Factors of zoom fatigue (reprinted from [36]).
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8168",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Grain Crops Research",title:"Recent Advances in Grain Crops Research",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Cultivation of grain crops has been rightly recognized as one of the main drivers in shaping human civilizations. Considering their key role in fulfilling a major portion of the global food needs, grain crops are the most widely grown crops around the world. Unfortunately, like many other agronomic crops, grain crops are quite vulnerable to climate change and this has posed multifaceted threats to agricultural sustainability. To add to the menace, the deteriorating quantity and quality of both land and water as primary factors of production are further aggravating the scenario. Confronting such challenges demands innovative adaptation strategies through intensification of grain crop production that can ensure grain self-sufficiency worldwide.",isbn:"978-1-78985-450-3",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-449-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-643-9",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78117",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"recent-advances-in-grain-crops-research",numberOfPages:156,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"ac83ac661fd0c344404a398d8cd2ae18",bookSignature:"Farooq Shah, Zafar Khan, Amjad Iqbal, Metin Turan and Murat Olgun",publishedDate:"February 26th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8168.jpg",numberOfDownloads:9537,numberOfWosCitations:11,numberOfCrossrefCitations:45,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:80,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:136,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 28th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 19th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 18th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 6th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 5th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"211419",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Farooq",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"farooq-shah",fullName:"Farooq Shah",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/211419/images/system/211419.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Farooq Shah is a Pakistani scientist whose research interests mainly include crop response to climatic changes, especially an increase in temperature. He got his PhD degree from Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China, with specialization in Agronomy. He has more than 60 research articles to his credit, which are published in highly reputed journals. He is the editorial board member and reviewer of several peer-reviewed SCI journals. Among other honors, he was selected for the Mevlana Exchange Program under which he taught at Osmangazi University, Turkey. He also participated in hybrid rice promotion training for Pakistan organized by the Yuan Longping Hi-Tech International Center in China. Dr. Shah is a member of the National Curriculum Revision Committee constituted by the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan for Agronomy and several other international professional societies. \r\nPresently, he is engaged in teaching plus research at the Department of Agriculture, Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan, Pakistan.",institutionString:"Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"211420",title:"Dr.",name:"Zafar",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"zafar-khan",fullName:"Zafar Khan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/211420/images/system/211420.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zafar Hayat Khan is an agronomist and is currently working as Chairman of the Department of Agronomy, Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan, Pakistan. After completion of his PhD from the University of Agriculture Peshawar in 2011, he joined Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan as an Assistant Professor. He has\nbeen involved in teaching, research, and administrative activities in the university. He is a member of the National Curriculum Revision Committee on Agronomy in Pakistan. He co-edited a book titled 'Rice Crop: Current Developments” in 2018. He has published many research articles on different crops in peer-reviewed and reputed journals. \nHis prime focus is on research related to best agronomic practices and modern technologies in the wake of a changing climate and food security. He has been actively involved in organizing national and international seminars, workshops, and conferences.",institutionString:"Abdul Wali Khan University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"211421",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Amjad",middleName:null,surname:"Iqbal",slug:"amjad-iqbal",fullName:"Amjad Iqbal",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/211421/images/system/211421.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amjad Iqbal is currently working as Associate Professor in the Department of Food Sciences, Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan, Pakistan. He received his PhD degree from The University of Edinburgh, United Kingdom in Biological Sciences. Dr. Iqbal has published 100 research articles in highly reputed journals such as Frontiers in Plant Science, Annals of Botany, Journal of Experimental Botany, Food Chemistry, PlosONE, and Food and Nutrition Research, etc. \nHe has also reviewed a number of articles for SCI journals and is a member of the editorial boards of several journals. Dr. Iqbal has his PostDocs from UK and China and has served a year as a Talented Young Scientist in Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Sciences, Wenchang, Hainan-P.R.China.",institutionString:"Abdul Wali Khan University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},coeditorThree:{id:"140612",title:"Prof.",name:"Metin",middleName:null,surname:"Turan",slug:"metin-turan",fullName:"Metin Turan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/140612/images/system/140612.jpg",biography:"Metin Turan received his Ph.D. from the Department of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, Atatürk University, Turkey in 2002. He is currently a professor in the Department of Genetics and Bioengineering, Yeditepe University, Turkey. His research mainly focuses on soil ecology and biological fertilizer applications. Dr. Turan has more than 100 research publications to his credit. He is a member of many international organizations such as the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM), Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL), and European Biostimulants Industry Council (EBIC), and he has chaired many conferences in Turkey and Europe.",institutionString:"Yeditepe University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Yeditepe University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},coeditorFour:{id:"282550",title:"Dr.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Olgun",slug:"murat-olgun",fullName:"Murat Olgun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282550/images/system/282550.jpg",biography:"Dr. Murat Olgun was born in Turkey in 1961. He obtained his\nPhD degree in 2002 from the Field Crops Department, at Ataturk University, Turkey. He is currently working as a professor\nat Field Crops Department, Eskisehir Osmangazi University,\nTurkey. He has more than a hundred papers published in various\njournals. Dr. Olgun has held many international workshops and\nconferences in Turkey and other countries.",institutionString:"Eskişehir Osmangazi University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"376",title:"Plant Science",slug:"plant-science"}],chapters:[{id:"70628",title:"Introductory Chapter: Recent Advances in Grain Crops Research",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90701",slug:"introductory-chapter-recent-advances-in-grain-crops-research",totalDownloads:775,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:null,signatures:"Adil Hussain, Amjad Iqbal, Zafar Hayat Khan and Farooq Shah",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70628",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70628",authors:[{id:"211419",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Farooq",surname:"Shah",slug:"farooq-shah",fullName:"Farooq Shah"},{id:"211420",title:"Dr.",name:"Zafar",surname:"Khan",slug:"zafar-khan",fullName:"Zafar Khan"},{id:"211421",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Amjad",surname:"Iqbal",slug:"amjad-iqbal",fullName:"Amjad Iqbal"},{id:"293570",title:"Prof.",name:"Adil",surname:"Hussain",slug:"adil-hussain",fullName:"Adil Hussain"}],corrections:null},{id:"68584",title:"CRISPR/Cas9-Mediated Gene Editing in Grain Crops",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88115",slug:"crispr-cas9-mediated-gene-editing-in-grain-crops",totalDownloads:937,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The development of reliable and efficient techniques for making precise targeted changes in the genome of living organisms has been a long-standing objective of researchers throughout the world. In plants, different methods, each with several different variations, have been developed for this purpose, though many of them are hampered either by providing only temporary modification of gene function or unpredictable off-target results. The recent discovery of clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPRs) and the CRISPR-associated 9 (Cas9) nucleases started a new era in genome editing. Basically, the CRISPR/Cas system is a natural immune response of prokaryotes to resist foreign genetic elements entering via plasmids and phages. Through this naturally occurring gene editing system, bacteria create DNA segments known as CRISPR arrays that allow them to “remember” foreign genetic material for protection against it and other similar sequences in the future. This system has now been adopted by researchers in laboratory to create a short guide RNA that binds to specific target sequences of DNA in eukaryotic genome, and the Cas9 enzyme cuts the DNA at the targeted location. Once cut, the cell’s endogenous DNA repair machinery is used to add, delete, or replace pieces of genetic material. Though CRISPR/Cas9 technology has been recently developed, it has started to be regularly used for gene editing in plants as well as animals to good success. It has been proved as an efficient transgene-free technique. A simple search on PubMed (NCBI) shows that among all plants, 80 different studies published since 2013 involved CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genome editing in rice. Of these, 20, 13, and 24 papers have been published in 2019, 2018, and 2017, respectively. Furthermore, 20 different studies published since 2014 utilized CRISPR/Cas9 system for gene editing in wheat, where five of these studies were published in 2019 and seven were published in 2018. Genomes of other grain crops edited through this technique include maize, sorghum, barley, etc. This indicates the high utility of this technique for gene editing in grain crops. Here we emphasize on CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene editing in rice, wheat, and maize.",signatures:"Adil Hussain, Qari Muhammad Imran and Byung-Wook Yun",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68584",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68584",authors:[{id:"293570",title:"Prof.",name:"Adil",surname:"Hussain",slug:"adil-hussain",fullName:"Adil Hussain"},{id:"293572",title:"Prof.",name:"Byung-Wook",surname:"Yun",slug:"byung-wook-yun",fullName:"Byung-Wook Yun"},{id:"302430",title:"Dr.",name:"Qari Muhammad",surname:"Imran",slug:"qari-muhammad-imran",fullName:"Qari