator products raise concerns about the safety of generics. Safety is usually measured in terms of the number and frequency of adverse effects with the clinical use of a pharmaceutical product. There is no established evidence for the inferiority of generic medicines for any safety parameters. However, there is a growing trend towards the enhanced reporting of safety experiences with generics. This is suggestive of increased surveillance for the safety of generics [24, 25].
\nContinued safety monitoring is increasingly being applied to generics and biosimilars. Any efforts made to set up such systems build trust and acceptance for the generic molecules. The exposure of generics to stringent pharmacovigilance practices in the regulated markets are a proxy to established safety of the products. The safety monitoring systems in the regulated markets are mature and reliable. These systems allow for the easy identification of generics in the reports. For example, in the US, the FDA adverse event reporting system (FEARS) enables the identification of generic drugs in the safety reporting systems [26]. If approved and marketed in countries with such regulations, generic medicines are perceived to hold a promise of safety. This facilitates the easy adoption of such approved products.
\nGeneric medicines and biosimilars are perceived as low-cost alternatives to expensive originator anticancer drugs. Many patients perceive generics as less efficacious; physicians and pharmacists continue to doubt the safety of generics [27]. These perceptions impact the utilization of generics.
\nThere are smaller price differentials between biosimilars and biopharmaceuticals when compared to generics and their comparator originators. This is explained by the longer development time and larger research costs for biosimilars. Cost-effectiveness and cost-utility analyses are being used to establish the economic benefits of adopting biosimilars. Such economic evaluations have a role in checking the rapidly rising healthcare expenditures [28]. However, there is a lack of regulatory directions for the most appropriate techniques of economic evaluation for generics and biosimilars.
\nThe benefits of cost saving options are manifold. Patients may seek affordable options, physicians may be reassured by the willingness and ability of patients to complete the therapy, and payers may view this as a pharmacoeconomic reform. The WHO has described cost of therapy as a key component of rational prescribing [29].
\nPayers, physicians, and patients are developing an incline to evaluate the pharmacoeconomics of generics and biosimilars periodically throughout the life cycle of the product. This is explained by the increasingly available experience in the real-world settings with these products. Economic efficiency is not solely determined by the relative costs of generics and comparators. It is ideally defined by the attainable levels of efficiency and safety with the use of lower-priced options. This eventually constitutes the quality of the generics and biosimilars [30]. In a cost minimization study in Colombia, use of generic equivalents of bortezomib, decitabine and capecitabine resulted in substantial savings of 63% (USD 4.68 million), 26% (USD 0.29 million), and 46% (USD 1.50 million), respectively [31].
\nQuality is a key parameter that impacts the utilization of generics. It is important to understand the perceptions about quality of generics and also define what parameters define quality of generics.
\nThe regulatory standards for approval of generics and biosimilars are guided by the principles of quality by design (QbD) [32]. This implies that science-driven and risk-based concepts underlie the development, scale-up, and manufacturing of generics and biosimilars. The yield of this approach is a high-quality generic product or biosimilar molecule with an implied clinical equivalence which may be validated in research studies and clinical experience. Quality is not alone limited to structural and chemical similarities during development; it also spans to the similarities of generic drugs to comparators in final formulations and packaging. Quality is also defined by testing for stability, sterility, and impurities. These data are an important and mandatory component of abbreviated new drug applications (ANDAs) [33]. The WHO has defined standards for good manufacturing practices (GMP) as a guide to the quality assurance of pharmaceutical products [34].
\nWith the prevalent perceptions about generics, there are several likely challenges that physicians and patients can confront for the adoption of these drugs. Observational studies have confirmed doubts and unfavorable attitudes in physicians, pharmacists, and lay people for the effectiveness, safety, and quality of generic medicines [27]. There may be questions regarding the dependable and acceptable evidence for the effectiveness and safety of generics and biosimilars. There may be uncertainties regarding the acceptance of bioequivalence as a marker of similarity. These uncertainties may lead to cohesive discussions in media and scientific platforms which in turn may influence the decision-making for switch and substitution with generics and biosimilars.
