\r\n\tThe development of the interpersonal model and the Kleinian school in the second half of the last century allowed the emergence of an original understanding of the unconscious mind. Within the intersubjective paradigm, the psychoanalytic situation is conceptualized as an interpersonal field to which both the analyst and the patient contribute substantially. We have shown elsewhere how the failure to give a full account of such an intersubjective dimension in both psychoanalytic theory and practice amounts to a core liability in contemporary psychoanalytic discourse.
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\r\n\tThe present book will focus on a few areas where the insufficient development of our discipline is currently apparent: five wounds that mark the body of the psychoanalytic enterprise.
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\r\n\tNew contributions are particularly needed in the following areas: Current conceptualization of the unconscious mind is mechanistic and not suited to incorporate the full network of interpersonal exchanges which unfolds in the analytic room; Furthermore, the development of interpersonal psychoanalysis and the theory of the object relations warrants a greater appreciation of the impact of extratranference relations (e.g., couple, family, peers) on the patient's inner life both within and without the psychoanalytic situation.
\r\n
\r\n\tAn integration of theories and models from other psychological paradigms is clearly in order here; the book will also focus on Barangers’ theory of the bi-personal field that makes traditional unipersonal models of the psychoanalytic process untenable. Also, it will help in the understanding of the reciprocal interactions of the two partners in the psychoanalytic dyad in most psychoanalytic institutes the training format relies naively on models from the academic or the professional domains. This fosters rigidity, conformism, and a hierarchical organizational style in the institutional life; e) all over the long span of his creative life Freud showed consistent interest in the application of psychoanalysis to literature, the arts, religion, and politics. Contemporary psychoanalysis is getting more and shyer and is pressed at the margins of social and political debate. The psychoanalytic theory includes unique lore of knowledge about the conscious and unconscious mind. Without it, a comprehensive understanding of human reality will stay out of the reach of contemporary culture.
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1. Introduction: early childhood development setting globally
There are various terminologies used to define Early Childhood Development (ECD) by different institutions for the diverse programmes. Commonly used early childhood terminologies are: “Early Childhood Education (ECE), Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE), Early Childhood Care (ECC), Early Childhood Care and Development (ECCD), and Early Childhood Care for Development and Early Childhood Development (ECD)” [1, 2, 3]. Worldwide, early childhood is identified as a period that “covers the prenatal phase to eight years of age and it is during this crucial stage that the brain develops immensely throughout the lifespan” [4]. It is in this period that the child needs extreme attention and appropriate care as it is the most critical time for the growth and development. According to the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child Article 6 (Article 6, UNICEF) every child has a right to early childhood development, highlighting “a right to live…and develop healthy” and that every child has “the right to a standard of living that is good enough to meet their physical and mental needs” (Article 27, UNICEF). Reiterating the importance of childcare, the World Bank [5] states that children who access adequate care and stimulation early in life are likely to be more successful later in life, and children with a healthy weight and physical development are more likely to develop normally.
In several European and North American countries, Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) has become the standard where most children from birth and upwards attend a regulated early education service due to the entrance of women into the corporate world. Additionally, early childhood services are characterised by much more than a drop-off location for working parents, but more importantly as a place where the child is given the chance to engage and develop in an array of educational and social activities. Extensive research has proved that early education has positive influence on school readiness thereby increasing the number of children in formal ECEC. There has been an increase in the demand for formal educative childcare since more mothers became career women and even the stay-at-home mothers need childcare service at some time to help their children develop social skills.
2. Men in early childhood development settings
For ages worldwide women have dominated in the area of Early Childhood Development and Care (ECEC). This has been due to public confidence in women as they have been considered to be more nurturing than men, which has also become a hindrance to men who anticipate pursuing careers in early childhood education [6, 7, 8, 9]. Recently, studies in Trinidad and Tobago have exposed female dominance in the teaching profession where males constitute roughly a quarter of the teaching fraternity [10, 11]. It is worse in the ECD where male teachers are almost extinct. Similar statistics in Australia reveal that there is approximately two percent males in the entire early childhood profession [12].
Gender imbalance among the early childhood education personnel has been found to be a global phenomenon where extensive research confirms that the percentage of male early childhood educators lingered around 1–3% in the majority of countries in the West [13]. Xu & Waniganayake [14] also found scarcity of men in ECE in non-Western countries like China, where only 2% of ECE teachers are males. There is no difference in the Philippines where women outnumbered men as ECE teachers. Historically, childcare in most homes has been seen as a woman’s work, hence, the trend has spilt over to early childhood education making the female workforce to dominate. The long-standing perception from the society in those countries has been that women are more nurturing preventing men to equally participate in early childhood teaching profession [15]. Reviewing literature on early childhood teaching one finds scanty research on men as educators and in the studies that ventured into the subject mainly focus on the negative aspects of men’s choice in this career. A study by Jordan [16] revealed that while some men got support from fellow teachers, acquaintances, and family members to pursue careers in ECE, a good number of surveys described fears and challenges that men faced in the profession.
In the 1970s, Sweden introduced gender equality in the teaching arena and extended the public childcare resulting in the increased demand for well-educated pre-school teachers. Promotion of male recruitment started in 1971 as a form of positive discrimination to attract men to join pre-school teacher education. This initiative saw a ten percent increase in the number of men becoming pre-school teachers by 1975 [17]. However, the trend was that most men held managerial positions which made the unions unhappy because the initial idea of male recruitment was to introduce male to hands on childcare through interaction with children and to have male role models in the pre-school classrooms.
Qin & Wang [18] observed how several governments worldwide had introduced broad reforms for ECE since 2010, whereby they increased financial input, launched political authorities who supported teacher training programmes. The teacher professional development policy is one of the reforms that has been extensively deemed to be the crucial element in promoting the quality of ECE. According to Kent [19] in this policy, teachers were considered as facilitators for educational reform and the custodians of sustainable development in schools [20].
Notwithstanding the desire to join the early childhood profession, male personnel in early childhood provision face hostile public perception who assume that men are more likely to abuse children more than their female counterparts [9, 21, 22]. There seem to be double standards when dealing with men. They are most valued as fathers, brothers, uncles, and grandfathers in homes and in the community but viewed with suspicion in early childhood settings. Men have been accepted in junior and senior sectors of education, yet their involvement with younger children invites scrutiny and scepticism.
The importance of ECE is that young children develop their gender identity [23] and realise the important role all genders play in their care and education. The traditional gender stereotypes are reinforced when young children do not relate with male teachers and caregivers who are responsible for their growth, learning and socialisation [24, 25]. The growth and development of children is incomplete if they do not experience a comparable range of models of masculinity and knowing what it means to be a boy or a man [26]. Early childhood is a critical time in their gender identity development, hence, the need for a gender balanced workforce to provide children with a richer variety of role models [27].
3. Theoretical framework
There are two fundamental discourses or policy narratives that have been the major concerns about the scarcity of male teachers in early childhood settings, which are: (i) the need for more male role models to fill the gap of absent fathers and the cumulative incidence of single-parent families [28, 29, 30, 31] and (ii) the desire for more gender balanced representation in the teaching profession, a position that is often underlined by limited philosophies of equity which have failed to consider the importance of the status of women’s work, racial inequality and the privilege of males [4, 27, 28, 32, 33, 34, 35]. Male teacher shortage has dominated policy narratives particularly in trying to understand the policy physique of boys’ education in which concerns of female dominancy have been inextricably linked to the phenomenon ‘failing boys’ in need of male role models [36, 37]. Due to debates about gender balance in teaching, Riddell and Tett [35] have described these tensions as modernist and post-structuralist accounts of sex and gender where ‘man’ and ‘woman’ are socially categorised and increasing the numbers of male teachers so as to have a more gender balanced representation in the teaching profession has been problematic. However, policy initiatives that have simply engaged more males in teaching have not adequately addressed the politics of gender and race, hence, the deflation and rejection of teaching as women’s work in early childhood continues to side-line males [38]. Masculinity and femininity tensions have drawn debates where scholars argue in a dissociating of sex and gender have created a divide between policymakers who deny that the sex of the teacher is irrelevant, and academics who think that gender may not affect performance of a person and suspicious parents who have lost trust of men in the early years teaching [35]. Such debates, however, clearly highlight the need for further reflection on the against-epistemic concerns central to both policymaking and the theoretical frameworks that inform empirical research in the field of gender in early childhood education [39].
The issue of male absence in early childhood environments can be understood through various theoretical frameworks. The Social Role theory is one of the lenses which classifies men and women in terms of the customary division of labour where expected the responsibilities of men are frequently done outside the home while women presume their responsibilities involve managing homes [40]. The differences in gender propose that most behavioural disparities which are attributed to males and females are expectations of social roles which are governed by the cultural stereotypes [40, 41]. The social behaviour of males and females has been affected by the expectancies of stereotypes regarding gender such that they have acquired different qualities through this process of socialisation [41]. Explaining the theory, Halpern [42], suggests that the innate physical disparities between men and women pervaded the historical division of labour in the society. These particular gender roles correlate with perceived differences in cultures and societies; consequently, women are deemed as primary caregivers for children and nurturers in homes while men operate as breadwinners in families. Similar to this line of thinking is Coleman’s [43] social capital and how it takes priority over the social role. These expectations that emerged due to the natural differences between males and females have caused gender stereotypes or gender categorising making them male-specific and female-dominated careers [40] such as nursing and teaching professions where women mostly outnumber males while men also tend to dominate in construction and engineering. The assumption in Eagly’s theory is that women are better nurturers than men hence, they dominate in the ECD due to gender-specific careers cultivated from inborn competences. Worldwide there is a strong belief that gendered cognitive schemas encourage the projected roles of females and males. Subsequently, the social role theory explains the existence of a wide range of stereotypes and illustrates that men are capable of learning to perform certain roles and permeate in exclusively female domains [41]. Notwithstanding early socialisation, the social role theory proposes that men can acquire new skills and behaviours related with the provider role by involving themselves in social experiences that were once reserved for women.
Comprehensive sociological theories concerning gender lead us to Bem’s [44] early theory of gender schema which she later modified to be the enculturated-lens theory (1993) used in gender related research. Bem’s theories [44, 45] accentuate on the cultural learning of gender and specifically featuring the social and historical perspectives as ‘lenses’ for gender socialisation. In essence, human beings are socialised by various agents within the society (namely parents, school, and the media) leading to schemas also known as internal cognitive networks about masculinity and femininity which assist both to shape and guide the views of individuals. Bem [45] further explains the process leading to the schemas as follows:
“the established pre-programming of the person’s daily experience into the default decisions, or the traditionally pre-cut ‘channels,’ for that specific time and place which differ distinctly for men and women”
“the transmission of unspoken lessons – or meta-messages – about what lenses the culture uses to organise social reality, including the notion that the dissimilarity between male and female, masculine and feminine, is extremely important”.
That then leads people within the society to view themselves and the world they reside in through a gendered ‘lens’, that influences their thinking and actions. Watson, Wright, & Groenewald, [46] postulate that these social norms which precisely ascribe the roles and expectations of men and women that are deemed appropriate or desirable by the society are frequently resistant to change. The cycle of these perceptions on gender positions persists through generations.
4. Importance of male educators
The importance of have male educators in ECD has gathered momentum kindling the interest of researchers and policy makers in the recent years due to the consistent concerns such as 1) the none-participation of men as fathers in their children’s lives, 2) the dearth of men in the early childhood settings, 3) the cognisance of the worth of father involvement in Early Childhood Care and Education and 4) the significance of men as role models for their children, particularly boys. Plentiful research testify to men’s involvement as fathers in the early lives of young children as essential for their social, emotional, and cognitive development [47, 48]. There is no corresponding prominence on men as educators of young children, yet it is essential that every child gets influence from both female and male educators to maximise social, emotional, and academic development.
Notwithstanding changing perceptions that men are also needed in the sector, the ECEC profession in worldwide is still dominated by women. Since 2010, countries like China have realised the importance and increased their interests in ECEC prioritising the development of ECEC [8] and encouraging men to join the ECEC workforce as a means of improving the quality of ECEC. The biggest argument in many nations is that as role models and father figures male teachers contribute to all round growth and development of younger children. Jensen [49] presenting his argument insisted that male teachers are good at detecting and resolving boy related issues at school than female teachers because they understand the perspectives and experiences of boys based on their own lived experience. With the help of male teachers, boys are able to explore their own interest.
