\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7837",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Geriatric Medicine and Gerontology",title:"Geriatric Medicine and Gerontology",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This volume is a collection of reports dealing with geriatrics and gerontology. The first section provides an introduction to the common medical and non-medical problems of aging. The second section concentrates on one of the most devastating problems of the elderly, that of dementia. Finally, the third section deals with newer topics such as hearing loss, acute and chronic lymphoproliferative disorders, and the use of nerve and muscle stimulation to reduce morbidity and mortality associated with degenerative neurologic diseases. The chapters contained herein represent the transformation of managing older patient problems that commonly impact quality of life after the age of 60 years.",isbn:"978-1-78984-390-3",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-389-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78984-144-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77654",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"geriatric-medicine-and-gerontology",numberOfPages:202,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"e277d005b23536bcd9f8550046101979",bookSignature:"Edward T. Zawada Jr.",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7837.jpg",numberOfDownloads:9174,numberOfWosCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:5,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:10,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 17th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 3rd 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 1st 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 22nd 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 21st 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"16344",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward T.",middleName:null,surname:"Zawada Jr.",slug:"edward-t.-zawada-jr.",fullName:"Edward T. Zawada Jr.",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/16344/images/system/16344.jpeg",biography:"Edward T. Zawada Jr. graduated summa cum laude from Loyola\nUniversity in 1969 and summa cum laude from Loyola-Stritch\nSchool of Medicine in 1973. He trained at the University of\nCalifornia at Los Angeles (UCLA) from 1973 to 1978. His faculty\npositions include UCLA, University of Utah, Medical College of\nVirginia, and University of South Dakota. Other positions include professor and chairman emeritus, Department of Internal\nMedicine, University of South Dakota, Sanford School of Medicine; and Bush Foundation of Minnesota Sabbatical Fellowship in Critical Care, Department of Anesthesiology at the University of Iowa in 2009. Dr. Zawada Jr. is board certified by the\nAmerican Board of Internal Medicine in Internal Medicine, Nephrology, Geriatrics, and Critical Care Medicine. Other board certifications include Nutrition and\nClinical Pharmacology. He is a Master of the American College of Physicians and\nFellow of the American College of Critical Care Medicine, the American Society of\nNephrology, the American Society of Hypertension, the American College of Chest\nPhysicians, the American College of Clinical Pharmacology, the American College\nof Nutrition, and the American Heart Association.",institutionString:"University of South Dakota",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"University of South Dakota",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"182",title:"Geriatrics and Gerontology",slug:"geriatrics-and-gerontology"}],chapters:[{id:"69268",title:"Introductory Chapter: Geriatrics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89385",slug:"introductory-chapter-geriatrics",totalDownloads:637,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Edward T. Zawada",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69268",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69268",authors:[{id:"16344",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward T.",surname:"Zawada Jr.",slug:"edward-t.-zawada-jr.",fullName:"Edward T. Zawada Jr."}],corrections:null},{id:"65833",title:"Old Age and Women’s Identity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84740",slug:"old-age-and-women-s-identity",totalDownloads:935,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Female identity is a dynamic concept, and it has been a very discussed issue by contemporary cultural critic. How does old age affect identity construction and perception in elderly woman? Has feminine gender an impact in subjective well-being? Psychological changes of midlife women have been as conflicting as the idea that society has about them. Personality changes after young adulthood in women is a controversial matter. Erikson proposed that women might not develop identities in early adulthood as men do. In fact, he argued that women develop them later, in the context of an intimate relationship. Moreover, identity development appears to have important consequences for midlife well-being. For example, Vandewater et al. found that women’s midlife well-being was facilitated by earlier attainment of a well-articulated identity. In these situations accomplishment of developmentally earlier tasks (identity formation) sets the stage for later psychological health. Our work sheds additional light on how women live this period of life in terms of happiness and purpose of life.",signatures:"Greco Francesca Romana, D’Onofrio Grazia, Seripa Davide, Ciccone Filomena, Sancarlo Daniele, Mangiacotti Antonio and Greco Monica",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65833",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65833",authors:[{id:"184079",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniele",surname:"Sancarlo",slug:"daniele-sancarlo",fullName:"Daniele Sancarlo"},{id:"263317",title:"Dr.",name:"Francesca Romana",surname:"Greco",slug:"francesca-romana-greco",fullName:"Francesca Romana Greco"},{id:"272620",title:"Dr.",name:"Davide",surname:"Seripa",slug:"davide-seripa",fullName:"Davide Seripa"},{id:"272622",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",surname:"Greco",slug:"monica-greco",fullName:"Monica Greco"},{id:"272628",title:"Dr.",name:"Grazia",surname:"D'Onofrio",slug:"grazia-d'onofrio",fullName:"Grazia D'Onofrio"},{id:"272629",title:"Dr.",name:"Filomena",surname:"Ciccone",slug:"filomena-ciccone",fullName:"Filomena Ciccone"},{id:"272630",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",surname:"Mangiacotti",slug:"antonio-mangiacotti",fullName:"Antonio Mangiacotti"}],corrections:null},{id:"66401",title:"Primary Prevention of Alzheimer’s Disease (AD)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85418",slug:"primary-prevention-of-alzheimer-s-disease-ad-",totalDownloads:826,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Alzheimer dementia (AD) is a complex, aging-associated disease whose effects on the brain (an organ made up by nonreplaceable cells) are devastating. Disease is not curable, but progress in pathobiology shows that intervention on aging can make primary prevention of AD feasible. According to the amyloid-cascade hypothesis, mechanisms of AD include: an age-related alteration of free radical metabolism in membranes, leading to a higher yield in the toxic Aβ1-42 peptide and an overwhelming impact on the weaker repair mechanisms of the aging cells. The proposed intervention on aging with anti-AD effects includes a daily assumption of antioxidants (red wine polyphenols enriched with resveratrol), a reinforcement of membrane antioxidant defenses by the assumption of polyunsaturated fatty acids at the first meal after fasting, and an enhancement of cell repair function (at the proteasome and autophagy level by an intermittent feeding regimen and physical exercise plus the assumption of antilipolytic agents during time of fasting). The beneficial effects of diet and physical activity on the endogenous production of protective nerve growth factors are magnified by an enriched environment. Treatment has already been started on healthy individuals at a higher risk of AD in the city of Volterra.",signatures:"Ettore Bergamini and Gabriella Cavallini",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66401",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66401",authors:[{id:"288730",title:"Dr.",name:"Ettore",surname:"Bergamini",slug:"ettore-bergamini",fullName:"Ettore Bergamini"},{id:"295385",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriella",surname:"Cavallini",slug:"gabriella-cavallini",fullName:"Gabriella Cavallini"}],corrections:null},{id:"66954",title:"Long-Term Partnerships in Lewy Body Dementias",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86204",slug:"long-term-partnerships-in-lewy-body-dementias",totalDownloads:926,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Long-term partnerships are important as they can determine happiness, influence physical and mental health and lengthen one’s lifespan. However, complex neurodegenerative conditions, such as Parkinson’s disease dementia (PDD) and dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB), can disrupt long-term relationships and even lead to dissolution of the partnership. The majority of studies in this field have focused on exploring the effect of PDD and DLB on care partners’ outcomes but the impact of these conditions on dyadic, long term relationships is less well understood. We conducted a series of studies with people with PDD or DLB and their caregiving life partners using quantitative and qualitative methods. We demonstrated that PDD and DLB has a tremendous impact on the caregiving life partners and reduces relationship satisfaction. We argue for more studies in this field and recommend that future research focuses on strengthening dyadic relationships, which can ultimately preserve relationships and delay institutionalisation of the person with PDD and DLB, which has cost saving implications.",signatures:"Sabina Vatter and Iracema Leroi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66954",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66954",authors:[{id:"286707",title:"Prof.",name:"Iracema",surname:"Leroi",slug:"iracema-leroi",fullName:"Iracema