Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
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Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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The book provides results of research work conducted by experts from all over the globe to add to the research community in the era of the casting process and modelling. The book was edited by two experts in the field of materials science and modelling, Dr. Abdallah and Dr. Aldoumani, whom both have several publications in peer-reviewed journals, worldwide conferences, and scientific books. The book introduces the casting processes and then discusses the various issues and possible solutions. Over the past years, various models have been proposed and utilized to predict the performance of castings. Some of these models proved to be accurate whereas others failed to predict the casting performance. The strength of any predictive tool depends on the employment of physically meaningful parameters that replicate the real-life conditions. This has been illustrated in the current book with such predictive models and finite element (FE) modelling to illustrate the behaviour of castings in real-life conditions.",isbn:"978-1-83968-432-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-431-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-433-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91879",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",numberOfPages:166,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",publishedDate:"February 24th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",numberOfDownloads:4845,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:4,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:7,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 10th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 31st 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 29th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 18th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 16th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201670/images/system/201670.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Zakaria Abdallah is the principal and a lead academic of fracture and fatigue in the Steel and Metals Institute, Swansea University, Wales. His role there involves in-house manufacturing (i.e., casting) of steel as well as testing its mechanical properties and fracture characteristics under various conditions. Dr. Abdallah has also worked at the Rolls-Royce University Technology Centre, Swansea University, where he was involved in the research and development of high-temperature alloys utilised in aero-engines. The power gearbox in the Rolls-Royce Ultrafan aero-engine is one of the major projects on which Dr. Abdallah has been working for several years. He has worked as a consultant for various industries in the United Kingdom, such as Airbus, TIMET, ETD, Rolls-Royce, within Swansea Materials Research and Testing (SMaRT) Ltd. Dr. Abdallah leads or has led, several modules at Swansea University. He also supervises several students working on various projects related to steel and metal alloys as well as the fatigue performance and life predictions of metallic structures. Dr. Abdallah has numerous journal publications, books, and international conferences to his credit. His research interests include steel and metals, composite materials, materials characterisation, creep and fatigue, life predictions of materials, thermo-mechanical testing, heat treatment, powder metallurgy, and diffusion bonding and brazing.",institutionString:"Swansea University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Swansea University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"274462",title:"Dr.",name:"Nada",middleName:null,surname:"Aldoumani",slug:"nada-aldoumani",fullName:"Nada Aldoumani",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274462/images/system/274462.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Aldoumani is the director of Innovative Technologies & Engineering Consultancy House (ITECH) Ltd., a registered business in the United Kingdom with headquarters in London. She provides services in metallic and composite structures in the field of uncertainty quantification and mechanical properties. In her business, Dr. Aldoumani is enhancing her consultancy expertise by providing services to customers worldwide. This includes finite element (FE) modelling and engineering solutions for newly designed products with the aid of uncertainty quantification and problem-solving. Dr. Aldoumani was a fellow researcher at Swansea University, Wales, with a structural engineering background. She is an expert in composite materials for structural applications, finite element (FE) modelling, and ANSYS, PDL, ACP, and MATLAB coding. Dr. Aldoumani is also a pioneer in uncertainty quantification in composite structures and adhesively bonded materials, particularly those employed in the aerospace industry. During her career, Dr. Aldoumani developed a novel approach that automates ANSYS through an in-house MATLAB code that is capable of running thousands of trials to obtain probabilistic Gaussian distributions. Her work is now published in internationally recognised and peer-reviewed journals.",institutionString:"Innovative Technologies & Engineering Consultancy House (ITECH) Ltd.",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Swansea University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"944",title:"Metallurgy",slug:"metals-and-nonmetals-metallurgy"}],chapters:[{id:"73325",title:"Perspective Chapter: A Personal Overview of Casting Processes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93739",slug:"perspective-chapter-a-personal-overview-of-casting-processes",totalDownloads:646,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Casting processes are reviewed from the point of view of the type of defects they produce and their consequential properties of the castings they produce, particularly resistance to fracture, and therefore, their reliability in service. The ingot casting of steels is criticized for unnecessary degradation of the steel. The fundamental problems of continuous casting of aluminum alloys and steels are seen to be lying in inattention to the details of the processes. Vacuum casting, particularly vacuum arc remelting, as currently executed, is seen to be fundamentally unreliable for any safety critical purposes, particularly its history of helicopter tragedies resulting from its use in helicopter drive trains.",signatures:"John Campbell",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73325",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73325",authors:[{id:"327797",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"John",surname:"Campbell",slug:"john-campbell",fullName:"John Campbell"}],corrections:null},{id:"74167",title:"Solidification of Metals and Alloys",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94393",slug:"solidification-of-metals-and-alloys",totalDownloads:1139,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In order to analyse the process of solidification of metals and alloys critically, it is most pertinent to understand the different modes of nucleation and the uneven rates of growth throughout the melt. It is also important to take a note of the constraints in the growth process that definitely influence the crystal structure and the structure related properties of the casting. The freezing pattern of the liquid melt decides the feeding of the mould which is instrumental in producing a complete and compact casting. For pure metals and even in case of alloys with a narrow freezing range a well defined solid–liquid macro-interface exists. Here feeding of the solidifying casting is the easiest, by the common lowering of the liquid metal surface in the mould. However, in many instances, a well defined interface is not witnessed. The solid–liquid interface could be discrete and not continuous. Here process of feeding the solidification sites that witness considerable shrinkages, may become complicated. On grounds of above it is implied, the process of solidification constitutes an important aspects in the production of a defect free casting.",signatures:"Upendra Kumar Mohanty and Hrushikesh Sarangi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74167",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74167",authors:[{id:"328540",title:"Prof.",name:"Hrushikesh",surname:"Sarangi",slug:"hrushikesh-sarangi",fullName:"Hrushikesh Sarangi"},{id:"328543",title:"Prof.",name:"Upendra Kumar",surname:"Mohanty",slug:"upendra-kumar-mohanty",fullName:"Upendra Kumar Mohanty"}],corrections:null},{id:"74686",title:"Heat Transfer Studies on Solidification of Casting Process",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95371",slug:"heat-transfer-studies-on-solidification-of-casting-process",totalDownloads:688,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter deals with the heat transfer characteristics between the cast and the mold. Generally the heat transfer behavior between the cast and the sand mold is used and all the three modes of heat transfer are studied. The heat transfer characteristics from the cast is at a faster rate for a die mold than for the sand mold. Since the sand mold is used for most of the industrial applications for the complex shapes of metal the heat transfer and the shrinkage behavior in solidification has to be understood perfectly. In this chapter, since the heat transfer mechanism and the shrinkage behavior of the metal in the sand mold is interrelated, hence were predominantly discussed.",signatures:"L. Anna Gowsalya and Mahboob E. Afshan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74686",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74686",authors:[{id:"328513",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Anna Gowsalya",surname:"Lucas",slug:"anna-gowsalya-lucas",fullName:"Anna Gowsalya Lucas"},{id:"343119",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahboob",surname:"E Afshan",slug:"mahboob-e-afshan",fullName:"Mahboob E Afshan"}],corrections:null},{id:"74553",title:"Simulation and Validation of Castings in Shop Floor",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94596",slug:"simulation-and-validation-of-castings-in-shop-floor",totalDownloads:731,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Production of sound casting demands a thorough understanding of whole casting process. But still, defects and rejection of castings are ubiquitous because in general, the designer lacks domain knowledge about casting processes and hardly have any methodology to find out the parameters that produce sound casting. Casting simulation software simulates the way how casting engineers decide the casting process in a virtual platform and also analyzes each decision to point out the design modifications needed to enhance the quality of casting as well as reduce lead time, tooling and manufacturing costs. The