Number of serotypes present in each
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6601",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Disinfection",title:"Disinfection",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Disinfection is a method used to destroy most microbial forms, especially vegetative pathogens, by using physical and chemical procedures such as chlorination, UV radiation, boiling, vapor, etc. Biotic surfaces such as skin and abiotic surfaces such as contaminated medical devices and kitchen equipment exposed to cross contamination must be disinfected. Especially, inadequate disinfection of water can be fatal and cause life-threatening outbreaks. For this reason, water must be disinfected adequately by appropriate methods. There are several factors that affect the efficacy of disinfection against pathogens, such as capacity of biofilm and spore formation, having antibiotic resistance, etc. It is hard to destroy bacterial biofilms, bacterial spores, and resistant microorganisms. Some bacterial spores and resistant microorganisms can withstand disinfectants, so adequate disinfection must be done by appropriate methods. The aim of this book is to summarize disinfection, disinfection methods, and chemical analysis of by-products by providing up-to-date topics.",isbn:"978-1-78984-475-7",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-474-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-582-0",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71513",price:100,priceEur:109,priceUsd:129,slug:"disinfection",numberOfPages:86,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"ea121cf9b26d006bc6d7c7f92195852d",bookSignature:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu",publishedDate:"November 14th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6601.jpg",numberOfDownloads:4664,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:3,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:6,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 22nd 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 13th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 11th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 2nd 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 1st 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",middleName:null,surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/179460/images/system/179460.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Kırmusaoğlu, PhD, is an assistant professor of Microbiology\nat the Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, T.C. Haliç\nUniversity. She specialized in Microbiology at Abant Izzet Baysal\nUniversity (Biology Department), Turkey. Her previous experience\nincludes laboratory manager at microbiology laboratories in several\nresearch and private hospitals. Throughout her career, she collaborated\nwith academicians/researchers from Abant Izzate Baysal University (AIBU), Middle East Technical University (METU), and Istanbul\nUniversity Cerrahpaşa Faculty of Medicine, and has participated in various research projects.\nDr. Kırmusaoğlu’s research interests include medical microbiology, pathogenic bacteria, bacterial biofilms, antibiofilm and antibacterial activity, bacterial drug resistance, pathogen–host interactions, pathogenesis, molecular microbiology, and microbiota. She has published several international research articles, books, book chapters, and congress proceedings.\nShe is also the editor of Disinfection, Bacterial Pathogenesis and Antibacterial Control,\nand Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods\npublished by IntechOpen. In addition to these, she wrote the book Genel Biyoloji Laboratuvar\nKılavuzu (General Biology Laboratory Manual) published by Hipokrat Publisher.\nShe has contributed to a chapter translation of the book Sherris Medical Microbiology\nby Ryan et al. as one of the translation authors of Sherris Tıbbi Mikrobiyoloji, which is a\nTurkish translated book edited by Prof. Dr. Dürdal Us and Prof. Dr. Ahmet Başustaoğlu.",institutionString:"Haliç University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"Haliç University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1135",title:"Preventive Healthcare",slug:"preventive-healthcare"}],chapters:[{id:"64076",title:"Introductory Chapter: Overview of Disinfection",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81051",slug:"introductory-chapter-overview-of-disinfection",totalDownloads:1221,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64076",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64076",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"}],corrections:null},{id:"61103",title:"Disinfection of Water Used for Human and Animal Consumption",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76430",slug:"disinfection-of-water-used-for-human-and-animal-consumption",totalDownloads:1006,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter deals with disinfection of water used for human and animal consumption. Water is the most abundant chemical component of the Earth and is very extensively used by mankind. Anthropogenic pressure on the environment leads to decrease in water quality. The quality of water is determined using the most important range of parameters (physical, chemical, and microbiological). This chapter discusses major pollutants of water, protection of water sources, micro-organisms causing the main waterborne diseases and methods of treatment, and disinfection of water. Different methods are used to disinfect drinking water. One of the most frequently used methods is disinfection with active chlorine, which is the only method providing continuous protection against microbial regrowth. However, this method has also some disadvantages (e.g., formation of trihalomethane and haloacetic acid precursors) linked to increased risk of cancer. It is important to remember that none of the products used to disinfect water is capable of ensuring complete safety of treated water if the water comes from unsuitable sources.",signatures:"Tatiana Hrušková, Naďa Sasáková, Gabriela Gregová, Ingrid\nPapajová and Zuzana Bujdošová",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61103",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61103",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"60956",title:"Carrier and Liquid Heat Inactivation of Poliovirus and Adenovirus",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76340",slug:"carrier-and-liquid-heat-inactivation-of-poliovirus-and-adenovirus",totalDownloads:1242,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Viral inactivation is typically studied using virus suspended in liquid (liquid inactivation) or virus deposited on surfaces (carrier inactivation). Carrier inactivation more closely mimics disinfection of virus contaminating a surface, while liquid inactivation mimics virus inactivation in process solutions. The prevailing opinion has been that viruses are more susceptible to heat inactivation when suspended in liquid than when deposited on surfaces. In part, this reflects a paucity of comparative studies performed in a side-by-side manner. In the present study, we investigated the relative susceptibilities of the enteroviruses poliovirus-1 and adenovirus type 5 to heat inactivation in liquid versus carrier studies. The results of our side-by-side studies suggest that these two viruses are more readily inactivated when heat is applied to virus deposited on carriers. Decimal reduction values (i.e., the amount of time required to reduce the virus titer by one log10) measured at 46°C displayed the greatest difference between carrier and liquid inactivation approaches, with values ranging from 14.0 to 15.2 min (carrier) and from 47.4 to 64.1 min (liquid) for poliovirus. The corresponding values for adenovirus 5 were 18.2–29.2 min (carrier) and 20.8–38.3 min (liquid). At 65°C, the decimal reduction values were more similar (from 4 to 6 min) for the various inactivation approaches.",signatures:"S. Steve Zhou, Cameron Wilde, Zheng Chen, Tanya Kapes, Jennifer\nPurgill, Raymond Nims and Donna Suchmann",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60956",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60956",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"62656",title:"New Trends in Chemical Analysis of Disinfection By-Products",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77254",slug:"new-trends-in-chemical-analysis-of-disinfection-by-products",totalDownloads:1195,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The disinfection by-products are special category of emergent pollutants, and their formation is widely known when the organic matter present in the catchment water reaches the disinfection agent in the water treatment plants. These kinds of compounds are close to more than 500 molecules classified in the following main families: halomethanes, haloacetic acids, haloacetonitriles and haloketones. Their adverse effects in the health are widely recognized for international health organisms and normally are in trace levels that promote the development of smart strategies for their analysis in aquatic environments where these compounds are generally not alone. In this way, the microextraction techniques for analysis of emergent contaminants in the environment which are in trace amounts have gained a lot of space because they comply fully with the objectives established in the sample preparation field: reduction in the number of steps, adaptability to field sampling, automation and reduction or total elimination of solvents required for extraction by meeting in one step the main tasks of any sample preparation technique: extraction, clean up and enrichment. There are a lot of possibilities in this field: solid phase microextraction (SPME), liquid phase microextraction (LPME), stir bar sorptive extraction (SBSE) and rotating disk sorptive extraction (RDSE).",signatures:"Milton Rosero-Moreano",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62656",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62656",authors:[null],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8427",title:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0fdedc9bf6c23241235a0ae011c0304c",slug:"antimicrobials-antibiotic-resistance-antibiofilm-strategies-and-activity-methods",bookSignature:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8427.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6148",title:"Bacterial Pathogenesis and Antibacterial Control",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"92128a5094670f6b0c9321640f60d3a3",slug:"bacterial-pathogenesis-and-antibacterial-control",bookSignature:"Sahra",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6148.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8133",title:"Pathogenic Bacteria",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b26e69f94525a38ead8ac88e3c68631a",slug:"pathogenic-bacteria",bookSignature:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu and Sonia Bhonchal Bhardwaj",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8133.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8032",title:"Staphylococcus and Streptococcus",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9ddbf132ac8ea9d2a7613836e5a27ca",slug:"staphylococcus-and-streptococcus",bookSignature:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8032.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1811",title:"Public Health",subtitle:"Social and Behavioral Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"93597bfaec819d81d8764fde5784fc02",slug:"public-health-social-and-behavioral-health",bookSignature:"Jay Maddock",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1811.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67153",title:"Prof.",name:"Jay",surname:"Maddock",slug:"jay-maddock",fullName:"Jay Maddock"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2289",title:"Public Health",subtitle:"Methodology, Environmental and Systems Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c23d3d6a58e69be8a876d9772022a52d",slug:"public-health-methodology-environmental-and-systems-issues",bookSignature:"Jay Maddock",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2289.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67153",title:"Prof.",name:"Jay",surname:"Maddock",slug:"jay-maddock",fullName:"Jay Maddock"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3453",title:"Infection Control",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b85a2fb3c8ea8c11034e436a8389bd3c",slug:"infection-control",bookSignature:"Silpi Basak",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3453.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"101476",title:"Dr.",name:"Silpi",surname:"Basak",slug:"silpi-basak",fullName:"Silpi Basak"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6268",title:"Vignettes in Patient Safety",subtitle:"Volume 2",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0d2a1e477127a80d432276b11e6806d0",slug:"vignettes-in-patient-safety-volume-2",bookSignature:"Michael S. 