Duffy blood group system phenotypes and prevalence. Reproduced with permission and modification.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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To date, he has published more than twenty peer-reviewed articles and six book chapters dealing with these topics.",institutionString:"North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"13",title:"Immunology and Microbiology",slug:"immunology-and-microbiology"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"304286",firstName:"Vice",lastName:"Matušan",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/304286/images/9084_n.jpg",email:"vice@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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These nanocrystals can be chemically synthesized with different sizes and shapes including nanowires, nanodiscs, and quantum dots (QDs). Spherical QDs possess several advantages that make them more flexible nanomaterials to be utilized in wider range of applications. QDs can be synthesized as a core, core-shell, or core-multi shell as shown in Figure 1. The size of QDs determines their emission wavelength; emission energy of these nanocrystals is related to their quantum confinement property that changes with the radius of the nanocrystals. Thus, it is possible to synthesize nanocrystals emitting with wavelength range covering the whole visible spectrum. This property makes them powerful optoelectronic components. The full width at half maximum (FWHM) of semiconductor QDs is generally in the range of 30–40 nm. Recently, QDs with very high quantum efficiency (one of the main performance measures of QDs) values were reported.
\nSchematic diagram showing core, core-shell, and core-multi shell QDs.
Although, QDs exhibit high optical properties, their electrical properties are not at the desired level. Thus, the efficiency of the devices utilizing electrically injected QDs is very low [2]. One of the main reasons for this low performance of QD-incorporated devices is the existence of organic ligands on the surface of QDs that prevents an efficient current injection. On the other hand, ligands play an important role in the enhancement of the stability of QDs. Further research is needed to be done to improve the electrical injection properties of these semiconductor nanocrystals. However, their optical properties can be used to enhance the performance of the devices with lower optical outputs. In the following sections, the device structures incorporating QDs are introduced and their effectiveness is thoroughly discussed.
\nSince the important inventions mainly by Nakamura, Akasaki, and Amano in the development of GaN-based light-emitting diodes (LEDs) (they received Nobel Prize in Physics for the invention of blue LED in 2014) [3–5], these devices were widely investigated to enhance the external quantum efficiency and optical power as well as to reduce the electrical injection issues [6, 7]. GaN-based LEDs are mostly grown with metalorganic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) on c-plane sapphire substrates. The main drawbacks of sapphire as a growth substrate are the lattice mismatch and thermal expansion coefficient mismatch. The former drawback significantly reduces the performance of devices due to the formation of strain in the epitaxial layers. However, the performance of LEDs grown on sapphire is still higher than those grown on other substrates [8]. The higher efficiency can be achieved in the LEDs incorporating InGaN quantum wells in between the p-type and n-type GaN epitaxial layers. Figure 2 depicts a schematic structure of a typical multiple quantum well InGaN/GaN LED. To achieve blue emission, the special care needs to be taken during the growth of InGaN quantum wells as the emission is mainly realized through the recombination of electrons and holes in these wells. The amount of In incorporated during the growth defines the emission wavelength of the device. Thus, it is possible to achieve high-quality blue emission with the incorporation of the correct amount of In (usually around 15%) [9]. Photoluminescence from an epitaxially grown blue LED is shown in Figure 3. In order to fabricate a GaN-based device emitting light with longer wavelength, a larger amount of In should be introduced into the InGaN compound layer. However, the growth of InGaN layer with larger amounts of In results in the segregation of In [10]. Thus, InGaN/GaN LEDs utilizing more In exhibit significantly lower optical power and external quantum efficiency when compared with the blue LEDs using smaller amounts of In.
\nSchematic diagram of multiple quantum well InGaN/GaN LEDs.
Photoluminescence of an epitaxially grown blue multiple quantum well InGaN/GaN LED.