application of simulation software enables us to say, “Get it right, the first time and every time”. Simulation software can be very helpful in calculating tedious formulas, constructing solid modeling which will be helpful to visualise the actual situation like core/mould assembly, gating and feeding arrangements with the main casting before going into actual practice. It can be adopted for troubleshooting existing castings, and for producing new castings without or minimum shop-floor trials. This chapter illustrates the advantages of casting simulation (both tangible and intangible), bottlenecks (technical and resource-related), and some best practices to subdue the bottlenecks. In this chapter some of the live examples have been cited to understand the process logically and scientifically.",signatures:"Partha Haldar and Goutam Sutradhar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74553",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74553",authors:[{id:"328397",title:"Prof.",name:"Goutam",surname:"Sutradhar",slug:"goutam-sutradhar",fullName:"Goutam Sutradhar"},{id:"328399",title:"Mr.",name:"Partha",surname:"Haldar",slug:"partha-haldar",fullName:"Partha Haldar"}],corrections:null},{id:"74745",title:"CFD Optimization Method to Design Foam Residue Traps for Full Mold Casting",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95505",slug:"cfd-optimization-method-to-design-foam-residue-traps-for-full-mold-casting",totalDownloads:337,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Full mold casting is a casting process in which a mold made of wood or metal is substituted for a styrofoam model. This metal casting process is advantageous for the production of large-sized castings because it uses a foamed model. However, this unique process of melting a foamed model causes a problem which is the foamed model remains dissolved in the casting. This is called foam residue defect and is specific to full mold casting. In this study, we propose a new casting design called a residue trap to reduce these residue defects. This residue trap collects the residue of foam models included in the molten metal, which tends to be generated when the temperature of the molten metal becomes low by being attached to the product part in the same way to overflows. We also optimized the shape of the residue trap in terms of easing of post-treatment and increasing efficiency of collecting foam residue. Eventually, the effectiveness of the residue trap was verified by actual full mold casting experiments.",signatures:"Yuto Takagi, Masahiro Inagaki and Ken’ichi Yano",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74745",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74745",authors:[{id:"66448",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenichi",surname:"Yano",slug:"kenichi-yano",fullName:"Kenichi Yano"},{id:"328441",title:"MSc.",name:"Yuto",surname:"Takagi",slug:"yuto-takagi",fullName:"Yuto Takagi"},{id:"328442",title:"MSc.",name:"Masahiro",surname:"Inagaki",slug:"masahiro-inagaki",fullName:"Masahiro Inagaki"}],corrections:null},{id:"74692",title:"The Physical Chemistry of Steel Deoxidation and Nozzle Clogging in Continuous Casting",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95369",slug:"the-physical-chemistry-of-steel-deoxidation-and-nozzle-clogging-in-continuous-casting",totalDownloads:573,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nozzle clogging in continuous casting of steel originates by the adherence of alumina particles and other oxides, precipitated during the liquid steel deoxidation, on the refractory material’s surface. Hence, these particles’ nucleation and growth rates in supersaturated melts are analyzed considering, specifically, the role of the interfacial tensions between alumina, silica, and other oxides and the liquid metal. Weak steel deoxidizers like silicon do not need high supersaturations favoring high nucleation rates, giving particles’ narrow size distributions thanks to fast diffusion and Ostwald-ripening coagulation. Strong deoxidizers, like aluminum, need high supersaturation levels leading to broad size distributions. Besides, the morphology of these particles depends on the nucleation and growth mechanisms. The adhesion forces among the deoxidation particles, forming clusters, depending on the morphology and the oxide’s chemistry. The stability of the nozzle’s clog, adhered to the nozzle’s wall, depends on the interface tensions between the melt and the nozzle’s refractory surface and between the melt and the inclusion. The results obtained here help set up basic recommendations in steel refining and materials specifications of casting nozzles.",signatures:"María-Guadalupe González Solórzano, Rodolfo Morales-Dávila, Jafeth Rodríguez Ávila, Carlos Rodrigo Muñiz-Valdés and Alfonso Nájera Bastida",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74692",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74692",authors:[{id:"106163",title:"Dr.",name:"Rodolfo",surname:"Morales",slug:"rodolfo-morales",fullName:"Rodolfo Morales"},{id:"241727",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos-Rodrigo",surname:"Muñiz-Valdez",slug:"carlos-rodrigo-muniz-valdez",fullName:"Carlos-Rodrigo Muñiz-Valdez"},{id:"337015",title:"Ms.",name:"Maria Guadalupe",surname:"González-Solórzano",slug:"maria-guadalupe-gonzalez-solorzano",fullName:"Maria Guadalupe González-Solórzano"},{id:"342255",title:"Dr.",name:"Jafeth",surname:"Rodríguez Ávila",slug:"jafeth-rodriguez-avila",fullName:"Jafeth Rodríguez Ávila"},{id:"342256",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfonso Nájera",surname:"Bastida",slug:"alfonso-najera-bastida",fullName:"Alfonso Nájera Bastida"}],corrections:null},{id:"74098",title:"Melt Treatment-Porosity Formation Relationship in Al-Si Cast Alloys",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94595",slug:"melt-treatment-porosity-formation-relationship-in-al-si-cast-alloys",totalDownloads:396,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The present study focuses on the porosity formation in three Al-Si cast alloys widely used in automotive industries viz. A319.0, A356.0, and A413.0 alloys under various conditions: stirring, degassing. Sr level, amount of grain refining, combined modification and grain refining, as well as hydrogen level. The solidification rate was the same for all alloys in terms of the mold used and its temperature. The microstructural investigations were carried out quantitatively using an optical microscope-image analyzer system scanning systematically over a polished sample area of 25 mm × 25 mm and qualitatively using an electron probe microanalzer equipped with EDS and WDS systems. The results were coupled with hardness measurements.",signatures:"Dominique Gagnon, Agnes M. Samuel, Fawzy H. Samuel, Mohamed H. Abdelaziz and Herbert W. Doty",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74098",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74098",authors:[{id:"178918",title:"Dr.",name:"Fawzy H.",surname:"Samuel",slug:"fawzy-h.-samuel",fullName:"Fawzy H. Samuel"},{id:"184917",title:"Dr.",name:"Herbert",surname:"Doty",slug:"herbert-doty",fullName:"Herbert Doty"},{id:"320329",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed H.",surname:"Abdelaziz",slug:"mohamed-h.-abdelaziz",fullName:"Mohamed H. Abdelaziz"},{id:"320504",title:"Dr.",name:"Agnes Marie",surname:"Samuel",slug:"agnes-marie-samuel",fullName:"Agnes Marie Samuel"},{id:"335576",title:"Dr.",name:"Dominque",surname:"Gagnon",slug:"dominque-gagnon",fullName:"Dominque Gagnon"}],corrections:null},{id:"73849",title:"Shrinkage Porosity in Steel Sand Castings: Formation, Classification and Inspection",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94392",slug:"shrinkage-porosity-in-steel-sand-castings-formation-classification-and-inspection",totalDownloads:356,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this Chapter, shrinkage porosity defects in steel castings are analysed, particularly for low carbon, high alloyed steels, which have applications in critical engineering components. It begins with the mechanisms for porosity formation within the solidification contraction phase of the casting cycle, highlighting the importance of feeder design. This is followed by characterisation of the solidification phase of steel alloys, including the evolution of phases, which is important in distinguishing between microstructure and porosity in microscopy analysis. A more detailed discussion of interdendritic feeding and mechanisms for shrinkage micro-porosity is then provided. This leads to the well-established interdendritic flow model and commonly-used thermal criteria for shrinkage porosity prediction. The discussions are then consolidated through the classification of shrinkage porosity in terms of formation mechanisms and morphology, and its causes relating to composition, design and process conditions. Finally, engineering standards for classification and inspection of porosity types and severity levels in steel castings are discussed. Throughout, basic design and process improvement approaches for improving melt feeding during solidification contraction is given, with emphasis on providing practical solutions for prediction and evaluation of shrinkage porosity defects in castings.",signatures:"Nawaz Mahomed",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73849",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73849",authors:[{id:"328300",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Nawaz",surname:"Mahomed",slug:"nawaz-mahomed",fullName:"Nawaz Mahomed"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10773",title:"Advances in Fatigue and Fracture Testing and Modelling",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"22eb4fe235e1d5d074c3ad7643f8a567",slug:"advances-in-fatigue-and-fracture-testing-and-modelling",bookSignature:"Zak Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10773.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3817",title:"Developments in Corrosion Protection",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8ff86fac7ac8bce142fdc3c0e5a79f30",slug:"developments-in-corrosion-protection",bookSignature:"M. 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1. Introduction
Friction and wear are inescapable problems in mechanical and electromechanical systems, resulting in massive energy losses. Holmberg and Erdemir [1] have estimated that the energy consumption generated by contacting surfaces in mechanical elements is almost 23% of the total energy consumption in the world, where 20% is used to overcome friction and 3% is used to replace worn surfaces. However, energy losses could be reduced by up to 40% through new advances in lubrication, which can save 8.7% of world energy consumption. Especially, the losses by friction could be decreased by using high-performance lubricants, which cannot only result in economic savings but also in important environmental benefits. In addition, the increase in energy prices leads to high demand for improvement of energy efficiency.