There has been worldwide discourse concerning the benefits of having men in the early childhood education and care, and three main aspects are highlighted:
Engaging more men into the ECEC arena will bring gender equality in the society. Cameron and Moss [50] observed that the presence or the absence of male teachers in early childhood services contributes to or challenges dominant beliefs about gender roles and relationships in society. A mixed gender workforce in a centre forms part of a gender equity debates about men and women sharing childcare equally, in as much as a centre with only women workers is part of a very different arguments which classifies women an acutely suited to caring for young children.
The benefit of having more male teachers in the early childhood education profession is the creation of a diverse working dynamic in centres thereby raising the status of teachers.
Male presence in ECEC provide a male role model for children, especially for those who come from a single-parent family or have parents working long hours. A male teacher compensates for father absence in families [49]. The role played by male teachers in the lives of children cannot be downplayed as some families rely on their support to discipline children especially boys and be their role models.
5. Barriers or glass ceiling to male educator recruitment and retention
The absence of fathers’ involvement in the early life of children has propelled the desire for male figures and male support in the early childhood programmes. Worldwide gender imbalance has been noted in the early childhood education and lower primary where classes have been female skewed with conspicuous absence of men in the arena [51, 52, 53]. Most of the studies in Netherlands found that eighty-five percent of primary teachers are female with the United Kingdom (UK) showing the similar trend of eighty-six percent female and Denmark had a slightly lower figure of seventy-six percent female teachers in the primary schools [54]. Mashiya [55] and Koch and Farquhar [56] found the number of men in early childhood setting as low as ten percent in Finland, only four percent in Germany, and the United States had only two percent. Studies also found that glitches resulting from gender prejudice, gender stereotyping and numerous systemic challenges lead to the failure of South Africa to attract male teachers in pre-schools [46, 57]. Teaching in pre-school is not a lucrative career choice for men hence, they shun it.
Worldwide there is social stigma against men who venture into early childhood teaching with most of them being labelled ‘abnormal’ [58], making a career as an EC teacher an unattractive option for men. Male educators often face scrutiny and suspicion when they attempt to express affection for young children thereby putting their livelihoods and reputes in jeopardy. Chen, [59] found that men in China face social stigma when they venture into working with young children as they are viewed as main breadwinners and being paid low salaries prevents them from considering the ECEC sector as a career choice [60, 61]. Existing early childhood teacher programmes are viewed by most scholars as inappropriate for men [59, 62] due to some mandatory modules such as dancing, music, and painting which men perceived to be challenging because of their genetic characteristics. Similar sentiments were expressed by Jing [62] who cautioned that most of the training environment are female-dominated and are likely to be highly ‘feminised’ with a more female students and staff making male trainees uncomfortable. Most studies have found that public distrust and constant community scrutiny are strong pull away factors that drive men from teaching young children with the remnants in the profession are those who drift to administrative positions escaping public antagonism [21, 63, 64]. Observing the situation of male educators in the early childhood Sanders [65] noticed that they constantly have to justify their career choice to family members, friends, and their female counterparts. The larger part of society perceive that men are less careful and patient with young children and should be allotted to carry out more educational tasks and less caring assignments [66, 67, 68].
The status of teaching in early childhood education has remained low hence most men cite that as a barrier to them venturing into that profession. Aggravating the situation is the misconception that teaching in the early childhood education entails one to possess marginal skills and proficiencies [21]. Some scholars like Cohen [69] and Cooney and Bittner [70] collaborate that the low status of ECE could be the reason why personnel working in that field are paid low salaries instigating many male teachers trained in ECE to move into higher status and higher paying positions in school administration or higher education. Besides low salaries, several studies have found other underlying reasons such as fear of child abuse allegations, lacking social status as the origins for the scarcity of men in ECEC field [71, 72, 73]. The need for male influence in the lives of the young generation requires concerted societal efforts to entice men in the field of ECEC.
6. Methodology
Research methodology is the path through which researchers need to conduct their research. This chapter adopted desk-based research also known as the systematic inquiry which relied on empirical researched secondary data which was gathered without fieldwork. Ideally, these published reports and statistics are certainly important sources [74]. In the context of this chapter the term is widened to include all sources of information such as reputable journals, books and different published articles that do not involve a field survey. As depicted by name desk-research is a technique which is mainly acquired by sitting at a desk and collecting data from existing resources hence it is often considered a low-cost and effective technique as compared to field research. Still, for the researcher to save money and time they must have the proper knowledge that can be used as benchmark of the research procedure. Besides being time and financially economic there is reduced bias and infringement of ethics as there is no human contact in collecting data. The other advantage was that the researchers were able access information related to the phenomenon from a wider international community. However, the technique also has limitations such as lack of the ability to verify on the reported facts, stringent restrictions on the access of some publication that have relevant information.
7. Results
7.1 Benefits of male involvement in ECE
Men in families and the society at large are valued as breadwinners, protectors and disciplinarians who instil values and morals to their offspring. With this background several studies have sought the significance of male educator in pre-school. It turns out that in South Africa, men are rare in early childhood setting even though they would be valued as role models who would provide discipline for children. Educators’ views were “Having father figures in the foundation phase would provide male role model seeing that many children do not have fathers at home, and it would be good for discipline and the values because the foundation is important. Male educators can handle discipline better and they are good in handling sporting teams and children listen to them hence, they perform better in school.” Similar sentiments coming from parents were “Men in education are not as valued as fathers are in families, there has to be a mind-set shift with people viewing the presence of men positively so that they continue that family stability, discipline and performance will improve. Participants in a study in China advanced that “Male participation in ECEC balances the gender ratio, moderates the environments, assists with the construction of children’s masculinities and promotes quality education through.”
7.2 Culture and stereotype mind-set
Even though the presence of men in children’s early education is important, culture and stereotype mind-sets prevent men from venturing into ECE as educators in the Eastern Cape elaborated that: “People think that men are not suitable to handle early childhood teaching but ought to start at middle school. Men do not have that motherly love and patience with very young children as pre-school demands hands-on people.” Similar sentiments were expressed in Nigeria were that Men in ECE are ridiculed by other men who regards them as if they are stupid…. men are shy and do not like to be humiliated.” Participants in a study in Zimbabwe posit that there was a need for men to change their mindset, as some children who need their firm hands.Concurring was a study in Kenya where participant lamented that: “Men were not accepted as educators of young children because of the negative stereotype belief that men are strict, harsh, impatient and can abuse children.” Negative mind-set and stereotype attitude towards male educators deter men from venturing into female dominated teaching arena.
7.3 Fears, challenges and stereotypes
Whereas men play a pivotal role in nurturing young children, there is so much mistrust of men around children in pre-school centres from the society. Some participants expressed that: “As a mother, I fear that male teachers may be too strict, small children are too subtle to be taught by men who are likely to touch children inappropriately and sexually abuse them and when their temper flares up, they may be aggressive and physically abuse children…. there is so much violence against women and girls.” While research has proven that men bring stability in families, children behave and perform better but there are families with men physically present but have the worst maladjusted children more than those from single mothers. Some men can be very abusive to their families. Yes, they may be financially better but there are some men who do not really care for their families even if they can afford.” Some deep-rooted fear and mistrust of men was conveyed: “I would not be comfortable with a male educator in the pre-school because men can be cruel and abusive as fathers or educators. I was traumatised by men in my family hence I had this child. Besides, children in the pre-school need toilet training, some changing of diapers which most men, especially African men are not socialised to do.” Likewise, one participant said “Men are so unpredictable because some are good, but others are very cruel……I was raped by men I looked up to for protection when I was seven years…. So, I am sceptical about men is a class with very young children.” A male participant voiced that “Nowadays men are prone to alcohol and substance abuse so for men to teach very young children they have to be of sober habits.” The sentiments expressed reveal general lack of trust and deep-rooted fear of men as educators of very young children although men are valued as fathers. The deep-rooted fear and mistrust of men is due to the high crime rate among women and children in South Africa with men equally not trusting other men with their children. In Turkey, a parent expressed her desire of having a male teacher for her child, but I could not ignore the concerns she had about Child abuse which affects as boys and girls.
7.4 Gender ascribed role
Eagly’s Social Role theory suggests that nurturing of children is a role that is generally ascribed to women. Participants who conform to this theory attest that: “In my culture man understand that they are breadwinners while nurturing of the child is a mother’s duty. It never crossed my mind that when a man is teaching in the pre-school it’s a job that sustains his family, however, I do accept that the children need male influence from early childhood. In caring for young children there is a lot of touching, hugging, wiping of this and that so we think that men do not have that kind of affection and patience. Generally, people think that men do not have the compassion to deal with little children because sometimes they do not show the emotion of love. Men are too stringent, and this can scare the little children. Its been for ages women dominating in this sector such that people just don’t trust the men in ECD, maybe it is just the negative attitude or thinking about men. A young man lamented that he has been quizzed, viewed with suspicion …but he advanced that, you see… the fact is that I love children, I have children of my own does not count to the society, and they just view us men with suspicion “My challenge has been to justify my motive to teach in the ECD mostly to my friends. It has taken some time for my colleagues to fully accept me. At times you can feel their suspicion ….it is like they are keeping a watchful eye on a prisoner at a distance… but I asked them why female teachers in high schools are never questioned of their motives.” Data from different countries indicates that socialisation of men and women is inherent on ascribed gender roles.
8. Discussion
In this discourse men have generally been viewed as playing a significant role as fathers confirming literature in several studies which found that the involvement of men as fathers is valued as disciplinarians, teachers of values and moral and breadwinners, gender-role models, and nurturants [75, 76]. Collaborating this study is abundant research globally that attest to the involvement of fathers as essential for their social, emotional, and cognitive development [48, 56] in the early lives of young children. The importance of men as fathers is not a subject for debate as there is a mounting body of evidence indicating that fathers play a critical role in their child’s mental and physical health development [77] increased sociability with later school success [78].
Although men bring up children in homes as their offspring when they turn up in educational setup, culture and stereotype mindset of people doubt their capability to nurture and educate children. In this chapter male educators have been recognised as pivotal in building up well-adjusted children behaviourally, yet cultural attitudes and stereotype prejudgments, and prejudices deter them from the teaching of young children [52, 79]. Besides being rejected by fellow female colleagues male educators face resistance from the communities they serve as confirmed by some studies [48, 80] which found that discrimination, marginalisation and the prevalence of gender inequality against male educators in pre-school was very high in many worldwide countries.
This study found deep-rooted fear of men from all sectors including other men. Men have been known to be strict which may scare young children confirming the prevalent belief in societies that men are not capable of caring for and educating young children like women [81]. There was widespread fear that men can abuse children in this study which has turned out to be a worldwide concern in early childhood settings. Collaborating these findings is the study are the claims by school heads who purposely avoid engaging male teachers as child protection measures because of the increase because of the increase of paedophilic abuse [82]. Parents claim that the safety and comfort of their children is paramount as it gives them peace of mind when they leave children in the care of schools and centres. However, there is no research that has authenticated abuse in schools as most of the abuse happens in homes from family members or close associates to families.
The findings in this study show that men simply avoid teaching in the early childhood setting due to gender ascribed roles, This conclusion is associated to social role theory of gender in which according to Eagly [40] most behavioural discrepancies which are attributed to males and females were as a result of cultural stereotypes regarding gender. The way males and females believed and acted was emanating from the social roles being instilled to people from a tender age.
9. Strategies for male educator recruitment
Research studies have revealed that there are more female ECD educators in the teaching profession as compared to their male counterparts. However, the majority of the arguments for gender inequality among ECD educators stress that the teaching profession has become increasingly ‘feminised’ thus the education of male learners has suffered because of the resultant lack of models [83]. The main hurdle to men becoming early childhood educators is the prevalent belief in societies and in the teaching profession that men are not capable of caring for and educating young children than are women [81]. Hence, to counter such belief, there is need to devise comprehensive recruitment strategies where all education stakeholders have a role to play in enticing more male ECD educators to take up the profession. These stakeholders include administrators, teacher educators, career counsellors, and the ECD teachers themselves [81].
Mills, Martino and Lingard [83] point out that the Education Queensland’s Male Teachers’ Strategy indicates the need for more male educators to promote diversity within the education system. Thus, the following strategies as stated in Mills et al. [83] have been suggested,
increasing the numbers of males applying for teaching positions;
enhancing employer of choice status for males wishing to enter teaching as a career;
increasing the representation of male teachers;
increasing the job satisfaction level of male teachers, and
improving working conditions and establishing a culture that values and acknowledges the needs of male teachers.