To enhance the output performance of InGaN/GaN LEDs emitting the longer wavelength range, QDs can be incorporated as color-converter components [11]. Thus, by utilizing the optical properties of QDs and electrical properties of InGaN/GaN LED structure, it is possible to fabricate a color-converted hybrid LED emitting at longer wavelength. To realize this kind of device, QDs are placed on top surface of InGaN/GaN LED structures. One of the critical points during the construction is to place the correct amount of QDs. As the emission wavelength of the LED and the QDs are different, the process of placing QDs on top can result in either full color conversion or mixed color emission. Thus, the optimized amount of QDs will help to achieve the conversion of blue emission to the emission wavelength of the QDs. The schematic diagram demonstrating the color conversion process described above is shown in Figure 4. As it can be clearly seen from the figure, the process starts with the electrical injection of electrons and holes to the quantum wells of InGaN/GaN LEDs. Following their radiative and nonradiative recombination in the wells, carrier relaxation occurs. The radiative recombination results in the generation of photons with the wavelength corresponding to the bandgap of the InGaN wells (In incorporation defines the bandgap of the wells as stated above). The process of photon generation with this kind of electrical injection is called electroluminescence. These photons are absorbed by QDs placed on top of the device. The energy of the photons generated in the InGaN quantum wells should be higher than the bandgap of QDs to result in a successful excitation of charge carriers in QDs. Following the excitation of carriers with the incoming photons, the excited carriers recombine either radiatively or nonradiatively. Radiative recombination leads to the emission of photons with the wavelength corresponding to the bandgap of QDs. This kind of excitation of QDs which is a result of interaction between the photons of InGaN quantum wells and the charge carriers of QDs is called photoluminescence. Figure 5 demonstrates the emission intensity of a color-converted InGaN/GaN LED incorporating QDs at 10, 20, 30, and 50 mA current levels.
\nSchematic diagram color conversion in hybrid color-converted InGaN/GaN-QD LED.
Emission intensity of a color-converted InGaN/GaN LED incorporating semiconductor nanocrystal QDs at 10, 20, 30, and 50 mA current levels.
The process of color conversion with the incorporation of semiconductor QDs is an equivalent method to the color conversion utilizing phosphors [12]. However, there are several drawbacks in using these phosphors for down-conversion. The bandwidth of emission in most phosphor compound materials is very large, almost spanning the whole visible spectrum. On the other hand, QDs emit with the FWHM of around 40 nm which is significantly smaller than that of the phosphors. Moreover, very large amount of phosphor material is required to achieve the full color conversion. In comparison, QDs can result in color conversion with significantly less amount of material. The optical absorption is another key parameter during the fabrication of a hybrid color-converted device. The color-converter materials should have decent absorption to exhibit high efficiency during the conversion process. QDs can absorb almost all the photons with the wavelength slightly shorter than the emission wavelength of these nanocrystals. On the other hand, phosphors can absorb only narrow range of wavelength. These superior properties of QDs over phosphors make them very promising candidates as efficient color-converter layers.
\nAlthough QDs are highly effective in color conversion, their localization in a suitable structure defines their efficiency. QDs generally exhibit significantly high quantum yield when dispersed in a medium-like toluene. However, making close-packed films out of these nanocrystals may result in a significant reduction of quantum yield. The main underlying reason for this behavior can be explained as follows. When QDs are dispersed in toluene, the separation distance between individual QDs is very large. This separation prevents any kind of close interaction between the nanocrystals. However, when they make close-packed solid films, the separation distance between the QDs is very short. This close construction gives rise to the interaction of QDs via nonradiative resonance energy transfer through dipole-dipole coupling process. When a close-packed film is excited with a source, the photogenerated electrons and holes in the QDs builds dipoles (this is called donor in the energy transfer process). These dipoles can create a mirror dipole in the QDs placed in sub-10 nm range (acceptor). The generation of the dipole in the adjacent QD is a nonradiative process owing to the absence of photon generation by the donor QD and absorption by the acceptor QD. Not all of the transferred dipole energies result in the radiative recombination in the acceptor QDs. Thus, a huge amount of energy is lost during the resonance energy transfer process. To prevent this energy transfer resulting from the close interaction of QDs, the QDs should be separated in their solid films. To realize this, QDs can be dispersed in a special matrix. This will help to reduce the quantum yield loss originating from the nonradiative energy transfer [13].