Ionic liquids (ILs) are a class of salts composing of bulky organic cations and organic or inorganic anions. Some of the typical IL molecular structures are shown in Figure 1. The large molecular size of the ions and their possible delocalized charge contribute to the uncommonly low melting points of ILs, which are below 100 °C. The first IL, ethylammonium nitrate [(C2H5NH3)NO3], reported by Walden in 1914 is found to have a melting point of 12 °C. Since the 1970s, the research of ILs has become increasingly popular and now ILs have been used for various applications such as effective solvent, catalyst, electrolytes in batteries, and carbon and carbon dioxide capturing.
Figure 1.
Typical ionic liquids molecular structures.
In the tribological field, ILs have shown great potential as advanced lubricants and “tailor-made” lubricating additives since been explored for lubrication in 2001 [2]. ILs have excellent physicochemical properties including low melting point, low flammability, negligible vapor pressure, and high thermal stability that meet the demands of high-performance lubricants. One of the most important characteristics of ILs is that their properties can be tailored by varying the species of the cations and anions, giving rise to numerous families that can be used across different tribological systems. The superiority of ILs in lubrication can be attributed to their inherent polarity, which can make them form stable ordered layers in the liquid state on metal surfaces to prevent them against contact; and that some elements of ILs can react with the substrate materials to generate a tribofilm to protect the substrate from further wear.
ILs can be conventionally categorized into aprotic ionic liquids (AILs) and protic ionic liquids (PILs), based on the nature of the cation present in the combinations [3]. Since most of the studies in lubrication are focused on AILs, many literature reviews have summarized the research efforts of them. Therefore, this chapter covers more about the progress of PILs in lubrication. Firstly, some important physicochemical properties of ILs will be introduced. Secondly, ILs as neat lubricants, specifically as bulk lubricants, thin-film lubricants, and the surface interactions between ILs and contact surfaces will be discussed. The third part will be focused on the ILs as additives in different base lubricants.
2. Physicochemical properties of ionic liquids
ILs are highly tunable by changing the cation structures, anion structures or both to satisfy specific engineering and manufacturing requirements. Therefore, to understand the relationship between the chemical structures of ILs and their physicochemical properties, as well as the tribological properties, becomes crucial to the molecular design of the more effective ILs. Their physicochemical properties can be easily influenced by combining different types of cations and anions or varying their alkyl chain lengths.
2.1 Viscosity and thermal stability
The viscosity behavior will affect the load-carrying capacity of ILs, as well as their formation of boundary lubricating films. In addition, the thermal stability of an IL is also a prerequisite for being used in various tribological systems. Particularly, an outstanding thermal stability would contribute to its application in high-temperature environments. Since thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) has been employed in most of the studies to characterize the thermal stability of ILs, the viscosity and onset thermal decomposition temperature (Td) of some ILs obtained using this method have been summarized in Table 1. In general, the molecular structure modification of the cation or the anion will affect the IL’s viscosity and thermal stability. ILs having symmetric cations with long alkyl side chains are found to have high viscosity [16, 17, 18], which is attributed to the closer packing and enhanced van der Waals interactions between the long alkyl chains. Particularly, the branched ILs are reported to possess higher viscosity than the linear ones [19]. In addition, ILs having high molar mass and ion-interactions such as hydrogen bonds in their molecular structures will get high viscosity [13, 20]. For instance, an imidazolium-based IL with a hydroxyl group (-OH) grafted into the N-1 position of its cation obtained an increase in viscosity, which is attributed to the increased hydrogen bond interactions and the resulting higher molar mass. In the study of Guo et al. [15], the viscosity of the hydroxylammonium PIL is highly dominated by the hydrogen bond interactions among its molecules instead of its molar mass.
The thermal stability of an IL is also closely related to its cation and anion, as can be seen in Table 1. Generally, when pairing with the same anion, the imidazolium-based ILs have a higher thermal stability than the tetraalkylphosphonium-based and the tetraalkylammonium-based ILs [4, 5, 9]. And the imidazolium-based ILs are reported to have a higher thermal stability when their cations have a smaller alkyl chain [21]. In contrast to cations, the anions have more impacts on the thermal stability of ILs. For example, an alkylammonium PIL derived from a stronger acid tends to have a higher thermal stability [22]. Recently, Fadeeva et al. [23] reported that the thermal stability of the alkylimidazolium-based PILs is mainly determined by the anions nature instead of the cation structure. However, with the same triflate anion, the PILs having the cation with larger size and branched chain structure would get a higher thermal stability [24, 25]. In several studies [13, 14, 15], the hydroxylammonium PILs with carboxylate anions were found to have low thermal stability. The reason underlaying this phenomenon is related to the reversal proton transfer, leading to the presence of free acid and ethanolamine [15]. Considering the long-term practical applications of ILs in lubrication, the characterization of their long-term thermal stability, through isothermal TGA, should also be concerned [21].
2.2 Corrosion
Corrosion for most lubricants, such as water-based lubricants, is a complex problem that needed to be solved. The corrosivity of neat ILs or ILs additives are usually evaluated by means of immersion corrosion test, in which the testing specimen, such as copper [26, 27, 28, 29], steel [28, 30], or cast iron [29] will be immersed into (or cover the metal surface with) neat ILs or IL containing lubricants. In addition, electrochemical corrosion tests will also be conducted to examine the anticorrosion properties of ILs as well as study the corrosion mechanisms [29, 31]. Through the two methods, the anticorrosion performance of four hydroxylammonium phosphate PILs additives was investigated in [28]. Compared to the reference sample immersed in water, the use of neat PILs significantly improved the corrosion resistance of the copper and iron sheets. What is more, the results from the electrochemical test further demonstrated the excellent corrosion inhibition of PILs additives and their attributes of anodic corrosion inhibitors. A protective film generated by the adsorption of PIL molecules, particularly the hydrophilic functional group on steel surface is attributed to anticorrosion performance. Among the four PILs, 2-hydroxypropylammonium di-(2-ethylhexyl) phosphate (TEOAP6) was found to have the best corrosion resistance, and PIL’s corrosion inhibition efficiency was related to its functional groups.
In the study of Ma et al. [26], the immersion corrosion test was employed to evaluate the anticorrosion property of PAO when ILs additives were added in different concentrations. Along with ILs, an additive containing Sulfur element was also added to PAO in 1%. It is noted that the addition of only 0.1% ILs can greatly reduce the corrosion tendency of a lubricant, and IL concentration (0.25–0.1%) just slightly affected the corrosion-inhibiting performance. Recently, a PIL 2-hydroxyethylammonium oleate [32], was proved to be an effective corrosion inhibitor for aluminum 1100 in neutral sodium chloride solution. The PIL adsorption layer on the aluminum substrate surface was pointed out to inhibit the diffusion of chloride anions during the electrochemical measurement, where it can also provide a corrosion protection at high chloride concentration for 72 hours.