\nPhysicians may want to go for facility visits to understand and inspect the development and manufacturing of generics. This can build trust in the products and facilitate their early and easy adoption. Consistent product supply may be taken as a proxy to dependable quality and this can safeguard the trust in the product of a particular supplier. On the other hand, physicians may feel reassured regarding safety if the generic or biosimilar has been approved in a regulated market with clear guidance for development and approval of these products.
\nPhysicians should make sustained efforts to discuss the most cost-effective therapeutic options with patients and help them to achieve desired outcomes at lower costs [35, 36]. This may be an important aspect of therapy in low income countries with majority of patients belonging to the poorer segments [37]. Many of these countries have ill-defined reimbursement policies and healthcare management is largely an out-of-pocket expense. Not alone physicians, pharmacists have an important role in the switch and substitution of generics and biosimilars [14].
\nCompany sponsored patient assistance programs (PAP) have a huge potential to improve access to generics and biosimilars. These programs offer medicines to eligible patients at no or minimal costs [38]. Companies should also make efforts to educate patients, inform physicians, and demonstrate benefits to payers for their products.
\nHealthcare systems should prepare for increased adoption of generics and biosimilars by procurement and formulary management, continued safety surveillance, and transformational reforms for mitigating the economic and operational challenges. A healthcare system should aim to allow an equitable access to essential medicines of assured quality, efficacy, and safety [39]. Policies and programs should aim to not only improve access but also build trust in medicine quality and healthcare systems [40].
\nProcurement of high-quality generics is the first and key step that acts as a gatekeeper to the access and adoption of generics and biosimilars in a particular country. These practices need to be standardized and implemented as nation-wide initiatives for successful utilization of generics. Efforts should be made to develop and design a prequalification scheme to assist countries lacking strong regulations in procurement of anticancer generics and biosimilars of assured quality [13].
\nRegulators are making constant efforts to improve the knowledge and understanding for the development and clinical use of biosimilars. In collaboration with the European Commission, the EMA has formulated an information guide for healthcare professionals to educate them about the development, approval, effectiveness, safety, switch, substitution, and interchangeability of biosimilars [8]. Such efforts need to be replicated by the healthcare systems in countries with poor regulations. Manufacturers can collaborate with the healthcare systems to plan and implement educational programs for physicians, pharmacists, and patients. Physicians should be educated for the criteria of equivalence, safety and vigilance, and manufacturing processes adopted for developing high-quality generics and biosimilars.
\nThere is lack of unawareness for the costs of pharmaceutical therapies in physicians [41]. Educational programs should aim to improve understanding for the lower costs of generics and biosimilars and the implications of this on overall cost of therapy.
\nPayers should be encouraged to develop appropriate reimbursement policies that will encourage the use of generic medicines in routine clinical practice. Further, a pool of generic suppliers should be identified to ensure an uninterrupted availability of these medicines [13]. Generic medicines and biosimilars should be included in the national lists of essential medicines and should be part of national formularies. The integrity of supply chains should be maintained and circulation of counterfeit or substandard products should be discouraged. Lack of constant drug supplies can lead to mistrust in patients and lack of confidence in physicians and healthcare systems. All these factors compromise clinical care in oncology where treatments are phased and last longer.
\nMost experience about the knowledge and perceptions regarding generics comes from interviews and surveys conducted in cross sections of populations in various countries [12, 27, 42, 43]. There is lack of a standard approach for the assessment of knowledge, attitudes, and perceptions about generics. In addition, factors impacting the utilization of generics have not been precisely determined. Sustained and collaborative efforts should be made to understand the perceptions for generic medicines and mitigate the same.
\nEducational initiatives should be introduced by manufacturers of generics and biosimilars and healthcare systems to improve knowledge about these drugs and develop positive attitudes towards their adoption. This will empower physicians, patients, and pharmacists to make rational choices in therapy and improve outcomes of cancer care.