\nAnother important change during the formation of solid films is the shift of emission wavelength. One of the main underlying reasons for this shift is the change in the medium. The refractive index strongly affects the emission wavelength. Moreover, the nonradiative resonance energy transfer between the nanocrystals also plays a significant role in the shift of the peak. The transfer mechanism is depicted in Figure 6. In very close proximity in their solid films, there is a high chance of energy transfer through nonradiative dipole-dipole coupling to occur. As it is well known, nanocrystals are not perfectly synthesized; there is a finite size distribution of the synthesized nanocrystals. Nanocrystals with smaller radius exhibit larger bandgap energy owing to the reverse proportionality of the bandgap energy with the nanocrystal radius in the calculation of quantum confinement. Thus, smaller nanocrystals (energy donor) tend to transfer their energy to larger nanocrystals (energy acceptor) close to them. Since the photoluminescence of the donor nanocrystals has a large spectral overlap with the absorbance of the acceptor nanocrystals as well (see Figure 7), the donors are able to transfer their excitons to the acceptors. These transferred excitons relax to the ground states and recombine for possible radiative emission. As a result of this transfer, collective emission intensity of the nanocrystals with smaller radius and higher energy (emitting with shorter wavelength) decreases. Moreover, emission intensity of the nanocrystals with larger radius and lower energy (emitting with longer wavelength) increases. This results in the red shift of the emission intensity when compared with their emission in toluene.
\nEnergy transfer mechanism between smaller (donor) and larger (acceptor) nanocrystals.
Spectral overlap between the photoluminescence and absorbance curves of nanocrystals.
As it is clearly discussed in the previous section, semiconductor QDs can effectively change emission color of a device by fully converting the incoming photons. On the other hand, it is possible to achieve a mixed color emission by utilizing the optimized amounts of the red, blue, yellow, and green QDs. In this context, Figure 8 shows the CIE chromaticity diagram with the emission wavelengths and chromaticity coordinates. As it can be clearly seen from the diagram, white light is in the center, and it can be observed only by mixing several colors.
\nCIE Chromaticity diagram with emission wavelengths and chromaticity coordinates.
As it is well known, the main properties defining a white light emission of a high quality are its correlated color temperature (CCT), color rendering index (CRI), and luminous efficacy of optical radiation (LER). CRI measures how efficiently a white light emitting device reflects the real color of an illuminated object. In order to have a high-quality white light source, CRI should be higher than 90. LER is a measure of how well the produced light is perceived by the human eye. The unit of LER is lumens per watt. It is calculated with the following equation.
\ns(λ) is the spectral distribution of the radiated optical power and V(λ) is the eye sensitivity function. Although mathematically the highest LER is 683 lm/Wop, it is almost impossible to achieve this number experimentally. A high-quality white light source should exhibit LER of above 300 lm/Wop [14]. Another important photometric figure-of-merit is CCT. Figure 9 demonstrates CCT chart on the chromaticity diagram to clearly understand the color quality difference between several CCT values. As it is seen from the figure, the amounts of individual colors define its chromaticity coordinates and consequently its CCT.
\nCIE chromaticity diagram with CCT chart.
It indicates the temperature of a Planck black-body radiator whose perceived color most closely resembles that of the light-source. The optical output of a white light-emitting device can be either cool or warm white light. CCT of a warm white light source is below 3500 K. Warm white (right) and cool white light (left) emission are shown in Figure 10. Warm and cool white light sources differ in their areas of applications. For example, in the interior house design, it is more suitable to use warm white light in the bedrooms, living rooms, and hallways, while cool white light is generally used in kitchen, study rooms, and bathrooms.
\nCool (left) and warm (right) white light sources.
In general, to achieve a high-quality white LED with the incorporation of semiconductor QDs, the mixture of blue, green, yellow, and red emission is essential. If blue InGaN/GaN LED is used as an electrically injected device with nearly 450 nm emission, QDs with green, yellow, and red QDs are necessary to generate a white light with a high brightness. The schematics of the hybrid white LED utilizing blue InGaN/GaN LED is depicted in Figure 11. As it is shown in Figure 11(a) and (b), hybrid white LEDs can be constructed by adding layered and blended QDs. In the layered architecture (Figure 11(a)), it is necessary for the QDs to be in the deposition order of red, yellow, and green that results in a device with highest efficiency.
\nWhite LEDs constructed by adding (a) layered and (b) blended QDs on top of the blue InGaN/GaN LEDs.