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Firstenberg"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1820",title:"Infection Control",subtitle:"Updates",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e81e237a0379f680e6a159b6963e7871",slug:"infection-control-updates",bookSignature:"Christopher Sudhakar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1820.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"95455",title:"Dr.",name:"Christopher",surname:"Sudhakar",slug:"christopher-sudhakar",fullName:"Christopher Sudhakar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6672",title:"Vignettes in Patient Safety",subtitle:"Volume 3",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c8b1831a8cceea8be146cbfbd582b81",slug:"vignettes-in-patient-safety-volume-3",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki and Michael S. Firstenberg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6672.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"81456",slug:"corrigendum-to-occurrence-of-dog-bites-and-rabies-within-humans-in-srinagar-kashmir",title:"Corrigendum to: Occurrence of Dog Bites and Rabies within Humans in Srinagar, Kashmir",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/81456.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81456",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81456",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81456",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81456",chapter:{id:"76894",slug:"occurrence-of-dog-bites-and-rabies-within-humans-in-srinagar-kashmir",signatures:"Namera Thahaby, Afzal Hoque Akand, Abdul Hai Bhat, Shabeer Ahmed Hamdani and Mudasir Ali Rather",dateSubmitted:"February 15th 2021",dateReviewed:"May 3rd 2021",datePrePublished:"May 25th 2021",datePublished:"May 11th 2022",book:{id:"8737",title:"Rabies Virus at the Beginning of 21st Century",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Rabies Virus at the Beginning of 21st Century",slug:"rabies-virus-at-the-beginning-of-21st-century",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",bookSignature:"Sergey Tkachev",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8737.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"61139",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Tkachev",slug:"sergey-tkachev",fullName:"Sergey Tkachev"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"339059",title:"Dr.",name:"Namera",middleName:null,surname:"Thahaby",fullName:"Namera Thahaby",slug:"namera-thahaby",email:"nimrazahbi@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"348665",title:"Dr.",name:"Afzal",middleName:null,surname:"Hoque Akand",fullName:"Afzal Hoque Akand",slug:"afzal-hoque-akand",email:"a@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"348666",title:"Dr.",name:"Shabeer",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed Hamdani",fullName:"Shabeer Ahmed Hamdani",slug:"shabeer-ahmed-hamdani",email:"S@GMAIL.COM",position:null,institution:null},{id:"348667",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdul",middleName:null,surname:"Hai Bhat",fullName:"Abdul Hai Bhat",slug:"abdul-hai-bhat",email:"ab@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"417258",title:"Prof.",name:"Mudasir",middleName:null,surname:"Ali Rather",fullName:"Mudasir Ali Rather",slug:"mudasir-ali-rather",email:"mu@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"76894",slug:"occurrence-of-dog-bites-and-rabies-within-humans-in-srinagar-kashmir",signatures:"Namera Thahaby, Afzal Hoque Akand, Abdul Hai Bhat, Shabeer Ahmed Hamdani and Mudasir Ali Rather",dateSubmitted:"February 15th 2021",dateReviewed:"May 3rd 2021",datePrePublished:"May 25th 2021",datePublished:"May 11th 2022",book:{id:"8737",title:"Rabies Virus at the Beginning of 21st Century",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Rabies Virus at the Beginning of 21st Century",slug:"rabies-virus-at-the-beginning-of-21st-century",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",bookSignature:"Sergey Tkachev",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8737.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"61139",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Tkachev",slug:"sergey-tkachev",fullName:"Sergey Tkachev"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"339059",title:"Dr.",name:"Namera",middleName:null,surname:"Thahaby",fullName:"Namera Thahaby",slug:"namera-thahaby",email:"nimrazahbi@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"348665",title:"Dr.",name:"Afzal",middleName:null,surname:"Hoque Akand",fullName:"Afzal Hoque 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\r\n\tTotal body weight is the sum of the weight of all body components. Among these components, water, adipose tissue, muscle, and bone represent relevant contributors. The physiological or pathological variations in the amount or mass of each component can lead to an increase or a decrease in total body weight. These variations are increase (retention) or decrease (dehydration) in water amount, increase (hypertrophy, hyperplasia) or decrease (lipodystrophy) in adipose tissue mass, increase (hypertrophy) or decrease (sarcopenia) in muscle mass, and increase (increased bone density) or decrease (osteopenia, osteoporosis) in bone mass. A variety of causes including genetic factors, lifestyle, environment, aging, diseases, and medications can promote these conditions. There is a risk of increased morbidity (e.g., obesity, type 2 diabetes, and fracture) and mortality associated with some body weight variations.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current knowledge about the pathophysiology, consequences, complications, and treatment of different types of body weight changes with special emphasis on preventive measures.
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Then, when sodium moves between extracellular and intracellular compartments, water moves together in favor of the osmotic gradient. The osmolality and volume of body fluids are maintained, respectively, through the regulation of the ingestion (gain) and urinary excretion (loss) of water and electrolytes, mainly sodium (for review see [1]). The constancy of the sodium concentration and the osmolality of extracellular body fluid are essential to hydromineral homeostasis and are therefore fundamental to survival since is very important for proper tissue perfusion pressure and osmotic gradient across the cellular membrane [1].
The Renin-Angiotensin System (RAS) plays an essential role in the maintenance of the hydromineral homeostasis by eliciting sodium and water intake and by inducing sodium urinary retention through aldosterone release and hemodynamic effect via angiotensin II a key component of the RAS [2, 3]. The octapeptide hormone angiotensin II (ANGII) induces its effects on body fluids control mainly by acting on its angiotensinergic receptor type 1 (AT1) [4, 5]. The AT1 receptor is a member of the G-protein (heterotrimeric guanine nucleotide-binding protein)-coupled receptor (GPCR) superfamily of integral membrane proteins and is coupled to the Gq. Then, its stimulation leads to the activation of phospholipase C, protein kinase C (PKC), and members of the mitogen-activated protein kinase family (MAPK) as extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2 (ERK1/2), p38 MAPK and c-Jun N-terminal Kinase (JNK) (for review see [6]). Hines et al. [7] showed that the activation of MAPKs, mediated by AT1, can be PKC dependent or independent according to the activated conformations that the receptor may adopt. Recently, some studies have postulated that these intracellular signaling pathways from the AT1 receptor are involved in different ingestive behavioral responses. In this context, ANGII-induced sodium intake requires the PKC-independent ERK1/2 signaling pathway while water intake requires PKC, JNK, and the mechanistic target of the rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) signaling pathways [8, 9, 10].
ANGII induces rapid and prominent water and sodium intake when injected centrally even in normohydration animals, as well in response to hypovolemic and hyponatremic stimuli [3]. In the brain, peripheral and central ANGII induces sodium and water intake by binding to AT1 in important forebrain structures involved in the generation of fluid intakes, such as the organum vasculosum of the lamina terminalis (OVLT), the median preoptic nucleus (MnPO), and the subfornical organ (SFO) [11, 12]. The SFO is a key sensory circumventricular organ (CVO) involved in the control of body fluids homeostasis, that receives, integrates, and responds to both blood-borne and central nervous system (CNS) signals [5]. The CVOs are specialized structures of CNS, comprising the SFO, area postrema, OVLT, median eminence, and neurohypophysis, which lack the normal blood–brain barrier and thus provide essential communication between the circulation and the CNS [13]. The increase in the circulating and central ANGII levels enhances the neural activity of the SFO, which sends axonal projections to the anteroventral third ventricle region (AV3V), particularly the OVLT and MnPO ventral, and to the hypothalamus as the supraoptic nucleus (SON), and the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) (for review see [5]).
Magnocellular neurosecretory neurons of the PVN and the SON synthesize vasopressin (AVP) and oxytocin (OT) which are released into the circulation from the neurohypophysis [14]. OT, beyond its classic effects on uterine contraction and myoepithelial cells of the breast alveoli, participates in body fluid control by eliciting natriuresis and sodium appetite inhibition [15, 16, 17]. The antidiuretic action of AVP is the main physiological effect of this hormone on body fluid control, exerting an important role in osmolality urinary regulation. The hypothalamo-neurohypophysial system plays a fundamental role in the maintenance of hydromineral homeostasis by secreting AVP and OT in response to osmotic and non-osmotic, and volemic stimuli (for review see [11]). Furthermore, in response to AT1 receptor activation, SFO efferent angiotensinergic projections increase the excitability of vasopressinergic and oxytocinergic neurons in the PVN and SON, leading to AVP and OT secretion [18]. ANGII also can directly increase AVP and OT secretion by acting on its AT1 receptor expressed in the PVN [19]. Concerning the ANGII signaling pathway in neurohypophysial secretion, Felgendreger et al. [20] showed that the ERK1/2 activation induced by endogenous ANGII is not involved in AVP and OT secretion in male rats. However, PKC involvement was not analyzed in this study.
The balance of body fluid involves a close correlation with blood pressure control, and thus, disturbances in one of these imply adjustments in the other. The proper maintenance of cardiovascular functions, such as peripheral vascular tone, cardiac activity, and, consequently, blood pressure involves orchestrated activities of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system. The sympathetic activity also exerts an important control renal function in the regulation of plasma volume and osmolality, which influence cardiovascular function [11]. Moreover, some of the key brain regions that are involved in the control of hydromineral homeostasis also promote adjustments in the neuroendocrine and autonomic mechanisms of blood pressure control. For example, the peripheral portion of the SFO sends projections to areas important for fluid balance (magnocellular neurosecretory neurons in the PVN and SON) while the core projects to areas involved in blood pressure control (parvocellular presympathetic neurons in the PVN) [5]. Thus, during disturbances of hydromineral homeostasis that lead to increased peripheral and central ANGII results in activation of neurosecretory and presympathetic neurons in the PVN, via afferent projections from the SFO, inducing an increased systemic AVP release and renal sympathetic outflow which act together to restore hydromineral balance [11]. AVP from neurosecretory neuronal populations also modulates sympathetic outflow and consequently blood pressure by increasing the activity of the presympathetic neurons within the PVN that project to the rostral ventrolateral medulla, a region responsible for the sympathetic system control on the cardiovascular function [21]. In addition, both circulating ANGII and AVP modulate blood pressure through its effects on peripheral vascular tone, inducing potent vasoconstriction and consequently increased total peripheral resistance [6, 11].
Taken together, SFO and hypothalamus, particularly PVN, play an important role in the generation of integrative homeostatic responses through orchestrated activities of neuroendocrine and autonomic networks [5, 11, 22]. An imbalanced interaction among these circuits results in maladaptive responses that can lead to an increased risk of developing cardiovascular disease, such as hypertension [23].