Muhammad Imran"}],corrections:null},{id:"67570",title:"Wheat in the Era of Genomics and Transgenics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86639",slug:"wheat-in-the-era-of-genomics-and-transgenics",totalDownloads:870,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Wheat, as one of the most important cereal crops in the world and second major caloric source in the world after rice, is the major staple food in South Asia and many other countries of the world. Prior to onset of “Green Revolution,” South Asian countries were facing the threat of severe famine. Green Revolution wheat genotypes brought out these countries from the crisis they were facing and has helped them to sustain their productions for more than half a century. With the emergence of molecular biology and biotechnology, another window of opportunity is opened to sustain wheat yields by using modern techniques of genes identification and utilization. Through this chapter, we have tried to gather information that was generated for wheat improvement in last 3 decades. These afforest included the development of molecular markers, mapping of genes, sequencing of markers genes, and their utilization through marker-assisted selection. The other part recorded various efforts to genetically transform wheat for traits improvements and/or to study their molecular control.",signatures:"Usman Babar, Usama Arshad, Muhammad Tehseen Azhar, Rana Muhammad Atif, Abdulaziz Abdullah Alsahli, Ibrahim A. Alaraidh, Aysha Kiran, Iqrar Ahmad Rana and Gyuhwa Chung",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67570",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67570",authors:[{id:"91315",title:"Prof.",name:"Gyuhwa",surname:"Chung",slug:"gyuhwa-chung",fullName:"Gyuhwa Chung"},{id:"193175",title:"Dr.",name:"Iqrar Ahmad",surname:"Rana",slug:"iqrar-ahmad-rana",fullName:"Iqrar Ahmad Rana"},{id:"293825",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Usman",surname:"Babar",slug:"usman-babar",fullName:"Usman Babar"},{id:"293826",title:"MSc.",name:"Usama",surname:"Arshad",slug:"usama-arshad",fullName:"Usama Arshad"},{id:"293828",title:"Dr.",name:"Rana Muhammad",surname:"Atif",slug:"rana-muhammad-atif",fullName:"Rana Muhammad Atif"},{id:"293829",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Tehseen",surname:"Azhar",slug:"muhammad-tehseen-azhar",fullName:"Muhammad Tehseen Azhar"},{id:"293831",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulaziz Abdullah",surname:"Alsahli",slug:"abdulaziz-abdullah-alsahli",fullName:"Abdulaziz Abdullah Alsahli"},{id:"293832",title:"Prof.",name:"Ibrahim A.",surname:"Alaraidh",slug:"ibrahim-a.-alaraidh",fullName:"Ibrahim A. Alaraidh"},{id:"293833",title:"Dr.",name:"Aysha",surname:"Kiran",slug:"aysha-kiran",fullName:"Aysha Kiran"}],corrections:null},{id:"67366",title:"Morphophysiological and Photosynthetic Reactions of Wheat (T. aestivum L.) and Its Wild Congeners to Drought Condition In Vivo and In Vitro",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86340",slug:"morphophysiological-and-photosynthetic-reactions-of-wheat-em-t-aestivum-em-l-and-its-wild-congeners-",totalDownloads:810,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The results of the complex analysis of different wheat species tolerance to drought stress in vivo at different levels of organization as well as in vitro on callus cultures, which was conducted, are presented. The objects of research are as follows: species of wheat—T. monococum L. (Au), T. dicoccum Shuebl. (AuB), T. polonicum L. (AuB), T. aethiopicum Jakubz. (AuB), T. macha Dek.et.Men. (AuBD), T. compactum Host. (AuBD), and T. aestivum L. (AuBD). The methods of this research are physiological, biotechnological, and cytological. The focus was on nonspecific reactions of cereals to osmotic stress, and species-specific changes according to growth and anatomical and photosynthetic parameters which depend on studied species ploidy were shown. It was shown that results of testing of plant tissues in vivo and in vitro are comparable. It demonstrated the criterions for selection of drought-tolerant forms. Optimal selection criteria were identified, and more drought-resistant wheat species were identified.",signatures:"Nina Terletskaya, Meruert Kurmanbayeva and Ulzhan Erezhetova",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67366",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67366",authors:[{id:"243630",title:"Dr.",name:"Meruyert",surname:"Kurmanbayeva",slug:"meruyert-kurmanbayeva",fullName:"Meruyert Kurmanbayeva"},{id:"284216",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Nina",surname:"Terletskaya",slug:"nina-terletskaya",fullName:"Nina Terletskaya"},{id:"293064",title:"MSc.",name:"Ulzhan",surname:"Erezhetova",slug:"ulzhan-erezhetova",fullName:"Ulzhan Erezhetova"}],corrections:null},{id:"67182",title:"Improving Dual-Purpose Winter Wheat in the Southern Great Plains of the United States",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86417",slug:"improving-dual-purpose-winter-wheat-in-the-southern-great-plains-of-the-united-states",totalDownloads:899,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter covers the production and breeding status of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) used for early-season animal grazing and late-season grain production in the Southern Great Plains of the United States. Besides, in the chapter, the current production status and needs, the drawbacks of current cultivars, breeding strategies of the crop, novel genomics tools, and sensor technologies that can be used to improve dual-purpose winter wheat cultivars were presented. We will focus on traits that are, in general, not required by cultivars used for grain-only production but are critical for cool-season forage production.",signatures:"Frank Maulana, Joshua D. Anderson, Twain J. Butler and Xue-Feng Ma",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67182",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67182",authors:[{id:"284944",title:"Prof.",name:"Xue-Feng",surname:"Ma",slug:"xue-feng-ma",fullName:"Xue-Feng Ma"},{id:"297586",title:"Dr.",name:"Frank",surname:"Maulana",slug:"frank-maulana",fullName:"Frank Maulana"},{id:"297587",title:"Mr.",name:"Joshua D.",surname:"Anderson",slug:"joshua-d.-anderson",fullName:"Joshua D. Anderson"},{id:"297588",title:"Dr.",name:"Twain J.",surname:"Butler",slug:"twain-j.-butler",fullName:"Twain J. Butler"}],corrections:null},{id:"67311",title:"Wheat Production in India: Trends and Prospects",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86341",slug:"wheat-production-in-india-trends-and-prospects",totalDownloads:2362,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:39,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Trends in Indian wheat production before and after the inception of the All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on wheat have been analyzed to show its significant progress over the years. A brief intercountry comparison of productivity, production and area coupled with regional comparison within India has been attempted to give an idea about the contribution of country and regions, respectively, for global and national food security. The milestones in Indian wheat programme and research outcomes were highlighted post-AICRP along with the vision and strategies set for 2050 against diverse production challenges. Regional disparities, zone-wise production constraints and research programmes for achieving the set production target were briefed. The chapter concludes with possible interventions in strengthening the complete wheat value chain for ensuring food security for the future generation.",signatures:"Sendhil Ramadas, T.M. Kiran Kumar and Gyanendra Pratap Singh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67311",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67311",authors:[{id:"287599",title:"Dr.",name:"Sendhil",surname:"Ramadas",slug:"sendhil-ramadas",fullName:"Sendhil Ramadas"},{id:"295122",title:"Dr.",name:"T.M. Kiran",surname:"Kumar",slug:"t.m.-kiran-kumar",fullName:"T.M. Kiran Kumar"},{id:"297699",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyanendra Pratap",surname:"Singh",slug:"gyanendra-pratap-singh",fullName:"Gyanendra Pratap Singh"}],corrections:null},{id:"69263",title:"Rice Grain Quality: Current Developments and Future Prospects",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89367",slug:"rice-grain-quality-current-developments-and-future-prospects",totalDownloads:1057,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Grain quality of rice is more complex than other cereals, since it is mostly consumed as whole grain in countries where it serves as a staple food. Quality characteristics are major determinants of market price and include milling, physical appearance, cooking, sensory, palatability, and nutritional value. A better understanding of the factors that control these quality characteristics will be useful for developing new breeding strategies. In this chapter, we will review the progress made toward improvement of important grain quality traits along with their genetic basis. This chapter will also give innovative insights into the knowledge gained through new tools that integrate grain quality with high yield in the present scenario of diminishing natural resources and environmental fluctuations.",signatures:"Neerja Sharma and Renu Khanna",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69263",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69263",authors:[{id:"295220",title:"Dr.",name:"Neerja",surname:"Sharma",slug:"neerja-sharma",fullName:"Neerja Sharma"},{id:"295960",title:"Dr.",name:"Renu",surname:"Khanna",slug:"renu-khanna",fullName:"Renu Khanna"}],corrections:null},{id:"68218",title:"Neglected and Underutilized Legume Crops: Improvement and Future Prospects",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87069",slug:"neglected-and-underutilized-legume-crops-improvement-and-future-prospects",totalDownloads:1827,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:22,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Sustainable agricultural productivity is hampered by over-dependency on major staple crops, neglect and underutilization of others, climate change, as well as land deterioration. Challenges posed by these limiting factors are undoubtedly contributing to global food insecurity, increased rural poverty, and malnutrition in the less developed countries. Miscellaneous neglected and underutilized grain legumes (MNUGLs) are crops primarily characterized by inherent features and capabilities to withstand the effects of abiotic stress and climate change, significantly replenish the soil, as well as boost food and protein security. This chapter provides insight into the benefits of MNUGLs as food and nutritional security climate smart crops, capable of growing on marginal lands. Exploring and improving MNUGLs depend on a number of factors among which are concerted research efforts, cultivation and production, as well as utilization awareness across global populace geared toward reawakening the interest on the abandoned legumes. The emergence of the clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR/cas9) technology combined with marker-assisted selection (MAS) offers great opportunities to improve MNUGLs for sustainable utilization. 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Individuals instinctively turned to synchronous online video communication technologies in unprecedented numbers as a substitute for face-to-face interactions. Videoconferencing platforms, such as Zoom and Microsoft Teams, quickly became a considerable part of many people’s everyday activities. While videoconferencing closely simulated face-to-face instruction, many reported using the tools was “exhausting,” prompting journalists in the popular press to label this new phenomenon “Zoom fatigue” [1, 2].