Another architecture for generating white light is utilizing dual wavelength InGaN/GaN LEDs. In this design, only two kinds of semiconductor QDs are incorporated. Dual wavelength multiple quantum well InGaN/GaN LEDs are epitaxially grown on c-plane sapphire substrates [15]. Unintentionally doped thick GaN layer (4 μm) is grown following the deposition of a thin low temperature (550°C) nucleation layer (30 nm). Then a 3 μm thick n-doped GaN layer is grown at high temperature. Si with a doping concentration of 5 × 1018 cm−3 was utilized as a p-type dopant. Three blue quantum wells (2.5 nm) were grown with GaN quantum barrier (10 nm) separation layers. An In composition of 15% was used to achieve blue emission from these three quantum wells. Subsequently, three quantum wells with higher In composition were grown to achieve green emission. p-Type doped 30 nm thick AlGaN layer was grown on top of a 10 nm GaN cap layer to serve as an electron-blocking layer. Utilizing the electron-blocking layer helps to prevent the leakage of excess electrons to the quantum wells to result in carrier imbalance. Finally, a 200 nm thick p-doped GaN layer was deposited on electron-blocking layer. Devices were fabricated with patterning, mesa etching, and electrode deposition. The device can emit the mixture of blue and green colors. The intensity of emission can be modified with the operation current of the device. In our architecture whose construction is described above, green quantum wells are closer to p-contacts when compared with blue quantum wells. Thus, at low current levels, green emission dominates the device output. However, once the current level is increased to a certain value, radiative recombination starts to happen more frequently in blue quantum wells as well. This will increase the blue emission intensity of the dual wavelength device. Once the device is fabricated, quantum dots with yellow and red (or amber) emission are placed on top of fabricated devices either in a layer or in a blended architecture. Figure 12 shows the schematics of the dual wavelength multiple quantum well InGaN/GaN LED emitting blue and green colors covered with yellow and red semiconductor QDs.
\nDual wavelength multiple quantum well InGaN/GaN LED-emitting blue and green colors covered with yellow and red quantum dots.
Forster resonance energy transfer (FRET) can enhance the optical power and power conversion efficiency of the conventional color converted and white LEDs. In this context, the relative quantum efficiency of color converter of QDs is increased by nonradiatively transferring extra excitons from the defect states of the closely placed donor QDs. The relative quantum efficiency enhancement mechanism of QDs is explained as follows. The optically excited semiconductor QDs contain excitons that recombine either radiatively or nonradiatively. The so-called “nonradiative” excitons are able to transfer their excitonic energy to the neighboring acceptor QDs before they recombine in defects in the host QDs. This increased the quantum efficiency of the acceptor QDs with increased emission yield. The process of transferring these excitons through nonradiative FRET process with dipole-dipole coupling is called exciton recycling [16].
\nElectronic band structure of FRET-converted LEDs is depicted in Figure 13. Excitons and/or charge carriers are transported to quantum wells following the electrical injection to blue LEDs. The radiative recombination in the InGaN (In composition of 15%) quantum wells leads to blue emission. This emission optically excites the donor semiconductor QDs. The excitons of these QDs are transferred to the acceptor QDs. The excited acceptor color-converter QDs emit with the emission wavelength corresponding to their bandgap energy. To support the existence of FRET process occurring between the donor and acceptor QDs, several types of experiments can be done. One of the most commonly known methods to examine FRET is measure the lifetimes of the acceptor and donor molecules with time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy. If FRET occurs, donor’s lifetime should be shortened owing to the exciton migration from these host molecules. On the other hand, the acceptor molecules should exhibit longer lifetime in the presence of their donor counterparts thanks to the exciton feeding. Another method to check whether exciton migration in donor-acceptor pairs is present or not is to acquire the photoluminescence excitation spectral behavior of the acceptor QDs in the presence and in the absence of the donor QDs. Although this method can also provide a strong argument on the presence/absence of FRET, the former time-resolved spectroscopy method is more effective in evaluating the efficiency of the FRET process.
\nElectronic band structure of FRET-converted LEDs.