It is well known that besides reproductive function and sexual behavior, ovarian gonadal hormones, mainly 17β-estradiol (E2), modulate other non-reproductive functions such as cardiovascular function, body fluid balance, feeding, sleep cycles, temperature regulation, mood, mental state, memory, and cognition [3, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30]. Nevertheless, in this chapter, we will discuss the main non-reproductive effects of estradiol on the control of hydromineral homeostasis, focusing on ingestive behavior and neurohypophyseal hormonal release.
Mounting evidence reports changes in the hydromineral balance associated with the different phases of the reproductive cycle, gestation period, and reproductive senescence [3, 31, 32]. Receptor for estrogens (ER) is expressed in several tissues that play pivotal roles in hydromineral homeostasis, comprising the kidney, adrenal gland, blood vessels, and brain structures such as lamina terminalis (i.e., OVLT, MnPO, and SFO), and hypothalamus (PVN and SON) (for review see [33]). ER expression in the tissues that are involved in body fluid control supports the hypothesis that estrogens modulate hydromineral homeostasis control. Thus, the study of the influence of E2 on hydromineral homeostasis has been widely appreciated in recent decades, although the precise mechanism of its control is not always in agreement.
Upon entering the cell, due to their lipophilic character, estrogens bind to their classical intranuclear receptors, which are classified as ER type alpha (ERα) and beta (ERβ), and mediate the regulation of genes and transcription factors, comprising their classic genomic signaling pathway. However, several studies have shown that estrogens can also trigger non-genomic events by binding plasmatic membrane-associated ER (mER), inducing rapid effects [34, 35]. In addition to other proteins, ER stimulation activates members of the MAPK family, such as ERK1/2, JNK, and p38 MAPK [30, 36, 37] as well increases PKC and PKA activities [38].
Importantly, most evidence supports that ERα and ERβ are trafficked to the membrane and also activated membrane estradiol cell signaling. Moreover, there are estrogen membrane-binding proteins that mediate estradiol non-genomic signaling, such as G protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPER/GPR30), a putative receptor (ER-X), and splice variants of ERα and/or ERβ receptors (for review see [35]). However, the role of these mERs in estradiol signaling and effects remain to be better characterized.
Thirst and sodium appetite and the water and sodium intake resulting comprise motivated behaviors involved in the regulation of the hydromineral and cardiovascular homeostasis [3]. A number of epidemiological, clinical, and genetic studies in humans and animals have been showing a link between chronically high salt consumption and the development of hypertension (for review see [24]). Although the involved mechanisms are not fully understood, it is known that occurs increased in the sympathetic and RAS activities, besides be associated with a reduced ability of the kidney to excrete large amounts of salt [23, 24]. Nevertheless, women during their reproductive period have a lower incidence of hypertension than age-matched men [39, 40]. On the other hand, women and females tend to have salt sensitivity and increased blood pressure at postmenopausal or reproductive senescence, suggesting sex differences in body fluid balance and blood pressure regulation [3, 24]. In fact, E2 is known to mediate hydromineral homeostasis and blood pressure mainly by attenuating RAS activity (Figure 1). E2 replacement therapy decreases ANGII-induced water and sodium intake [3, 9, 41]; blood pressure increased induced by ANGII and development of hypertension in spontaneously hypertensive rats (for review see [40, 42]); angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) and renin activities [43, 44, 45]; AT1 mRNA expression, ANGII-AT1 binding, and ANGII-induced Fos immunoreactivity in the OVLT and SFO [28, 46, 47, 48]. Moreover, women during reproductive period have lower (pro)renin and renin plasma levels than men [49]. In rats, females at proestrus and estrus respond less to RAS activation and ANGII administration than at other stages of the cycle [3, 50].
Schematic summary displays the cascade leading to peripheral ANGII formation and subsequent AT1 receptor activation and the E2 influence on RAS components. Importantly, all these RAS components are also expressed within the brain, leading to central ANGII formation [
Although E2 and progesterone have complementary actions in reproductive function, regarding RAS, studies have shown that progesterone has an opposite effect of E2 [43, 51] and is not involved in water regulation in response to ANGII [52].
Interestingly, in ovariectomized (OVX) rats and during their period of most active, i.e., at night, both water and sodium intakes induced by ANGII require p38 MAPK, JNK, and PKC signaling pathways. ANGII-induced sodium intake also requires ERK1/2 signaling pathway PKC-independent in female [9, 41]. These observations corroborate with Coble et al. [53], which also showed that PKC is involved in both ANGII-induced water and sodium intake in the SFO in male mice. However, Daniels et al. [8] showed that PKC signaling is exclusively involved in ANGII-induced water intake in male rats. Thus, these divergent results suggest a sexually dimorphic aspect to the AT1 signaling pathway involved in fluid intake induced by ANGII. Indeed, several studies report that the RAS is differentially regulated in males and females [3, 39, 40, 42].
In the brain, ERα is extensively distributed in the neurons of the nuclei of the basal forebrain, such as lamina terminalis. SFO neurons have been shown to express both AT1 and ERα [5, 33]. Evidence from our group showed that E2 impairs ANGII signaling [9, 41, 54] besides decreased AT1 mRNA expression in the SFO [28]. For example, E2 attenuates JNK phosphorylation as well as prevents p38 MAPK phosphorylation induced by ANGII in the lamina terminalis. Moreover, E2 attenuates ANGII-induced ERK1/2 phosphorylation within the SFO. These mechanisms can explain, at least in part, the E2 inhibitory effect on the fluid intake induced by ANGII.
An important feature of GPCRs is that they are rapidly phosphorylated by specific GPCR kinases (GRKs) in their serine and threonine residues within the intracellular loop and carboxyl-terminal tail domains. GRK family members selectively phosphorylate agonist activated GPCRs, promoting the binding with cytosolic cofactor proteins termed arrestins, which uncouple GPCRs from G proteins, interrupting the signaling pathway. This process is referred to as desensitization, which occurs within seconds to minutes (for review see [55, 56]). Nevertheless, it is currently known that arrestins can also act as scaffolds to recruit signaling molecules, such as ERK1/2 and JNK, to increase the repertoire of receptor responses. When β-arrestin binds to the AT1 receptor that is phosphorylated by GRK5 or GRK6, it functions as an intracellular signaling adapter leading to robust ERK1/2 activation [57, 58]. In this context, evidence from our group showed that E2 reduced the expression of GRK5 in the lamina terminalis [54]. This observation suggests that E2 may also impair the ANGII signaling pathway by decreasing the activation of ERK1/2 via negative regulation of the GRK5, which can be relevant to the inhibitory effect of E2 on sodium intake induced by ANGII.
Furthermore, Almeida-Pereira et al. [9] showed that the inhibitory effect of E2 on ANGII-induced water and sodium intake requires the ERK1/2 and JNK signaling pathways. Because these inhibitory effects of E2 were quickly reversed by the central inhibition of ERK1/2 and JNK activities, suggesting that there is the involvement of a non-genomic effect of ER agonism. E2 replacement therapy also induces ERK1/2 and JNK phosphorylation in the lamina terminalis [9], and these proteins are involved in the AT1 receptor desensitization process [59, 60]. These observations point to the idea that ERK1/2 and JNK activation from E2 signaling may contribute to the AT1 receptor desensitization process in the lamina terminalis.
Regarding PKC signaling, central PKC inhibition maintains the inhibitory effect of E2 on ANGII-induced fluid intake, and when analyzing PKC activation, E2 induced an increase in PKC (specifically alpha isoform) translocation to the plasmatic membrane in the lamina terminalis structures. Thus, perhaps PKC is not involved in the inhibitory effect of E2 on fluid intake induced by ANGII or E2 may change other protein activation from the sequence of PKC signaling cascade. Indeed, E2 prevents p38 MAPK phosphorylation induced by ANGII and does not activate p38 MAPK in the lamina terminalis [41]. In addition, as already described, E2 attenuates ERK1/2 and JNK phosphorylation in response to ANGII. Lastly, besides GRK, it is known that PKC also phosphorylates the AT1 receptor, exposed or not to agonists, inducing its desensitization [56]. Taken together, these findings lead to the hypothesis that E2 can modulate AT1 desensitization by PKC activation in the lamina terminals. A summary of all these signaling interactions is provided in Figure 2.
Schematic summary of the proposed interaction between E2 and ANGII signaling within lamina terminalis structures involved in water and sodium intake. E2 impairs MAPKs phosphorylation in response to ANGII by inducing AT1 desensitization, reduced GRK5 expression, and (or) phosphatase activation (not identified), which leads to ANGII-induced fluid intake reduction. A possible explanation for the E2-induced AT1 desensitization is through ER-mediated ERK1/2 and (or) JNK signaling. Another is through PKC activation mediated by ER inducing AT1 phosphorylation and, consequently, its desensitization. Legend: continuous arrow indicates stimulation and dashed arrow indicates inhibition.
It is widely known that OT plays a pivotal role in parturition and lactation by inducing contractions of the uterus and myoepithelial cells of the breast alveoli. In addition, OT participates in the hydromineral balance as a regulator of blood volume by eliciting natriuresis and sodium appetite inhibition [15, 16, 17]; and participates in the blood pressure control through its vascular and cardiac relaxation effects [61, 62]. In the central nervous system, OT acts as a neurotransmitter involved in sex and maternal behavior (for review see [63]).
The plasma hyperosmolality is the major stimulus for AVP secretion following by hypotension or decreased blood volume [64]. Thus, through its main antidiuretic effect, AVP plays a fundamental role in hydromineral homeostasis as a regulator of plasma osmolality [11]. Regarding blood pressure control, as described previously, AVP increases sympathetic outflow and peripheral vascular tone by eliciting vasoconstriction and increase consequently the blood pressure [11, 21].