\nUniform standards should be developed for high-quality generics and these need to be implemented at global levels. Maiden efforts in this direction include tools like the generic dRug adoption framework (GRAF) (Figure 1). This framework, comprising a 20-item questionnaire, has been developed to enable physicians and pharmacists to make decisions to identify and differentiate high quality generics and facilitate interchangeability. Currently available in three languages (English, Spanish, and Portuguese), the framework has successfully been implemented in Brazil and Colombia. More and more countries should adopt such objective measures to evaluate the perceptions and adoption of high-quality generics. Insights gained from the experience of such frameworks can help to make further reforms to allow the identification, procurement, and prescription of high-quality generic medicines. This can advance the use of cost-effective solutions in cancer care.
\nAvailability of generics and easier access to these drugs can impact the outcomes in oncology settings. The low-priced and affordable generic medicines and biosimilars can improve the adoption and compliance with treatment options in cancer care. However, the low price of these drugs is often construed as compromise in quality. There are myriad perceptions for the use of generics and biosimilars in routine practice. The perceptions are different among physicians in high- and low-income countries; these can possibly be due to differences in regulations and policies, educational opportunities and available drug information sources. Factors like cost, quality, effectiveness, and safety impact the understanding for and adoption of generics and biosimilars. There are several challenges in the substitution and switch from originator products to generics and biosimilars. The widespread and confident adoption of generics requires collaborative efforts of prescribers, healthcare professionals, payers, and the manufacturers of these agents.
\nThe authors have no conflicts of interest.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Nanotechnology is widely considered to constitute the basis of the next technological revolution, following on from the first Industrial Revolution, which began around 1750 with the introduction of the steam engine and steelmaking. Nanotechnology is defined as the design, characterization, production, and application of materials, devices and systems by controlling shape and size of the nanoscale. The nanoscale itself is at present considered to cover the range from 1 to 100 nm. All samples prepared in thin film forms and the characterization revealed their nanostructure. The major exploitation of thin films has been in microelectronics, there are numerous and growing applications in communications, optical electronics, coatings of all kinds, and in energy generation. A great many sophisticated analytical instruments and techniques, largely developed to characterize thin films, have already become indispensable in virtually every scientific endeavor irrespective of discipline. Among all these techniques, electrodeposition is the most suitable technique for nanostructured thin films from aqueous solution served as samples under investigation. The electrodeposition of metallic layers from aqueous solution is based on the discharge of metal ions present in the electrolyte at a cathodic surface (the substrate or component.) The metal ions accept an electron from the electrically conducting material at the solid- electrolyte interface and then deposit as metal atoms onto the surface. The electrons necessary for this to occur are either supplied from an externally applied potential source or are surrendered by a reducing agent present in solution (electroless reduction). The metal ions themselves derive either from metal salts added to solution, or by the anodic dissolution of the so-called sacrificial anodes, made of the same metal that is to be deposited at the cathode.",book:{id:"4718",slug:"electroplating-of-nanostructures",title:"Electroplating of Nanostructures",fullTitle:"Electroplating of Nanostructures"},signatures:"Souad A. M. Al-Bat’hi",authors:[{id:"174793",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamad",middleName:null,surname:"Souad",slug:"mohamad-souad",fullName:"Mohamad Souad"}]},{id:"54226",title:"Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance for Optical Fiber-Sensing Applications",slug:"localized-surface-plasmon-resonance-for-optical-fiber-sensing-applications",totalDownloads:2265,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"It is well known that optical fiber sensors have attracted the attention of scientific community due to its intrinsic advantages, such as lightweight, small size, portability, remote sensing, immunity to electromagnetic interferences and the possibility of multiplexing several signals. This field has shown a dramatic growth thanks to the creation