The FRET-based architecture above only demonstrates the enhancement process in the color-converted LED. However, it is possible to enhance the color quality of white LEDs with the utilization of FRET as well by individually increasing the quantum efficiency of less efficient QD components in the hybrid white emitting devices. Using this way, the intensity of the individual (green, yellow, or red) can be modified. This modification leads to the changes in the chromaticity coordinates of the white light and CCT.
\nAs it was stated above, FRET is a powerful concept to enhance the efficiency of the color-converter QDs incorporated in hybrid LEDs. Another method to increase the relative quantum yield of these semiconductor QDs is to make use of plasmon-exciton coupling mechanism [17]. Plasmon coupling can be realized by either forming localized surface plasmons or surface plasmon polaritons in the close vicinity of the emitter. Localized surface plasmons result in more pronounced absorption peaks. Moreover, their use within the device structures is more convenient owing to its simple configuration when compared with surface plasmon polaritons. The plasmonic absorption peaks of localized surface plasmons can be easily modified by changing the size of these particles. Figure 14 shows the absorption spectra of Ag nanoparticles with different deposition thicknesses and same annealing condition. 10, 15, and 20 nm thick electron beam deposited and annealed Ag (films become nanoparticles following the deposition of such thin layers and high temperature annealing) exhibit 450, 504, and 666 nm absorption peaks, respectively.
\nAbsorption spectra of electron beam-deposited Ag layers with deposition thickness of 10, 15 and 20 nm.
To achieve a successful enhancement in the emission yield, absorption spectrum of plasmonic metal structure should have a decent overlap with the luminescence spectrum of the emitter (semiconductor QD in this particular case). In this context, it is important to choose the correct metal material to achieve a good spectral overlap. Ag is a more convenient material for the emission in near UV and blue. On the other hand, Au can be utilized to get a plasmonic enhancement in the emitters with emission wavelength of more than 500 nm. Moreover, the position of plasmonic structure is also an important feature which needs extra care. The QD and the plasmonic metal should be in close proximity to realize an efficient coupling between them. On the other hand, if these two structures are placed very closely to each other, the emission of QDs will be strongly quenched thanks to nonradiative energy transfer from QDs to the adjacent metal structure. Thus, it is essential to optimize the relative locations of the QDs and the plasmonic metal structure to prevent the nonradiative energy transfer-induced emission loss and to achieve strong exciton-plasmon coupling simultaneously.
\nA thin metallic layer can be chemically grown on top of QDs to achieve plasmon-induced enhancement (Figure 15-left). However, placing a metal layer directly on the surface of QD would result in nonradiative resonance energy transfer-induced quenching of QD emission. Thus, it is important to insert a spacer shell layer in between the semiconductor QD and metallic shell. Moreover, the thickness of these shells (spacer and metal) cannot be too large; thick shells would block a significant amount of light coming out of QDs. Another useful mechanism to achieve strong coupling between the plasmons generated in metals and excitons in QDs is to make use of blended structure (Figure 15-right). In this configuration, chemically synthesized small metallic nanoparticles are mixed with QDs in solution. Later, they will make a solid blended film on a flat surface. However, direct contact of core QDs with metallic nanoparticle would again give rise to a strong quenching of emission owing to nonradiative energy transfer. To prevent nonradiative quenching, QDs can be synthesized in a core-shell configuration such as CdSe/ZnS with optimized shell thickness. In both of the configurations explained above, surface plasmons provide additional radiative channels for the excitons of QDs. This leads to the enhanced emission yield of QDs. The two powerful methods to examine the existence of plasmon-exciton coupling are photoluminescence measurement of QD films and time-resolved photoluminescence decay experiments. The former method shows the photoluminescence peak enhancement of QDs owing to the existence of plasmonic nanostructures in close vicinity. In most cases, there is a peak shift in the plasmon-incorporated films owing to the difference in the absorbance peak of metal and photoluminescence of the emitter; the spectral region of QDs corresponding to the absorbance peak location of metallic nanostructures gain maximum photoluminescence enhancement. This leads to the shift of photoluminescence peak toward the absorbance peak. The second useful method to examine the existence of plasmon-exciton coupling is to draw the photoluminescence decay curves of QD films in the presence and in the absence of the plasmonic nanostructures. Due to the presence of additional radiative channels in the QD-metal structure, the photoluminesce of this structure should decay faster; the reduction in the lifetime of QD film in the presence of plasmonic metal nanostructures is attributed to the strong plasmon-exciton coupling induced by the increased radiative recombination rate.