In situ hybridization studies reported a wide distribution of mRNA expression for ERβ in the brain of rats, including in the neurons of SON and the parvo and magnocellular divisions of PVN [65, 66]. Hrabovszky et al. [67] showed that OT and AVP neurons from PVN and SON co-express mRNA for ERβ. These findings provide a neuroendocrine basis for E2 influence on the hypothalamo-neurohypophysial system by acting directly on the PVN and SON neurons. Importantly, E2 can also regulate neurohypophysial hormone release through ERα activation present in the lamina terminal structures and via connections with PVN and SON [33]. In this context, E2 is known to modulate OT release positively, besides increases mRNA expression for OT in the PVN and SON [68, 69, 70]. Conversely, the influence of E2 on AVP secretion is complex with controversial data in the literature. Nevertheless, in general, studies point out that there is a positive correlation between AVP secretion and E2 plasma levels associated with body water retention. Moreover, E2 decreases the osmotic threshold for AVP stimulation during dehydration without affect renal free water clearance, suggesting that E2 may alter renal sensitivity to AVP or even interfere with AVP action in the kidney [71, 72, 73].
A decrease in blood volume and increased renal sympathetic outflow stimulate renin release from the kidney, which results in increased circulating levels of ANGII [3, 11]. Furthermore, during hypovolemia and hypotension, AVP secretion is stimulated mainly by neural (from cardiac baroreceptors and afferent inputs from the brainstem that project to the SON and PVN) and humoral (i.e., ANGII) signals. In dehydration and hyperosmolality conditions, both AVP and OT secretion are stimulated by an osmoregulatory circuit comprising osmoreceptors activation and axonal projections from the basal forebrain to the PVN and SON besides the intrinsic osmosensitivity of magnocellular neurons of the PVN and SON [11, 64]. Thus, hypovolemia (from hemorrhage or dehydration) and hyperosmolality (from dehydration) stimulate RAS activation as well as AVP and OT secretion.
Evidence from our group provides interesting insights that neurohypophysial secretion in response to ANGII involves distinct signal transduction pathways in OVX rats. We reported for the first time that PKC/p38 MAPK signaling is involved in ANGII-induced OT release while AVP release requires ERK1/2 and p38 MAPK signaling PKC-independent [9, 41]. However, Felgendreger et al. [20] showed that the ERK1/2 activation induced by endogenous ANGII is not involved in AVP secretion in male rats. These divergent results suggest a sexually dimorphic aspect to the AT1 signaling pathway involved in ANGII-induced AVP secretion. As already described, several studies reported that the RAS is differentially regulated in males and females, which can be attributed to differences in gonadal and steroid profiles [3, 39, 40, 42].
Concerning E2 modulation on ANGII-induced AVP and OT release, it was observed that E2 inhibits AVP and OT secretion in response to ANGII by impairing ERK1/2 and p38 MAPK phosphorylation, respectively, in the PVN and SON [9, 41]. MAPK proteins are inactivated by phosphatases, such as mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphatases (MKPs). MPKs are dual-specificity protein phosphatases (also known as DUSPs) that dephosphorylate both tyrosine and threonine residues on MAPK members [74]. MAPK phosphatase 1 (MKP-1) was the first of the MKPs to be characterized and is known for dephosphorylating all three major classes of MAPK (ERK, p38 MAPK, and JNK) being expressed in the brain besides many others tissues [75]. MKP-1 is under the positive regulation of E2 in the PVN and SON and thereby can participate in the inhibitory effect of E2 by eliciting ERK1/2 and p38 MAPK dephosphorylation [9]. In addition, it was hypothesized that E2 inhibits ANGII-induced AVP release via PKC-mediated MKP-1 induction and consequent ERK1/2 dephosphorylation, involving E2 non-genomic signaling [54]. A summary is provided in Figure 3.
Schematic summary of the regulatory mechanisms of E2 proposed on ANGII-induced OT and AVP release. Top: E2 can indirectly modulate AVP and OT release induced by ANGII via angiotensinergic afferent inputs from the lamina terminalis structures that project to the SON and PVN. E2 impairs ANGII signaling in neurons of the lamina terminalis leading thereby to the OT and AVP neurons decreased activity in the SON and PVN. Bottom: E2 directly acts in OT and AVP neurons in the PVN and SON, preventing MAPKs phosphorylation through PKC/MKP-1 signaling pathway. Legend: continuous arrow indicates stimulation and dashed arrow indicates inhibition.
Importantly, ANGII can also stimulate AVP and OT release by acting in the lamina terminalis structures which send angiotensinergic projections to magnocellular neurons of the PVN and SON [5, 13]. Thus, E2 can indirectly modulate AVP and OT release induced by ANGII via afferent inputs from the basal forebrain that project to the SON and PVN. Nevertheless, as E2 increases MKP-1 specifically in the PVN and SON and not in lamina terminalis structures, it is suggested that E2 plays an important direct modulation on AVP and OT release induced by ANGII in hypothalamic nuclei [9, 41]. In the same sense, Vilhena-Franco et al. [76] showed that E2 modulates AVP secretion in response to water deprivation via a direct mechanism mediated by ERβ expressed in the SON and PVN. Additionally, others studies have demonstrated that E2 modulates OT and AVP release directly via its ERβ or mER (mainly AVP release) in magnocellular neurons of the PVN and SON [77, 78, 79].
A novel peptide, conserved across species, was recently described and named phoenixin (PNX). PNX is produced in the brain and heart binding selectively in the pituitary gland, ovary, and brain. The hypothalamus was identified to produce the most PNX of all tissues examined as well as presented the highest binding of labeled PNX [80]. PNX has been implicated to play an important role in the hypothalamic–pituitary-gonadal axis control by increasing the gonadal release hormone (GnRH) expression and its receptor in the hypothalamus besides increasing luteinizing hormone (LH) release [80, 81]. Using a deductive ligand-receptor matching strategy (U.S. Patent #9, 146, 240, B2), the orphaned G protein-coupled receptor (GPR)173 was identified to be a candidate PNX receptor [82].
The novel reproductive neuropeptide PNX and its receptor, GPR173, were also identified in magnocellular neurons of the PVN and SON, suggesting the participation of PNX on the hypothalamo-neurohypophysial system control and hence of the hydromineral homeostasis. [80, 82]. In fact, Gasparini et al. [83] demonstrated that PNX induces AVP release through its candidate receptor, GPR173, besides depolarizes magnocellular neurons of the PVN. Interestingly, PNX does not modulate OT release. Despite there are no differences between males and females on PNX-induced AVP release, a potential estrogen response element (ERE) upstream of PNX was identified, suggesting that ovarian hormones, especially E2, can modulate PNX [80, 83]. Consistent with this idea, ovarian failure induced by OVX induces downregulation of PNX compared with intact females in the hypothalamus [84].
Circulating levels of ovarian steroids progesterone, and, mainly 17β-estradiol, increase throughout the pregnancy, reaching maximum values at the end of pregnancy in women [85, 86]. On the other hand, in rats, peripheral plasma levels of estradiol increase across pregnancy with a concomitant decrease in progesterone [87]. However, in both humans and animals, it is observed changes in hydromineral homeostasis over the pregnancy, such as blood volume expansion and low osmolality associated with a reduced threshold for hyperosmotic stimulation of AVP secretion. Thus, AVP secretion is paradoxically elevated during this hypervolemic and hyponatremic state of the pregnancy [32, 88] although is important to maintain water homeostasis offsetting AVP that is metabolized by vasopressinase in humans [89]. A dysfunction in the metabolism of vasopressinase and AVP can predispose women to develop cardiovascular diseases associated with hydromineral imbalance, as pregnancy-induced hypertension, that occurs after the second trimester of pregnancy [89, 90].
In this context, our group demonstrated upregulation of GPR173 during late post-puberty in the PVN, and importantly, upregulation during the last third of pregnancy in the hypothalamus. Moreover, it was observed an increase in the hypothalamic levels of PNX and AVP across pregnancy compared with levels present during diestrus with a positive correlation between both peptides [84]. Thus, these results suggest an important role of PNX on AVP release during late pregnancy, which can help to provide potential pharmacological targets for preventing the development of cardiovascular diseases across pregnancy.
Estradiol replacement therapy initiated at the time of or prior to menopause is usually employed for decreasing the risk of cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases [91, 92, 93]. Nowadays, the high composition of salt in the contemporary diet constitutes an important public health concern, since uncontrolled sodium consumption increases the risk of hypertension [24], particularly in women in later menopause, who have a greater risk of developing cardiovascular disease [3, 24]. The increased central and peripheral RAS activity is involved in the pathophysiology of hypertension. Given the wide complexity of the crosstalk signaling pathways, cellular and molecular studies are important to better elucidate the mechanisms of the interaction between E2 and ANGII signaling as well as mapping out the potential benefits of E2 replacement and its action on the central nervous system. In this context, advanced evidence has been contributed to the further understanding of E2 and ANGII interaction in the hydromineral homeostasis, which can reveal potential pharmacological targets to prevent cardiovascular diseases, with uncontrolled salt consumption as a predisposing factor, during female reproductive senescence. Taken together, E2 impairs ANGII signaling besides induces the downregulation of AT1 receptor. E2 attenuates MAPKs phosphorylation involved in ANGII physiological actions in the lamina terminalis structures and hypothalamic nuclei, namely, PVN and SON.
This study was supported by the Sao Paulo Research Foundation, Brazil (FAPESP, grant #2012/04620-0, #2014/25005-8, #2017/22140-0 from Gislaine Almeida-Pereira, and #2013/09799-1 from José Antunes-Rodrigues), Brazilian Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq) and the Brazilian Federal Agency for Support and Evaluation of Graduate Education (CAPES). The authors thank Santo Oliani Junior for his help in drawing the figures.