Leroi"},{id:"286887",title:"Ms.",name:"Sabina",surname:"Vatter",slug:"sabina-vatter",fullName:"Sabina Vatter"}],corrections:null},{id:"65000",title:"State of Art of Telemonitoring in Patients with Diabetes Mellitus, with a Focus on Elderly Patients",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83384",slug:"state-of-art-of-telemonitoring-in-patients-with-diabetes-mellitus-with-a-focus-on-elderly-patients",totalDownloads:886,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Since the beginning of the 1990s, several telemedicine projects and studies focused on type 1 and type 2 diabetes have been developed, including very few elderly diabetic patients. Several of these projects specifically concerned elderly subjects (n = 4). Mainly, these projects and studies show that telemonitoring diabetes results in improved blood glucose control—a significant reduction in HbA1c, improved patient ownership of the disease, greater patient adherence to therapeutic and hygiene-dietary measures, positive impact on comorbidities (hypertension, weight, dyslipidemia), improved quality of life for patients, and at least good patient receptivity and accountability. To date, the magnitude of its effects remains debatable, especially with the variation in patients’ characteristics (e.g., background, ability for self-management, medical condition), sample selection, and approach for treatment of control groups. Over the last 5 years, numerous telemedicine projects based on connected objects and new information and communication technologies (ICT) (elements defining telemedicine 2.0) have emerged or are still under development.",signatures:"Emmanuel Andrès, Laurent Meyer, Abrar-Ahmad Zulfiqar, Mohamed Hajjam, Samy Talha, Sylvie Ervé, Jawad Hajjam, Nathalie Jeandidier and Amir Hajjam El Hassani",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65000",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65000",authors:[{id:"138739",title:"Dr.",name:"Amir Hajjam",surname:"El Hassani",slug:"amir-hajjam-el-hassani",fullName:"Amir Hajjam El Hassani"},{id:"143493",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",surname:"Andrès",slug:"emmanuel-andres",fullName:"Emmanuel Andrès"},{id:"313956",title:"Dr.",name:"Laurent",surname:"Meyer",slug:"laurent-meyer",fullName:"Laurent Meyer"},{id:"313957",title:"Dr.",name:"Abrar-Ahmad",surname:"Zulfiqar",slug:"abrar-ahmad-zulfiqar",fullName:"Abrar-Ahmad Zulfiqar"},{id:"313958",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",surname:"Hajjam",slug:"mohamed-hajjam",fullName:"Mohamed Hajjam"},{id:"313959",title:"Dr.",name:"Samy",surname:"Talha",slug:"samy-talha",fullName:"Samy Talha"},{id:"313960",title:"Dr.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Ervé",slug:"sylvie-erve",fullName:"Sylvie Ervé"},{id:"313961",title:"Dr.",name:"Jawad",surname:"Hajjam",slug:"jawad-hajjam",fullName:"Jawad Hajjam"},{id:"313962",title:"Dr.",name:"Nathalie",surname:"Jeandidier",slug:"nathalie-jeandidier",fullName:"Nathalie Jeandidier"}],corrections:null},{id:"66664",title:"Future Treatment of Alzheimer Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85096",slug:"future-treatment-of-alzheimer-disease",totalDownloads:1034,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Alzheimer’s disease is an age-related progressive neurodegenerative disorder. The two major neuropathologic hallmarks of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) are extracellular Amyloid beta (Aβ) plaques and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs). A number of additional pathogenic mechanisms, possibly overlapping with Aβ plaques and NFTs formation, have been described, including inflammation, oxidative damage, iron dysregulation, cholesterol metabolism. To date, only symptomatic treatments exist for this disease, all trying to counterbalance the neurotransmitter disturbance. To block the progression of the disease they have to interfere with the pathogenic steps responsible for the clinical symptoms, including the deposition of extracellular amyloid β plaques and intracellular neurofibrillary tangle formation, inflammation and stem cell. In this review, we discuss new potential disease-modifying therapies for AD that are currently being studied in phase I–III trials.",signatures:"Ahmet Onur Keskin, Nazlı Durmaz, Gülgün Uncu, Ebru Erzurumluoglu, Zerrin Yıldırım, Nese Tuncer and Demet Özbabalık Adapınar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66664",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66664",authors:[{id:"282026",title:"Prof.",name:"Demet",surname:"Özbabalık Adapınar",slug:"demet-ozbabalik-adapinar",fullName:"Demet Özbabalık Adapınar"},{id:"291003",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmet Onur",surname:"Keskin",slug:"ahmet-onur-keskin",fullName:"Ahmet Onur Keskin"},{id:"291004",title:"Dr.",name:"Nazlı",surname:"Durmaz",slug:"nazli-durmaz",fullName:"Nazlı Durmaz"},{id:"291005",title:"Prof.",name:"Gülgün",surname:"Uncu",slug:"gulgun-uncu",fullName:"Gülgün Uncu"},{id:"291006",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ebru",surname:"Erzurumluoglu",slug:"ebru-erzurumluoglu",fullName:"Ebru Erzurumluoglu"},{id:"291007",title:"Dr.",name:"Zerrin",surname:"Yıldırım",slug:"zerrin-yildirim",fullName:"Zerrin Yıldırım"},{id:"291008",title:"Prof.",name:"Nese",surname:"Tuncer",slug:"nese-tuncer",fullName:"Nese Tuncer"}],corrections:null},{id:"67971",title:"Genetics and Acquired Hearing Loss",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86664",slug:"genetics-and-acquired-hearing-loss",totalDownloads:1094,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Hearing loss (HL) is a worldwide disease with substantial economic costs for the public health. Around 466 million people have disabling hearing loss and the WHO estimated that by 2050 over 900 million people will suffer hearing loss. Several factors including infections, noise-exposure, ototoxic medications or genetic disorders could cause hearing impairment. Hearing devices such as cochlear implants and aids are the current therapies. Although the prevalence of hearing loss is very high, alternative treatments as pharmaceutical agents are currently insufficient. Within the past years, increased knowledge on hearing loss etiology and physiopathology opened new opportunities for future research towards hearing loss treatment. Here we aim to review current bibliography on genetics factors involved in hearing loss.",signatures:"Moza Al-Kowari and Meritxell Espino-Guarch",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67971",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67971",authors:[{id:"282931",title:"Dr.",name:"Meritxell",surname:"Espino-Guarch",slug:"meritxell-espino-guarch",fullName:"Meritxell Espino-Guarch"},{id:"282932",title:"Mrs.",name:"Moza",surname:"Al-Kowari",slug:"moza-al-kowari",fullName:"Moza Al-Kowari"}],corrections:null},{id:"67684",title:"Overview and Current News in Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86662",slug:"overview-and-current-news-in-acute-lymphoblastic-leukemia",totalDownloads:885,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The management of acute lymphoblastic leukemia is a challenge in patients of any age range. In the elderly patient, this challenge is further complicated by having to take into account the physical, social, psychological, and emotional factors of this age group, which, together with the complex nature of the disease’s biology, give rise to many questions. Although the diagnostic approach of the disease does not differ from that performed in pediatric or young patients, it does in the determination of risk factors and treatment, since many of the determinants of risk have a different value to that assigned in other patients, and, therefore, we cannot apply all available resources in younger patients to facilitate our work. The genetic alterations of ALL are found more frequently in elderly patients, since age is a factor that increases the risk of presenting these alterations. As an example, the prognostic value of the presence of Philadelphia chromosome (t (9:22)) cannot be weighted at the same scale as in pediatric patients. Comorbidities play another important role when it comes to making therapeutic decisions, and there is currently controversy regarding the use of scores designed to determine the physical and physiological status of elderly subjects. Several analyzes have been carried out to define the value and usefulness of these tools in the older patients with ALL; however, work must still be done in this area. The treatment schemes should be adjusted to the needs and specific characteristics of each individual in advanced age. The use of intensive chemotherapy should be discussed within a multidisciplinary team, always considering the benefit of our patients. In the present chapter, the diverse differences in ALL biology will be addressed when compared with those of children and young adults, and with the impact on the different prognostic determinants and their weight at the time of deciding treatment. The need to apply geriatric tools for decision-making and the therapeutic schemes used around the world for elderly people will also be discussed.",signatures:"Martha Alvarado Ibarra and Jose Antonio De La Peña Celaya",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67684",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67684",authors:[{id:"283599",title:"Dr.",name:"Martha",surname:"Alvarado-Ibarra",slug:"martha-alvarado-ibarra",fullName:"Martha Alvarado-Ibarra"},{id:"301333",title:"Dr.",name:"José Antonio",surname:"De la Peña Celaya",slug:"jose-antonio-de-la-pena-celaya",fullName:"José Antonio De la Peña Celaya"}],corrections:null},{id:"66130",title:"Neuromuscular Electrical Stimulation and Electromyographic Biofeedback as Adjunctive Modalities in the Treatment of Oropharyngeal Dysphagia in Stroke",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84942",slug:"neuromuscular-electrical-stimulation-and-electromyographic-biofeedback-as-adjunctive-modalities-in-t",totalDownloads:827,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Dysphagia is a symptom related to swallowing disorders that impede or hamper safe, efficient, and comfortable oral ingestion. In addition to compromising the swallowing process, dysphagia may impair overall health, the nutritional status, and lung conditions, impacting