\nQD-plasmon coupling mechanisms with core-shell (left) and blended (right) configurations.
The optimized blended and core-shell configurations (Figure 15) can be incorporated as efficient color-converter materials on top of blue InGaN/GaN LEDs. These novel architectures would exhibit enhanced power conversion efficiency and optical power when compared with conventional color-converted hybrid LEDs utilizing pure QD film owing to the plasmon-induced quantum efficiency enhancement of QDs.
\nColor conversion process in hybrid LED designs utilizing InGaN/GaN LED structures and QDs can be photonic or excitonic. In photonic color conversion, photons are generated in the quantum wells of InGaN/GaN LEDs following an efficient electrical injection, and they excite the color converter semiconductor QDs placed on top of the structure. In this design, there is a significant separation between QDs and the quantum wells of LEDs. On the other hand, excitonic color conversion process does not involve the generation of photons to excite the semiconductor QDs. In this configuration, excitonic energy of the InGaN quantum wells is directly transferred to the QDs through FRET (nonradiative dipole-dipole coupling). It is possible to achieve white light emission (or any other mixed color emission) by carefully controlling the emission intensity of InGaN quantum wells and the QD film.
\nThe interaction of QDs and the quantum wells of InGaN/GaN LEDs can be realized through constructing several hybrid systems [18, 19]. One of the methods to achieve excitonic color conversion is to place QDs directly on top of the quantum wells (Figure 16-right). However, there should be a thin GaN cap layer with optimized thickness to control the amount of transferred nonradiative energy. Very small separation between the donor (InGaN quantum well) and the acceptor (QD) would result in higher emission intensity of QDs and lower intensity of InGaN wells. Thus, by modifying the thickness of cap layer, it is possible to optimize the quality of white light; CCT can be effective shifted. Moreover, QDs can be placed in between the nanopillars of InGaN/GaN LED structure to realize the interaction of QDs and sidewalls of InGaN quantum wells (Figure 16-left). Nanopillars can be fabricated either by etching the epitaxially grown bulk LED structure or by selectively growing LED structures in the holes of SiO2 layer on top of a sapphire substrate. Furthermore, LEDs with microholes can be fabricated and QDs can be inserted into these holes to observe the possible coupling between QDs and quantum wells. Energy transfer between the abovementioned donor and acceptor components are examined with photoluminescence, optical power measurements, and time-resolved photoluminescence spectroscopy studies.
\nSchematics of nanopillar-QD (left) and quantum well-QD (right) systems.
The Duffy blood group system, ISBT number 008/symbol (FY), was published for the first time in 1950 when anti-Fya was identified in a suspected hemolytic transfusion reaction in a 43-year-old patient with hemophilia who received 3 packed red blood cell (PRBC) units for treatment of spontaneous bleeding and who developed jaundice 1 day after transfusion [1, 2]. Approximately, 1 year later, anti-Fyb was discovered in a postpartum blood sample from a patient who gave birth to her third child [3].
\nChromosome 1 has both FY and RH gene loci. The FY locus is located on the long arm at position 1q22-q23 where it consists of two exons distributed over 1.5 kbp of gDNA, whereas RH resides on the short arm. The Duffy system is N-glycosylated multi-pass transmembrane glycoprotein (Figure 1) [4] also known as the atypical chemokine receptor 1 (ACKR1, CD234). The protein is composed of 336 amino acids. There are two possible Duffy mRNAs which are translated from the Duffy antigen gene, a less abundant α form (338 amino acids) and a major β form (336 amino acids) which differ by 2 amino acids in the N-terminus. Approximately 6000–13,000 copies of the Duffy protein are found on the surface of RBCs [5].
\nThe predicted seven-transmembrane domain structure of the Duffy protein. The amino acid change responsible for Fya/Fyb polymorphism, the mutation responsible for Fyx, and the glycosylation sites and the regions where Fy3 (and Fy6) map are indicated (reproduced with permission).