Species | Subspecies | Number of serotypes |
---|---|---|
2637 | ||
1586 | ||
522 | ||
102 | ||
338 | ||
76 | ||
13 | ||
22 |
Number of serotypes present in each
Costerton et al. [14] were the first researchers in stablish the term biofilm in paper published in
There are four different steps of biofilm formation: 1) bacterial attachment, 2) microcolony formation, 3) bacterial maturation and 4) dispersion (Figure 1). The initial adhesion of bacterial cells is highly influenced by surface properties (roughness, hydrophobic interactions), environmental changes and bacterial regulation. Biofilm maturation and architecture is regulated by the signals of bacteria cells that compose biofilm and its stability depends on the accumulation of specific proteins, eDNA and polysaccharides. The presence of disruptive factors as proteases and nucleases and other enzymes activates biofilm dispersion. Factors as quorum sensing play an important role in this last step which function is the colonization of new niches [19].
Steps involved in
The change from a weak interaction to a strong interaction between surface and bacterial cells is responsible to the switch from a reversible adhesion to an irreversible adhesion step. This change can happen in minutes and the production of EPS is key. The secretion of this polymeric substance by bacterial cells enhances the cell-surface interaction being necessary shear forces or chemical substances to break the adhesion [16, 20].
The formation of biofilm microcolony results from the accumulation of bacteria growth and the production and association with EPS. As a result, the bond between bacteria and substrate increases and protect bacteria from different environmental stressors. The cell-to-cell communication mechanism play an important role in this step of biofilm formation by regulating the expression of biofilm related genes. This results in an increased EPS production and caption of planktonic cells [21].
The small microcolonies formed join to form the mature biofilm and its characteristic three-dimensional structure. The production of EPS and union between cells permits that mechanical pressure do not detach the biofilm from the surface. There are three different parts in mature biofilm. The bottom layer is a biofilm that forms a network structure that did not completely covers the surface that supports the biofilm. The intermediate layer is composed by a compact basement membrane. Finally, in the outer layer are located the planktonic cells [16].
The last step of biofilm formation is dispersion. In this phase the biofilm cells revert to their planktonic form. There are different factors that influences biofilm dispersion including external disturbance, starvation, endogenous enzymes, the release of EPS or surface binding proteins. This is an important step for the colonization of new niches by bacterial cells [22].
Curli fimbriae is the most important protein involved in biofilm formation. Also is related to other processes as colonization, persistence, motility and invasion. This is a highly aggregative, unbranched, amyloid-like protein that promote cell-to-cell interactions through surfaces interactions and forms a complex with cellulose and O-capsule antigen. Other protein involved in biofilm formation is fimbriae type I. This protein is necessary for adhesion and biofilm formation in enterocytes. The protein BapA has an important role in bacterial aggregation and biofilm formation in air-liquid interface through homophilic interaction between bacterial cells [23, 24, 25, 26].
Cellulose is the main polysaccharide involved in
Flagella, which are basic for cell movement and swarming in
The change from a planktonic to a biofilm cell lifestyle needs some physiological changes. This switch is controlled by a complex genetic machinery that regulates the production of substances that conform the biofilm extracellular matrix, bacterial metabolism and the response to environmental signals. The transition between planktonic to biofilm cells and the expression of specific biofilm matrix-associated components is the master regulator of biofilm formation CsgD. It forms part of the operon that control the synthesis of curli fimbriae and acts as a transcriptional activator of the quorum sensing LuxR family. CsgD expression respond to different environmental signals as nutrient concentration, temperature, growth phase, oxygen tension, osmolarity, membrane integrity, tryptophan, and indole. CsgD positively regulates cellulose biosynthesis in
RpoS and Crl are other important regulators of
The bacterial messenger molecule c-di-GMP regulates several biological functions as virulence, motility, cell cycle regulation, differentiation, and biofilm formation. This molecule promotes
Other regulatory system implicated in motility and biofilm formation is the two-component system BarA/SirA. This system is modulated by factors as external pH, metabolic end products (formate, acetate), short chain fatty acids or bile salts. SirA modulates the
Another mechanism implicated in biofilm formation is Quorum sensing (QS). This is a cell-to-cell communication mechanism used by bacteria to adapt to environmental changes and implant a common bacterial strategy to respond to environmental stressors. QS is implicated in responsive defense against eukaryotic host cells, nutrient access, growth restriction environments, survive in hostile environments as well as cell differentiation to other form of life as biofilm cells. This communication is based in small molecules called autoinducers and that diffuse through bacterial membranes. Autoinducers are secreted at a basal level during bacterial growth. The concentration of this molecules increases with the growth of bacterial population until reach a threshold level and modulate the expression of QS target genes (Figure 2) [49, 50].
Schematic representation of quorum sensing mechanisms AI-1 and AI-2 in
Gram-negative bacteria QS is divide into three categories: (i) N-acyl homoserine lactones (AHLs) called AI-1; (ii) furanosyl borate diester derived from the recycling of S-adenosyl-homocysteine to homocysteine called Autoinducer II (AI-2) for interspecies and intraspecies communication; and (iii) Autoinducer (AI-3) related to the recognition of host catecholamines epinephrine and norepinephrine. In the case of
Nowadays, it is totally accepted that most bacteria grow in biofilm in the environment. Biofilms can have beneficial effects. For example, biofilm formation by
Biofilms are a persistent source of contamination in the food industry. This cause hygiene and economic issues due to the spoilage of different food product batches with bacteria that persist in biofilms [56]. This is especially important in today’s globalized world where food is globally distributed. Also, in the last years consumers demand fresh and minimally processed food products. Hygiene measures must therefore be strict to avoid contamination of food products. The presence of food-borne pathogen biofilms in the food processing environment can result in large number of food batches contaminated and outbreaks worldwide [57]. A good example was the salmonellosis outbreak caused by contamination of different batches of infant formula manufactured in a single facture and causing an outbreak that affected different countries around the world. Poor cleaning and disinfection procedures of food industry surfaces results in the presence of food residues that in the presence of humidity favors the development of bacterial biofilms as
Biofilm formation is influences but different factors as bacterial genus, species and even strains. But surface have a high influence on the ability of bacteria to adhere and form biofilm [59, 60]. Different type of material as stainless steel, glass, rubber, polystyrene and polyurethane, Teflon, nitrile and rarely wood are present in the food industry [61, 62, 63]. Physical properties have influence on biofilm formation, especially surface tension. Bacterial adhesion is favor by moist, energy free surfaces. Bacterial cells have better adherence to hydrophilic surfaces in comparison to hydrophobic surfaces. Surface roughness also influence cell adherence [57, 64]. In this sense, polished stainless steel showed less bacterial adherence than unpolished stainless steel [65]. Also, a study that compared stainless steel, glass and wood found that this latter surface favor biofilm formation because its porosity and ability to hold organic matter [66]. But also, surface influences biofilm formation in food industry. In this sense, welds, joints, corners or equipment design could enhance initial bacterial cell adherence [67]. But the presence of organic molecules on food industry surfaces is one of the major factors that influences biofilm formation. The presence of a layer of molecules as milk or meat proteins, EPS produced by other bacteria, favor the initial adhesion of bacterial cells. Diverse studies have observed that the presence of chicken juice macromolecules in stainless steel surfaces favor the initial adhesion of
In the food production chain, there are different environmental conditions that can modulate
Although monospecies biofilm studies are interesting to understand the mechanism involved in biofilm formation under different environmental conditions of a specific bacteria, in nature biofilms are commonly composed by bacteria of different species and genera. These different bacteria communicate with each other through diverse mechanism as quorum sensing stablishing synergistic interactions that increase the resistance of biofilm to stressful environments. Also, genetic exchanges between different bacteria can occur in the biofilm environment [77]. This is specially interesting when resistance genes are transmitted. Dual biofilm studies are the first step to study multi-species biofilms. In this kind of studies, the biofilm formation ability of each bacterial group is studied individually, and then conjunct studies are carried out to determine the synergic mechanism stablished between the different groups [78]. In this sense, a study observed that
Bacteriocins are defined as a group of ribosomally produced antimicrobial peptides synthesized by both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. These molecules are characterized by its ability to act against closely related bacteria (narrow spectrum) or a diverse group of bacteria (broad spectrum) [82]. Bacteriocins can be dived in two general groups: Class I composed by peptides with post translational modifications and Class II composed by unmodified peptides. The production of bacteriocins is considered as a competition mechanism that allows bacteria to kill other bacteria that can compete with it for a certain niche or for nutrients. This suggests that many bacterial groups produce at least one bacteriocin, which means that there are still many bacteriocins to be discovered [83, 84]. Bacteriocins have a great antimicrobial capacity against their targets at nanomolar concentrations and exerts its activity by membrane permeabilization [85].
In recent years these molecules have received much interest in general and in particular their application in the food chain. The main reason is the search for alternatives to antibiotics due to the emergence of antimicrobial resistance [86]. While the use of antibiotics to treat enteric pathogens can cause harm to commensal bacteria in the intestinal microbiota, narrow-spectrum bacteriocins can be used in such a way that only the target bacteria are affected by the treatment [86]. On the other hand, the bacteriocins can be used as modular of the intestinal microbiota. For example, they can be used to establish a microbiota that favors the fattening of the chickens and therefore as natural substitutes for antibiotics as growth promoters [87]. In addition, today consumers are demanding food products where the use of chemicals is reduced to a minimum, and natural alternatives such as bacteriocins would be welcomed. Finally, another advantage is that the bacteriocins can be used directly or bacteriocin-producing probiotic cultures can be used resulting in the production of these molecules in situ. This would eliminate the process of production and purification of bacteriocins making their application more economical. But bacteriocins can be also useful to inhibit and eradicate biofilm biofilms in the food production chain (Figure 3).