The use of videoconferencing platforms exploded in spring 2020. Zoom, one of the most popular of the videoconferencing platforms, increased thirtyfold as the use of its service from December 2019 to March 2020 jumped from 10 million daily users to 300 million daily users [3, 4]. In higher education, professors rapidly transitioned their previously face-to-face courses to fully online instruction in a matter of days, and the majority used videoconferencing to continue to lecture to their classes [5, 6]. Whereas web videoconferencing platforms had fulfilled niche needs for remote meetings prior to the pandemic, the technology’s use abruptly became normalized as a way for people to work, learn, and socialize during the widespread lockdowns caused by the pandemic, and users began spending extended hours communicating on the videoconferencing tools.
The coronavirus pandemic dramatically changed day-to-day life, as individuals and families lived primarily in isolation while local, state, and national lockdown mandates were enacted, and communication technologies provided a way for individuals to stay connected in a socially distant world. Remote working became routine during the crisis with 42% of people working from home [7]. Distance education also gained widespread acceptance as more than 90% of students of all ages (K-12 and postsecondary) turned to online learning [8]. Experts predict remote working will retain a significant influence in the workplace as estimates predict 25–30% of employees will be working remotely multiple days a week [9]. Online learning is also predicted to remain in high demand as college and universities struggle to find the most efficient and affordable ways to deliver educational content [10]. Meanwhile, students, who are now accustomed to online learning, are planning to include online education in their future educational plans, with 22% of 2021 high school seniors prioritizing colleges with online classes [11]. Remote working and online education seem likely to be relevant and widespread in the future, so the extensive presence of videoconferencing in everyday life will likely continue [4].
Driven by the need for remote working and learning, videoconferencing is now an integral part of everyday life, helping users navigate the challenges of social distancing, remote work, and online learning [12]. When face-to-face communication is not possible, videoconferencing intuitively feels like a logical substitution due to its media richness [13] and similarities to in-person interactions. Videoconferencing simulates face-to-face encounters because users can see and hear others simultaneously, in real-time [1]. Traditionally, videoconferencing was used in business and educational contexts as a supplemental method of interacting with people across geographic distances. The technology was not designed to serve as the dominate form of communication for educational purposes. As videoconferencing became more prevalent, concerns about its implementation developed.
The massive pivot to online instruction and exponential growth of videoconferencing quickly presented new challenges for its users [14]. About 80% of faculty members used videoconferencing tools in their courses during spring 2020 [6]; however, early into the transition to online learning, both faculty and students described Zoom as exhausting [2]. For all videoconferencing’s benefits, the increased use of video calls in people’s daily lives also led to intense feelings of tiredness. The mediated alternative to face-to-face interactions drained users because communicating through videoconferencing takes more effort and energy than in-person communication [1, 15, 16]. A new phenomenon that emerged from the overuse of videoconferencing platforms is commonly known as “Zoom fatigue,” although the same feeling occurs with other such platforms, including Microsoft Teams and Skype [1, 3, 4, 15, 17, 18]. Zoom fatigue posed previously unknown complications for videoconferencing users to understand and address.
While videoconferencing technology has existed for about 50 years, its integration into educational contexts occurred much later. Early distance education research considered televised broadcasts and large videoconference systems that required site-to-site operation, but over time, technology advanced and distance educators used broadcast media less and integrated computer-mediated instruction more. Likewise, researchers concentrated their consideration more on distance learning through computer-based instruction and online education, rather than videoconferencing [19]. More recently, affordable, convenient web videoconferencing platforms renewed instructors’ interest in videoconferencing as a method to increase presence and engagement in their online courses. The global pandemic of 2020 further solidified videoconferencing’s use in online education.
The ability to transmit visual and verbal communication simultaneously over long distances was dreamt about for years before science made it a reality. Soon after the introduction of the telephone in the late nineteenth century, the idea of a videophone was first imagined [20]. The desire of businesses to better collaborate and communicate over long distances primarily fueled the development of the technology throughout the 20th century, but mass adoption of the technology occurred in the 21st century after computers and networks advanced to become more accessible and affordable for consumers. The availability of current user-friendly videoconferencing platforms is primarily due to the convergence of videoconferencing, computer, and networking technologies that developed over time, leading to the affordability of the necessary hardware, software, and bandwidth [21]. According to 20, “Today, the act of placing a video call is as simple as pressing a button. However, the systems we know and use have evolved after about a century of research in the field” [p. 1]. As is the case with many technologies, the initial scientific innovation to bring videoconferencing to a screen took extensive time as did the adoption of its use to a mass audience.
Videoconferencing technology was the culmination of decades of innovative scientific research by the Bell System’s Lab. The first functioning ikonophone was built in 1927 and used a television signal broadcast over a telephone line, but that technology was not scalable, meaning it was not feasible to implement it to a mass audience [20, 22]. Decades later, the public was awed by the introduction of the Bell System’s experimental “picturephone” at the 1963 World’s Fair in Queens, NY [22, 23]. Afterwards, three picturephone booths were placed in Washington, D.C., New York, and Chicago, but the devices could only communicate with each other and for a steep price. In 1970, the Bell System launched the first commercial picturephone service in Pittsburgh. Few businesses nationwide adopted the expensive service, but it paved the way for future videoconferencing technology and use by businesses, education institutions, and consumers [24].
Videoconferencing evolved during the 1970s and 1980s as a result of corporate demand. Business organizations recognized the benefits of videoconferencing to collaborate and communicate over geographic distances, saving travel time and costs while enabling organizational members to conduct efficient meetings in dispersed locations [21, 23]. The significant expenses required to use the technology restricted the extent of videoconferencing’s adoption. Costly equipment and specialized systems reserved the use of the technology to the wealthiest of companies and their upper-level executives and stakeholders [23].