The Duffy blood group includes six known antigens that differ by amino acid sequence. The Duffy antigen prevalence varies between racial groups.
\nACKR1 (previously known as DARC) is a receptor for a variety of chemokines, including interleukin-8, monocyte chemotactic protein-1, and melanoma growth stimulatory activity. Also, this glycoprotein is a receptor for Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium knowlesi; thus red cells with Fy(a-b-) phenotype are resistant to invasion by these malarial species. Antibodies formed against the Duffy antigens show a dosage effect and are a cause of both hemolytic transfusion reactions and hemolytic disease of fetus and newborn. The Duffy protein is also found on the endothelial cells of capillary and postcapillary venules, the epithelial cells of kidney collecting ducts, lung alveoli, and Purkinje cells of cerebellum [6].
\nThere are six known antigens with four main phenotypes; Fy(a+b+), Fy(a−b+), Fy(a+b−), and Fy(a−b−) (Table 1) [5]. The most common antigens are, two polymorphic and antithetical, Fya (FY1) and Fyb (FY2) which differ by one amino acid at position 42 on the extracellular domain, with glycine resulting in Fya expression and aspartic acid resulting in Fyb expression [5, 7]. They are sensitive to destruction when RBCs are treated with proteolytic enzymes such as papain or ficin, whereas, there is no RBCs destruction with trypsin treatment [8].
\nRed cell phenotype | \nPrevalence (%) | \nAllele | \n|
---|---|---|---|
Caucasians | \nBlacks | \n||
Fy (a+b−) | \n17 | \n9 | \nFY*01/FY*01 or FY*A/FY*A | \n
Fy (a−b+) | \n34 | \n22 | \nFY*02/FY*02 or FY*B/FY*B | \n
Fy (a+b+) | \n49 | \n1 | \nFY*A/FY*B | \n
Fy (a−b−) | \nRare | \n68 | \nFY*/N.01–05, FY*/N.01–02\n‡\n\n | \n
Fy3\n | \n100 | \n32 | \n\n |
Fy5\n | \n99.9 | \n32 | \n\n |
Fy6\n | \n100 | \n32 | \n\n |
Duffy blood group system phenotypes and prevalence. Reproduced with permission and modification.
Nomenclature pending approval by the ISBT working party on terminology for red cell surface antigens.
Fya antigen has a prevalence of 66% in Caucasians, 10% in Blacks, and 99% in Asians. It has been identified on fetal RBCs as early as 6 weeks gestation and reaches adult levels in approximately 12 weeks after birth. Fyb has a prevalence of 83% in Caucasians, 23% in Blacks, and 18.5% in Asians. It is expressed on cord blood cells. Fy3 antigen is expressed in 100% of Caucasians, 32% of Blacks, and 99.9% of Asians. It is also expressed on cord cells and demonstrates increased expression after birth. Fy5 antigen is expressed on 32% of Blacks and 99.9% of Caucasians and Asians. It is not expressed on Rh null RBCs. Fy6 is expressed in 100% of most populations and 32% of Blacks. The Fy(a–b–) phenotype is the major phenotype in approximately 70% Blacks, but is very rarely found in other populations. This phenotype is characterized by the absence of the Fyb antigen on RBCs and its presence on non-erythroid cells. Duffy mRNA is not detected in the bone marrow of Fy(a–b–) individuals; however, it is detected in other tissues including the colon, lung, and spleen. This unique phenotype is caused by a single amino acid substitution at position 46 in the Duffy (Fyb) gene. This mutation impairs the promotor activity in erythroid cells by disrupting the binding site for GATA1 erythroid transcription factor. Furthermore, some individuals with this phenotype do not make anti-Fyb. This is believed to be due to a mutation in the, erythroid promoter, GATA-1 binding motif. Interestingly, the same Fy(a–b–) phenotype rarely found in Caucasians is characterized by absence of Duffy antigens expression in both erythroid and non-erythroid tissues due to possibly presence of mutations which prevent formation of Duffy protein. These individuals can form anti-Fy3. The have high prevalence antigens; Fy3, Fy5, and Fy6 are conformational epitopes as opposed to specific sequence epitopes with Fy5 hypothesized to be a combined conformational epitope of Duffy and Rh protein [9, 10, 11, 12].