2.3 Biodegradability and toxicity
In terms of the prospective large-scale industrial applications of ILs, it is crucial to examine their biodegradability and toxicity to control the discharge of IL-involved solvents or lubricants, minimizing the environmental damage. To understand the correlation between the molecular structure and biodegradability and toxicity of ILs is essential to design green IL lubricants. Nowadays, many experimental studies [7, 33] have been conducted to evaluate the environmental impact of ILs. In addition, computational approaches [34, 35, 36] are also employed to assess their toxicity. In general, cations and anions do have an influence on the ILs toxicity particularly, cations have a greater impact than anions. ILs having longer alkyl chain length and more branched-chain groups on their cations tend to be more toxic [37]. However, some anions containing fluorine in their structure will cause an increase in toxicity of their corresponding ILs. For example, although the hydroxylammonium and imidazolium cations were evaluated to be less toxic, the toxicity of their ILs increased drastically once NTf2 was incorporated as the anion [38]. Regarding the biodegradability, the IL components 1–Butyl–3–methylimidazolium (Bmim) and bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl) imide (NTf2) were reported to be non-biodegradable even at low concentration (10 mg/L), while the N,N,N–trimethylethanolammonium (Choline) and acetate (Ac) could be completely degraded with a concentration up to 50 mg/L [38].
In the study of Tzani et al. [39], the biodegradability of a series of carboxylate-PILs were examined and proved to be relevant to the alkyl chain length of the anions. PILs having anions with long alkyl chain length were found to get a decreased biodegradability, except for the one that had an alicyclic ring in its anion, showing an enhanced biodegradability. Lately, Viesca et al. [33] characterized the biodegradability and bacteria toxicity of six PILs derived from alkylhydroxylamine. Owing to the presence of benzenesulfonate aromatic group in anions, the sulfonate-PILs were reported to be less biodegradable compared to the hexanoate-PILs. Regarding the bacterial toxicity behavior, even the hexanoate-PILs exhibited a better environmental impact, all of them were mild toxic to Vibrio fischeri. Nevertheless, all these PILs were found to outperform the traditional lubricant additive ZDDP concerning the biodegradability and toxicity performance.
3. Ionic liquids as lubricants
The tribological behavior of ILs as lubricants have been typically evaluated through laboratory bench tests using various macroscopic tribometers, such as the Optimol SRV series tribometers, mini-traction machines, Microtest pin-on-disk tribometer, Plint TE77 high-frequency reciprocating rigs, etc. In addition, the atomic force microscope (AFM) and surface force apparatus (SFA) are usually applied to investigate the nanotribological performance of lubricants. The two main factors, coefficient of friction (COF), and wear volume (or wear rate) of the rubbing materials are normally used to evaluate and compare the lubricating ability and anti-wear performance of IL lubricants.
3.1 Ionic liquids as neat lubricants
Since Ye et al. [2] initiated the study of ILs in lubrication in 2001, the studies about ILs as neat lubricants for various contact systems such as steel-steel contact [15], steel-ceramic contact [40], and steel-aluminum contact [14] have received considerable attention. Table 2 summarizes some recent studies of ILs as neat lubricants. Compared to AILs, the use of PILs as neat lubricants has gained more attention than before, owing to their low cost and facile synthesis process.
In Khan et al.’s research, two phosphonium-based PILs with different alkyl chain length in the anions were tested as neat lubricants under steel-steel contact, and a synthetic oil PEG 200 was used as a reference [41]. Since the fatty acid anions of PILs have a better affinity to steel surfaces, the use of PILs showed a significant friction reduction with respect to PEG 200. The tribological performance of the two PILs were found to be determined by the alkyl chain length of their anions and their viscosity, where a PIL with a shorter anion chain length and lower viscosity led to a lower friction coefficient but more material loss. While the results may be inverse once the experiment conditions are changed or other PILs are used. In the study of Vega et al. [14], the effect of anion chain length on the friction and wear behavior of ammonium-based PILs was investigated under steel-aluminum contact. The results revealed that increasing the anion chain length will improve the lubricating ability of PIL with a low friction coefficient. From another study of Vega et al. [42], three oleic-acid derived ammonium-based PILs were evaluated as lubricants in alumina-aluminum contact. In addition to the low friction coefficient, the use of PILs yielded an important wear reduction (98%) compared to the dry condition. Lately, the hexanoate-based PILs were also found to greatly reduce the wear of steel with respect to mineral oil as well as a commercial oil [15]. Tribofilms were detected on the worn steel disks when PILs were used to protect the steel against severe wear.
In addition to the above-mentioned bulk lubricants, ILs can also be employed in the form of thin layers for lubricating micro/nano electromechanical systems (MEMS/NEMS). For example, in Bermúdez’s group [40], a PIL - di[bis(2-hydroxyethyl)ammonium] succinate thin layer was created on a steel substrate surface by evaporating water from the PIL + Water mixture, where the PIL thin layer extremely reduced the wear rate of steel compared to the bulk neat PIL.
3.2 Surface interactions
As shown in Figure 2, it has been widely accepted that when neat ILs or IL additives are introduced between the contacting work pairs, the IL molecules tend to adsorb onto the workpiece surfaces physically or/and chemically and form an ordered boundary lubricating film to protect the moving components from direct contact, leading to low friction. During the sliding frictional process, a protective tribofilm will be subsequently generated on top of the substrate by means of the tribochemical reactions between ILs or their decomposition products and the contacting metal surfaces to reduce mechanical wear.
Figure 2.
Schematic diagram of (A) ILs boundary lubricating film, and (B) IL-induced tribofilm on the metal surface.
Although the process of forming the adsorbed boundary lubricating film is still not clear, the IL-adsorption film has been verified through electrical contact resistance (ECR) measurement by Viesca et al. [44]. The results showed that the IL-additive ([C6C1im][BF4]) outpaced the base oil to form a boundary film on the metal surface. The generation of the IL-tribofilm has been demonstrated on various material surfaces [45, 46, 47]. But the results from most of the work are relied on the post-analysis of the worn surfaces by employing Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), Energy-dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS), Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES), X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS), Raman Spectroscopy, etc. From the previous research [48], IL decomposition has been demonstrated during the sliding process, but only the anion was found to react with or adsorbed on the steel surface. Particularly, the IL undergoing facile decomposition would interact rapidly with the sliding surface, leading to a low friction coefficient. So the thermal stability of IL can be considered as an index for evaluating the tribo-decomposition behavior on nascent substrate surfaces [49].
Up to now, the characterization of the IL-induced tribofilm thickness, composition, and structure have been intensively investigated. For instance, when phosphonium-phosphate ILs were introduced to the base oils with a small amount (1.04 wt.%), an amorphous-nanocrystalline tribofilm with a 10–200 nm-thick was probed on the worn cast iron surface by TEM, EDS, and electron diffraction [17]. Furthermore, the participation of wear debris in the IL-tribofilm growth was proposed and demonstrated recently by Qu et al. [45, 46] through Atom Probe Tomography (APT) and Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy (STEM) characterization.
In addition, tribofilm mechanical properties, such as hardness and resistance-to-plastic-deformation (P/S2), have also been investigated through nanoindentation measurements [50, 51]. The results revealed that only P/S2 had a correlation with the friction and wear performance, in which a small P/S2 value corresponded to a low friction and wear.
Regarding the growth mechanism of IL-induced tribofilm, a more precise in situ characterization is highly desirable in spite of many characterization approaches and spectroscopy techniques have been employed so far. At the same time, the application of the computational methods, such as molecular dynamic simulation, would help to elucidate the generation process of the boundary lubricating film.
4. Ionic liquids as lubricant additives
Limited to the high cost of being used as neat lubricants (particularly when AILs are used), ILs as additives have gained more and more research attention in recent years. Their highly tunable molecular structures and physicochemical properties make ILs suitable to be added to base lubricants with different nature (polar or nonpolar), such as ester, polyethylene glycol (PEG), PAO, mineral oils (MO), grease, and water-based lubricants.
Until now, ILs have been tested as friction-reducing additives, anti-wear additives, or extreme-pressure additives in many research articles. The tribological performance of IL as additives to non-polar, polar, and water-based lubricants have been summarized in Tables 3–5, respectively. Different from the traditional friction modifiers, ILs can be strongly adsorbed to the sliding surfaces and generate a resilient boundary lubricating film, leading to important reduction of friction and wear. Some active-elements containing ILs are easy to chemically react with the rubbing surfaces and create an effective tribofilm on top of the workpieces to prevent it against wear or extreme pressure.