of sensitive thin films onto diverse optical fiber configurations. In this sense, a wide range of optical fiber devices have been successfully fabricated for monitoring biological, chemical, medical or physical parameters. In addition, the use of nanoparticles into the sensitive thin films has resulted in an enhancement in the response time, robustness or sensitivity in the optical devices, which is associated to the inherent properties of nanoparticles (high surface area ratio or porosity). Among all of them, the metallic nanoparticles are of great interest for sensing applications due to the presence of strong absorption bands in the visible and near-infrared regions, due to their localized surface plasmon resonances (LSPR). These optical resonances are due to the coupling of certain modes of the incident light to the collective oscillation of the conduction electrons of the metallic nanoparticles. The LSPR extinction bands are very useful for sensing applications as far as they can be affected by refractive index variations of the surrounding medium of the nanoparticles, and therefore, it is possible to create optical sensors with outstanding properties such as high sensitivity and optical self-reference. In this chapter, the attractive optical properties of metal nanostructures and their implementation into different optical fiber configuration for sensing or biosensing applications will be studied.",book:{id:"5721",slug:"nanoplasmonics-fundamentals-and-applications",title:"Nanoplasmonics",fullTitle:"Nanoplasmonics - Fundamentals and Applications"},signatures:"Pedro J. Rivero, Javier Goicoechea and Francisco J. Arregui",authors:[{id:"69816",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Goicoechea",slug:"javier-goicoechea",fullName:"Javier Goicoechea"},{id:"188796",title:"Dr.",name:"Pedro J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rivero",slug:"pedro-j.-rivero",fullName:"Pedro J. Rivero"},{id:"197277",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Arregui",slug:"francisco-arregui",fullName:"Francisco Arregui"}]},{id:"25297",title:"Nanofabrication of Metal Oxide Patterns Using Self-Assembled Monolayers",slug:"nanofabrication-of-metal-oxide-patterns-using-self-assembled-monolayers",totalDownloads:3443,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"860",slug:"nanofabrication",title:"Nanofabrication",fullTitle:"Nanofabrication"},signatures:"Yoshitake Masuda",authors:[{id:"12385",title:"Dr.",name:"Yoshitake",middleName:null,surname:"Masuda",slug:"yoshitake-masuda",fullName:"Yoshitake Masuda"}]},{id:"77225",title:"Piezoelectricity and Its Applications",slug:"piezoelectricity-and-its-applications",totalDownloads:510,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The piezoelectric effect is extensively encountered in nature and many synthetic materials. Piezoelectric materials are capable of transforming mechanical strain and vibration energy into electrical energy. This property allows opportunities for implementing renewable and sustainable energy through power harvesting and self-sustained smart sensing in buildings. As the most common construction material, plain cement paste lacks satisfactory piezoelectricity and is not efficient at harvesting the electrical energy from the ambient vibrations of a building system. In recent years, many techniques have been proposed and applied to improve the piezoelectric capacity of cement-based composite, namely admixture incorporation and physical. The successful application of piezoelectric materials for sustainable building development not only relies on understanding the mechanism of the piezoelectric properties of various building components, but also the latest developments and implementations in the building industry. Therefore, this review systematically illustrates research efforts to develop new construction materials with high piezoelectricity and energy storage capacity. In addition, this article discusses the latest techniques for utilizing the piezoelectric materials in energy harvesters, sensors and actuators for various building systems. With advanced methods for improving the cementations piezoelectricity and applying the material piezoelectricity for different building functions, more renewable and sustainable building systems are anticipated.",book:{id:"10511",slug:"multifunctional-ferroelectric-materials",title:"Multifunctional Ferroelectric Materials",fullTitle:"Multifunctional Ferroelectric Materials"},signatures:"B. Chandra Sekhar, B. Dhanalakshmi, B. Srinivasa Rao, S. Ramesh, K. Venkata Prasad, P.S.V. Subba Rao and B. Parvatheeswara Rao",authors:[{id:"335022",title:"Dr.",name:"B. Chandra",middleName:null,surname:"Sekhar",slug:"b.-chandra-sekhar",fullName:"B. Chandra Sekhar"},{id:"422021",title:"Dr.",name:"B.",middleName:null,surname:"Dhanalakshmi",slug:"b.-dhanalakshmi",fullName:"B. Dhanalakshmi"},{id:"422022",title:"Dr.",name:"B.Srinivasa",middleName:null,surname:"Rao",slug:"b.srinivasa-rao",fullName:"B.Srinivasa Rao"},{id:"422023",title:"Dr.",name:"S.",middleName:null,surname:"Ramesh",slug:"s.