quality of life as well. Different proposals for the rehabilitation of oropharyngeal dysphagia have been researched over the years. As a therapeutic strategy aimed at the rehabilitation of oropharyngeal dysphagias, the electromyographic (EMG) biofeedback provides improved strength in swallowing and its coordination, understood as the best muscle recruitment during the function, associated with the attention and performance of cortical functions, simultaneously. Neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) is another therapeutic approach used in the rehabilitation of oropharyngeal dysphagia (NMES). NMES has been recommended as an adjunctive modality to improve the results of exercises based on dysphagia therapy. In view of the possibility of using technological resources in the diagnosis and treatment of oropharyngeal dysphagia, this chapter presents the theoretical and procedural framework aimed at the application of EMG biofeedback and NMES as supporting methods in the treatment of oropharyngeal dysphagia, in cases affected by stroke.",signatures:"Cláudia Tiemi Mituuti, Marcela Maria Alves da Silva and Giédre Berretin-Felix",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66130",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66130",authors:[{id:"284952",title:"Prof.",name:"Cláudia Tiemi",surname:"Mituuti",slug:"claudia-tiemi-mituuti",fullName:"Cláudia Tiemi Mituuti"},{id:"284953",title:"Prof.",name:"Giédre",surname:"Berretin-Felix",slug:"giedre-berretin-felix",fullName:"Giédre Berretin-Felix"},{id:"284954",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcela Maria",surname:"Alves da Silva",slug:"marcela-maria-alves-da-silva",fullName:"Marcela Maria Alves da Silva"}],corrections:null},{id:"64339",title:"Postural Imbalance in the Elderly: Main Aspects",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79830",slug:"postural-imbalance-in-the-elderly-main-aspects",totalDownloads:1124,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The aging of the population is an unprecedented world phenomenon. Numerous physiological changes occur with aging, and one of the most common situations is postural imbalance and, consequently, the occurrence of falls. Balancing is the process of controlling the body’s center of mass with respect to its base of support and depends on the integration of sensory systems (visual, vestibular, and somatosensory) with the central nervous system (CNS). Each system is prone to deterioration with advancing age and is influenced by age-related diseases and use of some types of medications and polypharmacy. As with any good clinical evaluation, a detailed history and a thorough physical examination are essential to evaluate postural balance. The evaluation of balance must be done with tests that are quick and with relatively little equipment and training. 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The human kidney is responsible for many functions, such as filtration of the plasma, blood pressure control, and hormonal production among others. Kidneys are bean-shaped organs located in the retroperitoneal space, irrigated by the renal artery, and covered by its fibrous capsule. Renal parenchyma can be distinguished into cortex and medullar regions, with different anatomic–histological characteristics. Inside a human kidney, there are about one million nephrons, which are composed of tubules and renal corpuscles. The corpuscles contain several tortuous arterioles covered by podocytes. The set of the endothelial layer of these arterioles, its basement membrane, and the podocytes correspond to the glomerular filtration barrier [1, 2].
The ultrafiltration of the plasma by this barrier and formation of the primary urine requires normal glomerular morphology. It is well documented that the podocytes are important to guarantee the selectivity during the filtration process, preventing macromolecules that pass through the slit diaphragm formed between its foot processes. Many studies suggest that alterations on these cells or on the vessels, as those during hypertension, diabetes, or lupus, can reduce the oxygen flux, leading to hypoxia stage, being responsible for podocyte alteration and death [3, 4].
The glomerular filtration barrier morphology has been extensively studied in several experimental and clinical conditions. For this purpose, electron microscopy (both transmission and scanning) suits perfectly for observing the fine structure of this barrier, indicating with accuracy morphological alterations when present [5, 6].
Thus, in this chapter, we aimed (a) to describe the elements of the glomerular filtration barrier, (b) to present scientific examples of how the glomerular filtration barrier elements are related to different clinical and experimental conditions, and (c) to show how the elements of the glomerular filtration barrier can be analyzed by scanning and transmission electron microscopy with qualitative and quantitative methods.
The glomerulus is a highly irrigated structure that performs selective filtration of the plasma. Inside the Bowman’s capsule, several tortuous arterioles receive the blood and filtrate it forming the primary urine, which then passes to the proximal tubule. The glomerular capillaries are lined by a fenestrated endothelium, covered externally by specialized cells, called podocytes. Between the cell layers, there is a basement membrane, which also has an important filtering function. Together, the endothelial cells, the basement membrane, and the podocytes form the glomerular filtration barrier [1, 3].
The glomerular filtration barrier is highly permeable to water and small molecules. Moreover, it is slightly permeable to macromolecules and acts as a physical and electrical barrier for the filtration process. These characteristics are dependent of the cellular structures, and its function is influenced by factors such as molecular weight and electric charge [2]. Moreover, changes in the cell junctions of the glomerular barrier prejudice the glomerular function [7].
Internally, the glomerular filtration barrier is constituted by the glomerular fenestrated endothelium. These endothelial cells have a glycocalyx over its luminal surface, which form a highly negatively charged coating [2]. Thus, glycocalyx covers the endothelium and promotes a first selection of molecules passing through the barrier by electric charge. The endothelium coating the glomerular capillaries is very thin and has several fenestrae with 70–90 nm of diameter. These pores can filtrate only large molecules and blood cells [1].
The endothelial cells are supported by a basement membrane (about 100–150 nm), which is the only continuous layer of the glomerular filtration barrier. As this membrane is thought to be the fusion of the endothelial and epithelial basement membranes, two laminae lucida (interna and externa) and, between them, a lamina dense are found [1]. The basement membrane is composed of a complex network of glycosaminoglycans and fibrous proteins (laminin and collagen type IV), which are continuously produced and deposited by podocytes and mesangial cells [8]. These proteins adhere to the cell membranes by surface receptors and form the glomerular filtration barrier [5].
Podocytes are specialized epithelial cells found in the external layer of the glomerular filtration barrier and exhibit several long cellular processes, which bears various secondary processes, named as foot processes. The foot processes involve capillaries by interdigitations, and small gaps are left in between. These small gaps measure about 20–30 nm and is named as slit diaphragm being responsible for passage of small molecules, whereas larger ones are retained [6]. Further, the slit diaphragm is filled with nephrin and podocin, the transmembrane proteins that are also important for the correct function of glomerular filtration barrier. Experimental studies have shown that mutations in expression of these proteins can alter the filtration barrier and probably is the cause of nephrotic syndrome [9].
In addition to adhesion receptors from integrin family, there are also proteoglycan transmembrane receptors such as those of syndecan family. Also, the junction of podocytes membrane is seen by electron microscopy, showing zipper-like structure where binding proteins form cell junctions and small pores, as previously mentioned on filtration slit [6]. Thus, it is important to consider all glomerular ultrastructure in the filtration process and renal function. Some diseases provoke changes in glomerular ultrastructure, which promote irregular filtration rates, proteinuria, and even kidney failure, further discussed here. Electron microscopy and correlate techniques allow better to understand these pathological changes and become an effective and important method in the study of renal function.
Literature describes well several diseases that affect the glomerular filtration barrier. Some conditions such as diabetes mellitus, hypertension, and maternal nutritional changes during critical periods of development, known as fetal programming, are well recognized as important risk factors for developing chronic kidney disease.
Diabetes mellitus is one of the most chronic diseases emerging on twenty-first century, in which hyperglycemia is a major indicator, generating microvascular damage such as retinopathy, neuropathy, and kidney disease [4]. Diabetic nephropathy is a chronic progressive disease that affects 20–40% of patients with diabetes mellitus [10]. Histopathologically, this disease in humans courses with the thickening of glomerular and tubular glomerular basement membrane, podocytopenia, mesangial expansion, glomerular, and arteriolar hyalinosis. The earliest clinical manifestation of diabetic nephropathy is microalbuminuria, a strong predictor of renal and cardiovascular disease in patients with type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus [11, 12]. These modifications contribute to the abnormal stimulation of resident kidney cells, which increases the production of TGF-β1 and causes collagen (types I, IV, V, and VI), fibronectin, and laminin depositions in the extracellular matrix of the glomerulus. Thus, this structural disorganization of the glomerular slit diaphragm enhances renal damage and chronic kidney disease progression [13, 14].