As technology advanced and costs decreased somewhat in the 1990s, videoconferencing gained momentum within organizations who adopted the technology to enable virtual meetings that included visual and verbal communication through computer conferencing. Although substantial cost and effort were still required, with systems costing $70,000–$90,000 [21], more organizations, including higher education institutions began to implement videoconferencing by the late 1990s [23]. During this time, the emergence of the Web also spurred consumer interest in videoconferences, but the average computer system with its dial-up modem and internet service could not yet handle the technical demands. Prohibitive high costs did not allow for widespread adoption of videoconferencing until the availability of broadband internet and competitively priced devices flooded the marketplace [21, 23].
Technological advances spurred the growth of videoconferencing services in the late 1990s and early 2000s, expanding the industry’s focus to include individual consumers. The development of the webcam in 1998 and increased internet transmission speeds led to consumer-based videoconferencing products and services, such as Skype in 2003, a pioneer in desktop computer-based videoconferencing [21]. Consumer demand soon drove technological progress. The impact of widespread videoconferencing can be traced to the introduction of 3G technology and smartphones as they made synchronous and immediate video sharing possible for consumers worldwide [23]. Further, Apple played a major role in the proliferation of videoconferencing with its introduction of FaceTime in 2010. These advancements caused a major shift in focus from business-centered products and services to consumer-centered videoconferencing [21].
Today, continued technological enhancements allow individuals to connect on video calls and videoconferences through a variety of platforms and personal devices, providing a rich communicative experience. The advent of cloud computing makes the organizational infrastructure required to utilize videoconferencing more affordable because large capital expenses are no longer necessary. The current technical focus is on improving the quality, convenience, and ease of videoconferencing for organizations and individuals. Videoconferencing has become an expectation in many settings as more and more people apply videoconferences in business, health, and educational settings [21]. Telemedical visits and virtual job interviews were becoming more prevalent even before the pandemic of 2020.
As video technology advanced, its use in educational settings also expanded. 23 explained, “In a society saturated with the visual image and in which digital video is penetrating the personal mobile market, the future of videoconferencing as a medium of communication in both commerce and schooling would seem to be assured” [p. 296]. In 2020, the use of videoconferences for synchronous online instruction became commonplace, and its extensive use drew concerns from both faculty and students.
While videoconferencing technology had played a role in educational settings for years, college faculty turned to the technology in record numbers to teach because they sought to closely simulate the in-person classroom environment. Furthermore, existing research demonstrated that synchronous communication in online college courses led to increased student engagement and improved student outcomes [25, 26]. However, the technology, selected for its inherent media richness [13], came with disadvantages as well. Videoconference users reported intense feelings of exhaustion, which caused problems for college faculty and students who were seeking to connect throughout the day in an online learning environment [1, 2, 3, 4, 15]. In fact, users faced several challenges in the mediated communication environment of the videoconference classroom.
Much of the distance education research literature that compares synchronous and asynchronous instructional deliveries is based upon early site-to-site videoconferencing technology that required students to attend sessions together at remote locations and connect with instructors through videoconferences [27]. Today’s synchronous online learning sharply contrasts with the synchronous distance education of the past, and the expanded use of web videoconferencing has only recently encouraged researchers to compare asynchronous and synchronous course delivery modes in online learning [26, 28, 29, 30].
Often, videoconferencing appears in the distance learning literature in comparison to face-to-face instruction [28, 30, 31, 32, 33] or in opposition to asynchronous online education [26, 29, 34, 35]. Comparing various instructional delivery modalities, research shows faculty and students prefer synchronous face-to-face instruction, asynchronous online instruction, and then, synchronous online videoconference instruction [30, 36]. In terms of student performance, synchronous online courses achieve the same student learning outcomes as face-to-face courses [28]; however, students rate synchronous online courses lower than face-to-face courses in terms of instructor presence, communication, and interaction [31, 33].
Synchronous videoconferencing is viewed as a method to increase the interaction, communication, collaboration, and presence in online courses, which higher education institutions assume will lead to improved online retention rates [26]. Synchronous media offer viable alternatives for online education that had predominately relied on asynchronous communication, which include discussion boards, email, and use of recorded video [26, 35]. Online synchronous learning includes live-streamed videoconferences, with its defining characteristics being immediate, real-time, and allowing for instant feedback [26, 35]. While both asynchronous and synchronous learning environments can effectively engage students with course material [35], motivation is a determining factor in students’ preferences [26, 29]. While one study found students prefer asynchronous learning to synchronous learning online [29], another study found students preferred synchronous online learning to asynchronous learning and that student performance improved in synchronous online environments [35]. Some studies found students’ sense of connection increases in synchronous online learning compared to asynchronous online environments because there is instant feedback and interaction [28, 37]. However, other research found students did not report increased connection and community from synchronous online instruction [36]. Combining asynchronous and synchronous instruction in online courses may lead to greater engagement and retention [38].
Adding synchronous interactions to online education is a method for instructors to closely proximate face-to-face courses by including a real-time, verbal and non-verbal communication component with students in geographically dispersed locations [25, 28, 32, 39]. While outcomes are similar in online courses delivered through videoconferencing and face-to-face courses, students rate videoconferencing courses lower than in-person courses in presence, interaction, and communication [28, 33, 34, 36]. In comparing synchronous to asynchronous online courses, videoconferencing has been demonstrated to improve immediacy and social presence in some studies [25, 34, 40]. Other studies identified student motivation, interaction, and collaboration are encouraged by the implementation of videoconferences in online courses [34, 41, 42]. Diverging from these studies, other research did not find videoconferencing increased student satisfaction nor decreased transactional distance in online learning [36, 43]. In a case study of videoconferencing use in college courses, students reported they felt hidden in their videoconference class sessions because instructors either ask them to turn off their video and audio feeds to preserve bandwidth and limit distractions, or there are so many students in a course that the instructor cannot see everyone on screen at one time [36]. Students also felt deterred from participating in synchronous class sessions because the structure of the videoconference made them feel as if they asked questions, they would interrupt the instructor or talk over other students [36].
While videoconferencing can be transformative for online education, instructors must tailor their teaching to use the tool effectively [44]. Re-envisioning pedagogy requires significant time commitment on the part of faculty as well as institutional support through training [36, 39, 44, 45, 46]. Videoconferencing is merely a delivery tool for instruction, and its successful implementation requires instructors to be innovative and creative in their course design [36, 41, 44]. Scholars have suggested a variety of pedagogical structures to increase student satisfaction in online courses through videoconferences, including the use of break-out groups, virtual poster sessions, show-and-tell, whole group discussions, polling features, chat, virtual hand raising, and small group meetings [36, 37, 45]. Conversely, long lectures do not transition well to videoconferences [36, 37, 38, 39]. While instructors instinctively apply the same teaching methods in the new media rich, videoconference environment, this practice is not pedagogically sound [39, 44, 46]. Other researchers recommend instructors increase their presence during videoconference instruction through specific immediacy behaviors, including the use of more gestures, vocal variety, eye contact, smiles, informal speech, humor, self-disclosure, present tense verbs, and inclusive pronouns [33, 47]. Through careful, planned course design and implementation, instructors can use videoconferences to better engage students in their online courses, yet it is imperative colleges and universities must support these efforts through relevant training and infrastructure.
In 2020, remote workers and learners experienced a significant, abrupt paradigmatic escalation in the use of videoconferences, driven by the COVID-19 global pandemic. Forced into home lockdowns by local, state, and national policies, people suddenly flocked to videoconferencing platforms as a substitute for face-to-face experiences. Videoconferences became a routine part of many people’s day. The massive pivot to online instruction and exponential growth of videoconferencing quickly presented new challenges for its users, namely an intense feeling of exhaustion after videoconferences that the popular press dubbed Zoom fatigue [1, 3, 4, 15, 17, 18]. It is essential videoconferencing platform companies and those organization who use them better understand Zoom fatigue.