Tribological results of ILs as additives for water-based lubricants (2017–2020).
water-diethylene glycol.
water-sodium D-gluconate.
water-triethanolamine.
water-glycerol.
mol/L.
Note: The base lubricant of β is water-glycol.
a- NH2((CH2)2OH)2; b- NH3((CH2)2OH); c- NH2CH3(CH2)2OH); d- NH3(CH3)2CCH2C(CH3)3; and the numbers in imidazolium CxCxim; ammonium NX,X,X,X, and phosphonium PX,X,X,X represent the alkyl chain length.
4.1 Ionic liquids as oil additives
Due to the inherent polarity, the solubility of ILs in oils is a complicated issue. Most imidazolium-ILs are insoluble in the non-polar synthetic oils and mineral oils. So they are always used as lubricant additives in in very low concentrations or in oil-IL emulsions. In 2012, the fully oil-soluble phosphonium-based ILs [P6,6,6,14][DEHP] and [P6,6,6,14][BTMPP] were explored [74, 75]. These three-dimensional ILs have quaternary structures for both the cations and anions with long alkyl chains, giving rise to a high steric hindrance to screen the ions charge. Inspired by this, ILs having quaternary ammonium and phosphonium cations and halogen-free anions, such as phosphate, sulfonate, orthoborate, and carboxylate have been synthesized and tested as additives to the base oils [76]. Generally, larger cation sizes lead to higher solubilities of IL in nonpolar oils. In addition, ILs having symmetric cations would outperform the ones with asymmetric cations in wear reduction, and the symmetric-cation ILs are hypothesized to have a better mobility in the base oil to interact with metal surfaces and form protective boundary lubricating film [17]. In addition, some phosphonium-based ILs have been examined to show synergistic interactions with traditional additives ZDDP in hydrocarbon oils [77], or GTL base oil [78] to improve the wear resistance of oils.
In contrast to nonpolar oils, ILs have much better solubility in some polar oils, such as PEG200, in which [C6C1C1im][NTf2] can be dissolved up to 40 wt.%. Taher et al. [79] studied the lubricating properties of halogen-free ILs pyrrolidinium bis(mandelato)borate (hf-BILs) as additives to PEG200 in steel-steel contact. The addition of 3 wt.% of hf-BILs in the base oil reduced friction and wear significantly compared to PEG200 and 5 W40 engine oil. It is noted that shorten the length of the longest alkyl chain in this IL cation will improve the friction reduction and wear resistance of the IL-blends under same working conditions.
Recently, Guo et al. [57, 80] examined the tribological properties of three hydroxylammonium hexanoate PIL additives to a nonpolar mineral oil and a polar biodegradable oil. The impact of PILs ionicity and hydrogen bonding on the friction and wear performance was discussed. The results revealed that all PILs improved the lubricity and wear resistance of the biodegradable oil under steel-steel, particularly, the one with the lowest ionicity obtained the least material loss. While, when used as additives to the mineral oil, the three PILs behaved slightly different between steel-steel and steel-aluminum contact. The use of any PIL improved the mineral oil lubricity and wear resistance under both contacts, but PILs had quite different friction behaviors in steel-Al that the one with the highest ionicity presented the best friction.
4.2 Ionic liquids in water-based lubricant
Water or water-based lubricants can effectively reduce the temperature and clean the contaminants from surface contacts, which leads to a better working conditions and increase the machine lifetime. Since the high volatile characteristic and high freezing point of water-based lubricants, they are preferable in some specific industrial applications such as cutting and machining. Recent studies about IL additives in water are summarized in Table 5.
In the study of Wang et al. [81], N-(3-(diethoxyphosphoryl)propyl)-N,N-dimethyloctadecan-1-ammonium bromide (NP) was investigated as water additive in a steel-steel contact. A lower friction and wear rate, and excellent extreme-pressure and abrasion resistance were obtained compared to an oil-based lubricant. The superior tribological property was attributed to the physical adsorption of ILs on the steel surfaces and the formation of a protective film due to the tribo-chemical reactions between NP and sliding surfaces.
Bermudez’s team [82] reported that water containing 1 wt.% PIL (2-hydroxyethylammonium) succinate (MSu) could reduce the running-in period when lubricating the sapphire-stainless steel contact. It is also noted that a thin PIL boundary film was found on the steel surface once the base water evaporated, leading to an extremely low minimum friction coefficient of 0.0001. In addition, another PIL additive, di[bis(2-hydroxyethyl)ammonium] succinate (DSu) was also investigated under sapphire-stainless steel [40]. The results showed that although the use of 1 wt.% DSu + Water caused a higher running-in friction coefficient compared to that of neat DSu, PIL-mixture received a comparable anti-wear behavior with regards to the neat Dsu, and even got a slightly smaller wear rate of 1.83 × 10−5 mm3/m.
4.3 Ionic liquids and nanoscale additives
Nanomaterials, such as nanoparticles (NPs), graphene, and carbon nanotubes (CNTs), have been regarded as attractive solid lubricants which can be applied as lubricant additives and components for coatings to achieve good lubricity or super-lubricity. In [83], the magnesium silicate hydroxide–based nanoparticles have been studied and proved to be effective anti-wear additives, where the excellent tribological properties can be generally ascribed to the grinding, rolling, filling effects and the tribofilm formation.
However, the poor dispersion and low solubility of nanomaterials in the base lubricants limit their long-term practical applications. Therefore, the nanomaterial surface functionalization becomes necessary to their lubrication performance. The use of an oil-soluble PIL with long-alkyl-chain to incorporate the copper oxide nanoparticles as additives to a base oil PAO was firstly reported in [84]. In this study, the PIL was employed to improve the dispersion of the copper oxide NPs, where the hybrid PIL-NPs additives exhibited an enhanced oil-load capacity and a better anti-wear performance compared to that just using copper nanoparticles as additives. Recently, the friction behavior and wear performance of diamond and ZnO NPs stabilized by trihexyltetradecylphosphonium bis (2, 4, 4-trimethylpentyl) phosphinate were investigated in a steel-ceramic contact [85]. It was found that nanoparticles mixed with IL caused a higher friction coefficient with respect to only IL was used as additive to the gear base oil, where the nanoparticles were regarded as to wear out the film formed by the IL. While the use of diamond/ZnO nanoparticles with IL obtained a smaller wear volume of the ceramic ball compared to that of IL. Particularly, both the hybrid IL-nanoadditives showed effective anti-scuffing properties which revealed their potential to be extreme pressure additives.
5. Conclusions
As the aforementioned excellent physicochemical properties and friction and wear performance, ILs not only can be used as neat lubricants, friction-reducing additives, anti-wear additives, extreme pressure additives, but can also be used as corrosion inhibitors. Although IL corrosion inhibitors have been evaluated on many ferrous metals and alloys, their study on non-ferrous metals, such as aluminum is extremely limited, which is worthwhile to discuss. Meanwhile, the relationship between the outstanding corrosion inhibition and high performance of lubrication should be explored, when ILs are used as lubricants and lubricant additives.
Additionally, enormous literature has revealed that the adsorption of the ILs on the metallic surfaces and the tribo-chemical reactions between the active elements of ILs and the surfaces effectively improved the tribological performances of different contacts. However, the adsorption mechanism and tribofilm growth mechanism of ILs are still not clear, and the application of ILs in the tribology field, especially for PILs, should be further explored owing to its efficiency and green nature.
Acknowledgments
Hong Guo wants to express her gratitude to the Gleason Doctoral Fellowship from the Gleason Corporation.