Likewise, hypertension is directly related to renal failure [15]. Hypertensive nephropathy, a consequence of chronic increase of blood pressure, is secondary to diabetic nephropathy in terms of diagnosis and is considered the last stage of renal disease. Some complications are associated with hypertensive nephropathy such as glomerular damage resulting in impaired renal function [16]. Hypertension causes an increase of numerous local factors, such as angiotensin II, which may contribute to the development of renal fibrosis. It is reported that angiotensin II stimulates the gene expression of TGF-β1 and the release of this protein. The presence of TGF-β1 activates the conversion of fibroblasts into myofibroblasts, producing large amounts of extracellular matrix components, and induces renal fibrosis [17].
Moreover, angiotensin II regulates the number and integrity of podocyte. In high quantities, it promotes the disintegration and breakup of these highly specialized cells and causes glomerular endothelial cells hypertrophy since it raises intraglomerular pressure, preferably affecting the afferent glomerular arterioles [18]. The increase of blood volume is also capable to reduce the levels of podocin (abundant protein in the podocyte body) and nephrin (a structural component of the slit diaphragm) in the glomerulus, which enhances the glomerular podocyte injury and albuminuria [19].
Recently, experimental and epidemiological studies report that several metabolic disorders manifested in adulthood have their roots dating embryonic periods [20, 21]. Protein or energy restriction during pregnancy induces low birth weight and, consequently, the injury of nephrogenesis, increasing the incidence of chronic kidney disease in adulthood [22]. As previously mentioned, the glomerulus (the most important filtering apparatus in the body) is a highly specialized structure formed by four types of cells: mesangial, endothelial, visceral (podocytes), and parietal epithelial cells. Accordingly, the intrauterine growth restriction induced by maternal protein restriction may cause morphological and functional changes in the glomerulus, thereby decreasing the filtration barrier efficiency with consequent glomerulosclerosis [23].
Just as occurs in diabetic nephropathy, low birth weight promotes glomerulosclerosis [24], expansion of mesangial matrix, hyalinosis, and podocytopenia, which compromises glomerular filtration and facilitates progressive kidney dysfunction [25]. The loss of podocytes may represent the starting point for an irreversible glomerular injury, characterized by proteinuria and glomerular scarring. Transmission electron microscopy analysis revealed that the offspring from maternal low protein diets at 26 weeks of age and at 16 weeks old and presents the effacement of pedicels, the absence of the slit diaphragm, and an increase of glomerular basement membrane thickness, denoting a reduced of barrier efficiency filtration [24, 26].
Another metabolic programming model related to the occurrence of chronic kidney disease in adult life is maternal vitamin D restriction. This vitamin is essential for the development of the nervous system, immune function, skeletal formation, and fetal kidney [27, 28]. Studies in rats showed that vitamin D restriction during critical periods of development has increased the number of glomerulus, reduced the size of renal corpuscles, and delayed glomerular maturation, further lower expression of WT1 and podocin in adult offspring [28, 29]. These structural and functional adaptations in the glomerulus may progress to chronic kidney disease
A very good sample preparation for EM must follow careful cares because small mistakes will be big ones when analyzed by EM. Thus, we can use either old or new approaches when we intend to study not only the glomerulus but also any biological sample.
However, the glomerulus is particularly difficult due to different osmolarities found in each segment of the nephron. Cryofixation, in general, needs much smaller samples sizes than conventional chemical fixation. A freeze-depth of about 10–15 µm is achieved; one exception is high-pressure freezing (HPF). Nowadays, there are new techniques and good, although expensive, equipments commercially available such as high-pressure freezing (HPF), slam freezing, cryoultramicrotomy, freeze-fracture, freeze-etching, and so on. New scanning electron microscopies with high resolution and extreme high resolution that appeared recently provided beautiful and illustrative aspects of all different cell types. Concerning transmission EM, new methodologies allow 3-D reconstruction such as tomography of thick or semithick sections, serial sections, or high-voltage TEMs. In addition, spectacular images were recently obtained with new Helium ion (proton) microscopes.
When sample preparation for the evaluation of the glomerular filtration barrier by electron microscopy follows the standards of routine biological sample preparations, the person should manipulate the tissue with the animal alive, under anesthesia, for obtaining a small fragment with a size of 0.5 mm or even less and immediately immerse it in the fixative. Alternatively, perfusion gives very good results.
When studying biopsy samples of human kidney or whenever the perfusion is not possible or recommendable, fixation by immersion is an adequate option. For this, a small fragment of the renal cortex is collected, washed in buffered solution, and immediately immersed in the fixation solution [30]. This fragment should be collected from the outer part of the renal cortex, avoiding juxtamedullary region where glomeruli are sparser [1]. As routine preparation, fixation of the kidney is done with glutaraldehyde alone or in combination with freshly prepared formaldehyde from paraformaldehyde powder in warm water. The formaldehyde molecule is a very small aldehyde and has the advantage to penetrate rapidly into tissue, although it is not a strong linker for proteins. Thus, a good procedure is its combination with glutaraldehyde since it penetrates more slowly than formaldehyde and provokes cross-links with proteins. However, glutaraldehyde is a slow fixative, and it takes some seconds or even some minutes to cause death to cells and tissues. The small fragments are fixed in 2.5% glutaraldehyde or 4% PF with 2.5% glutaraldehyde, diluted in 0.1 M cacodylate buffer, pH 7.2, overnight at room temperature. Most important, buffered solutions should be used for better preservation of the cellular aspects of the glomerular filtration barrier [30, 31]. In the next day, samples are post-fixed in 0.1 M cacodylate buffer containing 1% OsO4 and 0.8% potassium ferricyanide for 1 h. It is important to point out that potassium ferricyanide is an important approach to better visualize the trilaminar structure of cell membranes. Then samples are dehydrated in graded series of acetone or alcohol. Ultrathin sections obtained after epoxy resin embedding are stained with uranyl acetate and lead citrate and observed in transmission electron microscope.
When studying samples collected from large animal models (i.e., pig, sheep, dog, etc.), the whole kidney can be adequately fixed by perfusion through the renal artery. When studying small species of animals (i.e., rats, mouse, etc.), the whole animal can be perfused through the left ventricle or aorta. In both cases, the researcher may take into account that some fixatives could hamper some other analysis, as for example, perfusing the kidney with glutaraldehyde may prejudice immune-labeling analysis, unless used in very low concentrations such as 0.5% glutaraldehyde or less [31]. We recommend fixation by perfusion in a mixture of glutaraldehyde and freshly prepared formaldehyde because the latter is a fast fixative allowing not only good preservation but also a quick cell death. Whenever using perfusion fixation, the osmolarity of the fixative solution should be taken into account. Preferentially, the osmolarity of the solution for kidney perfusion fixation should be of 420 mOs [32]. After organ perfusion, a small fragment of the renal cortex should be collected and immersed in the fixative solution for postfixation and dehydration as describe by immersion above. It is important to remember removing the renal capsule whenever it is present, allowing the fixative penetrate into the tissue of interest. Also, cryofixation can be an option for sample fixation for glomerular filtration barrier evaluation. One advantage of high-pressure freezing technique is that larger fragments with edges as large as 1 mm can be used, being a good choice as a cryofixation method [31].
As the object of interest is present in the glomerulus, we may take into account that our samples should have at least one glomerulus for examination. The glomerulus of rats has an average area (in its maximum cross section) of 0.02 mm2 and occupies around 7.5% of the surface area on renal cortex [33]. Thus, for improving the chance of having a glomerulus on our sample, the examined surface area of the sample should be of at least 0.5 mm2 (0.02 × 200 / 7.5). Based on this, the cortical fragment collected for glomerular filtration barrier analysis with electron microscopy should be about 1 × 0.5 × 0.5 mm in size. Furthermore, as there is no guaranty of having glomeruli in the sample, several fragments must be collected, processed, stored, or fixed.