In addition, Cunningham and Watson [81] advise that each institution’s policy, vision, or mission statement on staff diversity should include as a goal on active recruitment of men. Staff development sessions on gender issues in the workplace can encourage all staff to put aside their preconceived notions about the roles of teachers of different genders. Recruitment of volunteers from high schools, colleges, and universities is another strategy which could help in involving men in the ECD classroom. For instance, students in education, psychology, child development, family life, and occupational education are often required to complete service learning, community service, career exploration, or volunteer hours, these can be engaged in ECD centres and might consider teaching as a career because of rewarding experiences working with young children. Teacher educators should be actively involved in recruiting male ECD teachers through providing information on the early childhood field to career counsellors and guidance personnel. Accordingly, effective recruitment materials which depict men as ECD teachers and use of language that specifically speaks to men and addressing their questions and concerns would be fruitful. More so, ECD teachers should make ECD learners aware that males can be teachers by using language free of gender bias and by selecting, displaying, and reading children’s books that show men as fathers, nurturers, and teachers [81].
Patrick [84] further reveals that to address the problem of shortage of male ECD educators, some countries such as the United Kingdom embarked on gender-specific recruitment for those positions and also offered monetary incentives. Consequently, through this incentive and efforts of recruitment, the United Kingdom had seen a steady increase in the number of male teachers in primary grades.
10. Conclusion
This chapter illuminated the significance of recruiting male educators to actively participate in nurturing, caring and teaching children at Early Childhood Development level. The global perspective of recruitment of male ECD educators and their participation has been highlighted in this chapter. Issues regarding barriers to male involvement as educators in early care and learning centres, and strategies on how learning institutions can recruit and train male educators specific for ECD level have been addressed. It is anticipated that the contributions of this chapter will inform policy makers, teacher education institutions and other stakeholders.
Faculty of Science and Technology Education, National University of Science and Technology, Zimbabwe
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1. Introduction
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Diesel engines the world over are the major power source in the automobile transport industry and nonroad powered engines. However, because of the issue of pollution associated with diesel exhaust, particularly particulate matter (PM) and nitrogen oxide (NOX), there has been increasingly stringent regulation to control the manufacture and use of diesel engines. This has led to extensive research on improving diesel engines and fuel [1, 2]. The use of alternative fuels tops the list of measures to control diesel exhaust emissions as recommended by researcher [3]. Besides the use of alternative fuel to control and reduce emissions, other control strategies such as exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), diesel particulate filters (DPF), selective catalytic reduction (SCR), and catalytic converter combinations have been recommended but not as stand-alone technologies [4, 5].
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The transport industry and nonroad diesel engines are major contributors to global gross domestic product. Nevertheless, their use affects human health and degrades the environment. The transport industry is responsible for one third of all environmental emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), including two thirds of carbon monoxide (CO) emissions [6]. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a primary cause of global warming with 34 billion tons per year or 22% of all the global emissions per year [7], with a projected increase in 3% annually since 2011. This is projected to rise to 41 billion tons of CO2 emissions by the year 2020 [8, 9]. Diesel engines release emissions, which lead to poor air quality, acid rain, smog, haze, and climate change. These factors increase the global disease burden due to respiratory system diseases and cancer [10].
\n
The soluble organic fraction (SOF) and volatile organic fraction (VOF) are mainly due to exhaust dilution and the cooling process from fuel or evaporating lubricating oil, due to the process of oxidation. The control of VOC emissions is with high-pressure injection system catalytic converters and positive crankcase ventilation systems. The PM emissions of VOCs arising from evaporating lubrication oil and incomplete combustion have a combined emission rate of 0.06–2.2 g/bkWh for light diesel (LD) engines compared to heavy diesel (HD) engines at 0.5–1.5 g/bkWh [11, 12]. The condensation of oxidized and pyrolyzed products of fuel molecules is the leading cause for the formation of PM emissions composed of the nucleation and accumulation modes [13]. In emerging economies, air pollution is the leading cause of thousands of premature deaths estimated at 2.4 million annually by 2009 estimates [14]. Besides the usual toxics emitted by stationary and nonroad engines, diesel engines emit toxics such as formaldehyde, acrolein, acetaldehyde, and methanol. Exposure to these toxic emissions causes eye, skin, and mucous membrane irritation, besides affecting the nervous system. Therefore, the need for environmental protection has played a role in bringing together relevant stakeholders and government agencies. These agencies include the WHO, the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), the Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the European Environmental Agency (EEA), and the International Energy Agency (IEA). For example, the USA government through the EPA has established the Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engine (RICE) rules, which cover stationary and nonroad engine emission regulations [15]. These rules are out of the scope of this chapter, but future work will discuss them in line with other European Union rules [16] and other global adopted emission regulations.
\n
In order to meet modern requirements, diesel engines are designed with complex contrary goals to operate optimally in stationary and mobile operations. This requires high torque, low emissions, and high efficiency engines. For this reason, auxiliary diesel engine components such as turbochargers, EGR, and high-pressure injection systems are utilized today. These auxiliary parts are grouped into engine operating subsystems such as air, combustion, injection, and mechanical units to meet these operating demands. Since fuel is a major determinant in engine combustion and emission characteristics, the use of alternative fuel is being encouraged as a strategy to reduce emissions. The combustion of alternative fuel is different from the combustion of diesel, which is a fossil fuel, but they too cause emission problems as has been reported in a number of studies [17, 18]. To mitigate these problems, researchers have come up with combustion control strategies such as:
reactivity charge compression ignition (RCCI) [23]; and
variant strategies to deal with emissions [24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30].
\n\n
Modern day passenger vehicles and stationary engines are now evaluated using driving cycles such as the New European Driving Test Cycle (NEDC) and the Federal Test Procedure (FTP) mostly as bench operated chassis dynamometer tests [31]. However, it should be remembered that at engine start conditions, after-treatment techniques report poor performance as most of them operate with catalysts that are light-off temperature dependent. At ambient temperature, most catalysts cannot attain the light-off temperature when engines are started and operated. Since the year 2000 when EURO III was implemented, the NEDC procedure has been modified to eliminate the 40 s warm up before emission sampling can take place [32]. The new development initiative for diesel exhaust emission has already been established in the United States and Japan. The last decade has seen the European Union implementing similar standards and procedures, with the rest of the world expected to also implement changes as globalization and interdependency grows. A number of requirement have been implemented in the United States to nominally reduce 85–90% of NOX, while for the Euro VI (2014), an additional reduction 65–70% of NOX to match the US standards has been accepted as shown in Figures 1 and 2 [33].
\n
Figure 1.
Requirement to reduce about 55–60% of NOX emissions for Euro V (2009) diesel to match the US Bin 8 maximum allowable emission in 45 US states [33].
\n
Figure 2.
Variation of NOx emission with the regulatory limit for 45 US states [33].
\n
The combustion of diesel fuel depends on several factors that affect engine geometry, fuel properties, compression temperatures (especially of the combustion mixture), injection strategy applied, and the existing condition of the ambient temperatures as reported by the authors of Refs. [34, 35]. High cetane number additives together with the development of high volatility fuels [36, 37] have boosted diesel engine performance. The oxygenated additives in biodiesel blend components improve the combustion process, especially the octane rating. Additionally, oxygenated additives enhance and increase the cetane number. In other words, the oxygen in the additives supports the combustion of the fuel while at the same time reducing inert material such as NOX formation in CI engines. These changes deal with the complexities of cold start, which impede engine starting at lower or subzero engine temperatures. Warm engines have a starting time delay of 1–2 s at ambient temperature conditions, compared to a low ambient temperature start-up time of 10 s [38, 39].
\n
\n
\n
2. Regulatory development in diesel engine emission
\n
Stringent diesel exhaust emission regulatory policies have been in operation in the United States and Japan since 2005. The European Union has also responded with additional emission regulatory standards called the EURO VI since 2014. Apart from these regulatory controls, there are market and political pressures on automobile manufacturers to continue to improve on efficiency while reducing emissions. These factors have been the driving force behind the significant technological progress in engine research and the transport industry in the past two decades.
\n
\n
2.1 Heavy duty diesel regulatory developments
\n
The European Union commission on emissions in 2014 stipulated that the nominal NOX emission limit must be 0.20 g/kWh−1 and the PM emission level must be 0.010 g/kWh−1. This matched the US 2010 emission regulation, which put the emission limits at 0.26 g/kWh−1 for NOX and 0.013 g/kWh−1 for PM emissions. The Japanese emissions regulation of 2009 stipulates 0.7 g/kWh−1 for NOX emissions and 0.010 g/kWh−1 for PM emissions. However, it must be mentioned here that each of these countries propose a different transient testing cycle.
\n
The European Union commission on pollution and emission has adopted a new world harmonized transient cycle (WHTC) that uses higher load and speed than the Japanese and American standards. Additionally, the European commission on emissions has set standards related to number-based PM standards with heavier in-use compliance measures as illustrated in Figure 3, by 2012. These measures are aimed at improving fuel economy and durability and lowering the cost of manufacturing and maintenance. The development in this segment is muted, mixed with conservatism and pragmatism. For example, the development in HD since 2004 has seen the US regulations matched and addressed through advanced EGR and intake charge boosting measures. However, later development starting from 2005 in Japan and 2007 in the United States has seen additional technologies added to cater for increased regulation. These two markets introduced diesel particulate filters (DPFs) to match the change in policy and regulation in the European Union with implementation of EURO V-VI emission regulations. This policy shift and regulation change has witnessed conventional engine technology adding the selective catalytic reduction (SCR) system in the fight against emission. Since 2009 and 2010, respectively, Japan and the United States have added significant incremental advances in emission compliant technologies, especially technologies that target low load emissions in HD engines. Researchers working on the traditional diesel combustion hardware and strategies are directing more effort to reduce LD engine category emissions with the future looking bright.
\n
Figure 3.
Progress toward meeting the European Union voluntary CO2 limits of the European Automobile Manufacturers Association (ACEA), Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association (JAMA), and Korea Automobile Manufacturers Association (KAMA) (courtesy of Daimler Chrysler) [40].
\n
\n
\n
2.2 Light duty diesel regulatory development
\n
Modern diesel engine development is driven by regulatory, market, and fuel efficiency demand. In addition, developments in spark ignition (SI) gasoline engines, electric vehicles, and new concepts in hybrid vehicles have had tremendous competitive pressure on diesel engine development, especially in the LD category. Diesel engine manufacturers are responding with the introduction of advanced fuel injection technology, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) techniques, two-stage turbocharging, variable valve actuation, closed loop combustion control, and advanced model-based controls. Development in advanced diesel engines has now achieved a specific output of 70 kW−1 and a brake mean effective pressure (BMEP) of 24 bars [41], hence meeting EURO VI emission standards [42, 43] as shown in Figure 4.
\n
Figure 4.
Variation of flame equivalence ratio, temperature, and injection strategies and principles of advanced combustion (courtesy of Sandia National Laboratory) [44, 45].
\n
\n
\n
\n
3. Control strategies for emissions in diesel engine
\n
The world is now aware of the environmental and human health costs of pollution from diesel engines, which form the bulk of commercial and personal public transport systems. Table 1 shows that there is an increase in the regulatory measures on toxic gas emissions. These regulations oblige vehicle manufacturers and transport industry service providers to be motivated to work harder to meet the appropriate standards and regulations. Among the techniques that have been employed to cut down on emissions are EGR, LNT, DOC, DPF, and SCR [46, 47]. However, there is no single method that meets emission standards by the regulatory bodies on vehicular emission.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
STD type
\n
CO g/kWh
\n
HC g/kWh
\n
NOX g/kWh
\n
PM g/kWh
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Euro I
\n
4.5
\n
1.1
\n
8.0
\n
0.61
\n
\n
\n
Euro II
\n
4
\n
1.1
\n
7.0
\n
0.15
\n
\n
\n
Euro III
\n
2.1
\n
0.66
\n
5.0
\n
0.13
\n
\n
\n
Euro IV
\n
1.5
\n
0.46
\n
3.5
\n
0.02
\n
\n
\n
Euro V
\n
1.5
\n
0.46
\n
2.0
\n
0.02
\n
\n
\n
Euro VI
\n
1.5
\n
0.13
\n
0.4
\n
0.01
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
EURO standards for heavy-duty vehicles according to Delphi 2016–2017 as per Ref. [48]
\n
\n
3.1 Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)
\n
This is one of the most useful and successful techniques in the control of and fight against diesel exhaust emissions. EGR allows the recirculation of part of the diesel exhaust into the combustion chamber, to reburn together with the fresh intake charge [49] as shown in Figure 5.