\n',keywords:"ionic liquids, friction, wear, tribofilm, additives",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/75516.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/75516.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75516",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75516",totalDownloads:234,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,dateSubmitted:"December 20th 2020",dateReviewed:"February 5th 2021",datePrePublished:"March 16th 2021",datePublished:"December 1st 2021",dateFinished:"March 3rd 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Taking into account the environmental awareness and ever-growing restrictive regulations over contamination, the study of new lubricants or lubricant additives with high performance and low toxicity over the traditional lubes to reduce the negative impact on the environment is needed. In this chapter, the current literature on the use of ionic liquids, particularly protic ionic liquids, as high-performance lubricants and lubricant additives to different types of base lubricants are reviewed and described. The relation between ionic liquids structures and their physicochemical properties, such as viscosity, thermal stability, corrosion behavior, biodegradability, and toxicity, is elaborated. Friction reduction and wear protection mechanisms of the ionic liquids are discussed with relation to their molecular structures and physicochemical properties.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/75516",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/75516",signatures:"Hong Guo and Patricia Iglesias Victoria",book:{id:"10386",type:"book",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Thermophysical Properties and Applications",fullTitle:"Ionic Liquids - Thermophysical Properties and Applications",slug:"ionic-liquids-thermophysical-properties-and-applications",publishedDate:"December 1st 2021",bookSignature:"S. M. Sohel Murshed",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10386.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83968-499-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-498-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-500-2",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"24904",title:"Prof.",name:"S. M. Sohel",middleName:null,surname:"Murshed",slug:"s.-m.-sohel-murshed",fullName:"S. M. Sohel Murshed"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"332492",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricia",middleName:null,surname:"Iglesias Victoria",fullName:"Patricia Iglesias Victoria",slug:"patricia-iglesias-victoria",email:"pxieme@rit.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"332493",title:"Dr.",name:"Hong",middleName:null,surname:"Guo",fullName:"Hong Guo",slug:"hong-guo",email:"hxg6557@rit.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Rochester Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Physicochemical properties of ionic liquids",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Viscosity and thermal stability",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Corrosion",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Biodegradability and toxicity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Ionic liquids as lubricants",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.1 Ionic liquids as neat lubricants",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.2 Surface interactions",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"4. Ionic liquids as lubricant additives",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.1 Ionic liquids as oil additives",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.2 Ionic liquids in water-based lubricant",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.3 Ionic liquids and nanoscale additives",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"Acronyms and abbreviations",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Holmberg, K., Erdemir, A.: Influence of tribology on global energy consumption, costs and emissions. Friction. 5, 263–284 (2017). doi:10.1007/s40544-017-0183-5'},{id:"B2",body:'Ye, C., Liu, W., Chen, Y., Yu, L.: Room-temperature ionic liquids: a novel versatile lubricant. Chem. Commun. (Camb). 2244–2245 (2001). doi:10.1039/B106935G'},{id:"B3",body:'Sharma, G., Singh, D., Gardas, R.L.: Effect of Fluorinated Anion on the Physicochemical, Rheological and Solvatochromic Properties of Protic and Aprotic Ionic Liquids: Experimental and Computational Study. 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Mechanical Engineering Department, Kate Gleason College of Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, USA
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Ciurean, Dagmar Schröter and Thomas Glade",authors:[{id:"163703",title:"Prof.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Glade",slug:"thomas-glade",fullName:"Thomas Glade"},{id:"164141",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Roxana",middleName:"Liliana",surname:"Ciurean",slug:"roxana-ciurean",fullName:"Roxana Ciurean"},{id:"164142",title:"Dr.",name:"Dagmar",middleName:null,surname:"Schroeter",slug:"dagmar-schroeter",fullName:"Dagmar Schroeter"}]},{id:"44219",doi:"10.5772/54973",title:"Disaster Management Discourse in Bangladesh: A Shift from Post-Event Response to the Preparedness and Mitigation Approach Through Institutional Partnerships",slug:"disaster-management-discourse-in-bangladesh-a-shift-from-post-event-response-to-the-preparedness-and",totalDownloads:4083,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:null,book:{id:"3054",slug:"approaches-to-disaster-management-examining-the-implications-of-hazards-emergencies-and-disasters",title:"Approaches to Disaster Management",fullTitle:"Approaches to Disaster Management - Examining the Implications of Hazards, Emergencies and Disasters"},signatures:"C. Emdad Haque and M. Salim Uddin",authors:[{id:"163390",title:"Dr.",name:"C. Emdad",middleName:null,surname:"Haque",slug:"c.-emdad-haque",fullName:"C. Emdad Haque"},{id:"168399",title:"Mr.",name:"Mohammed S",middleName:null,surname:"Uddin",slug:"mohammed-s-uddin",fullName:"Mohammed S Uddin"}]},{id:"60027",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74964",title:"Corporate Governance in Downturn Times: Detection and Alert – The New Italian Insolvency and Crisis Code",slug:"corporate-governance-in-downturn-times-detection-and-alert-the-new-italian-insolvency-and-crisis-cod",totalDownloads:1190,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"In its life cycle, an enterprise may experience periods of crisis. If the crisis is monitored promptly and appropriate measures are taken, not only may the enterprise continue to operate but it may also be able to seize opportunities for growth. The Italian legislator is introducing a procedure aimed at supporting companies to detect the very first warning signs of a crisis. The supervisory board of auditors, the audit firm, and certain qualified creditors will have the right and duty to start the early warning procedure (“allerta”). The board of statutory auditors (Collegio Sindacale) plays a fundamental role: its ex-ante supervisory and control activities over management allow it to effectively play an important role as main recipient of any crisis warning signs. The new regulatory framework lays down certain indicators and critical thresholds, which may trigger the alert process. Initially, the Delegated Legislation (Bill No.3671-bis) sets forth certain specific financial indicators. The new bill (Crisis and Insolvency Code) on the contrary refers to a more complex and sector-specific system of indicators. The findings of an empirical research conducted by analysing a sample of more than 600 enterprises and testing the discriminating capacity of the indicators initially considered are presented herein.",book:{id:"6620",slug:"crisis-management-theory-and-practice",title:"Crisis Management",fullTitle:"Crisis Management - Theory and Practice"},signatures:"Patrizia Riva, Alessandro Danovi, Maurizio Comoli and Ambra\nGarelli",authors:[{id:"230543",title:"Prof.",name:"Patrizia",middleName:null,surname:"Riva",slug:"patrizia-riva",fullName:"Patrizia Riva"},{id:"245409",title:"Prof.",name:"Alessandro",middleName:null,surname:"Danovi",slug:"alessandro-danovi",fullName:"Alessandro Danovi"},{id:"245410",title:"Prof.",name:"Maurizio",middleName:null,surname:"comoli",slug:"maurizio-comoli",fullName:"Maurizio comoli"},{id:"245411",title:"Dr.",name:"Ambra",middleName:null,surname:"Garelli",slug:"ambra-garelli",fullName:"Ambra Garelli"}]},{id:"44228",doi:"10.5772/55273",title:"The Implications of Post Disaster Recovery for Affordable Housing",slug:"the-implications-of-post-disaster-recovery-for-affordable-housing",totalDownloads:2134,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:null,book:{id:"3054",slug:"approaches-to-disaster-management-examining-the-implications-of-hazards-emergencies-and-disasters",title:"Approaches to Disaster Management",fullTitle:"Approaches to Disaster Management - Examining the Implications of Hazards, Emergencies and Disasters"},signatures:"Jacqueline McIntosh",authors:[{id:"162973",title:"Dr.",name:"Jacqueline",middleName:null,surname:"McIntosh",slug:"jacqueline-mcintosh",fullName:"Jacqueline McIntosh"}]},{id:"60813",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76198",title:"Crisis Management: A Historical and Conceptual Approach for a Better Understanding of Today’s Crises",slug:"crisis-management-a-historical-and-conceptual-approach-for-a-better-understanding-of-today-s-crises",totalDownloads:4613,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"We argue that the basic and contemporary concepts related to crisis management, especially in the communication field, share some similarities with what was practiced in ancient civilizations such as the importance of direct contact between the leadership and the public. Other similarities include the accurate diagnosis of the real causes of the crisis, the forbiddance of the dissemination of false news and the reassurance of the public opinion that there is a solution to the crisis, a sound management decision, and a good plan for its implementation. We link the past time crises to the contemporary era, providing a comparison framework. The history of crisis tends to show us that the study of crisis management cannot be linked to a specific civilization or era, especially when humanity had witnessed multiple and complex environmental, political, economic, and military crisis. Moreover, some of the problems and complex issues in the modern era are rooted in history. Thus, many geopolitical crises nowadays are the result of old causes. The study of crisis management from an academic point of view should be a multifaceted analysis, including a historical, a cultural, and an anthropological one, which determines the course of evolution and consequences of the crisis.",book:{id:"6620",slug:"crisis-management-theory-and-practice",title:"Crisis Management",fullTitle:"Crisis Management - Theory and Practice"},signatures:"Khaled Zamoum and Tevhide Serra Gorpe",authors:[{id:"230918",title:"Prof.",name:"T. Serra",middleName:null,surname:"Gorpe",slug:"t.