-ramesh",fullName:"S. Ramesh"},{id:"422024",title:"Dr.",name:"K.Venkata",middleName:null,surname:"Prasad",slug:"k.venkata-prasad",fullName:"K.Venkata Prasad"},{id:"422025",title:"Dr.",name:"P.S.V",middleName:null,surname:"Subba Rao",slug:"p.s.v-subba-rao",fullName:"P.S.V Subba Rao"},{id:"422026",title:"Dr.",name:"B.Parvatheeswara",middleName:null,surname:"Rao",slug:"b.parvatheeswara-rao",fullName:"B.Parvatheeswara Rao"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1169",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81438",title:"Research Progress of Ionic Thermoelectric Materials for Energy Harvesting",slug:"research-progress-of-ionic-thermoelectric-materials-for-energy-harvesting",totalDownloads:24,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101771",abstract:"Thermoelectric material is a kind of functional material that can mutually convert heat energy and electric energy. It can convert low-grade heat energy (less than 130°C) into electric energy. Compared with traditional electronic thermoelectric materials, ionic thermoelectric materials have higher performance. The Seebeck coefficient can generate 2–3 orders of magnitude higher ionic thermoelectric potential than electronic thermoelectric materials, so it has good application prospects in small thermoelectric generators and solar power generation. According to the thermoelectric conversion mechanism, ionic thermoelectric materials can be divided into ionic thermoelectric materials based on the Soret effect and thermocouple effect. They are widely used in pyrogen batteries and ionic thermoelectric capacitors. The latest two types of ionic thermoelectric materials are in this article. The research progress is explained, and the problems and challenges of ionic thermoelectric materials and the future development direction are also put forward.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Jianwei Zhang, Ying Xiao, Bowei Lei, Gengyuan Liang and Wenshu Zhao"},{id:"77670",title:"Thermoelectric Elements with Negative Temperature Factor of Resistance",slug:"thermoelectric-elements-with-negative-temperature-factor-of-resistance",totalDownloads:72,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98860",abstract:"The method of manufacturing of ceramic materials on the basis of ferrites of nickel and cobalt by synthesis and sintering in controllable regenerative atmosphere is presented. As the generator of regenerative atmosphere the method of conversion of carbonic gas is offered. Calculation of regenerative atmosphere for simultaneous sintering of ceramic ferrites of nickel and cobalt is carried out. It is offered, methods of the dilated nonequilibrium thermodynamics to view process of distribution of a charge and heat along a thermoelement branch. The model of a thermoelement taking into account various relaxation times of a charge and warmth is constructed.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Yuri Bokhan"},{id:"79236",title:"Processing Techniques with Heating Conditions for Multiferroic Systems of BiFeO3, BaTiO3, PbTiO3, CaTiO3 Thin Films",slug:"processing-techniques-with-heating-conditions-for-multiferroic-systems-of-bifeo3-batio3-pbtio3-catio",totalDownloads:96,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101122",abstract:"In this chapter, we have report a list of synthesis methods (including both synthesis steps & heating conditions) used for thin film fabrication of perovskite ABO3 (BiFeO3, BaTiO3, PbTiO3 and CaTiO3) based multiferroics (in both single-phase and composite materials). The processing of high quality multiferroic thin film have some features like epitaxial strain, physical phenomenon at atomic-level, interfacial coupling parameters to enhance device performance. Since these multiferroic thin films have ME properties such as electrical (dielectric, magnetoelectric coefficient & MC) and magnetic (ferromagnetic, magnetic susceptibility etc.) are heat sensitive, i.e. ME response at low as well as higher temperature might to enhance the device performance respect with long range ordering. The magnetoelectric coupling between ferromagnetism and ferroelectricity in multiferroic becomes suitable in the application of spintronics, memory and logic devices, and microelectronic memory or piezoelectric devices. In comparison with bulk multiferroic, the fabrication of multiferroic thin film with different structural geometries on substrate has reducible clamping effect. A brief procedure for multiferroic thin film fabrication in terms of their thermal conditions (temperature for film processing and annealing for crystallization) are described. Each synthesis methods have its own characteristic phenomenon in terms of film thickness, defects formation, crack free film, density, chip size, easier steps and availability etc. been described. A brief study towards phase structure and ME coupling for each multiferroic system of BiFeO3, BaTiO3, PbTiO3 and CaTiO3 is shown.