\n
Figure 5.
EGR system nomenclature and control design for the EGR valve [4].
\n
This technology has been able to reduce NOX emissions, but it causes an increase in UHC and CO emissions as compression temperatures decrease. It also affects engine thermal efficiency as shown in Figure 6. This technique has two methods for quantification of EGR flow rate, although there is no single method that is universally accepted. The two methods are the mass method and the gas concentration method [5]. These two methods are demonstrated in Figure 5 and expressed in Eqs. (1) and (2):
\n
Figure 6.
Variation of engine thermal efficiency and NOX with the influence of EGR dilution [50].
where the \n\n\n\nm\ṅ\n\nEGR\n\n\n is the mass flow rate of the gas recirculated, \n\n\n\nm\ṅ\n\nair\n\n\n is the mass flow rate of fresh air, \n\n\n\nm\ṅ\n\nf\n\n\n is the mass flow rate of the injected fuel, and \n\n\nr\nEGR\n\n\n is the mass fraction of the recirculated exhaust gases. [CO\n2]\nint\n is the carbon dioxide at the intake side, [CO\n2]\namb\n is the ambient carbon dioxide, [CO\n2]\nexh\n is the exhaust carbon dioxide (exit carbon dioxide).
\n
\n
\n
3.2 The low NOX trap (LNT)
\n
This system is also known as NOX storage reduction (NSR) and NOX absorber catalyst (NAC). It has three main components, namely, the oxidation catalyst with platinum (Pt), the NOX storage with barium (Ba), and the reduction catalyst with rhodium (Rh). The platinum catalyst is preferred as it reduces NOX emissions at very low temperatures while offering a stable reaction in the presence of sulfur and H2O [51, 52]. Figure 7 shows the LNT three-stage catalytic process.
\n
Figure 7.
The low NOX trap (LNT) with three of its operating modes [53].
\n
\n
\n
3.3 The selective catalyst reduction (SCR)
\n
This is one of the most recent technology developments introduced for the control of diesel exhaust emissions. This system was originally introduced to cater for HD engines [53], but Audi and Volkswagen have also adopted it for their passenger vehicle and LD segments. The SCR system works by utilizing ammonia as a reductant in order to minimize NOX emissions in the diesel exhaust by releasing N2 and H2O. This system therefore undergoes two processes during the working cycle, namely, hydrolysis and thermolysis as in Eqs. (3) and (4) for hydrolysis and thermolysis, respectively [54, 55].
In addition to the two processes of hydrolysis and thermolysis, SCR undergoes other chemical reactions to complete its normal cycle, thus reducing the emissions of NOX further as in Eqs. (5)–(7). Figure 8 shows a schematic diagram of an SCR system showing the oxidation catalyst, wall flow particulate filter, and the flow through the SCR catalyst. Figure 8 also includes key components of a urea solution tank, a spray module, a static mixer, temperature, and NOX sensor, courtesy of Robert Bosch GmbH [46].
\n
Figure 8.
Schematic diagram of the SCR NOX control system as used in a standard production vehicle [46].
The DPF filter requires care to avoid excessive saturation and build-up of backpressure, both of which are harmful for engine operation and durability and increase fuel consumption and engine stress levels leading to premature failure of the filter and engine. DPF systems have been in operation in diesel exhaust emission control since the year 2000, primarily for removing PM emissions through physical filtration. DPFs are like a honeycomb with silicone carbide or cordierite written chemically as\n\n\n2\nMgO\n−\n2\n\nAl\n2\n\n\nO\n2\n\n−\n5\nSi\n\nO\n2\n\n\n. Both ends of the structure are blocked to force the particulate matter through the porous substrate walls, thus acting as a mechanical filtering system. These walls are made such that they offer little or no resistance to flow of exhaust gases while maintaining the power to collect particles [56] as shown in Figure 9.
\n
Figure 9.
Schematic of the working mechanism of a diesel particulate filter (DPF) [6].
\n
\n
\n
3.5 Diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC)
\n
The DOC is manufactured with the sole purpose of reducing CO and UHC emissions through oxidation of the hydrocarbons that are absorbed into the carbon particles. The DOC consists of a metal or a ceramic structure with an oxide mixture also called the wash coat that contains aluminum oxide (Al2O3), cerium oxide (CeO2), zirconium oxide (ZrO2), and an active metal catalyst of either platinum, palladium, or rhodium [54], as shown in Figure 10. For HD and LD vehicles in Europe, the United States, and Japan, the DOC is the after-treatment emission control systems of choice. The DOC with a platinum metal catalyst is the most popular among manufacturers and consumers. However, the DOC has the disadvantage of reacting with sulfur oxide and sulfur trioxide producing sulfates and sulfuric acid, which shortens the service life of the emission control system besides the additional effects on the natural environment and human health.
\n
Figure 10.
Schematic diagram of a DOC and its operation in reducing emissions of CO and UHC through the process of oxidation [6].
\n
Six factors affect and influence the choice of a DOC filter:
conversion factor;
temperature stability;
light-off temperature;
tolerance to poisoning;
cost of manufacturing the filter; and
parametrical factors, including the density of the DOC filter measured in channels per square inch, the cross-sectional area, the channel wall thickness, and the length of the channels using the external dimensions [57, 58].
\n\n
\n
\n
\n
4. Methodology and experimental set-up
\n
This experiment is making a case for blending of WPPO whose n-alkenes are lower by 25% in auto-ignition, compared to diesel fuel whose n-alkenes are good for auto-ignition. The aromatics, which affect PM emissions, are very low in WPPO blends. According to Refs. [59, 60], WPPO consists of iso-alkanes, n-alkanes, and olefins in the region of 27, 25, and 9%, respectively, with over 30% content being undefined due to complicated and complex chemical bond structures. However, aromatic cyclo-alkanes (naphthalene) and aromatics poor in auto-ignition were also found to be 40% by volume [61]. Blending was preferred to improve the low pour point to improve the cold starting characteristics of WPPO. Second, blending with ethanol was introduced to improve the fuel spray characteristics; ethanol is soluble and miscible in WPPO blends. Third, blending contributed to the reduction of the viscosity of WPPO biodiesel, thus further improving spray characteristics.
\n
\n
4.1 Engine tests
\n
The experiment used a naturally aspirated four-cylinder diesel engine power generator, water cooled, direct injection, Iveco engine, in the Mechanical Engineering Department Laboratory, University of Kwazulu-Natal in Durban, South Africa. Using a defined flow rate of particles, PM emissions were detected by photoelectric measurement. Both the mass flow of the PM particles and the fuel were calculated as the sum of inlet air and fuel mass flow rate, and the result expressed in gram per kWh. To help in the analysis of the engine, pressure sensors and crankshaft position sensors and encoders were used. The aim of these sensors was to provide the in-cylinder pressure in relation to the crankshaft position variation.
\n
The engine was coupled to a mechanical dynamometer with engine idling positions divided into two engine speed modes. The two speed modes were set at 500 and 1000 rpm as Mode 1, and Mode 2 as 1500 rpm and full load at 2000 rpm. The details of the engine and specifications and equipment are described in Tables 2 and 3. Figure 11 shows a schematic of the engine test setup.
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Parameters
\n
Position value
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Ignition type
\n
4 (Stroke)DICI
\n
\n
\n
Number of cylinders
\n
4 in-line
\n
\n
\n
Cooling medium
\n
Water
\n
\n
\n
Manufacturer
\n
Iveco
\n
\n
\n
Revolutions per minute
\n
2000
\n
\n
\n
Brake power
\n
43.40 kW @ 2000
\n
\n
\n
Cylinder bore
\n
104 mm
\n
\n
\n
Piston stroke
\n
115 mm
\n
\n
\n
Compression ratio
\n
17:1
\n
\n
\n
Connecting-rod length
\n
234
\n
\n
\n
Engine capacity
\n
2500 cc
\n
\n
\n
Dynamometer make
\n
234
\n
\n
\n
Injection timing
\n
12֯ bTDC
\n
\n
\n
Maximum torque
\n
206.9 Nm @ 1500
\n
\n
\n
Injection pressure
\n
250–272 Bar
\n
\n\n
Table 2.
Experimental engine specifications.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Property
\n
Equipment
\n
Standard
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Kinematic viscosity
\n
SVM 4000 (Anton Paar, UK)
\n
ASTM D445
\n
\n
\n
Flash point
\n
NPM 550 (Norma lab, France)
\n
ASTM D93
\n
\n
\n
Oxidation stability
\n
900 Rancimat (Metrohm, Switzerland)
\n
ASTM D14112
\n
\n
\n
CP/PP
\n
NTE 500 (Norma lab, France)
\n
ASTM D2500
\n
\n
\n
Carbon residue
\n
NMC 440 (Norma lab, France)
\n
ASTM D4530
\n
\n
\n
Total sulfur
\n
5000 MULTI-EA (AJ Germany)
\n
ASTM D5433
\n
\n
\n
Calorific value
\n
C 2500 basic calorimeter (IKA, UK)
\n
ASTM D240
\n
\n
\n
Density
\n
SVM 3500 (Anton Paar, UK)
\n
ASTM D1298
\n
\n
\n
PM
\n
AVL smoke meter
\n
—
\n
\n
\n
Gaseous emissions
\n
Gas analyzer (MEXA 7000) Germany
\n
—
\n
\n\n
Table 3.
List of equipment used in the experiment.
\n
Figure 11.
Schematics of the test engine set up rig: (1) cylinder pressure sensor; (2) EGR control valve; (3) EGR cooler; (4) injection control unit; (5) exhaust gas exit; (6) air box; (7) signal amplifier; (8) gas analyzer; (9) air flow meter; (10) data acquisition system; (11) crank position sensor; (12) dynamometer; (13) engine; (14) cooling water exit from the dynamometer to the cooling tower; (15) cooling water exit from the engine to the cooling tower; and (16) dynamometer drive coupling.
\n
\n
\n
4.2 Physicochemical property analysis
\n
WPPO by pyrolysis was obtained from a commercial plant whose production chart is shown in Figure 12. Ethanol, conventional diesel, and EHN were purchased from local outlets and blended using a homogenizer for 5 min at 3000 rpm. The properties of all samples were measured in the Chemical Engineering Laboratory of the University of Kwazulu-Natal in Durban, South Africa. Table 3 shows some important physicochemical properties of the fuels before blending. Table 4 shows physicochemical properties of fuels and their determined fuel properties after blending. Figure 13 is a photograph of the sample distillates of WPPO obtained from pyrolysis. Table 5 is showing properties of blended ratio mixtures of diesel, ethanol, WPPO with EHN.
\n
Figure 12.
Pyrolysis plant flow chart and its nomenclature: (1) pyrolysis reactor; (2) carbon black discharge; (3) carbon black deep processing; (4) exhaust smoke discharge; (5) gas separator; (6) smoke scrubber to take out color and odor; (7) condenser; (8) chimney; (9) oil tank; (10) synchronized gas purification; (11) synchronized gas-recycling system; (12) extra gas burning; (13) heating furnace during operation; and (14) loading of material.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Properties
\n
Unit
\n
CD
\n
WPPO
\n
Ethanol
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Density @ 20°C
\n
kg/m3\n
\n
845
\n
825
\n
792
\n
\n
\n
Visc.@ 40°C
\n
cSt
\n
3.04
\n
2.538
\n
1.05
\n
\n
\n
Cetane number
\n
—
\n
55
\n
—
\n
8.5
\n
\n
\n
Flash point
\n
°C
\n
50
\n
43
\n
16
\n
\n
\n
Fire point
\n
°C
\n
56
\n
45
\n
53
\n
\n
\n
Carbon residue
\n
%
\n
22
\n
0.015
\n
—
\n
\n
\n
Sulfur content
\n
%
\n
<0.028
\n
0.248
\n
—
\n
\n
\n
Gross calories
\n
kJ/kg
\n
46500
\n
43340
\n
29700
\n
\n
\n
Cetane index
\n
–
\n
46
\n
65
\n
—
\n
\n\n
Table 4.
Properties of diesel, WPPO, and ethanol before blending and addition of EHN.
\n
Figure 13.