It is important to point out one step that should not be overtaken: obtaining and observation of semithin sections before the ultrathin sections. Semithin sections are important because it is necessary (a) to confirm that there is a glomerulus in the cutting surface of the sample, (b) to determine whether the pyramid in the block face is correct in size and shape or should centered over a glomerulus, and (c) to observe the hole cutting surface under low magnification and obtain a copy in light microscopy that will be useful for searching glomeruli when this sample is observed with electron microscopy. It is very often that when the semithin sections are observed, the block is taken away as no glomerulus was found on its surface. This reinforces the importance of collecting several fragments of each animal/patient for electron microscopy analysis.Alternatively, electron tomography can be used. For this, thick sections (>200 µm) and intermediate (200–300 kV) or high-voltage (750–1000 kV) EM equipped with a eucentric tilting stage are used. Colloidal gold particles (10 nm) are deposited on surface of the grids, to be used as fiducial markers for alignment of the tilted views. Single-axis tilt series from –60° to 60° images are collected in 1° increments using TEM coupled to a 4k × 4k CCD camera. About 400 images are obtained and three dimension reconstruction and data analyses are performed using proper software package as recommended by the EM company.
Sample preparation for SEM requires the same care as for TEM. Aldehyde fixation is adequate, but in order to improve lipid stability, contrast, and electron beam scanning, osmium tetroxide is also used. Sample is dehydrated with the same agents for TEM; however, we prefer to use alcohol starting from 7.5% to three times in 100% to avoid problems of drying artifacts. Next, tissue will critical point dried and coated with a very thin layer of gold or other conductive metal, producing beautiful images but without high resolution.
Recently, the group of Rice et al. [34] used helium ion microscopy (HIM) to analyze the rodent glomeruli and obtained wonderful images of uncoated samples by SEM. The authors used transcardial perfusion with aldehyde fixatives, vibratome sectioning, gradual dehydration in methanol series, and a very careful critical point drying. There is no need to apply conductive coatings to the samples prior to imaging, and thus sample surface information is preserved. Even at low magnification, the high quality and depth of field of HIM images is impressive. The images obtained with HIM are important and beautiful. The authors depicted some nanoprojections of the foot processes membrane (Figure 1). Also, podocytes and endothelial fenestrae within the filtration slit diaphragm were observed with much more detail (Figure 2). Nanoprotrusions originating from the processes are clearly seen projecting into urinary space. The future will provide much more resolution for biological samples.
Microscopic images of glomerulus of rats as seen by scanning helium ion microscopy. In image A, we see the glomerulus in low magnification and several cut open tubules surrounding the glomerulus. Bar = 20 mm. In image B, the interior of a Bowman’s capsule from which the glomerular tuft was removed is observed. Each parietal cell displays a single, long central cilium (arrows) that is very well preserved and visualized without heavy metal coating commonly used in scanning electron microscopy but unnecessary for ion microscopy. Bar = 10 mm. In image C, with intermediate magnification of the surface of a glomerular tuft, it is showed the complex interdigitations of podocytes and their foot processes. Bar = 2 mm. Finally, under higher magnification, it is possible to observe in image D that the podocyte processes are decorated by fine, thread-like protrusions (arrows). Bar = 0.5 mm. Image courtesy of Prof. Dennis Brown [
Images of glomerular endothelial cells as seen from the capillary luminal side using scanning helium ion microscopy. In image A, note the numerous, round fenestrations present over the entire cell surface. The raised ridges (arrows) represent the location of the tight junction between the two cells. Bar = 175 nm. In image B, under higher magnification, it is possible to observe the details of the fenestrations. In some of them, a substructure consisting of faint spokes like a bicycle wheel can be seen (arrows). Bar = 80 nm. Image courtesy of Prof. Dennis Brown [
The glomerular filtration barrier can be easily evaluated by simple observation with electron microscopy. One aspect commonly evaluated is the loss of characteristic fenestration of the endothelial layer, which has been reported in some medical conditions previously described. By transmission electron microscopy, the endothelial cells are seen lying over the basement membrane and gaps of this layer, which correspond to fenestrae are fewer when compared to normal conditions [1].
The glomerular basement membrane is another part of the barrier easily evaluated with transmission electron microscopy. By routine examination, the membrane thickness can be qualitatively assessed. As the thickness of the membrane is of great importance for proper functioning of the filtration barrier, this is of interest in many studies. In addition, alterations found in basement membrane are highly associated with several diseases, as previously mentioned, reinforcing the importance of study this structure.
Finally, the podocytes, the third layer of the glomerular filtration barrier, are probably the most studied structure of this barrier. One important aspect of these cells is the interlacement formed by its foot processes, with a small slit diaphragm in between [35]. The alteration of the normal morphology of podocytes and foot processes is named effacement, which has been demonstrated in several conditions [36]. Podocyte effacement is characterized by loss of the normal interdigitations pattern of foot processes, leaving a thinner cell covering a large area outside the basement membrane. As consequence, morphological modifications as fewer and wider foot processes of podocytes are found and can be observed either with transmission or scanning electron microscopy. Among the advantages of observation with scanning electron microscopy are the following: (a) deep field, (b) possibility of analysis of larger areas, allowing the visualization of several podocytes and foot processes in the same sample, and (c) beautiful images of the glomeruli within Bowman’s capsule, which are easy to understand and interpret, as shown in figures 3 and 4.
Scanning electron microscopic images of glomerulus of rats, showing the podocytes and its foot processes. In image A, under low magnification, we can observe the entire glomeruli with its Bowman’s capsule (×950; 15 kV, scale bar represent 10 µm). In image B, we can observe several podocytes and foot processes (×6500; 15 kV, scale bar represent 1.5 µm).
Qualitative differences found in glomerular filtration barrier from individuals submitted to any experimental or clinical condition are only possible when comparison is done with health organisms. However, only qualitative studies do not allow a deeper analysis and statistics and thus lacks scientific excellence. In addition, qualitative observation leads to problems of the interpretation due observer expertise [37]. Thus, it is clear that quantitative methods have advantages over those qualitative ones.
Scanning electron microscopic images showing the fine detail of the interdigitating pattern of the foot processes of podocytes at high magnification (×10,000; 15 kV, scale bar represent 1 µm).
Scanning electron microscopy of a human glomerulus after serial block face slicing. In image A, we observe figures that resemble transmission electron micrographs by inverting the signal intensity of the backscattered electron. We see micrographs of complete field of view, with slices 15 μm apart one from another (
The glomerular basement membrane was recently observed in three dimensions by different methodologies [38]. In their paper, the authors compared the images and the 3D reconstruction of the glomerular filtration barrier as performed using serial block face scanning electron microscopy, focused ion beam milling scanning electron microscopy, and transmission electron tomography. They reported that the transmission electron tomography technique had the advantage of a higher resolution, with the disadvantages of limited field of view and anisotropic shrinkage. Focused ion bean and serial block face with scanning electron microscopy had greater field of view with lower resolution. The most interesting aspect of these techniques is the reconstruction and digital dissection of cells as demonstrated in Figure 5.
The quantification of morphological structures is highly recommended for studying biological alterations in several tissues and different situations. The quantification of morphological aspects of the glomerular filtration barrier is possible and desirable. Translating the morphological aspects of tissues in numbers is very useful from a scientific point of view. It improves the understanding of the modifications of the barrier provoked by different conditions and allows statistical comparisons with other specimens, subjected to different conditions or at different stages of the disease [37]. Based on these premises, methods have been used for different purposes in the study of the glomerular filtration barrier morphology, and important scientific knowledge has been generated from these analyses.
Most quantitative analyses use digital microscopic images that can be digitally acquired or scanned from conventional images. For absolute values (linear measures, for example), it is very important that a scale is maintained on the image. Most electron microscopes automatically print a scale bar on each image, and this is very suitable for morphometric purposes [30].
Several software are eligible for morphometric analyses. In this chapter, we present the steps used in ImageJ 1.37v software. ImageJ is an open source, free software produced and distributed by the National Institutes of Health and can be downloaded at http://imagej.nih.gov/ij/index.html.
The different elements of endothelial layer of the glomerular filtration barrier can be objectively evaluated, and the possible loss of fenestrations can be easily assessed by linear measurements in transmission electron microscopy images. For this, we should first calibrate the software for the correct magnification. The straight-line tool should measure the scale bar of the image, and then we should use the option “analyze—set scale.” In the box opened, the distance in pixels should represent the size of the line over the scale bar, and one should insert the real size of the bar at “known distance” space. The “unit of length” space should be fulfilled with the unit of the scale bar (µm or nm). When one intend to measure several images, all of them should be acquired under the same conditions (magnification, resolution, size, etc.), and the option “global” can be marked. By this, the same configuration may be used for all following micrographs. Figure 6 shows the above-mentioned steps.