Mode of action of bacteriocin and bacteriocing-producing bacteria to inhibit and/or eradicate
One of the first studies in this field, two concentrations of enterocin AS-48 (25 and 50 mg/L) produced by
In addition, instead of bacteriocins, the bacteriocin-producing bacteria themselves can also be used as alternative way to reduce
Bacteriophages are viruses that infects bacterial cells with a high specificity. The life cycle of bacteriophages can be classified in two general categories: the lytic cycle (virulent) and the lysogenic cycle (temperate phage). In the lytic cycle the infection process starts with the irreversible attachment of the phage tail proteins to a receptor of the bacterial cell surface (protein or lipopolysaccharides). The ability of the bacteriophages to recognize and attach to molecules of the bacterial cell surface defines its host range. Once the phage DNA is in the host cell, specific enzymes are synthetized to drive host cell to the production of proteins necessary for the generation of new phage particles and cell lysis enzymes. At the end of the phage cycle, cell lysis, release of progeny phage and infection of neighboring susceptible cells occurs. Temperate phages combine its capacity to carried out the lytic cycle with the ability to persist as a prophage in the genome of the host cell and replicate with them. Diverse environmental signal can result in the prophage entering in the lytic cycle [96]. The use of temperate phages in medical and food applications is avoided because can cause transduction of genetic material between bacteria including virulence genes. In addition, due to its cycle, they do not kill all the bacteria that infect [97].
Lytic phages are those chosen for being used in phage therapy because they can replicate exponentially on bacterial culture and can eliminate multidrug resistant bacteria [86]. Based on their activity spectrum can be defined as monovalent phages when they are specific to one type of bacterial species and polyvalent phages when they are able to attack two or more bacterial species. But normally phages have a narrow host range, strains specific in most cases, and therefore cocktails composed by two or more phages are normally used to broaden the antimicrobial spectrum and reduce phage resistance [98].
Although bacteriophages have been known for over a century, the development of antibiotics resulted in their use not being explored in the Western world. However, the global problem of antimicrobial resistance and the need to seek alternatives has resulted in bacteriophages being brought back into the spotlight. Its applications in the food chain are very wide. They can be used for the treatment of bacterial diseases of production animals, for the disinfection of facilities and the elimination of biofilms or they can be added to food or packaging to inhibit the growth of food pathogens [86, 97]. In fact, there are different commercially available bacteriophage solutions to be applied to food or food processing facilities. Some examples are ListShield™, SalmoFresh™ and EcoShield PX™ commercialized by Intralytix or PhageGuard Listex and PhageGuard S commercialized by PhageGuard.
The bacteriophages synthetized at the end of the phage multiplication cycle peptidoglycan hydrolases commonly called endolysin. Its function is to lyse the host bacterial cell by directly target bonds in the bacterial cell wall peptidoglycan structure. This result in the degradation of the rigid murein layer and the release of newly assembled bacteriophage virions [99]. While endolysins can act as exolysins in the Gram-positive bacterial peptidoglycan layer, they cannot degrade the bacterial outer membrane of Gran-negative bacterial cells. Therefore, the outer membrane can prevent the access and the effect of endolysins [100]. For that reason, it is necessary to combine endolysins with other treatments for the lysis of Gram-negative bacteria. The combination of endolysin with outer membrane disruptors in one the main options for the application of enzymes in Gram-negative bacteria. Gram-positive phages endolysins have a modular structured formed by a cell-wall-binding domain that specifically recognizes the cell wall-associated ligand molecules and an enzymatically active domain that cleaves the peptidoglycan structure. Although gram-negative bacteriophage endolysins may also have this structure, they usually have a globular structure that only possesses a an enzymatically active domain [101, 102].One of the main advantages of the use of endolysins is that a very small amount of purified enzyme is enough to lyse in minutes or even seconds a dense suspension of bacterial cells. This in combination with their substrate specificity makes them have great potential for application in food science [103]. Endolysins are considered to be safe and also have some advantages compared to the use of bacteriophages because do not create gene transduction issues and therefore not contribute to the emerging problem of antimicrobial resistant bacteria [104]. Its applications in the food industry are very wide. They can be added directly to food, can be part of bioactive packaging or can even be used to remove biofilms in the food industry environment Furthermore, due to their specificity, they can be applied directly to treat intestinal infections in farm animals without causing alterations in the intestinal microbiota [103].
Tiwari et al. [105] tested a specific
Garcia et al. [109] tested a cocktail of lytic bacteriophages biofilm to eradicate biofilms formed by different
Using a food model, Sadekuzzaman et al. [115] evaluated the efficacy of 2 h bacteriophage treatment against
Alexandre Lamas has a postdoctoral fellowship from Xunta de Galicia (Axudas de apoio á etapa de formación posdoutoral IN606B (Modalidade A)).
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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\\n\\nIf you are interested in publishing your book with IntechOpen, please submit your book proposal by completing the Publishing Proposal Form.
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\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Without sacrificing the quality of carefully edited and produced peer-reviewed content, Compacts are published as part of IntechOpen’s book collection but on a faster schedule, typically 4-6 weeks after acceptance. With an average of 132,000 visitors per week, publishing in Compacts not only guarantees high visibility but also facilitates international content sharing. As a fully Open Access publisher, the utilization of a CC BY NC 4.0 license means that other researchers will never have to pay permission fees and can adapt, use, and further build upon the material published in Compacts, eliminating any barriers to the further development of scientific research.
\n\nCOMPACTS-SHORT FORM MONOGRAPH
\n\nCOST
\n\n4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
\n\nThe final price will depend on the volume of the publication and includes project management, editorial and peer-review services, technical editing, language copyediting, cover design, book layout, book promotion and ISBN assignment.
\n\n*The price does not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate applicable in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT by providing us with their VAT registration number. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\n\nOptional Services
\n\nIntechOpen has collaborated with Enago, through its sister company, Ulatus – one of the world’s leading providers of book translation services. The services are designed to convey the essence of your work seamlessly to readers from across the globe in their own language. Enago’s expert translators incorporate cultural nuances in translations to make the content relevant for local audiences while retaining the original meaning and style. With a high degree of linguistic and subject expertise, Enago translators are equipped to handle all complex and multiple overlapping themes encompassed in a single book to deliver a superior quality of translation.
\n\nIntechOpen Authors that wish to use this service will receive a 20% discount on all translation work. For more information or a quote, please visit: https://www.enago.com/intech.
\n\nFUNDING
\n\nWe feel that financial barriers should never prevent researchers from publishing their research. Please consult our Open Access Funding page to explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication.
\n\nBENEFITS
\n\nPUBLISHING PROCESS STEPS
\n\nSee a complete overview and description of the steps involved in the publishing process here.
\n\nSEND YOUR PROPOSAL
\n\nIf you are interested in publishing your book with IntechOpen, please submit your book proposal by completing the Publishing Proposal Form.
\n\nNot sure if this is the right option for you? Please refer back to the main Publish with IntechOpen page or feel free to contact us directly at book.department@intechopen.com
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Over the past few decades, no major new types of antibiotics have been produced and almost all known antibiotics are increasingly losing their activity against pathogenic microorganisms. The levels of multi-drug resistant bacteria have also increased. It is known that worldwide, more than 60% of all antibiotics that are produced find their use in animal production for both therapeutic and non-therapeutic purposes. The use of antimicrobial agents in animal husbandry has been linked to the development and spread of resistant bacteria. Poultry products are among the highest consumed products worldwide but a lot of essential antibiotics are employed during poultry production in several countries; threatening the safety of such products (through antimicrobial residues) and the increased possibility of development and spread of microbial resistance in poultry settings. This chapter documents some of the studies on antibiotic usage in poultry farming; with specific focus on some selected bacterial species, their economic importance to poultry farming and reports of resistances of isolated species from poultry settings (farms and poultry products) to essential antibiotics.