The distillate samples from the waste plastic pyrolysis oil samples.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Property
\n
Unit
\n
CD
\n
90/5/5
\n
80/10/10
\n
70/15/15
\n
60/20/20
\n
50/25/25
\n
STANDARD
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Density
\n
Kg/m3\n
\n
845
\n
838.5
\n
834
\n
830
\n
825
\n
823
\n
ASTM D1298
\n
\n
\n
Viscosity @ 40
\n
cST
\n
3.452
\n
2.38
\n
2.37
\n
2.365
\n
2.340
\n
2.325
\n
ASTM D445
\n
\n
\n
Cetane number
\n
-
\n
45
\n
59
\n
62
\n
64
\n
65
\n
69
\n
ASTM D4737
\n
\n
\n
GCV
\n
kJ/kg
\n
44840
\n
41245
\n
39985
\n
38700
\n
36800
\n
34500
\n
ASTM D4868
\n
\n
\n
Sulfur content
\n
%
\n
<0.0124
\n
0.0248
\n
0.0249
\n
0.0251
\n
0.0253
\n
0.0257
\n
ASTM D4294
\n
\n
\n
Oxygen
\n
%
\n
12.35
\n
13.80
\n
14.75
\n
15.15
\n
16.25
\n
17.35
\n
ASTM D5622
\n
\n
\n
Carbon residue
\n
%
\n
74.85
\n
75.35
\n
76.40
\n
77.55
\n
78.25
\n
79.65
\n
ASTM D 7662
\n
\n
\n
Flash point
\n
⁰C
\n
56.5
\n
38.5
\n
37.55
\n
37.35
\n
37.15
\n
36.85
\n
ASTM D93
\n
\n
\n
Hydrogen
\n
%
\n
12.38
\n
7.5
\n
7.55
\n
7.65
\n
7.75
\n
7.95
\n
ASTM D7171
\n
\n\n
Table 5.
Properties of blended ratio mixtures of diesel, ethanol, WPPO with EHN.
\n
\n
\n
\n
5. Experimental results and discussion of diesel engine emissions
\n
\n
5.1 Brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC)
\n
\nFigure 14 is a variation in brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC) with engine speed. The BSFC compared to the engine speed in Figure 14 shows that as the speed increased, there is an equal increase of fuel consumed by the test engine. The values obtained at full engine speed (2000 rpm) for the blends of 90/WPPO5/E5, 80/WPPO10/E10, 70/WPPO15/E15, 60/WPPO20/E20, 50/WPPO25/E25, and CD were 0.04 kg/kWh, 0.041 g/kWh, 0.042 kg/kWh, 0.043 kg/kWh, and 0.035 kg/kWh, respectively.
\n
Figure 14.
BSFC versus engine speed.
\n
At high engine speeds, the conversion of heat energy to mechanical energy increases with the increase in combustion temperature, leading to increased BSFC for the biodiesel; this increase is proportional to the difference in their heating values, which is identical to the findings of Ref. [62]. These blends of WPPO compare well to CD fuel and other biodiesel blends with comparative differences in the heating values.
\n
However, from the graph, it is evident that as the blend ratio increases, there is a decrease in the BSFC across all the test fuels. Nevertheless, the values for all WPPO blends were slightly higher than the CD test fuel. The closeness of the values and the packed graph reveals a close resemblance and identical BSFC characteristics of WPPO, ethanol, and EHN compared to CD fuel. For example, at 500 rpm engine speed, the blend of 80/WPPO10/E10 had a value of 0.043 g/kWh compared to full engine speed (2000 rpm) with 0.041 kg/kWh, which is higher than CD test fuel with 0.04 kg/kWh at 1000-rpm engine speed and 0.035 kg/kWh at full engine speed (2000 rpm).
\n
\n
\n
5.2 Brake thermal efficiency (BTE)
\n
The brake thermal efficiency (BTE) variations with engine speed are shown in Figure 15. The graphs show that as the speed increased, there was an increase in the BTE across all the test fuel blends of WPPO and CD up to 1500 rpm. At 1000 rpm engine speed, the values for blends 90/WPPO5/E5, 80/WPPO10/E10, 70/WPPO15/E15, 60/WPPO20/E20, 50/WPPO25/E25, and CD were 22, 21, 20, 18, 16.5, and 22.5%, respectively. As the blend ratio and engine speed increased, there was a decrease in the BTE within the WPPO blends but an increase in BTE across the blends. For example, at 500 rpm engine speed, 90/WPPO5/E5, 80/WPPO10/E10, 70/WPPO15/E15, 60/WPPO20/E20, and 50/WPPO25/E25 had values of 14, 13, 12.5, 11, and 9.5% compared to at 1000 rpm with values of 22, 21, 20, 18, and 16.5%, respectively.
\n
Figure 15.
Brake thermal efficiency versus engine speed.
\n
The highest BTE value was 24% by blend 90/WPPO5/E5 at 1500-rpm engine speed compared to any other blend of WPPO, ethanol, and/or EHN. This could be due to the density, which is closer to CD, and the effect of blending, which improved this blend’s physico-chemical properties. Figure 15 shows values of 24.8, 23, 21, and 19%, respectively, for blends 80/WPPO10/E10, 70/WPPO15/E15, 60/WPPO20/E20, and 50/WPPO25/E25. Blend 50/WPPO25/E25 reported the lowest values compared to the other blends. At 500 rpm engine speed, the BTE value was 9.5% compared with full engine speed (2000 rpm) at 19%.
\n
As the engine speed increased above 1500 rpm, the BTE suddenly dropped as the engine approached full engine speed (2000 rpm), as seen in Figure 15. There are a number of factors explaining the above results. For example, at this speed, there is a sudden drop of the air fuel ratio as the mixture becomes richer. This leads to incomplete combustion and heat release energy as more carbon molecules escape the combustion process. These increase the dissociation heat losses by the engine, hence a fall in BTE. Additionally, decreased BTE with biodiesel blends could be due to their low calorific value, higher viscosity, high volatility, and poor spray characteristics. These findings are consistent with other studies by the authors of Refs. [63, 64, 65].
\n
\n
\n
5.3 Unburnt hydrocarbon (UHC) concentration
\n
Unburnt hydrocarbon (UHC) concentrations largely indicate the quality of the combustion in an internal combustion engine. UHC concentrations are formed from vaporized unburnt hydrocarbon fuel and partially burnt fuel by-products exiting the combustion chamber diesel exhaust system. UHC concentrations are inherently independent of the air fuel ratio of any working engine [6]. In compression ignition (CI) engines, UHC concentrations are due to insufficient temperature, especially around the cylinder walls or in pockets. UHC concentrations are also formed through system malfunction, especially in input data failure in modern fuel injection systems. The higher hydrocarbon concentrations may be due to hydrogen radicals in the diesel-ethanol-WPPO-EHN blends. Principally, these concentrations are prevalent during light loads, when the combustion mixture is lean. This period is marked by a lower fuel ratio making the lean fuel-air mixture the primary source of the light load concentrations because of the lack of completion of the combustion during normal engine operating cycles. Hydrocarbon concentrations are not limited to vehicle exhaust systems but can occur in the entire vehicle fuel system from vapors during dispensing and distribution of fuel, which accounts for 15–20%, with the crankcase providing 20–30%. However, diesel exhaust remains the main culprit in engine emissions accounting for 50–60% of all the UHC concentration [66, 67].
\n
\nFigure 16 shows the variation of UHC emission with engine speed in the stationary diesel power generator using blends of biodiesel. As the engine speed was increased, the UHC concentration increased too. However, the increase was more significant as the engine speed was in intermediate speeds of 1500 rpm moving to or approaching full engine speed (2000 rpm). For example, at 1000 rpm, the values of blends 90/WPPO5/E5, 80/WPPO10/E10, 70/WPPO15/E15, 60/WPPO20/E20, and 50/WPPO25/E25 were 22, 21, 20, 18, and 15 ppm, respectively, compared to full engine speed (2000 rpm) with 35, 34, 32, 29, and 26 ppm. This leads to the conclusion that at high engine speeds, the values of UHC concentration is significantly high for all the blends of WPPO, ethanol, and EHN, although still comparatively low compared to CD fuel.
\n
Figure 16.
Unburnt hydrocarbons versus engine speed.
\n
The UHC concentration from the blends 90/WPPO5/E5 and 80/WPPO10/E10 had higher values although from the graph plot in Figure 16, the values are still low compared to the values of CD test fuel. However, the general trend reported by the graph in Figure 16 shows that as the blend ratio increased, there was a significant reduction in the UHC concentration, observed across all the test fuels irrespective of the engine speed condition, for all the blends tested compared to CD fuel. The reduction in UHC concentration is attributed to the high oxygen content and cetane number of the blends. The high oxygen content supports combustion, while the high cetane number reduces ignition delay. This is identical to other studies by other researchers [68, 69, 70, 71, 72].
\n
The high fraction of ethanol in blends 70/WPPO15/E15, 60/WPPO20/E20, and 50/WPPO25/E25 contributed to the increase in the concentration of UHC, which is identical to the findings of Refs. [73, 74] who observed it in SI engine cylinder walls, crevices, and quenched cylinder walls, especially when richer air-alcohol mixtures were introduced. This type of UHC depends on the following factors: engine adjustments, engine design, and the type of fuel used in an engine. However, the engine-operating environment can sometimes contribute to the type of UHC concentration produced. This is observed especially when the temperature range is 400–600°C in the combustion chamber. At this temperature range, the hydrocarbons continue to experience reaction in the diesel exhaust pipe, thus lowering or increasing the concentration of the UHC in the exiting exhaust gas [75, 76].
\n
\n
\n
5.4 Carbon monoxide (CO) formation
\n
CO concentrations are a direct result of incomplete combustion, which results from hydrocarbons due to the failure of oxidation in the combustion process in diesel engines. This is true especially where the excess air factor λ meets the conditions λ < 1 for SI engines. Carbon monoxide is a colorless, tasteless, and odorless toxic gas, which is primarily a product of incomplete combustion of carbon containing fuels [6]. The United States is the single largest producer of carbon monoxide from anthropogenic sources as shown in Figure 17 [77]. Carbon oxidation mechanisms are mostly determined by the equivalence ratio. Carbon monoxide concentrations mainly form in the areas of heavy traffic, parking garages, and under buildings, overheads, and overhangs. CO health effects include headaches and dizziness, but extreme exposure can lead to death.
\n
Figure 17.
Carbon monoxide (CO) concentrations by anthropogenic and biogenic sources in the United States [77].
\n
\nFigure 18 is the variation of CO with engine speed in a stationary diesel power generator. The graph reveals that as the engine speed and the blend ratio increased 90/WPPO5/E5, 80/WPPO10/E10, 70/WPPO15/E15, 60/WPPO20/E20, and 50/WPPO25/E25, the CO concentration decreased up to 1500 rpm of engine speed. Thereafter, the blends reported a continuous increase as the engine speed was approaching full engine speed (2000 rpm). At 500-rpm engine speed, the blends of 90/WPPO5/E5, 80/WPPO10/E10, 70/WPPO15/E15, 60/WPPO20/E20, and 50/WPPO25/E25 reported values of 0.055, 0.0565, 0.06, 0.0615, and 0.0625%.
\n
Figure 18.
Carbon monoxide versus engine speed.
\n
However, as the speed is increased to 1500 rpm, the values were 0.035, 0.0375, 0.0445, and 0.0475%, respectively. At full engine speed (2000 rpm), all the test fuels showed increased CO concentration with blends 90/WPPO5/E5 and 80/WPPO10/E10 reporting the lowest concentration among the test blends across all the engine speed conditions. At 1000 rpm, the blends reported values of 0.0445 and 0.0475% compared to full engine speed (2000 rpm) with 0.0425 and 0.0465%, respectively. The increased CO concentration, although lower than diesel fuel, can be attributed to partial combustion [78] as the speed increased and the presence of ethanol, which shortened ignition delay, thus increasing CO concentration.
\n
As the engine speed and the blend ratio increased, there was an increase in the CO emission across all the engine speeds and within the blends and CD test fuel. At 1000 rpm engine speed, the values of the blends and CD were 0.045, 0.0475, 0.0515, 0.0535, 0.0565, and 0.05% for 90/WPPO5/E5, 80/WPPO10/E10, 70/WPPO15/E15, 60/WPPO20/E20, 50/WPPO25/E25, and CD, respectively. The above values obtained from Figure 18 suggest that there was a reduction in CO concentration across all test fuels irrespective of blend ratio and type of fuel except at high engine speeds exceeding 1500 rpm to full engine speed (2000 rpm). After this point, there was a steady increase in the concentration of CO.