Transmission electron microscopy used to demonstrate how to calibrate the software for correct magnification of the micrograph with ImageJ software. The straight-line tool (in blue) is used to measure the scale bar, which here is 200 nm. Next, in the “set scale” box, one can see the distance in pixels of the blue line, and the space of “known distance” is fulfilled with 200 whereas “unit of length” with nm. After clicking “OK,” any measurement in this image will be at nanometers calibrated for the real size.
After the software calibration for the magnification, the straight-line tool is used to measure (“Analyze—measure”) the linear distance of endothelial cells and their fenestrations. The results, expressed in the unit of the scale bar, appear sequentially in the “results” window, and can be easily copied to spreadsheet or statistic software, as seen in Figure 7. One can further compare (a) the size of fenestrations, (b) the endothelial layer, and (c) their proportion (size of fenestrations/size of the endothelial layer). It is also possible to count the number of fenestrations observed on each image and divide by the linear size of the entire filtration barrier present on the image and thus obtain the number of fenestrations per distance. In addition, the thickness of endothelial cells can be measured by applying the straight-line perpendicular to basement membrane, in some randomly chosen points. One should consider that several measurements should be performed to obtain the whole thickness of endothelial layer, as it can greatly vary in the same glomerulus [39].
The linear distance of the endothelial cells can be measured with the straight-line tool of ImageJ software. In this electron micrograph, blue lines measure some endothelium segments, and the result is seen in the upper right corner. In the results box, the length of each measurement is expressed in nanometers because the image was previously calibrated for the real size.
Furthermore, the glycocalyx that covers the endothelial cells can be studied with some special techniques. Because conventional methods do not stain the glycocalyx since it is mainly composed of proteoglycans, glycosaminoglycan, and hyaluronan, some techniques were developed for its identification. Perfusion with negatively charged lipid particles allows observation of these intralipids inside the capillary lumen. The measurement of linear distance from these intralipids to the endothelial inner membrane reflects glycocalyx thickness. When reduction of glycocalyx thickness occurs, as measured by this method, correlation with proteinuria is thought, as this structure is one of the responsible for the filtration of plasma proteins [40,41].
Furthermore, the number of the endothelial cells per glomerulus can be measured using stereological methods. This needs determination of the glomerular volume (by the Cavalieri principle, dissector technique, or volume-weighted methods), the cellular density of glomerulus (counting cell nuclei by the Weibel and Gomez point-counting method), and the proportion of cell types of the glomerulus (also by the point-counting method) [40,41]. These measurements can be assessed with light microscopy with the benefits of a faster and cheaper method, or by electron microscopy with the advantage of being a more accurate method.
Regarding the basement membrane, despite its importance for the plasma filtration, the most commonly measurement performed is membrane width. This directly reflects the membrane thickness that occurs in several diseases and is easily and accurately assessed with transmission electron microscopy images. For this, after calibration for the magnification, the straight-line tool of ImageJ should be used perpendicularly to the membrane, as seen in Figure 8.
The basement membrane width easily measured in transmission electron micrographs using the “straight line” tool of the ImageJ software. In this image, blue lines measure the basement membrane width, and the result is seen in upper right corner of the image. After calibration of the software, each basement membrane measurement is expressed in nanometers in the results box.
The effacement of the podocytes, which is commonly qualitatively assessed, can be objectively assessed by two methods [33]. In transmission electron microscopy images, the linear size of the foot processes touching and parallel to the basement membrane can be measured by the straight-line tool, as shown in Figure 9a. As the podocyte effacement is characterized by the loss of the normal interdigitating pattern, with fewer and larger foot processes, in this condition, these processes present a higher area touching the basement membrane. Thus, the increased linear size measured by this method numerically represents the podocyte effacement. In addition, one can determine the number of slit diaphragm divided by the linear size of the entire filtration barrier present on the image, and the number of slit diaphragm per distance is obtained (Figure 9b), which is also reduced in podocyte effacement. Also, the number of foot processes per distance can be measured by the same method, as used by Jonsson et al. [42], who quantitatively demonstrated the podocytes effacement, as observed in Figure 10. The size of slit diaphragm can be also easily measured using the straight-line tool applied parallel to the basement membrane, after software calibration.
Measurement of foot process parameters that relate with podocyte effacement using transmission electron micrographs. In image A, the linear size of the foot processes that touch the basement membrane is measured by the straight-line tool. Several foot processes can be measured for this parameter. In image B, slit diaphragms can be counted using the “cell counter” tool of ImageJ and the linear size of basement membrane, measured with the “Segmented line selections” tool.
Transmission electron microscopic images of control mice and animals with passive Heymann nephritis. In image A, we see the normal glomerular filtration barrier (*) in control animals. In image B, from mice that received an injection of Anti-Fx1A IgG antibody to induce passive Heymann nephritis, it is possible to observe a high degree of foot process effacement (arrow). Scale bar = 2 mm. Image courtesy of Prof. Annika Lindskog Jonsson [
In scanning electron microscopy images, the number of foot processes per podocyte can also be measured. This parameter only could be determined in podocytes that can be entirely visualized in the scanning image, and special attention should be taken for not count the foot process of the adjacent cell. This makes this method time consuming but can be an option when only scanning electron microscopy is available. In addition, the size of the foot process can be measured in these images, however, with fewer accuracy than when measured in transmission electron microscopy images (Figure 11). Finally, the number of podocytes per glomerulus can be determined using the same method described for determination of endothelial cells per glomerulus.
The foot processes can also be measured in scanning electron micrographs with the straight-line tool of ImageJ software after calibration for the correct magnification.
The glomerular filtration barrier is a main component for the filtration of the plasma and formation of primary urine. It is composed of specialized cells and noncellular structures that, together, can avoid the loss of important plasma components but permit the passage of water and undesirable molecules. For this functionality, this barrier has a specific morphology with a fenestrated endothelium covered with glycocalyx, a basement membrane, and a set of slit diaphragms formed by the foot processes of podocytes.
The glomerular filtration barrier morphology has been studied in several diseases and is directly associated with kidney malfunction. Furthermore, it is very important to study this barrier under different clinical and experimental situations. Morphological alterations of components explain some physiopathological findings in clinical setting and correlate with kidney function. For this, scanning and transmission electron microscopy suits perfectly for obtaining high-quality images of this barrier.
Several studies qualitatively described the alterations of glomerular filtration membrane. This gives valuable information, especially when reporting clinical cases or individual lesions that could not be compared. However, when the purpose of the study is to compare the results of a group of individuals with another, quantitative analysis is more appropriate. In this chapter, we presented some objective methods for easy evaluation glomerular filtration membrane. Results obtained with these methods generate numerical data that can be statistically compared with other groups, in different phases of the disease, after some treatment, etc. Thus, whenever possible, quantitative analysis of the glomerular filtration barrier should be favored.
Vapor quality is a crucial parameter which affects the flow boiling heat transfer behavior [1, 2]. Figure 1 shows flow development inside a vertical tube under a constant wall heat flux, where the fluid moves in the upward direction. The figure also depicts various two-phase flow regimes in a vertical tube on the left and typical variations in local boiling heat transfer coefficient versus vapor quality on the right. From Figure 1, it can be inferred that flow boiling heat transfer coefficient is typically maximized in the range of vapor quality between 50% and 85%, while the smallest heat transfer coefficients tend to appear in the vapor forced convection region due to the low thermal conductivity of vapor as compared to that of the liquid. Accordingly, the accuracy of vapor quality measurements plays a significant role in properly investigating the impact of vapor quality on the local flow boiling heat transfer coefficient. On the other hand, in order to develop more efficient two-phase flow heat transfer systems, a specific range of vapor qualities should be targeted in design of thermal systems to achieve a higher range of boiling heat transfer coefficients. This also clearly highlights the significance of accurate vapor quality measurements at both the inlet and outlet of a test section.