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Christian Agyare, Vivian Etsiapa Boamah, Crystal Ngofi Zumbi and\nFrank Boateng Osei",authors:[{id:"182058",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Agyare",slug:"christian-agyare",fullName:"Christian Agyare"},{id:"261271",title:"MSc.",name:"Crystal Ngofi",middleName:null,surname:"Zumbi",slug:"crystal-ngofi-zumbi",fullName:"Crystal Ngofi Zumbi"},{id:"261272",title:"MSc.",name:"Frank Boateng",middleName:null,surname:"Osei",slug:"frank-boateng-osei",fullName:"Frank Boateng Osei"},{id:"261273",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivian Etsiapa",middleName:null,surname:"Boamah",slug:"vivian-etsiapa-boamah",fullName:"Vivian Etsiapa Boamah"}]},{id:"39599",doi:"10.5772/50046",title:"Encapsulation Technology to Protect Probiotic Bacteria",slug:"encapsulation-technology-to-protect-probiotic-bacteria",totalDownloads:12380,totalCrossrefCites:43,totalDimensionsCites:83,abstract:null,book:{id:"3145",slug:"probiotics",title:"Probiotics",fullTitle:"Probiotics"},signatures:"María Chávarri, Izaskun Marañón and María Carmen Villarán",authors:[{id:"150285",title:"Dr.",name:"María",middleName:null,surname:"Chávarri Hueda",slug:"maria-chavarri-hueda",fullName:"María Chávarri Hueda"},{id:"151613",title:"MSc.",name:"Izaskun",middleName:null,surname:"Marañon",slug:"izaskun-maranon",fullName:"Izaskun Marañon"},{id:"151621",title:"Dr.",name:"Mª Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Villarán",slug:"ma-carmen-villaran",fullName:"Mª Carmen Villarán"}]},{id:"39607",doi:"10.5772/50121",title:"Recent Application of Probiotics in Food and Agricultural Science",slug:"recent-application-of-probiotics-in-food-and-agricultural-science",totalDownloads:10144,totalCrossrefCites:29,totalDimensionsCites:74,abstract:null,book:{id:"3145",slug:"probiotics",title:"Probiotics",fullTitle:"Probiotics"},signatures:"Danfeng Song, Salam Ibrahim and Saeed Hayek",authors:[{id:"107905",title:"Prof.",name:"Salam",middleName:null,surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"salam-ibrahim",fullName:"Salam Ibrahim"},{id:"150202",title:"Dr.",name:"Danfeng",middleName:null,surname:"Song",slug:"danfeng-song",fullName:"Danfeng Song"},{id:"151025",title:"MSc.",name:"Saeed",middleName:null,surname:"Hayek",slug:"saeed-hayek",fullName:"Saeed Hayek"}]},{id:"51065",doi:"10.5772/63499",title:"Role of the Biofilms in Wastewater Treatment",slug:"role-of-the-biofilms-in-wastewater-treatment",totalDownloads:6802,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:59,abstract:"Biological wastewater treatment systems play an important role in improving water quality and human health. This chapter thus briefly discusses different biological methods, specially biofilm technologies, the development of biofilms on different filter media, factors affecting their development as well as their structure and function. It also tackles various conventional and modern molecular techniques for detailed exploration of the composition, diversity and dynamics of biofilms. These data are crucial to improve the performance, robustness and stability of biofilm-based wastewater treatment technologies.",book:{id:"5197",slug:"microbial-biofilms-importance-and-applications",title:"Microbial Biofilms",fullTitle:"Microbial Biofilms - Importance and Applications"},signatures:"Shama Sehar and Iffat Naz",authors:[{id:"180364",title:"Dr.",name:"Iffat",middleName:null,surname:"Naz",slug:"iffat-naz",fullName:"Iffat Naz"},{id:"183345",title:"Dr.",name:"Shama",middleName:null,surname:"Sehar",slug:"shama-sehar",fullName:"Shama Sehar"}]},{id:"49246",doi:"10.5772/61300",title:"Chitosan as a Biomaterial — Structure, Properties, and Electrospun Nanofibers",slug:"chitosan-as-a-biomaterial-structure-properties-and-electrospun-nanofibers",totalDownloads:4671,totalCrossrefCites:25,totalDimensionsCites:57,abstract:"Chitosan is a polysaccharide derived from chitin; chitin is the second most abundant polysaccharide in the world, after cellulose. Chitosan is biocompatible, biodegradable and non-toxic, so that it can be usedin medicalapplications such as antimicrobial and wound healing biomaterials. It also used as chelating agent due to its ability to bind with cholesterol, fats, proteins and metal ions.",book:{id:"4648",slug:"concepts-compounds-and-the-alternatives-of-antibacterials",title:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials",fullTitle:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials"},signatures:"H. M. Ibrahim and E.M.R. El- Zairy",authors:[{id:"90645",title:"Dr.",name:"Hassan",middleName:null,surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"hassan-ibrahim",fullName:"Hassan Ibrahim"},{id:"175694",title:"Dr.",name:"Enas",middleName:null,surname:"El- Zairy",slug:"enas-el-zairy",fullName:"Enas El- Zairy"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"65613",title:"The Methods for Detection of Biofilm and Screening Antibiofilm Activity of Agents",slug:"the-methods-for-detection-of-biofilm-and-screening-antibiofilm-activity-of-agents",totalDownloads:9161,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"Biofilm producer microorganisms cause nosocomial and recurrent infections. Biofilm that is a sticky exopolysaccharide is the main virulence factor causing biofilm-related infections. Biofilm formation begins with attachment of bacteria to biotic surface such as host cell or abiotic surface such as prosthetic devices. After attachment, aggregation of bacteria is started by cell-cell adhesion. Aggregation continues with the maturation of biofilm. Dispersion is started by certain conditions such as phenol-soluble modulins (PSMs). By this way, sessile bacteria turn back into planktonic form. Bacteria embedded in biofilm (sessile form) are more resistant to antimicrobials than planktonic bacteria. So it is hard to treat biofilm-embedded bacteria than planktonic forms. For this reason, it is important to detect biofilm. There are a few biofilm detection and biofilm production methods on prosthetics, methods for screening antibacterial effect of agents against biofilm-embedded microorganism and antibiofilm effect of agents against biofilm production and mature biofilm. The aim of this chapter is to overview direct and indirect methods such as microscopy, fluorescent in situ hybridization, and Congo red agar, tube method, microtiter plate assay, checkerboard assay, plate counting, polymerase chain reaction, mass spectrometry, MALDI-TOF, and biological assays used by antibiofilm researches.",book:{id:"8427",slug:"antimicrobials-antibiotic-resistance-antibiofilm-strategies-and-activity-methods",title:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods",fullTitle:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods"},signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",middleName:null,surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"}]},{id:"62553",title:"Antibiotic Use in Poultry Production and Its Effects on Bacterial Resistance",slug:"antibiotic-use-in-poultry-production-and-its-effects-on-bacterial-resistance",totalDownloads:7230,totalCrossrefCites:43,totalDimensionsCites:86,abstract:"A surge in the development and spread of antibiotic resistance has become a major cause for concern. Over the past few decades, no major new types of antibiotics have been produced and almost all known antibiotics are increasingly losing their activity against pathogenic microorganisms. The levels of multi-drug resistant bacteria have also increased. It is known that worldwide, more than 60% of all antibiotics that are produced find their use in animal production for both therapeutic and non-therapeutic purposes. The use of antimicrobial agents in animal husbandry has been linked to the development and spread of resistant bacteria. Poultry products are among the highest consumed products worldwide but a lot of essential antibiotics are employed during poultry production in several countries; threatening the safety of such products (through antimicrobial residues) and the increased possibility of development and spread of microbial resistance in poultry settings. This chapter documents some of the studies on antibiotic usage in poultry farming; with specific focus on some selected bacterial species, their economic importance to poultry farming and reports of resistances of isolated species from poultry settings (farms and poultry products) to essential antibiotics.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Christian Agyare, Vivian Etsiapa Boamah, Crystal Ngofi Zumbi and\nFrank Boateng Osei",authors:[{id:"182058",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Agyare",slug:"christian-agyare",fullName:"Christian Agyare"},{id:"261271",title:"MSc.",name:"Crystal Ngofi",middleName:null,surname:"Zumbi",slug:"crystal-ngofi-zumbi",fullName:"Crystal Ngofi Zumbi"},{id:"261272",title:"MSc.",name:"Frank Boateng",middleName:null,surname:"Osei",slug:"frank-boateng-osei",fullName:"Frank Boateng Osei"},{id:"261273",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivian Etsiapa",middleName:null,surname:"Boamah",slug:"vivian-etsiapa-boamah",fullName:"Vivian Etsiapa Boamah"}]},{id:"65914",title:"Introductory Chapter: The Action Mechanisms of Antibiotics and Antibiotic Resistance",slug:"introductory-chapter-the-action-mechanisms-of-antibiotics-and-antibiotic-resistance",totalDownloads:4358,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:null,book:{id:"8427",slug:"antimicrobials-antibiotic-resistance-antibiofilm-strategies-and-activity-methods",title:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods",fullTitle:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods"},signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu, Nesrin Gareayaghi and Bekir S. Kocazeybek",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",middleName:null,surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"},{id:"248288",title:"Prof.",name:"Bekir",middleName:null,surname:"Kocazeybek",slug:"bekir-kocazeybek",fullName:"Bekir Kocazeybek"},{id:"406463",title:"Dr.",name:"Nesrin",middleName:null,surname:"Gareayaghi",slug:"nesrin-gareayaghi",fullName:"Nesrin Gareayaghi"}]},{id:"50992",title:"Probiotics: A Comprehensive Review of Their Classification, Mode of Action and Role in Human Nutrition",slug:"probiotics-a-comprehensive-review-of-their-classification-mode-of-action-and-role-in-human-nutrition",totalDownloads:5380,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:27,abstract:"Probiotics are live microorganisms that live in gastrointestinal (GI) tract and are beneficial for their hosts and prevent certain diseases. In this chapter, after a complete introduction to probiotics, definition, mechanism of action, and their classification, currently used organisms will be discussed in detail. Moreover, different kinds of nutritional synthetic products of probiotics along with their safety and drug interaction will be noticed. This chapter mentions all clinical trial studies that have been done to evaluate probiotic efficacy with a focus on gastrointestinal diseases.",book:{id:"5193",slug:"probiotics-and-prebiotics-in-human-nutrition-and-health",title:"Probiotics and Prebiotics in Human Nutrition and Health",fullTitle:"Probiotics and Prebiotics in Human Nutrition and Health"},signatures:"Amirreza Khalighi, Reza Behdani and Shabnam Kouhestani",authors:[{id:"179560",title:"Dr.",name:"Amirreza",middleName:null,surname:"Khalighi",slug:"amirreza-khalighi",fullName:"Amirreza Khalighi"},{id:"185238",title:"Dr.