Fatigue is approached differently by various disciplines, such as psychology, medicine, occupational health, and information technology [15, 48]. The problem with much of the fatigue research is that the concept is often studied without defining it [48]. “In practice, there are no medical criteria for fatigue,” criticized ([48], p. 196). Further complicating the study of fatigue is whether fatigue is a chronic condition or a temporary state [48]. Health professionals also differentiate between subjective physical fatigue, subjective mental fatigue, physical fatigability, and mental fatigability, with fatigability referring to difficulty in maintaining preferred levels of activity [48]. Overall, most literature considering fatigue considers issues related to mental and physical effects. Physical fatigue includes such concerns as muscle and eye strains, while mental fatigue includes psychological impacts, such as tiredness, stress, and burnout [49, 50].
Existing research on fatigue and new technologies has found both physical and psychological effects. For instance, the type of VR display technology does not affect visual fatigue, but time was significantly associated with visual fatigue [51]. Fatigue is also a component of technostrain in describing technostress, maintaining that fatigue is a common negative psychological experience from using communication technologies [52].
Zoom fatigue is also related to recent research about the use of online social networking tools and their association with feelings of fatigue [15, 49, 50]. Social media fatigue is defined as a form of fatigue that is marked by “the mental exhaustion after experiencing various technological, informative and communicative overloads” ([49], p. 141) through participation and interaction on various social media platforms. Other research has determined social media fatigue can lead to both physical and psychological effects [15]. Social media fatigue can be described as “a subjective, self-evaluated feeling of tiredness and an outcome of stress” ([15], p. 52). Social media fatigue leads some users to refrain from social media use either temporarily or permanently because they feel overwhelmed by information overload [53]. While social media fatigue is weariness related to the voluntary use of social media for entertainment and leisure purposes, Zoom fatigue is different because it is the result of the required use of videoconferencing for work and educational purposes. Whereas users may unplug and refrain from the information overload associated with social media fatigue by refraining from social media for a time period, that solution is not viable for videoconference users who are mandated to participate in the platforms for school or work.
Attempts to explain Zoom fatigue have primarily been reported in the popular press and discuss the communication problems with videoconferencing from a psychological perspective that emphasizes the increased cognitive load associated with videoconferences. Fatigue may be explained from a neuropsychological perspective, claiming the fatigue is related to reward assessment and how the brain responds to costs and rewards [15]. Other scholars asserted the fatigue is attributable to the increased mental and emotional effort it takes to participate in online meetings due to several factors [1, 16, 18]. It takes more effort to process nonverbal communication cues on video than it does in person because even small delays in transmission create dissonance for viewers to interpret [1, 54, 55]. An emphasis on facial cues [1, 18, 56] and the ability to see oneself, at a hyper-awareness level, further increase the stress-level and cognitive fatigue [1, 3, 17, 18, 56]. It’s easier to lose focus in video meetings due to the constant barrage of visual cues and distractions [17]. One proposed a theoretical argument for Zoom fatigue that attributes the phenomenon to prolonged eye gaze, cognitive load, mirror feedback, and reduced mobility [1]. Zoom fatigue appears to be a multi-dimensional phenomenon that requires a communication perspective to understand.
While psychologists explain Zoom fatigue through a consideration of cognitive load, many of the problems are founded within the distinct differences in how the communication process operates through videoconferences compared to in-person communication. Videoconferencing is viewed as a substitute for face-to-face interactions, but the two media are not the same. Although videoconferences offer both verbal and nonverbal information in real-time, those cues are mediated, and the time is not, in fact, real; there are slight delays in transmission [57]. Even short delays of 1.2 seconds produce negative perceptions of individuals on videoconferences, causing viewers to perceive them as less friendly or focused [55]. These seemingly minor differences from videoconference environments and in-person environments create some intense interpersonal challenges for videoconference users to overcome [57, 58]. Little nonverbal and real-time feedback prevents seamless communication [57]. Videoconference presents itself as an alternative to face-to-face communication, but the interpersonal communication behaviors exhibited through videoconferences are unnatural and disconcerting for many users [1, 36]. The technology that allows for synchronous verbal and nonverbal communication also impedes that communication through its channel transmission.
The mediated communication through videoconferences is different than face-to-face interactions. Cognitively, it is easier to process in-person verbal and nonverbal cues because they aren’t being filtered through low-quality cameras or intermittent internet connections. 3 explained, “We can’t see people well enough to discern such information as easily as we could if they were sitting across a table from us, but we can’t help but try. Communicating is both more difficult and less successful” [p. 23]. The whole conversational framework is lost through the virtual channel. Psychologist Jocelyn Brewer maintained:
With video, we are monitoring for non-verbal cues and information with much less stimulus. We get tiny 2D thumbnails of faces, often at weird angles with people looking in different directions and not at the person speaking. So, the brain goes into “scanning mode,” trying to fill in the gaps to get enough information to make sense of what’s happening and receive the communication, ideas, or actions ([59], p. 50).
Many interpersonal communication behaviors are negatively affected through the mediated videoconferences. Listening is different on videoconferences than in face-to-face conversations because there is a need for constant gaze to demonstrate you are listening on video calls, which differs from listening in person, and the intense eye contact feels unnatural [1, 17]. The mediated technology makes it more difficult for communication partners to analyze pauses and facial expressions, disrupting the natural rhythm of conversational patterns [36, 54, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60]. Common conversational patterns, such as overlapping, are not practical on videoconferences [36, 60]. Silence presents another issue on videoconferences because silence creates anxiety about whether the technology is working [36, 54]. Videoconferences limit normal conversation patterns, resulting in more formality in interactions [16, 36, 60]. Interpersonal communication feels less natural when it is mediated through a videoconference [36].
The arrangement and features of the online videoconference display also produce challenges for users. Videoconferencing creates a simulated, mediated stage in which users perform for the others on the call, typically appearing as a square box that emphasizes the head and upper torso, increasing the salience of facial features compared to face-to-face interactions [16]. Users view a gallery of faces, including themselves, contributing to the mental and emotional exhaustion [1, 36, 59]. “It’s this pressure to really be on and be responsive,” according to Vaile Wright, the director of clinical research and quality for the American Psychological Association ([61], para. 6). This pressure results from the extreme closeness of people’s faces presented on the screen. This up-close view is meant to permit users to better distinguish facial expressions and other nonverbal cues, but the unintended consequence is a scrutiny on faces, which is almost unnerving after a prolonged time. It is also difficult to maintain eye contact with a matrix of faces [1, 59].
Others discuss the stress from staring at oneself on the camera [1, 20, 36, 54, 57]. Marissa Shuffler, an associate professor at Clemson University who studies workplace wellbeing, stated, “When you’re on a video conference, you know everybody’s looking at you; you are on stage, so there comes the social pressure and feeling like you need to perform” ([54], para. 6). The online display screen generates a hyper-awareness of the self.
Several issues may result from the intense focus on the self during videoconferences. The self-presentation feedback is a continuous loop, and this feedback increases self-consciousness, self-awareness, and may affect self-esteem [20]. The effect seems to be greatest at the start and end of video calls. Research demonstrated that participants look at themselves often during the beginning and end of videoconference sessions, but they gaze at themselves less when they are working on a task [22]. However, videoconference users reported they are concerned about their appearance, and this can lead to uncomfortable feelings and distractions, contributing to the sense of videoconferencing fatigue [20, 22, 36].
Many users participate in videoconferences at home, which causes a range of distractions [17, 36, 56, 59]. Potential environmental distractions and disruptions add to the emotional fatigue level. Students typically prefer to keep their professional (academic) spaces separate from their personal (social) spaces [62], but videoconferences often blend the two spaces. This blurring of the personal and professional realms contributes to students’ dissatisfaction with synchronous videoconference instruction [36]. Distracted by their environments, students in videoconference classes also reported they often turn off their video and microphone feeds during lectures to multi-task [36, 37]. Finally, a range of technical issues occur during videoconference meetings as users struggle with connection speeds, the mute button, camera angles, and lighting [36, 59]. A variety of environmental factors potentially contribute to feelings of Zoom fatigue.
To explore the effect of videoconferencing on faculty and students in higher education, a qualitative case study approach was employed that included document analysis, surveys, and in-depth interviews. This type of research is well suited to exploratory, interpretive studies that require close collaboration between the researcher and participants [36].
The site of the case study was a small liberal arts university that is typical of other small, independent institutions. Document review involved the analysis of 1,358 narrative comments from students written as part of course evaluations, 103 completed online surveys from students and faculty, and 572 minutes of recorded faculty and student interviews. Data analysis included word frequency, sentiment, thematic analysis, and descriptive statistical analysis [36].