Typical variations in heat transfer coefficient with vapor quality for forced-convection flow boiling in a tube [
Hardik and Prabhu [3] performed experiments to investigate the heat transfer and pressure drop of a diabatic two-phase water flow boiling in horizontal thin walled stainless steel tubes with different inner diameters under uniform wall heat flux conditions. To investigate the impact of vapor quality on the local boiling heat transfer coefficient, they measured vapor quality at the outlet of test section using a known range of uniform wall heat fluxes directly supplied by electrical heating tapes wrapped around the test sections. The effect of inlet vapor quality was not investigated in their study since a saturated liquid flow was provided at the inlet of test sections. In their study, the heat losses from the heating tapes were estimated using theoretical calculations of convective and radiative heat losses from the surface of test sections to the surroundings, and no single-phase experiments were conducted to empirically estimate heat losses at the same mass flux range of flow boiling tests.
A similar approach to measurement of outlet vapor quality was adopted by Yan
Although many experimental studies have been conducted to date to investigate the impact of local vapor quality on boiling heat transfer performance, majority of these studies have taken the similar approach to measure local vapor quality only at the outlet of test section mainly under uniform wall heat flux boundary conditions using electrical heating [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12]. There are limited studies investigating the effect of local vapor quality for other thermal boundary conditions [13, 14], while their techniques to measure local vapor quality are not reported clearly. Hence, there is a considerable gap in the literature concerning vapor quality measurement under other thermal boundary conditions (e.g. uniform wall temperature and unknown boundary conditions) than the uniform wall heat flux using electrical heating.
The measurement and control of local vapor quality for uniform wall heat flux conditions using heating tapes wrapped around the test section is simpler than that for uniform wall temperature or variable wall heat flux conditions where the latent heat for two-phase flow boiling is supplied by a hot-side fluid at test section. In the latter case, there is no opportunity for a direct control of vapor quality at test section unless using in-situ measurements of local density through the existing instruments with a currently low accuracy.
Concerning the existing gaps in the literature addressed above, the present study aims to investigate various experimental approaches to measure and control vapor qualities at both the inlet and outlet of a typical test section under different thermal boundary conditions imposed on a test section during two-phase flow boiling heat transfer process, including uniform wall temperature, uniform wall heat flux, and unknown boundary conditions. The experimental techniques are then compared based on their level of accuracy and overall uncertainty, costliness, as well as simplicity in implementation.
Measurements of local vapor quality of a saturated boiling flow can strongly be affected by accuracy in estimating the heat losses and calibrating the latent heat supplies. This is due to the existence of latent heat during a boiling process with a constant saturation temperature of fluid while enthalpy increases with the increase of local vapor quality as a result of heat acquisition [1, 2]. This is therefore evident that inaccurate estimation of heat losses and imprecise calibration of latent heat supplies would pose unreliability in collected heat transfer data and large errors in results as well.
Although different theoretical and experimental approaches have been engaged to date to estimate heat loss during flow boiling, majority of these methods are based on the estimation of heat loss from single-phase flow [6, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15]. Indeed, single-phase experiments were conducted to estimate heat loss percentages for a range of mass fluxes and heat fluxes. Then, the same heat loss percentages derived from the single-phase flow were directly used for two-phase flow at the same mass fluxes [6, 9, 10, 11]. Alternatively, the heat losses extracted from single-phase flow for a range of mass and heat fluxes were developed for flow boiling over another range of mass and heat fluxes using either interpolation or extrapolation [12, 13, 15].
In this commonly applied methodology, the amounts of heat experimentally supplied for the test section (
The difference between
After estimating heat losses and calibrating heat supplies for any of electrical heater units in a test setup, local vapor qualities at the inlet and outlet of a test section can be measured by energy balance on the enthalpy change of vaporization. Figure 2 depicts the schematics of a typical setup to conduct measurements of vapor qualities under known constant wall heat flux boundary conditions using the electrical heating either through the direct resistance heating of the test tube or with the heating tapes wrapped around the tube.
The experimental approach to measuring vapor qualities for uniform wall heat flux boundary conditions.
As shown in Figure 2, while inlet vapor quality can be controlled using the heat-supplying unit located right before the test section (called Pre-Heater), local vapor quality at the outlet of test section may be controlled from the heat-supplying unit at the test section (called TS-Heater). The subcooled liquid at a certain pressure of Psat with a bulk temperature of Tsp is warmed up by a heat-supplying unit (i.e. SP-Heater) in order to reach the state of saturated liquid (
To ensure the state of saturated liquid, the subcooled liquid is warmed up by the SP-Heater to reach a temperature infinitesimally lower than the saturation temperature of Tsat targeted for the flow boiling experiments. Using the sight glass shown in Figure 2, the state of saturated liquid is also directly observed in order to check whether or not there is any vapor bubble in the saturated liquid flow.
As represented in Figure 2, the inlet vapor quality is measured and controlled by adjusting the calibrated heat supplied by the Pre-Heater to take the saturated liquid (
where
After having the inlet vapor quality known, the outlet vapor quality can be measured from the calibrated heat at the test section (TS-Heater) as follows:
where
This is important to point out that the outlet vapor quality derived from the test section contains an accumulated error arisen from earlier measurement of the inlet vapor quality. As clearly shown in Eq. (2), the inlet vapor quality can be measured and controlled by obtaining the enthalpy at the inlet of test section (
In the case of constant wall temperature boundary conditions for the test section, the wall heat flux is subject to change. The measurement and control of local vapor quality at the outlet of a test section under uniform wall temperature boundary conditions is more challenging than that of uniform wall heat flux boundary conditions. In a single loop of internal flow boiling, the outlet vapor quality is typically measured and controlled by directly monitoring the constant amounts of surface heat flux provided by heating tapes wrapped around the test section. However, the use of hot fluid heating rather than electrical heating to generate constant wall temperature conditions does not allow the direct control of outlet vapor quality due to the unknown variable surface heat flux exchanged between the hot-side fluid (e.g. external condensation of steam or single-phase hot liquid) and the cold-side fluid (i.e. internal flow boiling).
Figure 3 illustrates a typical case of constant temperature boundary conditions imposed by external condensation of steam on the test tube. The test section shown in this case is the place where external condensation and internal flow boiling occur simultaneously. The test section therefore functions as a cross flow heat exchanger whose both sides are manipulated with phase-change heat transfer processes. The test apparatus for this arrangement is to consist of two closed loops, including: external condensation loop (i.e. steam condensation over a horizontal tube) and internal boiling loop (i.e. two-phase flow boiling inside the tube).
The experimental approach to measuring vapor qualities for uniform wall temperature boundary conditions.
Within the external condensation loop, saturated vapor of water at saturation temperature and pressure of Tsat,steam and Psat,steam is provided by a steam generator and then enters the test chamber. After condensation of steam on the horizontal test tube due to the temperature difference between the saturated vapor and the tube surface (called subcooling), the condensate is driven by gravity and collected in a condensate reservoir to feed the steam generator and set a steady flow circulation in the external condensation loop. Regarding the internal boiling loop, the fluid is warmed up by the SP-Heater in order to reach the saturated liquid state (
The unknown outlet vapor quality can be measured by adding a calibrated heat-supplying unit (After-Heater) with power controller installed right after the test section in order to take the two-phase flow with unknown outlet quality to the known state of saturated vapor (i.e.
where
In this approach, to ensure the state of saturated vapor, the After-Heater located after the test section is adjusted to supply the required latent heat for the two-phase flow with a certain outlet quality to reach a temperature slightly higher than the constant saturation temperature, which would be the starting point of the superheated vapor state. As shown in Figure 3, using the sight glass installed after the After-Heater, the state of saturated vapor is also directly observed in order to check whether or not there is any liquid droplet and/or humidity in the gas stream at the beginning of superheated state. Unlike the earlier approach to measuring local vapor quality at the outlet of test section under uniform wall heat flux conditions, this approach does not contain any accumulated errors arising from earlier measurements of inlet vapor qualities.
In the second methodology for variable wall heat flux conditions, a tube-in-tube or shell-and-tube heat exchanger installed at the test section may be used for measuring and controlling local vapor quality at the outlet of test tube. Analogous to the earlier cases, the inlet vapor quality is measured and controlled by monitoring the calibrated heat supplied by the Pre-Heater using the Eq. (2).