-serra-gorpe",fullName:"T. Serra Gorpe"},{id:"230920",title:"Dr.",name:"Khaled",middleName:null,surname:"Zamoum",slug:"khaled-zamoum",fullName:"Khaled Zamoum"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"60813",title:"Crisis Management: A Historical and Conceptual Approach for a Better Understanding of Today’s Crises",slug:"crisis-management-a-historical-and-conceptual-approach-for-a-better-understanding-of-today-s-crises",totalDownloads:4614,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"We argue that the basic and contemporary concepts related to crisis management, especially in the communication field, share some similarities with what was practiced in ancient civilizations such as the importance of direct contact between the leadership and the public. Other similarities include the accurate diagnosis of the real causes of the crisis, the forbiddance of the dissemination of false news and the reassurance of the public opinion that there is a solution to the crisis, a sound management decision, and a good plan for its implementation. We link the past time crises to the contemporary era, providing a comparison framework. The history of crisis tends to show us that the study of crisis management cannot be linked to a specific civilization or era, especially when humanity had witnessed multiple and complex environmental, political, economic, and military crisis. Moreover, some of the problems and complex issues in the modern era are rooted in history. Thus, many geopolitical crises nowadays are the result of old causes. The study of crisis management from an academic point of view should be a multifaceted analysis, including a historical, a cultural, and an anthropological one, which determines the course of evolution and consequences of the crisis.",book:{id:"6620",slug:"crisis-management-theory-and-practice",title:"Crisis Management",fullTitle:"Crisis Management - Theory and Practice"},signatures:"Khaled Zamoum and Tevhide Serra Gorpe",authors:[{id:"230918",title:"Prof.",name:"T. Serra",middleName:null,surname:"Gorpe",slug:"t.-serra-gorpe",fullName:"T. 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Emdad Haque"},{id:"168399",title:"Mr.",name:"Mohammed S",middleName:null,surname:"Uddin",slug:"mohammed-s-uddin",fullName:"Mohammed S Uddin"}]},{id:"74444",title:"Flood Disaster Hazards; Causes, Impacts and Management: A State-of-the-Art Review",slug:"flood-disaster-hazards-causes-impacts-and-management-a-state-of-the-art-review",totalDownloads:676,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Floods are among disasters that cause widespread destruction to human lives, properties and the environment every year and occur at different places with varied scales across the globe. Flood disasters are caused by natural phenomena, but their occurrences and impacts have been intensified through human actions and inactions. The practice of flood disaster management have evolved over the years from traditional approaches of ad-hoc response measures to integrated approaches involving technologically advanced tools in flood disaster awareness, preparedness and response measures. This chapter proffers understanding into flood disaster awareness, preparedness and management, mitigation and adaptation strategies. Most importantly, the chapter presents a review on the relevance of modern technological tools namely Geographic Information System, Remote Sensing, Internet of Things and Big Data, that are available to flood managers, in the creation of efficient early warnings and Flood decision support systems that elevates the resilience of societies to flood disasters.",book:{id:"7712",slug:"natural-hazards-impacts-adjustments-and-resilience",title:"Natural Hazards",fullTitle:"Natural Hazards - Impacts, Adjustments and Resilience"},signatures:"Frank Jerome Glago",authors:[{id:"325046",title:"M.A.",name:"Frank Jerome",middleName:null,surname:"Glago",slug:"frank-jerome-glago",fullName:"Frank Jerome Glago"}]},{id:"64604",title:"Evidence-Based Contingency Planning to Enhance Local Resilience to Flood Disasters",slug:"evidence-based-contingency-planning-to-enhance-local-resilience-to-flood-disasters",totalDownloads:1449,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030 addresses the importance of “Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response and to ‘Build Back Better’ in recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction” as the fourth priority action. One of the practical tools to achieve effective preparedness for flood disaster response is evidence-based contingency planning, which is based on scientific approaches such as flood simulation and quantitative risk assessment. This method, however, is not always feasible to disaster-prone areas in Asia due to the lack of data on natural and social conditions. This chapter proposes a method with six steps for local communities to conduct contingency planning by assuming the dynamic change of inundation using flood simulation, assessing flood risk with key indicators, deciding response strategies against the identified flood risk and developing a contingency plan beforehand. This method was first applied to one of the Asian flood-prone areas, Calumpit Municipality in the Pampanga River basin of the Philippines, to verify its effectiveness in areas where the availability of natural and socio-economic data is limited.",book:{id:"8375",slug:"recent-advances-in-flood-risk-management",title:"Recent Advances in Flood Risk Management",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Flood Risk Management"},signatures:"Miho Ohara, Naoko Nagumo, Badri Bhakta Shrestha and Hisaya Sawano",authors:[{id:"261112",title:"Dr.",name:"Miho",middleName:null,surname:"Ohara",slug:"miho-ohara",fullName:"Miho Ohara"},{id:"264405",title:"Dr.",name:"Badri",middleName:"Bhakta",surname:"Shrestha",slug:"badri-shrestha",fullName:"Badri Shrestha"},{id:"270525",title:"Mr.",name:"Hisaya",middleName:null,surname:"Sawano",slug:"hisaya-sawano",fullName:"Hisaya Sawano"},{id:"272127",title:"Dr.",name:"Naoko",middleName:null,surname:"Nagumo",slug:"naoko-nagumo",fullName:"Naoko Nagumo"}]},{id:"42656",title:"Conceptual Frameworks of Vulnerability Assessments for Natural Disasters Reduction",slug:"conceptual-frameworks-of-vulnerability-assessments-for-natural-disasters-reduction",totalDownloads:9941,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:75,abstract:null,book:{id:"3054",slug:"approaches-to-disaster-management-examining-the-implications-of-hazards-emergencies-and-disasters",title:"Approaches to Disaster Management",fullTitle:"Approaches to Disaster Management - Examining the Implications of Hazards, Emergencies and Disasters"},signatures:"Roxana L. Ciurean, Dagmar Schröter and Thomas Glade",authors:[{id:"163703",title:"Prof.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Glade",slug:"thomas-glade",fullName:"Thomas Glade"},{id:"164141",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Roxana",middleName:"Liliana",surname:"Ciurean",slug:"roxana-ciurean",fullName:"Roxana Ciurean"},{id:"164142",title:"Dr.",name:"Dagmar",middleName:null,surname:"Schroeter",slug:"dagmar-schroeter",fullName:"Dagmar Schroeter"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1326",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:99,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:290,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:1,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
\r\n
\r\n\t
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
\r\n
\r\n\t
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 26th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:0,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. Her publications cover a wide range of scientific and technical research publications that include edited books, book chapters, refereed journals, refereed conference papers and reports for local, state and federal government clients. She has also produced podcasts for various organisations and participated in media interviews. She has received state, national and international funding worth over USD $25 million. Usha has been awarded the Quarterly Franklin Membership by London Journals Press (UK). Her biography has been included in the Marquis Who's Who in the World® 2018, 2016 (33rd Edition), along with approximately 55,000 of the most accomplished men and women from around the world, including luminaries as U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. In 2017, Usha was awarded the Marquis Who’s Who Lifetime Achiever Award.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"RMIT University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/91.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11975,editor:{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181603/images/system/181603.jpg",biography:"Antonella Petrillo is a Professor at the Department of Engineering of the University of Naples “Parthenope”, Italy. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino. Her research interests include multi-criteria decision analysis, industrial plant, logistics, manufacturing and safety. She serves as an Associate Editor for the International Journal of the Analytic Hierarchy Process. She is a member of AHP Academy and a member of several editorial boards. She has over 160 Scientific Publications in International Journals and Conferences and she is the author of 5 books on Innovation and Decision Making in Industrial Applications and Engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Parthenope University of Naples",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"92",title:"Health and Wellbeing",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/92.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11976,editor:{id:"348225",title:"Prof.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Hemingway",slug:"ann-hemingway",fullName:"Ann Hemingway",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035LZFoQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-11T14:55:40.jpg",biography:"Professor Hemingway is a public health researcher, Bournemouth University, undertaking international and UK research focused on reducing inequalities in health outcomes for marginalised and excluded populations and more recently focused on equine assisted interventions.