\n
CO concentration is a direct result of poor oxidation of the hydrocarbon fuels in the combustion chamber but is determined by the local fuel/air equivalence ratio. The above scenario is due to the air/fuel ratio becoming richer as the speed increased, leading to insufficient mixing of oxygen and fuel molecules. Compared to CD, all the biodiesels tested showed decreased CO concentration due to the high oxygen content in the test biodiesels and the addition of EHN, which greatly increased the cetane number (CN). This is identical to the studies by the authors of Refs. [79, 80]. The initial concentrations were greater at the starting engine speed of 500 rpm due to low temperature and emission instability processes at lower engine speeds, which are identical to the studies of Ref. [81]. However, as the engine speed increased from 1500 rpm toward full engine speed (2000 rpm), there was an observed increase in CO concentration, despite the oxygen content of the biodiesel and increased CN of the blends of WPPO, ethanol, and EHN. This disagreement in experimental results is due to differences in CN for the different biodiesel test fuel blends used. The increment in CN as the blend ratio increased led to increases in fuel quantity burnt during diffusive combustion, hence increasing CO concentration as the quality of combustion decreased.
\n
\n
\n
5.5 Particulate matter (PM) formation
\n
PM is agglomerates of small particle phase compounds resulting from the combustion of partially burned lubrication oil, the ash content from the fuel, sulfates from the engine cylinder wall, lubrication oil, and water from condensation and the combustion process [82]. These emitted compounds comprise elemental carbon (EC), organic carbon (OC) trace, and unknown compounds. Both EC and OC contribute to the toxicity of PM, regional haze, and climate change; therefore, PM concentration negatively affects the environment and human health [83]. The Global Burden of Disease Index reports that these types of emission are now responsible for 3.2 million deaths due to PM2.5 ambient pollution [84]. Besides this, PM concentration causes deposit formation in the combustion chamber, fouling of emission control systems such as EGR and DPF and increased engine wear and premature failure.
\n
PM concentration is primarily controlled by factors such as fuel quality (sulfur and ash content in fuel), engine lubrication oil quality, fuel consumption per combustion cycle of the engine, exhaust cooling rate, and the combustion process or strategy applied [85]. A number of PM characterization research works have been conducted categorizing PM concentration as 41% carbon, 7% unburned fuel, 25% unburned oil, 14% sulfates, water, 13% ash, and other concentrations [83]. However, an earlier study conducted by Agrawal et al. [86] reported that particulate concentration contains \n\n≅\n\n31% elemental carbon, \n\n≅\n\n14% sulfates and moisture, \n\n≅\n\n7% unburnt fuel, and \n\n≅\n\n40% unburnt lubricating oil. A study by Thiruvengadam et al. [87] yielded a similar outcome in terms of PM concentration except that the study was based on natural gas engine technology.
\n
PM concentration is divided into three main components: SOF, soot, and inorganic fraction (IF), 50% of which is released as soot in the diesel exhaust pipe. SOF emissions are made up of condensed hydrocarbons embedded within the soot emissions in the form of very fine particles. The size distribution of PM concentration has three peaks: the nucleation peak, which includes all volatile hydrocarbons (Dp<~30 nm), the accumulation mode (~30 nm< Dp\n<~500 nm), and the coarse mode (~500 nm<Dp\n<~10 μm) [88]. These emissions are more pronounced during starting and engine idling when engine temperatures are reportedly very low [89].
\n
Studies on OC/EC in PM samples show that their ratio is elevated in biodiesel combustion as the biodiesel blend ratio increases. This is mainly due to the high oxygen content in biodiesel and plays a major role in the generation of soot particles and final oxidation. For example, in a study by Chuepeng et al. [90], the authors reported that the OC fraction for B30 was greater than ULSD regardless of the engine speed and operating conditions. In another study by Williams et al. [91], a similar pattern was established for OC and EC as B100 > B20 > Diesel. This is identical to the studies of Ref. [90], which suggested an increased OC content with increased biodiesel fraction in a blend.
\n
Cheung et al. [92] used soy methyl esters in an LD engine and found that the EC fraction was lower than during diesel operation. Nevertheless, the OC fraction in the PM concentration sample became identical for both LD and HD engines with the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC). However, a study by Song et al. [10] differs with this finding. Using cottonseed biodiesel, the authors reported decreased OC and EC driving conditions. This was mainly due to engine operating conditions, test methods, and test fuel chemical properties [83]. However, these studies have been inconsistent and inconclusive in the literature surveyed. For example, this is revealed in the studies of Refs. [90, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96].
\n
DPF filters have now become part of virtually all diesel vehicles in the leading industrialized countries in the world (Europe, the United States, and Japan). DPF filters have had a high market penetration in Japanese and American LD and HD trucks since 2007. For smaller vehicle applications, subsequent developments have incorporated the diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC) function into the filter as reported by the authors of Refs. [10, 97]. It should be noted that for PM emission control in medium engines, the methods and approaches used are similar to the LD engines. However, in the US market, auxiliary fuel injectors and burners are incorporated into the diesel exhaust to regenerate DPFs. This method has concerns over oil dilution in the crankcase and requires a separation with the engine management system demands, so it has become more complex in the manner of its development and use [98, 99].
\n
Advances in the science of materials have greatly increased and therefore influenced the development in filter materials for LD and HD engines. LD vehicles have seen silicon carbide types of filters becoming standard installation, although the alternative use of aluminum titanate is gradually replacing it [97]. However, aided by better engine controls, the industry has now moved to cordierite filters [101, 102]. Figure 19 shows new hybrid developments in DPF filtering technology, which reduces 95% of NOX that comes from the DPF filter.
\n
Figure 19.
A new NO2 remediation system reduces 95% of the NO2 emissions from catalyzed filter systems (courtesy of Technical University Dresden and Johnson Matthey) [100].
\n
As shown in Figure 20, speed affects particle emission of blends. Nevertheless, differences in engine operating conditions, particulate formation, in-cylinder combustion processes, and engine type give mixed results and conclusions in PM emission studies. In Figure 20, it is evident that as speed increases, combustion time (residence time) is reduced, which reduces the reoxidation and combustion of the constituents of the process. This aptly explains the reason behind increased PM particle size and concentration as the speed tends toward full engine speed (2000 rpm), as typified in the graph in Figure 20. For example, PM concentration at 500 rpm is 0.15, 0.11, 0.094, 0.086, 0.063, and 0.051 kg/kWh, respectively, for CD, 90/WPPO5/E5, 80/WPPO10/E10, 70/WPPO15/E15, 60/WPPO20/E20, and 50/WPPO25/E25.
\n
Figure 20.
PM emission for different blends of WPPO biodiesel fuel from 500 rpm to full engine speed (2000 rpm).
\n
However, as the speed increases from 500 to 1500 rpm, which is an intermediate speed, the PM emission increases and almost doubles to 0.29, 0.25, 0.235, 0.213, 0.183, and 0.57 g/kWh. These are for CD, 90/WPPO5/E5, 80/WPPO10/E10, 70/WPPO15/E15, 60/WPPO20/E20, and 50/WPPO25/E25, respectively. These findings are identical to the studies of Refs. [103, 104]. In other words, these blends, when combusting, produce low heat loss to the wall resulting in increased soot oxidation, which is also reported conclusively in a study by Di Iorio et al. [105] and is identical to the findings of this work in Figure 20.
\n
Since PM concentrations are influenced by engine operating conditions at 1500–2000 rpm, PM concentration decreases with increased blend fraction. The reduction is more with higher blend ratios 70/WPPO15/E15, 60/WPPO20/E20, and 50/WPPO25/E25 at 2000 rpm. However, there is a reversed reduction in CD fuel compared to the blends of WPPO as shown in Figure 20. This is due to diffusive combustion as the blend ratio increases (tends to B100) and the oxygen content of the blends increases. These findings are identical to the findings of a study by Di Iorio et al. [105].
\n
\n
\n
5.6 Carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration
\n
CO2 is one of the gases responsible for maintaining the earth’s optimal ecosystem balance. It enriches plants through the photosynthesis process and provides other benefits for the environment. However, CO2 has become a topical global issue in recent decades due to its increase from levels of 0.04% in the atmosphere. The increase in CO2 causes an increase in global temperatures due to the effect of blanketing. There are generally two sources of CO2 formation: human activities and naturally occurring sources such as the ocean-atmosphere exchange, plant and animal respiration, soil respiration, decomposition of waste and elements, and volcanic eruptions. The majority of the human sources are due to the burning of hydrocarbon fuels in transport and power generation, land activities such as mining and agriculture, and industrial processes and manufacturing. The main gas produced from human activity is greenhouse gas associated with activities such as combustion of fossil fuels, namely, coal, natural gas, and oil for commercial and transportation services [106].
\n
\nFigure 21 shows the variation of CO2 with engine speed. The graph shows that as the blend ratio and engine speed increased, CO2 concentration increased, but compared to CD, their emission levels were still lower and almost identical. At 500 rpm engine speed, the values of CD and the blends of 90/WPPO5/E5, 80/WPPO10/E10, 70/WPPO15/E15, 60/WPPO20/E20, and 50/WPPO25/E25 were 3.58, 3.35, 2.95, 2.6, 2.55, and 2.25%, respectively.
\n
Figure 21.
CO2 versus engine speed.
\n
\nFigure 21 also shows that as the speed increased, there was a significant increase in the CO2 concentration across all test fuels, although with lower values as the blend ratio increased. For example, CD fuel had values of 2, 3.85, 5.95, and 8.95% for engine speeds of 500, 1000, 1500, and 2000 rpm compared to blend 80/WPPO10/E10 with 1.8, 2.95, 4.85, and 8.55% for similar speeds. The blend with the lowest value of CO2 emission was 50/WPPO25/E25 with values of 1.62, 2.25, 3.65, and 7.35%, respectively, for engine speeds of 500, 1000, 1500, and 2000 rpm, respectively. The increased carbon concentration in biodiesel blends is due to the reduction in the quantity of carbon relative to the increased oxygen ratio. However, the lower CO2 concentration levels in comparison to CD fuel are due to factors explained under BTE and the equal energy balance generated by the addition of alcohol.
\n
\n
\n
5.7 Nitrogen oxide (NOX) concentration
\n
NOX concentration and its oxidized product NO2 are the primary preserve of the diesel engine, constituting 85–95% of the total emission of a diesel engine. There are two fundamental differences between the two gases: whereas NOX is odorless and colorless, NO2 is reddish with a pungent smell [107]. It should be mentioned here that NO2 is five times more toxic than NOX gas and is a health hazard to the human respiratory system. It irritates the respiratory system and lowers the resistance to diseases such as the common cold and influenza [9, 108].
\n
SCR is one of the leading NOX emission control techniques for both LD and HD vehicles. This system entered the market in Japan and Europe for the HD category in 2005 compared to the US market in 2010. In the Japanese market and in Europe, zeolite and vanadium-based catalysts are utilized, respectively. The zeolite SCR catalyst combination performs better and has higher temperature tolerance levels. There is ongoing research to improve low temperature performance for more accurate NO2 and NOX concentration predictions [110, 111, 112].
\n
The low NOX trap (LNT) is a cheaper option for engines that are 2000–2500 cc [113, 114]. This type of emission control technique works better with mixed-mode engines to reduce low-load NOX that is a persistent problem in SCR systems. This allows the LNT to focus on high temperature NOX that is entering at temperatures over 300°C, thus eliminating between 60 and 70% of the platinum group metals (PGMs) [115]. This makes the LNT technology cheaper and economically appealing to the LD engine classification of 5000–6000 cc capacity [116, 117]. However, for medium- and heavy-duty vehicles, high temperature solutions have been developed to address the challenge of high load requirements of the US NTE regulatory condition as reported by the authors of Refs. [101, 118].
\n
The LNT technique suffers due to contamination from sulfur, which shortens and affects its service life and durability. Earlier versions of LNT lost 50% filtration capacity, while the current generation of LNTs loses only 25% [119, 120]. Desulfication can be accomplished by passing a rich hot steam of diesel fuel at 700°C for 10 min at service intervals of 5000–10,000 km. Figure 22 shows a new concept of combining the SCR emission control system with the LNT emission control system.
\n
Figure 22.