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Kuldeep Chand Verma and Manpreet Singh"},{id:"78034",title:"Quantum Physical Interpretation of Thermoelectric Properties of Ruthenate Pyrochlores",slug:"quantum-physical-interpretation-of-thermoelectric-properties-of-ruthenate-pyrochlores",totalDownloads:78,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99260",abstract:"Lead- and lead-yttrium ruthenate pyrochlores were synthesized and investigated for Seebeck coefficients, electrical- and thermal conductivity. Compounds A2B2O6.5+z with 0 ≤ z < 0.5 were defect pyrochlores and p-type conductors. The thermoelectric data were analyzed using quantum physical models to identify scattering mechanisms underlying electrical (σ) and thermal conductivity (κ) and to understand the temperature dependence of the Seebeck effect (S). In the metal-like lead ruthenates with different Pb:Ru ratios, σ (T) and the electronic thermal conductivity κe (T) were governed by ‘electron impurity scattering’, the lattice thermal conductivity κL (T) by the 3-phonon resistive process (Umklapp scattering). In the lead-yttrium ruthenate solid solutions (Pb(2-x)YxRu2O(6.5±z)), a metal–insulator transition occurred at 0.2 moles of yttrium. On the metallic side (<0.2 moles Y) ‘electron impurity scattering’ prevailed. On the semiconductor/insulator side between x = 0.2 and x = 1.0 several mechanisms were equally likely. At x > 1.5 the Mott Variable Range Hopping mechanism was active. S (T) was discussed for Pb-Y-Ru pyrochlores in terms of the effect of minority carrier excitation at lower- and a broadening of the Fermi distribution at higher temperatures. The figures of merit of all of these pyrochlores were still small (≤7.3 × 10−3).",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Sepideh Akhbarifar"},{id:"77635",title:"Optimization of Thermoelectric Properties Based on Rashba Spin Splitting",slug:"optimization-of-thermoelectric-properties-based-on-rashba-spin-splitting",totalDownloads:124,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98788",abstract:"In recent years, the application of thermoelectricity has become more and more widespread. Thermoelectric materials provide a simple and environmentally friendly solution for the direct conversion of heat to electricity. The development of higher performance thermoelectric materials and their performance optimization have become more important. Generally, to improve the ZT value, electrical conductivity, Seebeck coefficient and thermal conductivity must be globally optimized as a whole object. However, due to the strong coupling among ZT parameters in many cases, it is very challenging to break the bottleneck of ZT optimization currently. Beyond the traditional optimization methods (such as inducing defects, varying temperature), the Rashba effect is expected to effectively increase the S2σ and decrease the κ, thus enhancing thermoelectric performance, which provides a new strategy to develop new-generation thermoelectric materials. Although the Rashba effect has great potential in enhancing thermoelectric performance, the underlying mechanism of Rashba-type thermoelectric materials needs further research. In addition, how to introduce Rashba spin splitting into current thermoelectric materials is also of great significance to the optimization of thermoelectricity.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Zhenzhen Qin"},{id:"75364",title:"Challenges in Improving Performance of Oxide Thermoelectrics Using Defect Engineering",slug:"challenges-in-improving-performance-of-oxide-thermoelectrics-using-defect-engineering",totalDownloads:214,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96278",abstract:"Oxide thermoelectric materials are considered promising for high-temperature thermoelectric applications in terms of low cost, temperature stability, reversible reaction, and so on. Oxide materials have been intensively studied to suppress the defects and electronic charge carriers for many electronic device applications, but the studies with a high concentration of defects are limited. It desires to improve thermoelectric performance by enhancing its charge transport and lowering its lattice thermal conductivity. For this purpose, here, we modified the stoichiometry of cation and anion vacancies in two different systems to regulate the carrier concentration and explored their thermoelectric properties. Both cation and anion vacancies act as a donor of charge carriers and act as phonon scattering centers, decoupling the electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Jamil Ur Rahman, Gul Rahman and Soonil Lee"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:6},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 18th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. 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