The findings from the case study present a complex, interesting story of how faculty and students experience videoconferencing in online courses. Document analysis revealed students primarily evaluated videoconferencing positively, often equating faculty’s use of videoconferencing with “caring” and “availability.” According to faculty surveys, faculty members used videoconferencing an average of 16.8 hours per week. Their reactions about the communication technology were mixed. They thought videoconferencing was a way of connecting to students in real time; however, students did not interact much on the videoconference sessions, and many faculty and students experienced internet disruptions. All of the respondents admitted to feeling Zoom fatigue, and they described it as both mental and physical fatigue. A majority, 88%, of student survey respondents had participated in synchronous videoconferencing class sessions, and the majority of them had also experienced Zoom fatigue. The faculty and student interviews provided a deeper understanding of videoconferencing in college classes [36].
In interviews, faculty and students reported the media rich videoconferences were deficient in a number of ways, negatively affecting the communication technology’s ability to facilitate natural conversation and interaction. Faculty and student experiences with videoconferences in courses greatly diverged, although both expressed frustration and dissatisfaction. Faculty members felt disappointed because many students did not interact on the videoconferences, with most students opting to keep their cameras off during the sessions. This produced an environment in which faculty were often teaching to a wall of black boxes and unable to coax students to engage with the material or them. Meanwhile, in an apparent contradiction, students reported feeling hidden and muted on videoconferences because the organizational structure of the mediated environment deterred their active participation. They cited instructor policies that required microphones be muted to prevent random external noises as creating an unintended outcome that discouraged direct feedback. Students felt uncomfortable with the process of muting and un-muting the microphone feature to ask or answer questions because they feared interrupting or overlapping. In short, videoconferencing complicates many of the dimensions of the communication process, including feedback and nonverbal communication. Stifled communication and disjointed videoconferences left faculty and students desiring more natural interaction. As one student explained, videoconference class sessions are “not genuine.” The result was faculty members realized they were not reaching students, and students felt they were not learning [36].
Since synchronous online interactions through videoconferencing is likely to remain a prevalent form of communication in higher education and other settings, it is imperative that more is known about the causes of Zoom fatigue. Through further analysis and interpretation of the case study data, a model of Zoom fatigue emerged [36]. Participants recognized multiple factors caused their feelings of tiredness. Further analysis and interpretation of survey and interview data led to a proposed theoretical model of Zoom fatigue that includes four key dimensions: situational factors, individual trait factors, environmental factors, and communication factors (see Figure 1).
Model of zoom fatigue (reprinted from [
These factors are outlined inTable 1. Situational factors are defined as aspects related to the specific conditions of a videoconference, such as the number of videoconferences scheduled a day, the size of the videoconference, the relationship among participants, the type of content shared in the videoconference, the level of participation (host or participant), and the amount of interaction during the videoconference. Individual trait factors include a participant’s characteristics, which consist of personality type, anxiety level, motivation, self-awareness, and self-esteem. Environmental factors encompass those external elements, including background distractions, physical location, furniture, type of device, camera and microphone settings, and internet connectivity. Finally, communication factors emphasize the interaction components of verbal and nonverbal communication, which include conversation flow, lack of nonverbal cues, awkward silences, interruptions, overlapping, and feedback. The combination of these factors functions to impact the level of Zoom fatigue videoconferencing participants feel, according to survey and interview data [36].
Situational | Individual Trait | Environmental | Communication |
---|---|---|---|
number | personality | background | gestures |
size | anxiety level | physical location | facial expression |
relationship | self-awareness | furniture | eye contact |
content type | self-esteem | device accessibility | pauses |
role | camera setting | interruptions | |
interaction | microphone setting | overlapping | |
internet connectivity feedback |
Factors of zoom fatigue (reprinted from [36]).
Zoom fatigue is a multifaceted problem. To prevent Zoom fatigue, videoconference participants should consider controllable factors in the model and plan accordingly for the aspects they cannot control. Situational and environmental factors are elements participants can actively affect. Scheduling can be controlled, so participants should not schedule serial Zoom sessions as back-to-back, continuous videoconferences significantly add to Zoom fatigue. Therefore, space videoconferences apart, avoid too many in one day, and be sure to practice self-care by taking breaks in between sessions. To the degree possible, videoconference participants should control their background and environment; if participating at home, attempt to create a professional space within the private space, if possible. Even more important is the type of furniture participants use for videoconferences, as posture is important during the session, and it also contributes to the physical fatigue after a session. Another factor that participants can control is their level of engagement. Interacting on the videoconference through direct feedback, chatting, or the use of reactions will keep participants focused and motivated to listen, whereas passive listening behaviors cause more fatigue. While videoconference participants cannot control every dimension of the session, controlling certain factors will help alleviate some Zoom fatigue.
While videoconferencing technology had existed for years, the events of 2020 accelerated their implementation and usage in exponential ways. Faculty members selected the communication technology to deliver content due to its inherent media richness, perceiving the medium to closely approximate the face-to-face classroom experience. The prevalent use of videoconferencing in higher education resulted in unintended challenges for faculty and students. Videoconferencing can be used as a valuable method for instruction if it is applied in appropriate contexts with proper training and preparation. The indiscriminate utilization of videoconferencing in college courses as an absolute substitution for in-person interactions is ill advised as there are several critical differences between videoconferences and face-to-face communication.
The use of videoconferencing in college classrooms should be implemented intentionally after extensive training and familiarity with the application and with much planning and preparation on the part of faculty members. Videoconferencing is a complex construct for the higher education online classroom, and its utilization should be carefully designed as part of an online course’s overall pedagogy. In short, videoconferencing is appropriate in some, but not all, classroom contexts. As past scholars have illuminated, pedagogy, not content delivery, should guide learning [19, 60, 63]. Videoconferencing is a communication tool for content delivery, and its successful use in the online classroom should be situated in an understanding of the larger scope of online education. The implementation of videoconferences into online course instruction should be planned and purposeful. For this reason, faculty members should not plan sessions for a set time just because that is the course time. If a live, synchronous session is planned on videoconference, that session should have a purpose and function. Students criticize class sessions that waste their time, or they deem “pointless” [36]. For instance, videoconferences should not be used to provide long lectures that feature primarily one-way communication from instructor to students. This type of instruction is not effective as a videoconference. When there is a large amount of content that instructors need to deliver to students remotely, chunking the information into short, recorded videos is both preferred by students and more effective for achieving learning outcomes [36].
Further, instructors should realize large classes do not transition well into videoconference sessions because instructors are not able to see all of the students’ screens at one time, essentially creating a virtual barrier between students and faculty that discourages student interaction [36]. If videoconferences are used for large class sizes, the classes should be broken into smaller groups as small groups communicate more effectively on videoconferences [36]. Setting up smaller group videoconference sessions to cover content is advised so that all students feel seen and heard. Smaller groups tend to encourage students to participate in videoconferences with their cameras on, adding to the potential for engagement, and faculty may encourage the use of videoconferences for small groups either through the breakout group functions during class videoconference sessions or through group project assignments they complete on their own time [36]. Students are disappointed when they cannot easily communicate with peers through class videoconference sessions, so intentionally designing those opportunities will increase student–student interaction, which improves learning outcomes.
Students also prefer when professors do not mandate synchronous videoconference class sessions. Students prefer autonomy in their learning [36]. Therefore, scheduling optional sessions, recording them, and encouraging attendance through incentives are effective strategies to appeal to students.
In addition, to encourage interaction, faculty members should provide guidelines that address how students should ask questions during videoconferences [36]. These guidelines should refer to how and when they can participate with their microphone unmuted as well as the use of the chat box and reactions, such as hand-waving emojis. Faculty members need to ensure students understand and are comfortable with these policies prior to holding online videoconference discussions. Along those lines, faculty members should consider the use and functionality of the chat box and provide students directions for its use. Identifying a class member or teaching assistant to monitor the chat box will improve its successful implementation. Including the use of polling and reactions during videoconference class sessions also improves student focus and engagement, according to faculty respondents.