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Behdani",slug:"reza-behdani",fullName:"Reza Behdani"},{id:"185239",title:"Dr.",name:"Shabnam",middleName:null,surname:"Kouhestani",slug:"shabnam-kouhestani",fullName:"Shabnam Kouhestani"}]},{id:"56849",title:"Physiology and Pathology of Innate Immune Response Against Pathogens",slug:"physiology-and-pathology-of-innate-immune-response-against-pathogens",totalDownloads:6143,totalCrossrefCites:21,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:"Pathogen infections are recognized by the immune system, which consists of two types of responses: an innate immune response and an antigen-specific adaptive immune response. The innate response is characterized by being the first line of defense that occurs rapidly in which leukocytes such as neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages, eosinophils, mast cells, dendritic cells, etc., are involved. These cells recognize the pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), which have been evolutionarily conserved by the diversity of microorganisms that infect humans. Recognition of these pathogen-associated molecular patterns occurs through pattern recognition receptors such as Toll-like receptors and some other intracellular receptors such as nucleotide oligomerization domain (NOD), with the aim of amplifying the inflammation and activating the adaptive cellular immune response, through the antigenic presentation. In the present chapter, we will review the importance of the main components involved in the innate immune response, such as different cell types, inflammatory response, soluble immune mediators and effector mechanisms exerted by the immune response against bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites; all with the purpose of eliminating them and eradicating the infection of the host.",book:{id:"5975",slug:"physiology-and-pathology-of-immunology",title:"Physiology and Pathology of Immunology",fullTitle:"Physiology and Pathology of Immunology"},signatures:"José Luis Muñoz Carrillo, Flor Pamela Castro García, Oscar\nGutiérrez Coronado, María Alejandra Moreno García and Juan\nFrancisco Contreras Cordero",authors:[{id:"214236",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Muñoz-Carrillo",slug:"jose-luis-munoz-carrillo",fullName:"Jose Luis Muñoz-Carrillo"},{id:"216080",title:"Dr.",name:"Alejandra",middleName:null,surname:"Moreno-García",slug:"alejandra-moreno-garcia",fullName:"Alejandra Moreno-García"},{id:"216081",title:"Dr.",name:"Oscar",middleName:null,surname:"Gutiérrez-Coronado",slug:"oscar-gutierrez-coronado",fullName:"Oscar Gutiérrez-Coronado"},{id:"216082",title:"Dr.",name:"Pamela",middleName:null,surname:"Castro-García",slug:"pamela-castro-garcia",fullName:"Pamela Castro-García"},{id:"220717",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Contreras Cordero",slug:"juan-francisco-contreras-cordero",fullName:"Juan Francisco Contreras Cordero"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"13",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82438",title:"Mosquito Excito-Repellency: Effects on Behavior and the Development of Insecticide Resistance",slug:"mosquito-excito-repellency-effects-on-behavior-and-the-development-of-insecticide-resistance",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105755",abstract:"Mosquito’s resistance to avoiding insecticide-treated surfaces (“excito-repellency”) has two effects: irritation from direct contact with a treated area and repellency as an avoidance response to contact with treated surfaces. Nowadays, this behavior appears to reduce the success of mosquito control programs, particularly those based on insecticide-driven strategies. Different systems have been designed to assess the excito-repellency, evaluating numerous insecticides’ irritants, deterrents, and toxic properties at different concentrations. The information provides valuable insights regarding the patterns of mosquito behavior based on their physiological conditions, such as the age of the mosquitoes and the duration of the tests. However, the physiological processes resulting from chemical stimulus contact “chemoreception”) are still poorly explored and understood. This review provides an overview of insecticide effects on mosquito behavior and describes the mechanisms involved in chemical stimuli uptake, translation, and recognition.",book:{id:"11379",title:"Mosquito Research - Recent Advances in Pathogen Interactions, Immunity, and Vector Control Strategies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11379.jpg"},signatures:"Yamili J. Contreras-Perera, Abdiel Martin-Park, Henry Puerta-Guardo, Azael Che-Mendoza, Silvia Pérez-Carrillo, Irám P. Rodrígez-Sánchez, Pablo Manrique-Saide and Adriana E. Flores"},{id:"82423",title:"Removal of Divalent Nickel from Aqueous Solution Using Blue Green Marine Algae: Adsorption Modelling and Applicability of Various Isotherm Models",slug:"removal-of-divalent-nickel-from-aqueous-solution-using-blue-green-marine-algae-adsorption-modelling-",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103940",abstract:"The adsorption of Ni(II) onto blue green marine algae (BGMA) in batch conditions is being investigated. The highest adsorption capacity of BGMA was found to be 42.056 mg/g under ideal testing conditions, where the initial Ni(II) metal ion concentration was adjusted from 25 ppm to 250 ppm. The optimal pH, biomass loading, and agitation rate for maximum Cu(II) ion removal have been determined to be 6, 2 g and 120 rpm, respectively. For the equilibrium condition, 24 hours of contact time is allowed. At room temperature, all of the experiments are conducted. The isotherm has a L shape, based on the equilibrium experimental data. It indicates that there is no considerable competition for active sites between the solvent and Ni(II). There is no strong competition between the solvent and Ni(II) for the active sites of BGMA, indicating that there is no strong competition between the two. It also suggests that the BGMA’s Ni sorption ability is restricted (II). The experimental data is validated using multiple isotherm models, and the mechanism of adsorption is then discovered, as well as the process design parameters. The Fritz-Schlunder-V isotherm model is particularly relevant in defining the mechanism of Ni(II) adsorption under the conditions used in this study, according to modelling studies. This model’s qmax of 41.89 mg/g shows that it matches experimental data more closely.",book:{id:"11366",title:"Microalgae",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11366.jpg"},signatures:"Ramsenthil Ramadoss, Durai Gunasekaran and Dhanasekaran Subramanian"},{id:"81704",title:"Quorum Sensing Inhibition Based Drugs to Conquer Antimicrobial Resistance",slug:"quorum-sensing-inhibition-based-drugs-to-conquer-antimicrobial-resistance",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104125",abstract:"Quorum sensing is the cell to cell communication mechanism in microorganism through signalling molecules. Regulation of virulence factor, sporulation, proteolytic enzymes production, biofilm formation, auto-inducers, cell population density are key physiological process mediated through quorum-sensing (QS) signalling. Elevation of innate immune system and antibiotic tolerance of pathogens is highly increased with perspective of quorum-sensing (QS) activity. Development of novel drugs is highly attractive scenario against cell-cell communication of microbes. Design of synthetic drugs and natural compounds against QS signal molecules is vital combat system to attenuate microbial pathogenicity. Quorum sensing inhibitors (QSIs), quorum quenchers (QQs), efflux pump inhibitors (EPIs) act against multi-drug resistance strains (MDR) and other pathogenic microbes through regulation of auto-inducers and signal molecule with perceptive to growth arrest both in-vitro and in-vivo. QQs, QSIs and EPIs compounds has been validated with various animal models for high selection pressure on therapeutics arsenal against microbe’s growth inhibition. Promising QSI are phytochemicals and secondary metabolites includes polyacetylenes, alkaloids, polyphenols, terpenoids, quinones.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic – Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Kothandapani Sundar, Ramachandira Prabu and Gopal Jayalakshmi"},{id:"82419",title:"Effect of the Mass Distribution of ITNs in an Endemic Area with a High Entomological Index, the Case of Bandundu-City, Kwilu, DRC",slug:"effect-of-the-mass-distribution-of-itns-in-an-endemic-area-with-a-high-entomological-index-the-case-",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105021",abstract:"The bio-efficacy of Yorkol-branded ITNs collected from Bandundu-city was assessed on the Kisumu strain and wild specimens of Anopheles gambiae. The susceptibility of the wild An. gambiae s.l. was tested to select insecticides. Adult An. gambiae s.l. sampled by PSC and HLC were screened for the presence of Plasmodium falciparum. Blood samples were diagnosed by microscopy and RDTs. ITN distributed in Bandundu-city were fully effective on the Kisumu strain, but on wild An. gambiae s.l. population (22.3 ± 11.5%). Anopheles gambiae s.l. was the main vector in Bandundu. No significant difference was observed between the entomological indices before and after the deployment of nets (OR = 0.8; p = 0.39). Wild An. gambiae s.l. populations were resistant to pyrethroids and DDT, with the restoration of the susceptibility to pyrethroids post pre-exposure to PBO. Plasmodium falciparum was the main parasite species and was found alone or mixed with. P. malariae or P. ovale. The confirmation rates by microscopy and RDT were respectively 57.9% and 53.6%. Nets deployed in Bandundu-city were not effective on wild An. gambiae s.l. populations. This operational failure is likely explained by the observed resistance to pyrethroids. In the future only PBO-net should be deployed Bandundu-city.",book:{id:"11379",title:"Mosquito Research - Recent Advances in Pathogen Interactions, Immunity, and Vector Control Strategies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11379.jpg"},signatures:"Emery Metelo-Matubi, Josue Zanga, Victoire Nsabatien, Aimé Mbala, Solange Ngamukie, Fiacre Agossa, El Hadji Amadou Niang, Jean Maniania-Nguya-Kalenga and Mulenda Basimike"},{id:"82435",title:"Vector-Parasite Interactions and Malaria Transmission",slug:"vector-parasite-interactions-and-malaria-transmission",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105025",abstract:"Malaria remains one of the world’s most devastating vector-borne diseases. During the complex sexual development of the malaria parasite in the mosquito, it is faced with physical and physiological barriers which it must surmount before it can be transmitted to a human host. Proof-of-concept studies using RNAi have unearthed several parasite molecules which are important for countering the immunity of its vector. Understanding the counter-adaptations between the parasite and its vector could inform novel public health intervention strategies. For instance, it could guide the transgenic construction of resistant mosquitoes in which mosquito factors that restrict the parasite growth have been enhanced and/or factors promoting parasite growth deleted so as to make them refractory to malaria parasite infection. Such strategies, when deemed feasible, could be combined with conventional vector control methods as well as treatment of infection with effective malaria therapy, to actualize the malaria eradication goal.",book:{id:"11379",title:"Mosquito Research - Recent Advances in Pathogen Interactions, Immunity, and Vector Control Strategies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11379.jpg"},signatures:"Nekpen Erhunse and Victor Okomayin"},{id:"82397",title:"Gut Microbiota Potential in Type 2 Diabetes",slug:"gut-microbiota-potential-in-type-2-diabetes",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105616",abstract:"Appropriate metabolic regulation is vital for health. Multiple factors play important roles in maintaining the metabolic system in different physiological conditions. These factors range from intestinal metabolism of food and absorption of nutrients, pancreatic hormones and their interplay under feeding and fasting, hepatic regulation of macronutrient formation and metabolism storage of macronutrients in skeletal muscles. Intestinal metabolism of ingested food and subsequent nutrient absorption depends on the symbiotic microbial community residing in the gut. The specific ratio of different microbial phyla in the gut has proved to be extremely important for the beneficial role of the gut microbiome. The importance of gut microbiome in the regulation of metabolism has been highlighted with reports of the abnormal ratio of gut microbial community resulting in different metabolic disturbances ranging from obesity to the development of diabetes mellitus. The physiological impact of insulin on the metabolic regulation of macronutrients has recently been shown to be augmented by the secondary metabolites produced by anaerobic fermentation. 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She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. 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