The concept of employing a NOX absorber with a double SCR layer configuration [109].
\n
NOX concentration is now known to be temperature dependent due to their equilibrium concentration presence in the combustion chamber. NOX when mixed in high temperature adiabatically in the temperature range of 2000–3000 k forms NOX concentration, which is then exited through the diesel exhaust system [121]. The NOX concentration has four basic mechanisms of formation within the combustion chamber of a diesel engine: the Zeldovich mechanism also called the thermal NOX route, the prompt mechanism, the fuel mechanism, and the NNH mechanism [122]. The variation of engine speed with NOX concentration is shown in Figure 23. The graph shows that as the engine speed was increased, there was an increase in the NOX concentration irrespective of fuel, blend ratio, or additive. However, the value of NOX concentration from the blends 90/WPPO5/E5, 80/WPPO10/E10, and 70/WPPO15/E15 reported lower values than CD fuel. For example, at 1000 rpm, the value of the blends was 385, 396, and 415 ppm, compared to CD fuel at 425 ppm.
\n
Figure 23.
Oxides of nitrogen versus engine speed.
\n
Blends 60/WPPO20/E20 and 50/WPPO25/E25 had the highest NOX concentration compared to the other blends of 90/WPPO5/E5, 80/WPPO10/E10, and 70/WPPO15/E15 across all the engine speed conditions tested. At 500 rpm engine speed, the two blends had values of 205 and 200 ppm, respectively. At full engine speed (2000 rpm), NOX concentration values increased to 925 and 885 ppm compared to blend 90/WPPO5/E5 at 197 ppm and 792 ppm at full engine speed (2000 rpm). The graph in Figure 23 shows that as the blend ratio increased, there was a direct increase in the concentration of NOX across all the blended test fuels. However, blend 90/WPPO5/E5 reported the lowest values of NOX concentration compared to all the other blends. The formation of NOX in biodiesel combustion depends on the combustion temperatures and combustion zone oxygen concentration. With high blend ratios of 70/WPPO15/E15, 60/WPPO20/E20, and 50/WPPO25/E25, the combustion process is shortened, thus leading to failure to provide enough cooling effect to decrease peak combustion temperatures leading to increased NOX.
\n
These findings seem to show that there is a correlation between the alcohol content in the fuel and peak flame temperatures, content of nitrogen, and oxygen availability [123]. Increased NOX concentration is attributed to the presence of nitrogen from the cetane number improver ENH and other contaminants from the WPPO composition. Additionally, it could be due to the generation of radicals of hydrocarbon through molecular unsaturation being identical to the findings of Refs. [124, 125]. However, the NOX levels are still low, attributed to high CNs of the tested biodiesels in Table 3 and increased oxygen content due to the blend ratios. These findings are identical to the findings of Ref. [126].
\n
\n
\n
\n
6. Conclusion
\n
\n
This study thus makes a strong case for alternative fuels to replace petroleum-based fossil fuels like diesel commonly used as the primary propulsion fuel in transport and power generation. This work looks at the concept of waste to energy and waste resource utilization in an era when environmental concerns and awareness are at the pick of development agenda across the globe.
Lower blend ratios 90/WPPO5/E5 and 80/WPPO10/E10 exhibit identical brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC) of conventional diesel test fuel compared to the other blends. These blends show the lowest BSFC values compared to the others.
The brake thermal efficiency of blend 90/WPPO5/E5 (90% conventional diesel, waste plastic pyrolysis oil 5%, an ethanol 5% by volume) showed values, which were very close to the values of conventional diesel fuel values. This was attributed to close density values and the gross calorific values of waste plastic pyrolysis oil (WPPO) blends, which showed marginal differences. This case was apparent especially at lower blend ratios of all the mixtures and blends tested.
There was a reduction in unburnt hydrocarbon (UHC) concentration with the use of WPPO blends, ethanol, and 2-ethyl hexyl nitrate (EHN), with a notable reduction in oxides of nitrogen concentration especially for the blend 90/WPPO5/E (90% conventional diesel, waste plastic pyrolysis oil 5%, and ethanol 5% by volume). This was a clear indication that this blend performed well when compared with petroleum conventional diesel.
Although there was indicated increase in the concentration of CO, CO2 NOX and UHC, for all the blends of WPPO, ethanol and EHN. There was a clear indication that the emission levels were notably lower than the emission levels of conventional petroleum diesel, based on the ASTM measurements used in this study. However, when comparisons for overall values of concentration are compared to concentration standards, the WPPO blend performed well.
The blends of WPPO, ethanol, and EHN have identical temperature characteristics to those of the conventional diesel test fuel especially as the engine speeds hit 75% heading to full engine speed. This was attributed to the presence of ethanol responsible for decreased ignition delay. The presence of high oxygen enrichment was a factor of decreased CO concentration for the tested biodiesels compared with conventional diesel fuel, although there was an increase in CO concentration as fuel CN and blend ratio increased. This is due to deterioration of the combustion characteristics, as the cetane numbers (CNs) and the alcohol blend ratio increase. Nevertheless, this work proposes further study and further investigation on biodiesels with extremely high CN to meet the need for fuel improvers and additives.
\n\n
\n\n',keywords:"2-ethyl hexyl nitrate, ethanol, oxygen content, ignition quality, waste plastic pyrolysis oil, cetane index",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/72292.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/72292.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72292",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72292",totalDownloads:684,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,dateSubmitted:"November 13th 2019",dateReviewed:"April 15th 2020",datePrePublished:"May 23rd 2020",datePublished:"November 26th 2020",dateFinished:"May 23rd 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"This work investigated waste plastic pyrolysis oil (WPPO), 2-ethyl hexyl nitrate (EHN), and ethanol as sources of renewable energy, blending conventional diesel (CD), WPPO, and ethanol with EHN was to improve the combustion and performance characteristics of the WPPO blends. EHN has the potential to reduce emissions of CO, CO2, UHC, NOX, and PM. Ethanol improves viscosity, miscibility, and the oxygen content of WPPO. Mixing ratios were 50/WPPO25/E25, 60/WPPO20/E20, 70/WPPO15/E15, 80/WPPO10/E10, and 90/WPPO5/E5 for CD, waste plastic pyrolysis oil, and ethanol, respectively. The mixing ratio of EHN (0.01%) was based on the total quantity of blended fuel. Performance and emission characteristics of a stationary 4-cylinder water-cooled diesel Iveco power generator were evaluated with ASTM standards. At 1000 rpm, the BSFC was 0.043 kg/kWh compared to CD at 0.04 kg/kWh. Blend 90/WPPO5/E5 had the highest value of 14% for BTE, while the NOX emissions for 90/WPPO5/E5, 80/WPPO10/E10, and 70/WPPO15/E15 were 384, 395, and 414 ppm, respectively, compared to CD fuel at 424 ppm. This is due to their densities of 792 kg/m3, 825 kg/m3 which are close to CD fuel at 845 kg/m3 and the additive EHN. These results show blends of WPPO, ethanol and EHN reduce emissions, and improve engine performance, mimicking CD fuel.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/72292",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/72292",signatures:"Semakula Maroa and Freddie Inambao",book:{id:"10025",type:"book",title:"Numerical and Experimental Studies on Combustion Engines and Vehicles",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Numerical and Experimental Studies on Combustion Engines and Vehicles",slug:"numerical-and-experimental-studies-on-combustion-engines-and-vehicles",publishedDate:"November 26th 2020",bookSignature:"Paweł Woś and Mirosław Jakubowski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10025.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83968-033-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-032-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-034-2",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"119441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Paweł",middleName:null,surname:"Woś",slug:"pawel-wos",fullName:"Paweł Woś"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Regulatory development in diesel engine emission",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Heavy duty diesel regulatory developments",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Light duty diesel regulatory development",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Control strategies for emissions in diesel engine",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.1 Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.2 The low NOX trap (LNT)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.3 The selective catalyst reduction (SCR)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.4 Diesel particulate filter (DPF)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.5 Diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"4. Methodology and experimental set-up",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.1 Engine tests",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.2 Physicochemical property analysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"5. Experimental results and discussion of diesel engine emissions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"5.1 Brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"5.2 Brake thermal efficiency (BTE)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"5.3 Unburnt hydrocarbon (UHC) concentration",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"5.4 Carbon monoxide (CO) formation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"5.5 Particulate matter (PM) formation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"5.6 Carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"5.7 Nitrogen oxide (NOX) concentration",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nÖzgür T, Tosun E, Özgür Tüccar G, Aydin K. Performance, emission and efficiency analysis of a diesel engine operated with diesel and diesel-ethanol (e20) blend. MATTER: International Journal of Science and Technology. 2017;3:51-61. DOI: 10.20319/mijst.2017.33.5161\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nGeng P, Cao E, Tan Q , Wei L. 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Particulate emissions from a common rail fuel injection diesel engine with RME-based biodiesel blended fuelling using thermo-gravimetric analysis. SAE Technical Paper 0148-7191. 2008. DOI: 10.4271/2008-01-0074\n'},{id:"B91",body:'\nWilliams A, McCormick RL, Hayes RR, Ireland J, Fang HL. Effect of biodiesel blends on diesel particulate filter performance. SAE Technical Paper 0148-7191. 2006\n'},{id:"B92",body:'\nCheung KL, Polidori A, Ntziachristos L, Tzamkiozis T, Samaras Z, Cassee FR, et al. Chemical characteristics and oxidative potential of particulate matter emissions from gasoline, diesel, and biodiesel cars. Environmental Science & Technology. 2009;4:6334-6340. DOI: 10.1021/es900819t\n'},{id:"B93",body:'\nAgarwal AK, Gupta T, Shukla PC, Dhar A. Particulate emissions from biodiesel fuelled CI engines. Energy Conversion and Management. 2015;94:311-330. DOI: 10.1016/j.enconman.2014.12.094\n'},{id:"B94",body:'\nOprescu E-E, Dragomir RE, Radu E, Radu A, Velea S, Bolocan I, et al. Performance and emission characteristics of diesel engine powered with diesel–glycerol derivatives blends. Fuel Processing Technology. 2014;126:460-468. DOI: 10.1016/j.fuproc.2014.05.027\n'},{id:"B95",body:'\nAshraful A, Masjuki H, Kalam M. Particulate matter, carbon emissions and elemental compositions from a diesel engine exhaust fuelled with diesel–biodiesel blends. Atmospheric Environment. 2015;120:463-474. DOI: 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.09.028\n'},{id:"B96",body:'\nCheng M-T, Chen H-J, Young L-H, Yang H-H, Tsai YI, Wang L-C, et al. Carbonaceous composition changes of heavy-duty diesel engine particles in relation to biodiesels, after-treatments and engine speeds. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2015;297:234-240. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2015.04.076\n'},{id:"B97",body:'\nDorenkamp R. Application of a New Filter Material in Volkswagen’s Diesel Particulate Filter System. In: 3rd Conference on Emission Control, Dresden, Germany; May 2006\n'},{id:"B98",body:'\nBoretto G, Imarisio R, Rellecati P, Barucchi E, Sanguedolce A. Serial Application of a Catalyzed Particulate Filter on Common Rail DI Diesel Engines for Passenger Cars. Barcelona, Spain: F2004V068, FISITA World Automotive Congress; 2004. pp. 23-27\n'},{id:"B99",body:'\nRothe D, Knauer M, Emmerling G, Deyerling D, Niessner R. Emissions during active regeneration of a diesel particulate filter on a heavy-duty diesel engine: Stationary tests. Journal of Aerosol Science. 2015;90:14-25. DOI: 10.1016/j.jaerosci.2015.07.007\n'},{id:"B100",body:'\nGoersmann C. PM control systems with low NO2 emissions. In: 3rd Conference on Emission Control, Dresden, Germany; May 2006\n'},{id:"B101",body:'\nZink UH, Johnson TV. State-of-the-art filter regeneration management—Concepts realized by LDV companies. In: U.S. Dept. of Energy Diesel Engine Emissions Reduction (DEER) Conference; 21-25 August 2005; Chicago, IL, U.S.A. 2005\n'},{id:"B102",body:'\nLenz HP. 38th international—Vienna motor symposium. Sonderprojekte ATZ/MTZ. 2017;22:34-61\n'},{id:"B103",body:'\nAgarwal A, Gupta KT, Kothari A. Particulate emissions from biodiesel vs diesel fuelled compression ignition engine. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2011;15:3278-3300. DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2011.04.002\n'},{id:"B104",body:'\nZhu L, Cheung C, Huang Z. A comparison of particulate emission for rapeseed oil methyl ester, palm oil methyl ester and soybean oil methyl ester in perspective of their fatty ester composition. Applied Thermal Engineering. 2016;94:249-255. DOI: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2015.10.132\n'},{id:"B105",body:'\nDi Iorio S, Magno A, Mancaruso E, Vaglieco B, Arnone L, Dal Bello L. Engine performance and emissions of a small diesel engine fueled with various diesel/RME blends. SAE Paper: 32-0135. 2014. DOI: 10.4271/2014-32-0135\n'},{id:"B106",body:'\nTurns SR. An Introduction to Combustion. Vol. 287. New Delhi: McGraw-hill Education India; 2012\n'},{id:"B107",body:'\nHoekman SK, Robbins C. Review of the effects of biodiesel on NOx emissions. Fuel Processing Technology. 2012;96:237-249. DOI: 10.1016/j.fuproc.2011.12.036\n'},{id:"B108",body:'\nKim K-H, Kabir E, Kabir S. A review on the human health impact of airborne particulate matter. Environment International. 2015;74:136-143. DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2014.10.005\n'},{id:"B109",body:'\nNakatsuji T, Matsubara M, Rouistenmäki J, Sato N, Ohno H. A NOx reduction system using ammonia-storage selective catalytic reduction in rich/lean excursions. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental. 2007;77:190-201. DOI: 10.1016/j.apcatb.2007.07.018\n'},{id:"B110",body:'\nMarchitti F, Nova Hemings EB, Forzatti IP, Tronconi E. Enhancing the low-T NH3-SCR activity of a commercial Fe-zeolite catalyst by NH4NO3 dosing: An experimental and modeling study. Emission Control Science and Technology. 2016;2:1-9. DOI: 10.1007/s40825-015-0030-y\n'},{id:"B111",body:'\nMyer AM, Holl SM, Tendolkar O, Crofts JD, Johnson S, Khot AD. Ammonia generation system for an SCR system. Google Patents; 2016\n'},{id:"B112",body:'\nKowatari T, Hamada Y, Amou K, Hamada I, Funabashi H, Takakura T. et al. A study of a new aftertreatment system (1): A new dosing device for enhancing low temperature performance of urea-SCR. SAE Technical Paper 0148-7191. 2006\n'},{id:"B113",body:'\nJohnson TV. Review of diesel emissions and control. SAE International Journal of Fuels and Lubricants. 2010;3:16-29. DOI: 10.1243/14680874JER04009\n'},{id:"B114",body:'\nJohnson TV. Review of vehicular emissions trends. SAE International Journal of Engines. 2015;8:1152-1167. DOI: 10.4271/2015-01-0993\n'},{id:"B115",body:'\nTheis JR, Ura JA, Goralski CT, Caine J, Davies M, Kay D, et al. The effects of aging temperature and PGM loading on the NOx storage capacity of a lean NOx trap. SAE Technical Paper 0148-7191. 2005. DOI: 10.4271/2005-01-1117\n'},{id:"B116",body:'\nLeet JA, Simescu S, Froelund K, Dodge LG, Roberts CE. Emissions solutions for 2007 and 2010 heavy-duty diesel engines. SAE Technical Paper 0148-7191. 2004. DOI: 10.4271/2004-01-0124\n'},{id:"B117",body:'\nChilumukuru K, Gupta A, Ruth M, Cunningham M, Kothandaraman G, Cumaranatunge L, et al. Aftertreatment architecture and control methodologies for future light duty diesel emission regulations. SAE International Journal of Engines. 2017;10:1580-1587. DOI: 10.4271/2017-01-0911\n'},{id:"B118",body:'\nGuan B, Zhan R, Lin H, Huang Z. Review of state-of-the-art technologies of selective catalytic reduction of NOx from diesel engine exhaust. Applied Thermal Engineering. 2014;66:395-414. DOI: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2014.02.021\n'},{id:"B119",body:'\nWittka T, Holderbaum B, Dittmann P, Pischinger S. Experimental investigation of combined LNT+ SCR diesel exhaust aftertreatment. Emission Control Science and Technology. 2015;1:167-182. DOI: 10.1007/s40825-015-0012-0\n'},{id:"B120",body:'\nMing-Cheng W, Han T, Fisher GB. Experimental evaluation of reformate-assisted diesel NOx trap desulfation. SAE Technical Paper 0148-7191. 2005. DOI: 10.4271/2005-01-3878\n'},{id:"B121",body:'\nRao KS. Effect of EGR on diesel engine performance and exhaust emission running with cotton seed biodiesel. International Journal of Mechanical and Mechatronic Engineering. 2016;16:64-69\n'},{id:"B122",body:'\nBowman CT. Control of combustion-generated nitrogen oxide emissions: Technology driven by regulation. In Symposium (International) on Combustion. 1992:859-878\n'},{id:"B123",body:'\nHeywood JB. Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals Vol. 930. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1988\n'},{id:"B124",body:'\nBenjumea P, Agudelo JR, Agudelo AF. Effect of the degree of unsaturation of biodiesel fuels on engine performance, combustion characteristics, and emissions. Energy & Fuels. 2010;25:77-85. DOI: 10.1021/ef101096x\n'},{id:"B125",body:'\nAltun Ş. Effect of the degree of unsaturation of biodiesel fuels on the exhaust emissions of a diesel power generator. Fuel. 2014;11:450-457. DOI: 10.1016/j.fuel.2013.09.028\n'},{id:"B126",body:'\nZhu Z, Guo H, Zhou A, Li D, Liu S. One way to reduce the NOx emission of biodiesels: The increase of cetane number. International Journal of Green Energy. 2016;13:957-962. DOI: 10.1080/15435075.2011.647366\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Semakula Maroa",address:"ssemakulamaroa@gmail.com",affiliation:'
College of Agriculture Science and Engineering, University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa
Discipline of Mechanical Engineering, Green Energy Group, South Africa
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A clinical test with six patients for the therapeutic effect of the UR-System-PARKO for severe plegic hand was performed. For all patients, the active ranges of motion (total active motion) of finger extension improved after training with the UR-System-PARKO. Moreover, the modified Ashworth scale (MAS) scores of finger extension increased. Thus, the training reduced the spastic paralysis. These results suggest the effectiveness of training with the UR-System-PARKO for recovery of motor function as defined by finger extension in the severe plegic hand.",signatures:"Hirofumi Tanabe, Munehiro Ikuta, Toshimasa Mikawa, Akihiko Kondo and Yoshifumi Morita",authors:[{id:"1624",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoshifumi",surname:"Morita",fullName:"Yoshifumi Morita",slug:"yoshifumi-morita",email:"morita@nitech.ac.jp"},{id:"266954",title:"Prof.",name:"Hirofumi",surname:"Tanabe",fullName:"Hirofumi Tanabe",slug:"hirofumi-tanabe",email:"hirofumi.tanabe@sums.ac.jp"},{id:"273764",title:"Dr.",name:"Munehiro",surname:"Ikuta",fullName:"Munehiro Ikuta",slug:"munehiro-ikuta",email:"munehiro.ikuta@sums.ac.jp"},{id:"273905",title:"MSc.",name:"Toshimasa",surname:"Mikawa",fullName:"Toshimasa Mikawa",slug:"toshimasa-mikawa",email:"toshimasa.mikawa@sums.ac.jp"},{id:"274363",title:"MSc.",name:"Akihiko",surname:"Kondo",fullName:"Akihiko Kondo",slug:"akihiko-kondo",email:"a-kondou@asojuku.ac.jp"}],book:{id:"7375",title:"Medical Robotics",slug:"medical-robotics-new-achievements",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"1624",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoshifumi",surname:"Morita",slug:"yoshifumi-morita",fullName:"Yoshifumi Morita",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"5424",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",surname:"Küçük",slug:"serdar-kucuk",fullName:"Serdar Küçük",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5424/images/system/5424.jpeg",biography:"Serdar Küçük received a BA and MSc from Marmara University, Istanbul, Turkey, in 1995 and 1998, respectively. He received a Ph.D. from Kocaeli University, Turkey, in 2004, where he is currently a full professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering. He has several scientific publications to his credit, including international conference papers, journal papers, books, and book chapters. He serves as a reviewer for several well-known robotic journals. He is also an editor of scientific books. His research interests include optimization, control, and kinematics and dynamics modelling of serial and parallel robotic manipulators. Lately, Dr. Küçük has also been interested in designing electrically controlled, above-knee prosthetics and hand–wrist rehabilitation robots, surgical robots, and biomedical robotic devices.",institutionString:"University of Kocaeli",institution:{name:"University of Kocaeli",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"257796",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Victor Enrique",surname:"Corona-Montes",slug:"victor-enrique-corona-montes",fullName:"Victor Enrique Corona-Montes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/257796/images/8805_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Victor Enrique Corona Montes is uro oncological surgeon committed to his passion, that always has been cancer treatment. He specializes in diagnosis and advanced minimally invasive treatments of prostate cancer, kidney cancer, bladder cancer, urinary obstruction or other urological diseases\n\nHe has inherited his fascination with medicine from his father, who being a gynecological surgeon has introduced a young man to the mystery of surgery already at the age of 17. Being the youngest student of medicine, Dr Corona was meticulously practicing on laparoscopic simulators\n\nAfter obtaining the title of Medical Doctor with the Specialization of the Urological Surgeon in 2011, immediately he travelled to for a first fellowship in France to learn from the best Master in the field of mini invasive urological surgery, the inventor and first performer of laparoscopic radical prostatectomy in Europe - Professor – Richard Gaston, Head of the Department of Urology at Saint Augustin Hospital, Bordeaux. Dr Corona performed over 800 robotic surgeries with his Master and returned to Mexico City to inaugurate Robotic-Assisted Prostatectomy, which he has accomplished in 2013\n\nIn 2015 he accomplished a fellowship in Urological Oncology at Fundacio Puigvert in Barcelona, Spain with Professor Joan Palou Redorta, director of ESU (European School of Urology) and Director of the department of Urological Oncology in Fundacio Puigvert\n\nCurrently Dr Corona serves as a Vice Director of the Surgery Department in the General Hospital Of Mexico City, Founder and Director of Fellowship Program in Urological Minimally Invasive Specialty Program for UNAM (State University of Mexico City) as well as Faculty and Co-Founder of the Urology Program in American British Council Hospital\n\nHe is actually Profesor of Urology and Minimally invasive Urological Surgery.\n\nDr Corona is an author of numerous scientific publications, national and international faculty, trainer and lecturer. He never stops learning himself and sharing his experience with his students and fellows. He is holding 3 additional Master Degrees in Administration, History of Medicine and Education and Ph Degree in Management of the Healthcare Facility. He fluently speaks 5 languages (English, French, Portuguese, Italian) and continues learning a new one (German)\n\n\nKEYWORD OF INTEREST.\nResearch in Oncology, Urology oncology, Surgical techniques, robotic or laparoscopic surgery or minimally invasive surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital General de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"266954",title:"Prof.",name:"Hirofumi",surname:"Tanabe",slug:"hirofumi-tanabe",fullName:"Hirofumi Tanabe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"273764",title:"Dr.",name:"Munehiro",surname:"Ikuta",slug:"munehiro-ikuta",fullName:"Munehiro Ikuta",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274363",title:"MSc.",name:"Akihiko",surname:"Kondo",slug:"akihiko-kondo",fullName:"Akihiko Kondo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"283149",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Aloy",slug:"alexander-aloy",fullName:"Alexander Aloy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"290610",title:"Mr.",name:"Simon",surname:"Hell",slug:"simon-hell",fullName:"Simon Hell",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"290611",title:"Dr.",name:"Andreas",surname:"Nowak",slug:"andreas-nowak",fullName:"Andreas Nowak",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"290612",title:"Prof.",name:"Matthaeus",surname:"Grasl",slug:"matthaeus-grasl",fullName:"Matthaeus Grasl",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"open-access-funding-funders-list",title:"List of Funders by Country",intro:"
If your research is financed through any of the below-mentioned funders, please consult their Open Access policies or grant ‘terms and conditions’ to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
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IMPORTANT: You must be a member or grantee of the listed funders in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds. Do not attempt to contact the funders if this is not the case.
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UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
Wellcome Trust (Funding available only to Wellcome-funded researchers/grantees)
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. 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Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. 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Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. 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