\nAnti-Fya and -Fyb are clinically significant RBC alloantibodies which can cause immediate and delayed hemolytic transfusion reactions (HTRs) as well as hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn (HDFN). They often result from previous exposure such as after transfusion or pregnancy. They are not usually naturally occurring. The Duffy antibodies are predominantly of the IgG subclass whereas the IgM form is rare.
\nThe mechanism of extravascular hemolysis (EH) in both HDFN and HTR is similar. In HDFN, the mother lacks a certain red cell antigen which the fetus is positive for, thus the mother is allo-immunized (i.e., made a new antibody) during the first pregnancy. If she gets exposed to the same antigen in subsequent pregnancy (ies), the fetus (es) is/are at risk of HDFN. Similarly, if a patient lacks a certain red cell antigen but receives red cell transfusion with a unit that has such antigen, the patient is at risk for allo-immunziation after the transfusion and HTR in subsequent transfusion (s). EH is typically induced by IgG red cell antibodies. EH consists of consumption of antibody and/or C3b-bound red cells by phagocytes in the reticuloendothelial system (RES) causing a delayed hemolytic transfusion reaction (DHTR). DHTRs can be clinically significant leading to morbidity and possibly mortality. To avoid DHTR, patients with known clinically significant antibodies, receive red cell units that lack antigen (s) to their the cognate antibody (ies). The Duffy antibodies are usually associated with a moderate DHTR and mild HDFN [13].
\nAnti-Fya is identified more than anti-Fy3, anti-Fy5, or anti-Fyb. Fya is 20 times more immunogenic than Fyb. Some of anti-Fya can bind and activate complements [14]. Anti-Fy3 is also clinically significant antibody which can cause mild HDFN and HTRs. Serologically, it can react with enzyme treated Fy(a+) or Fy(b+) RBCs, but fails to react with Fy(a−b−) RBCs [15]. Anti-Fy4 shows lack of consistent test results. It was found to be reactive with Fy(a−b−), some Fy(a+b−), some Fy(a−b+) RBCs but shows no reaction with Fy(a+b+) RBCs [16]. Anti-Fy5 reacts with enzyme treated Fy(a+) or Fy(b+) RBCs with no reaction with Fy(a−b−) RBCs or Rh null RBCS. It has been reported in sickle cell patients with delayed HTRs in the presence of other clinically significant alloantibodies [17]. A human anti-Fy6 has not been identified [18].
\nThe Duffy glycoprotein can bind to a variety of chemokines and is known commonly as the Duffy antigen receptor for chemokines (DARC) or more recently atypical chemokine receptor 1 (ACKR1). Chemokines are proteins secreted by immune cells as a mean to communicate signals to guide their interactions. The exact function of DARC is not fully clear. One postulated function is that DARC permits erythrocyte to act a chemokine scavenger to limit leukocyte activation. The importance of this function in inflammatory diseases is not well established [6, 19].
\nThe Duffy glycoprotein plays an important role in malaria transmission by acting as the erythroid receptor for Plasmodium vivax through binding to the Fy6 epitope (previously known as P. vivax Duffy-binding protein (PvDbp)) and for Plasmodium knowlesi. Individuals with Fy(a−b−) phenotype were resistant to parasitic invasion in a study performed on 11 volunteers, whereas those who contracted malaria were Fy(a+) or Fy(b+). Fy6 is present on all erythroid cells with an Fy(a+) or Fy(b+) phenotype. Thus it is absent on red cells with Fy(a−b−) phenotype. In west Africa, individuals with Fy(a−b−) phenotype are found in greater frequency than in areas where P. vivax is absent. The protective effect of Fy(a−b−) phenotype does not extend to P. falciparum which can infect red cells of all Duffy phenotype [20].
\nI want to thank the department of Pathology at the University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States.
\nThe author declares no conflict of interest.
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\n\nRead more about Open Access in Horizon 2020 here.
\n\nWhich scientific publication to choose?
\n\nWhen choosing a publication, Horizon 2020 grant recipients are encouraged to provide open access to various types of scientific publications including monographs, edited books and conference proceedings.
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