As represented in Figure 4, a hot liquid single-phase flow with known mass flow rates and known temperatures and pressures at the inlet and outlet passes through the outer tube (shell side), while the boiling flow of a known inlet vapor quality with a saturation temperature (Tsat) lower than that of the heating liquid (Th) enters the inner tube of the counter-flow heat exchanger. After latent heat acquisition from the hot-side fluid, the internal boiling flow undergoes an unknown increase in vapor quality at the outlet of test tube whereas the heating liquid in the shell side experiences a temperature reduction as a result of sensible heat rejection yet its temperature at the outlet remains higher than the constant saturation temperature of internal boiling flow. The vapor quality at the outlet of the test tube can therefore be controlled by adjusting the mass flow rate of the hot liquid single-phase flow
The experimental approach to measuring vapor qualities for variable wall heat flux boundary conditions.
The amounts of heat exchanged between the internal boiling flow and the heating liquid can be measured by writing down an energy balance as follows:
Aside from
To keep the boiling fluid recirculated, this is evident that other components are required for the internal boiling loop, which are not shown in Figures 2–4. Subsequent to the test section or the After-Heater, the two-phase flow with a certain outlet quality or the saturated vapor is required to be condensed in a heat exchanger to reach the state of saturated liquid which is followed by a drop in temperature and pressure after passing through an expansion valve to reach the state of subcooled liquid prior to entering the pump in order to avoid the cavitation phenomenon. The liquid flow is then squeezed by a gear pump up to the desired saturation pressure to enter the SP-Heater.
Regardless of the type of thermal boundary conditions governed on the test section, the local vapor quality of a two-phase flow boiling may be obtained through in-situ measurements.
Using the experimental approaches and/or instruments introduced here, first, the local density of two-phase flow at either of the inlet or outlet of a test section can be measured in-situ for any thermal boundary conditions that might be imposed on the test section. After obtaining the density, two independent thermodynamic properties of the flow at either inlet or outlet are known (
Interest in the determination of two-phase flow density has brought about the design and development of various instruments to measure density in cryogenic flow systems. The more promising of the methods suggested are based on either (i) measurements of the average dielectric constant or capacitance of the two-phase fluid or (ii) measurements of the nuclear radiation attenuation properties of the two-phase fluid. In principle, both of these measurable quantities are associated with the fluid density.
Turney and Snyder [17] used a capacitance density meter to measure the density of liquid and two-phase hydrogen flow. Most of their measured and calculated values of density exhibited a deviation up to ±15% of the full-scale density. The advanced Coriolis meters have also been investigated for measurement of two-phase flow density [18, 19]. In this context, Reizner [18] has addressed the issues concerned to metering two-phase flow using the Coriolis meters. Technically, this is hard to retain flow-tube oscillations within two-phase flow due to the high and rapid damping of oscillations which is, by far, up to three orders of magnitude higher than that of the single-phase flow. Once the transmitter is not capable of maintaining the oscillations, the Coriolis meter is found to be “stalled”, and no measurements are provided. Even in the case of averting the stalling, large errors in measurements of mass flow and density are induced.
Although there is no specific instrument to accurately measure density of a two-phase flow, the technique(s) recently introduced by Boltenko [16] can measure the density with a reasonable accuracy. The range of uncertainty reported for his technique(s) is between 3% and 5%.
The following is a brief explanation of the proposed techniques to measure local density of a two-phase flow:
in which
As can be seen from Eq. (6), it is possible to obtain
Figure 5 depicts schematics of the hydrostatic technique to measure the average density of a two-phase flow in a horizontal pipe.
Schematic of the hydrostatic method to determine density of a two-phase flow [
In this section, the experimental approaches are sought to be compared based on their level of accuracy in measurement, affordability, and simplicity in implementation. Remarks, including merits and demerits, are expressed for each experimental technique described in the earlier sections in sequence.
The approach described in Section 3 is restricted to the investigation of the impact of local vapor quality on the heat transfer performance under known constant wall heat flux boundary conditions. Although the method is very affordable and simple to be implemented, accuracy of this methodology to measure local vapor quality is reliant heavily on the accuracy in estimating heat losses and calibrating heat supplies. Furthermore, it is important to note that the measurement of local vapor quality at the outlet of test section using this technique contains an accumulated error arisen from earlier measurement of local vapor quality at the inlet according to Eq. (3).
On the other hand, the measurement of flow boiling heat transfer data for horizontal test tubes using electrical heating has always been a subject of debate [22], where hot fluid heating is preferred to be used. In this regard, the following concerns are needed to be addressed: (i) for different types of stratified flow pattern, hot fluid heating induces practically uniform wall temperature boundary conditions for the tube perimeter, whereas electrical heating contributes to the circumferential heat conduction for the tube perimeter from the hot, dry-wall conditions at the top to the colder, wet-wall conditions at the bottom of the tube, leading to unknown thermal boundary conditions, (ii) for annular flow pattern with partial dryout at the top of the tube, electrical heating is not also advised due to the axial heat conduction along the tube.
Using the approach I described in Section 4.1, higher accuracy and lower uncertainty in vapor quality measurements can be achieved by conducting accurate estimation of heat losses as well as accurate calibration of heat supplies. Furthermore, measurement of local vapor quality at the outlet of test section using this technique does not contain any accumulated errors arising from earlier measurements of inlet vapor quality as represented in Eq. (4). This is while the approach is very affordable and simple in execution.
Taking advantage of the After-Heater located after the test section, this technique does not interfere with heat transfer data collected from the test section and does not pose the issues of circumferential and axial heat conduction caused by electrical heating for stratified and annular flow patterns within the test section.
The approach II described in Section 4.2 is more expensive than the earlier techniques presented. The method is also not as simple as the earlier techniques in implementation. Using this approach, there is still accumulated error in measurement of outlet vapor quality arisen from the earlier measurement of inlet vapor quality, according to Eq. (5).
Moreover, the main drawback is that the methodology is likely to pose a higher overall uncertainty in measuring the local vapor qualities as compared to the earlier techniques described in Sections 3 and 4.1 since there will be higher number of points to be measured for temperature, pressure, and mass flow rate as indicated in Eq. (5). In this technique, five more precision instruments are required to be in service in order to measure flow rate of the hot-side fluid (one flow sensor), pressures (two pressure transducers), and temperatures (two thermocouple probes) at the inlet and outlet of the shell side of heat exchanger.
The major drawback of the in-situ measurements is that the techniques and/or instruments introduced to date pose a low accuracy to measure local density of a two-phase flow, which ultimately makes the overall uncertainty for vapor quality measurements undesirable. In addition, very accurate and expensive pressure transducers and/or expensive advanced Coriolis meters are required to be procured to implement this technique properly.
Vapor quality plays a key role in flow boiling heat transfer behavior and can noticeably affect the local flow boiling heat transfer coefficient. To accurately investigate the effect of vapor quality on flow boiling behavior, accurate measurement of local vapor quality is critical.
In the present study, various experimental techniques were presented to measure and control vapor quality for flow boiling tests and were classified based on the type of thermal boundary conditions induced on the test tube wall. Moreover, in-situ measurements and techniques were also investigated to measure local density of two-phase flow and subsequently local vapor quality regardless of the governing thermal boundary conditions.
To provide a deeper insight to select an appropriate technique depending on researchers’ choices, the experimental techniques were also compared based on their level of accuracy in measurement, affordability, and simplicity in implementation through addressing their potential weaknesses and strengths.
We would like to acknowledge the financial support from NASA MUREP Institutional Research Opportunity Grant under Cooperative Agreement #80NSSC19M0196, National Science Foundation (NSF) for supporting this work via grant (HRD-1601156), and Department of Defense under contract: W911NF-20-1-0274.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. 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The endocrine and nervous systems play important roles in maintaining homeostasis in the human body. Integration, which is the biological basis of physiology, is achieved through communication between the many overlapping functions of the human body's systems, which takes place through electrical and chemical means. Much of the basis of our knowledge of human physiology has been provided by animal experiments. Because of the close relationship between structure and function, studies in human physiology and anatomy seek to understand the mechanisms that help the human body function. The series on human physiology deals with the various mechanisms of interaction between the various organs, nerves, and cells in the human body.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11408,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. Her main research interest is sarcopenia in older adults, especially its association with nutritional status. Additionally, to understand how to maintain and improve physical function in older adults, to conduct studies about the mechanism of sarcopenia and determine when possible interventions are needed.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ritsumeikan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261"},editorialBoard:[{id:"213786",title:"Dr.",name:"Henrique P.",middleName:null,surname:"Neiva",slug:"henrique-p.-neiva",fullName:"Henrique P. 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