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bournemouth University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"93",title:"Inclusivity and Social Equity",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/93.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11977,editor:{id:"210060",title:"Prof. Dr.",name:"Ebba",middleName:null,surname:"Ossiannilsson",slug:"ebba-ossiannilsson",fullName:"Ebba Ossiannilsson",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6LkBQAU/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:31:48.png",biography:'Professor Dr. Ebba Ossiannilsson is an independent researcher, expert, consultant, quality auditor and influencer in the fields of open, flexible online and distance learning (OFDL) and the "new normal". Her focus is on quality, innovation, leadership, and personalised learning. She works primarily at the strategic and policy levels, both nationally and internationally, and with key international organisations. She is committed to promoting and improving OFDL in the context of SDG4 and the future of education. Ossiannilsson has more than 20 years of experience in her current field, but more than 40 years in the education sector. She works as a reviewer and expert for the European Commission and collaborates with the Joint Research Centre for Quality in Open Education. Ossiannilsson also collaborates with ITCILO and ICoBC (International Council on Badges and Credentials). She is a member of the ICDE Board of Directors and has previously served on the boards of EDEN and EUCEN. Ossiannilsson is a quality expert and reviewer for ICDE, EDEN and the EADTU. She chairs the ICDE OER Advocacy Committee and is a member of the ICDE Quality Network. 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"338222",title:"Mrs.",name:"María José",middleName:null,surname:"Lucía Mudas",slug:"maria-jose-lucia-mudas",fullName:"María José Lucía Mudas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"147824",title:"Mr.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Revuelta Sanz",slug:"pablo-revuelta-sanz",fullName:"Pablo Revuelta Sanz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"87",type:"subseries",title:"Economics",keywords:"Globalization, Economic integration, Growth and development, International trade, Environmental development, Developed countries, Developing countries, Technical innovation, Knowledge management, Political economy analysis, Banking and financial markets",scope:"
\r\n\tThe topic on Economics is designed to disseminate knowledge around broad global economic issues. Original submissions will be accepted in English for applied and theoretical articles, case studies and reviews about the specific challenges and opportunities faced by the economies and markets around the world. The authors are encouraged to apply rigorous economic analysis with significant policy implications for developed and developing countries. Examples of subjects of interest will include, but are not limited to globalization, economic integration, growth and development, international trade, environmental development, country specific comparative analysis, technical innovation and knowledge management, political economy analysis, and banking and financial markets.
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He has advised, among others, the United Nations Development Program, Inter-American Development Bank, Organization of American States, Pre-investment Organization of Latin America and the Caribbean, Technical Cooperation of the Suisse Government, and the World Bank. Dr. Ortiz is the author, co-author, or editor of books, book chapters, textbooks, research monographs and technical reports, and refereed journal articles. He is listed in Who’s Who in the World, Who’s Who in America, Who’s Who in Finance and Business, Who’s Who in Business Higher Education, Who’s Who in American Education, and Who’s Who Directory of Economists. Dr. Ortiz has been a Fulbright Scholar and an MSI Leadership Fellow with the W.K. Kellogg Foundation. His teaching interests revolve around global economies and markets while his research focuses on topics related to development and growth, global business decisions, and the economics of technical innovation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Houston",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",issn:"2753-894X"},editorialBoard:[{id:"104262",title:"Dr.",name:"Chee-Heong",middleName:null,surname:"Quah",slug:"chee-heong-quah",fullName:"Chee-Heong Quah",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/104262/images/system/104262.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"236659",title:"Prof.",name:"Monica Violeta",middleName:null,surname:"Achim",slug:"monica-violeta-achim",fullName:"Monica Violeta Achim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/236659/images/system/236659.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Babeș-Bolyai University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"202039",title:"Dr.",name:"Nahanga",middleName:null,surname:"Verter",slug:"nahanga-verter",fullName:"Nahanga Verter",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCwtQAG/Profile_Picture_1643101901237",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Mendel University Brno",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Czech Republic"}}},{id:"107745",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Panagiotis E.",middleName:null,surname:"Petrakis",slug:"panagiotis-e.-petrakis",fullName:"Panagiotis E. 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\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. Breakthroughs in computing, molecular biology, ecology, and sustainability science are enhancing our ability to utilize environmental sciences to address real-world problems. \r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.
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\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
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\r\n\tIn general, the harsher the environmental conditions in an ecosystem, the lower the biodiversity. Changes in the environment caused by human activity accelerate the impoverishment of biodiversity.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity refers to “the variability of living organisms from any source, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; it includes diversity within each species, between species, and that of ecosystems”.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity provides food security and constitutes a gene pool for biotechnology, especially in the field of agriculture and medicine, and promotes the development of ecotourism.
\r\n
\r\n\tCurrently, biologists admit that we are witnessing the first phases of the seventh mass extinction caused by human intervention. It is estimated that the current rate of extinction is between a hundred and a thousand times faster than it was when man first appeared. The disappearance of species is caused not only by an accelerated rate of extinction, but also by a decrease in the rate of emergence of new species as human activities degrade the natural environment. The conservation of biological diversity is "a common concern of humanity" and an integral part of the development process. Its objectives are “the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits resulting from the use of genetic resources”.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe following are the main causes of biodiversity loss:
\r\n
\r\n\t• The destruction of natural habitats to expand urban and agricultural areas and to obtain timber, minerals and other natural resources.
\r\n
\r\n\t• The introduction of alien species into a habitat, whether intentionally or unintentionally which has an impact on the fauna and flora of the area, and as a result, they are reduced or become extinct.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Pollution from industrial and agricultural products, which devastate the fauna and flora, especially those in fresh water.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Global warming, which is seen as a threat to biological diversity, and will become increasingly important in the future.
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\r\n\tWater is not only a crucial substance needed for biological life on Earth, but it is also a basic requirement for the existence and development of the human society. Owing to the importance of water to life on Earth, early researchers conducted numerous studies and analyses on the liquid form of water from the perspectives of chemistry, physics, earth science, and biology, and concluded that Earth is a "water polo". Water covers approximately 71% of Earth's surface. However, 97.2% of this water is seawater, 21.5% is icebergs and glaciers, and only 0.65% is freshwater that can be used directly by humans. As a result, the amount of water reserves available for human consumption is limited. The development, utilization, and protection of freshwater resources has become the focus of water science research for the continued improvement of human livelihoods and society.
\r\n
\r\n\tWater exists as solid, liquid, and gas within Earth’s atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. Liquid water is used for a variety of purposes besides drinking, including power generation, ecology, landscaping, and shipping. Because water is involved in various environmental hydrological processes as well as numerous aspects of the economy and human society, the study of various phenomena in the hydrosphere, the laws governing their occurrence and development, the relationship between the hydrosphere and other spheres of Earth, and the relationship between water and social development, are all part of water science. Knowledge systems for water science are improving continuously. Water science has become a specialized field concerned with the identification of its physical, chemical, and biological properties. In addition, it reveals the laws of water distribution, movement, and circulation, and proposes methods and tools for water development, utilization, planning, management, and protection. Currently, the field of water science covers research related to topics such as hydrology, water resources and water environment. It also includes research on water related issues such as safety, engineering, economy, law, culture, information, and education.
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