Another method of facilitating concentration on the part of students and faculty members is to keep content simple [36]. Faculty members should not plan to include too many screen switches during a class session; less is more. Faculty members who switch between PowerPoint slides, videos, demonstration screens, and others continuously throughout a class session get overwhelmed and lose focus while students also struggle to keep up with too many messages in a single session. Faculty members should narrow the content to manageable bits of information and ensure that any screen changes are smooth and necessary to avoid information overload [36].
There are suggestions for higher education administrators as well [36]. To begin, videoconferencing should be seen as a supplemental tool for online course delivery and not a substitute for in-person instruction. Secondly, administrators should realize not all types of courses can effectively use videoconferences. For instance, while some scientific laboratory sessions can be taught using online simulations, not all can. Administrators should work with their faculty members to ensure a sound pedagogy is in place in which videoconferencing is part of the online delivery methods. To assist that process, training is desired and required [36]. Additionally, if a course plans to use synchronous online videoconferences, the course size needs to be kept manageable. All participants should be able to be viewed on one screen on the videoconference. Administrators have relied on videoconferencing for many meetings and workshops, and to alleviate fatigue, they should schedule these sessions similarly to in-person meetings, being careful to schedule breaks and being cognizant of length of the videoconference and time of day. Do not assume participants will turn off their camera and microphone to accommodate needed breaks because many will not. Finally, administrators need to respect faculty members’ boundaries and privacy. Teaching remotely does not mean that faculty members are suddenly on the clock 24 hours a day. The ability to Zoom does not guarantee that a faculty member is available any time of the day. Respect free time and family time. Administrators need to understand the difficulties and challenges of blurred work and private spaces by demonstrating respect and communicating they appreciate their time and sacrifices.
Business demands drove the initial development of videoconference technology, so corporate organizations could save time and money by virtually meeting over geographic distances to collaborate and achieve organizational outcomes. Globalization efforts in the late 1990s and 2000s intensified the desire and need for such remote technological solutions. Educational institutions realized the potential benefits of videoconferencing once the capital costs associated with such systems became feasible for them to incur [23]. When affordable web conferencing was introduced, higher education embraced videoconferencing as a method to increase online retention by improving interaction and engagement in online education [25]. In business and higher education contexts, videoconferences were limited in use to supplement organizational activities and bring together small groups of remote audiences for brief goal-centered encounters. Early videoconference research determined videoconferencing was adequate to complete tasks with low interpersonal involvement, including information transmission, problem solving, and generating ideas, but cautioned it was not effective for tasks requiring high interpersonal involvement [64].
However, since videoconferencing is commonly viewed as a close alternative to in-person meetings, when remote working and learning became prevalent in 2020 in response to a global health pandemic, its use increased exponentially within a variety of contexts. Videoconferencing has been widely accepted in higher education when face-to-face instruction is not possible. Pedagogically, college faculty embraced videoconferencing in spring 2020 because it intuitively felt like the best alternative to face-to-face instruction [2]. The sudden shift to videoconferencing allowed people to connect with verbal and non-verbal cues present; however, those cues are presented differently through the mediated channel. Challenges to the predominate use of videoconferencing include a sense of exhaustion, known as Zoom fatigue.
The future of higher education continues to be shaped by technology and online learning. It is essential stakeholders realize how to best reach students through online education as its prominence in higher education is well established. Faculty members included videoconferences as part of their response to an abrupt transition to teaching online because videoconferencing was perceived as a rich medium to communicate with students, closely mirroring face-to-face classroom interactions. In practice, faculty and students find the videoconferences differ significantly from face-to-face interactions because natural conversation patterns are primarily lost [36]. While videoconferences can effectively be implemented within college courses, the effort requires significant training, time, and design by faculty to ensure students are engaged with the material and do not view the sessions as “pointless” [36].
Further, Zoom fatigue, a recently identified phenomenon, is associated with the prevalent use of videoconferencing. This chapter presents a working model of Zoom fatigue to explain the multi-dimensional factors that lead to videoconferencing fatigue. As videoconferencing will likely remain a dominant method of communication in the foreseeable future, it is essential its impact on education, relationships, work, worship, and leisure continue to be examined. The proposed model of Zoom fatigue offers a foundation for understanding how the phenomenon affects videoconferencing participants. Although the mediated, virtual communication environment offers opportunities and challenges for its participants to negotiate, the question remains, “Who’s Zoomin’ who?”
This work is based upon dissertation research completed at Liberty University and funded, in part, by a fellowship from the Appalachian College Association. The author acknowledges the mentorship and assistance of members of Liberty’s School of Communication and the Arts, including her committee chair, Dr. Carol Hepburn, committee member, Dr. Carey Martin, and program director, Dr. Robert Mott. Thank you also to Amanda Mae Arts and Haley Fannin for proofing a previous version of this work.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
This chapter is based upon the author’s previous unpublished dissertation: Massner, C. Zooming in on Zoom fatigue: A case study of videoconferencing and Zoom fatigue in higher education [dissertation]. Lynchburg, VA: Liberty University. 2021.
Crop growth and productivity are strongly influenced by various biotic and abiotic stresses such as pests, weeds, drought, high salinity, extreme temperature, etc. and the soil quality [1]. Soil is also contaminated by heavy metals through various human activities [2], which affect plant growth and development and ultimately brings low yielding cropping systems. Mining is one of the important sources of heavy metal contamination in soil [3, 4]. The strength of soil is directly related to nutrient availability. Plants require a number of soil nutrients like nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) for their growth, but soil nutrient levels may decrease over time after crop harvesting, as nutrients are not returned to the soil. In India, the soil of many regions is not only deficient in macronutrients like NPK but also in secondary nutrients (e.g. sulfur, calcium, and magnesium) and micronutrients (e.g. boron, zinc, copper, and iron) [5]. Thus, to fulfill the shortage, a large amount of chemical fertilizers is added to the soil; however, only a small percent of water-soluble nutrients are taken up by the plants and the rest are converted into insoluble forms, making continuous application necessary. Finally, the extensive use of chemical fertilizers has led to the deterioration of the environment causing infinite problems. It not only lowers the nutrient composition of the crops but also degrades the soil fertility in the long run [6, 7].
\nBesides fertilizers, pesticides are also the basic evil for agriculture, and the adverse effects of pesticides on the environment are truly responsible for influencing the microbial properties of soil. High inputs of fertilizers and pesticides and their long persistence in the soil adversely affect the soil microflora, thereby disturbing soil health and significantly reducing the total bacterial and fungal biomass [8]. Due to long-term treatment with inorganic fertilizers (N and NPK) and/or organic manures, a shift in structural diversity and dominant bacterial groups in agricultural soils has been recorded by Wu et al. [9]. Biofertilizers, on the other hand, can reenergize the soil by improving the soil fertility and hence can be used as a powerful tool for sustainable agriculture, rendering agro-ecosystems more stress-free. Additionally, the application of organic amendments to soils, from a remedial point of view, has typically been justified by their relatively low cost, which normally requires other forms of disposal (burial in a landfill, incineration, etc.). Soil amendments must possess properties such as high binding capacity and environmental safety and should have no negative effect on the soil structure, soil fertility, or the ecosystem on the whole [10]. The use of biochar has been accepted as a sustainable approach and a promising way to improve soil quality and remove heavy-metal pollutants from the soil [11].
\nBiochar is a carbon-rich organic material, an organic amendment, and a by-product derived from biomass by pyrolysis under high-temperature and low-oxygen conditions. Biochar is produced through a process called pyrolysis, which basically involves heating of biomass (such as wood, manure, or leaves) in complete or almost complete absence of oxygen, with oil and gas as co-products. However, the quantity of these materials produced depends on the processing conditions. Recently, it has been reported that biochar obtained from the carbonization of organic wastes can be a substitute that not only influences the sequestration of soil carbon but also modifies its physicochemical and biological properties [12, 13].
\nBiochar has the potential to produce farm-based renewable energy in an eco-friendly way. Specifically, the quality of biochar depends on several factors, such as the type of soil, metal, and the raw material used for carbonization, the pyrolysis conditions, and the amount of biochar applied to the soil [14]. In addition, the biochar amendment to the soil proved to be beneficial to improve soil quality and retain nutrients, thereby enhancing plant growth [15]. Since biochar contains organic matter and nutrients, its addition increased soil pH, electric conductivity (EC), organic carbon (C), total nitrogen (TN), available phosphorus (P), and the cation-exchange capacity (CEC) [16]. Earlier, Verheijen et al. [17] reported that the biochar application affected the toxicity, transport, and fate of various heavy metals in the soil due to improved soil absorption capacity. The presence of plant nutrients and ash in the biochar and its large surface area, porous nature, and the ability to act as a medium for microorganisms have been identified as the main reasons for the improvement in soil properties and increase in the absorption of nutrients by plants in soils treated with biochar [18]. Chan et al. [19] reported that biochar application decreased the tensile strength of soil cores, indicating that the use of biochar can reduce the risk of soil compaction. A lot has already been discussed on the benefits of inoculation of rhizobacteria in soil, but the addition of biochar can also provide more nutrients to the soil, thus benefiting the agricultural crops. The mixing of the plant growth-promoting microorganisms with biochar was referred to as the best combination for growth and yield of French beans by Saxena et al. [20].
\nAddition of biochar in the soil can be extremely useful to improve the soil quality, as well as to stimulate the plant growth, and thus, biochar can play an important role in developing a sustainable system of agriculture. Several uses and positive effects of biochar amendment have currently been considered as an effective method to reclaim the contaminated soil [21] and to achieve high crop yields without harming the natural environment. The positive influence of biochar on plant growth and soil quality suggests that using biochar is a good way to overcome nutrient deficiency, making it a suitable technique to improve farm-scale nutrient cycles. Therefore, a complete focus is been made to explore the positive effects of biochar amendment on soil stability and plant growth promotion.
\nBiochar is made up of elements such as carbon, hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen as well as minerals in the ash fraction. It is produced during pyrolysis, a thermal decomposition of biomass in an oxygen-limited environment. Biochar is black, highly porous, and finely grained, with light weight, large surface area and pH, all of which have a positive effect on its application to soil. To address the major concern on quality of agricultural soil degradation, biochar is applied to the soil in order to enhance its quality. Biochar is stabilized biomass, which may be mixed into soil with intentional changes in the properties of the soil’s atmosphere to increase crop productivity and to mitigate pollution. The raw material (biomass) used and processing parameters dictate the properties of the biochar.
\nA wide range of organic materials are suitable as feedstock for the production of biochar. Biochar can be produced with raw materials such as grass, cow manure, wood chips, rice husk, wheat straw, cassava rhizome, and other agricultural residues [22, 23]. It was reported that the production of biochar with high nutrients depends on the type of raw material used and pyrolysis conditions [24]. Biochar is produced from the residual biomasses such as crop residues, manure, wood residues, and forests and green wastes using modern pyrolysis technology. Agricultural wastes (bark, straw, husks, seeds, peels, bagasse, sawdust, nutshells, wood shavings, animal beds, corn cobs and corn stalks, etc.), industrial wastes (bagasse, distillers’ grain, etc.), and urban/municipal wastes [25, 26] have been extensively used, thus also achieving waste management through its production and use [27].
\nFeedstocks currently used on a commercial scale include tree bark, wood chips, crop residues (nut shells, straw, and rice hulls), grass, and organic wastes including distillers’ grain, bagasse from the sugarcane industry, mill waste, chicken litter, dairy manure, sewage sludge, and paper sludge [28, 29, 30]. A 40 wt.% yield of biochar from maize stover was obtained by Peterson et al. [31].
\nThe biomass used for the production of biochar is mainly composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin polymers [32]. Among these, cellulose has been found to be the main component of most plant-derived biomasses, but lignin is also important in woody biomass.
\nBiochar can be manufactured on a small scale using low-cost modified stoves or kilns or through large-scale, cost-intensive production, which utilizes larger pyrolysis plants and higher amounts of feedstocks. Biochar is produced from several biomass feedstocks through pyrolysis as discussed above, generating oil and gases as by-products [33]. The dry waste obtained is simply cut into small pieces to less than 3 cm prior to use. The feedstock is heated either without oxygen or with little oxygen at the temperatures of 350–700°C (662–1292°F). Pyrolysis is generally classified by the temperature and time duration for heating; fast pyrolysis takes place at temperatures above 500°C and typically happens on the order of seconds (heating rates ≥ 1000°C/min). This condition maximizes the generation of bio-oil. Slow pyrolysis, on the other hand, usually takes more time, from 30 min to a few hours for the feedstock to fully pyrolyze (heating rates ≤ 100°C/min) and at the same time yields more biochar. The temperature range remains 250–500°C [34].
\nThe type of biochar produced depends on two variables: the biomass being used and the temperature and rate of heating. High and low temperatures have an unequivocal effect on char yields. It has been noticed that at low temperature (<550°C), biochar has an amorphous carbon structure with a lower aromaticity than the biochar produced at high temperature [35]. High temperature leads to lower char yield in all pyrolysis reactions [36]. Peng et al. [37] reported the effect of charring duration on the yield of biochar; yield showing a decrease with increasing duration at the same temperature. The pyrolysis process seriously affects the quality of biochar and its potential value to agriculture in terms of agronomic performance or in carbon sequestration. The yield of biochar from slow pyrolysis of biomass has been stated to be in the range of 24–77% [38, 39] (Figure 1). The pyrolysis process can be shown as follows:
\nBiochar production from different biomasses.
Biochar is a stable form of carbon and can last for thousands of years in the soil [40]. It is produced for the purpose of addition to soil as a means of sequestering carbon and improving soil quality. The conditions of pyrolysis and the materials used can significantly affect the properties of biochar. The physical properties of biochar contribute to its function as a tool for managing the environment. It has been reported that when biochar is used as a soil amendment, it stimulates soil fertility and improves soil quality by increasing soil pH, increasing the ability to retain moisture, attracting more useful fungi and other microbes, improving the ability of cation exchange, and preserving the nutrients in the soil [41]. Biochar reduces soil density and soil hardening, increases soil aeration and cation-exchange capacity, and changes the soil structure and consistency through the changes in physical and chemical properties. It also helps to reclaim degraded soils. It has shown a greater ability to adsorb cations per unit carbon as compared to other soil organic matters because of its greater surface area, negative surface charge, and charge density [42], thereby offering the possibility of improving yields [43]. Samples with a sufficient amount of stable carbon can be added to the soil to be sequestered; a high sorption surface of biochar can characterize it as a soil additive, competent of halting risk elements in soil.
\nThe physical characteristics of biochar are directly and indirectly related to how they affect soil systems. Soils have their own physical properties depending on the nature of mineral and organic matter, their relative amounts, and how minerals and organic matter are related. When biochar is present in the soil mixture, its contribution to the physical nature of the system is significant, affecting the depth, texture, structure, porosity, and consistency by changing the surface area, pore and particle-size distribution, density, and packing [44]. The influence of biochar on physical properties of soil directly affects the growth of plants, since the depth of penetration and accessibility of air and water in the root zone is determined mainly by the physical composition of the soil horizons. This affects the soil’s response to water, its aggregation, and work ability in soil preparation, dynamics, and permeability when swelling, as well as the ability to retain cations and response to changes at ambient temperature. The smaller the pores on biochar, the longer they can retain capillary soil water. The addition of biochar can reduce the effects of drought on crop productivity in drought-affected areas due to its moisture-retention capacity. It has been shown that it eliminates soil constraints that limit the growth of plants, and neutralizes acidic soil because of its basic nature [45]. Carbon dioxide and oxygen occupy air-filled spaces on the pores of biochar or can be chemosorbed on the surface. As biochar can contain nutrients, microorganisms, and syngases, it can also retain fertilizers in the soil longer than other soils and prevent it from leaching into water sources such as rivers and lakes.
\nAs far as its chemical properties are concerned, biochar reduces soil acidity by increasing the pH (also called the liming effect) and helps the soil to retain nutrients and fertilizers [46]. The application of biochar improves soil fertility through two mechanisms: adding nutrients to the soil (such as K, to a limited extent P, and many micronutrients) or retaining nutrients from other sources, including nutrients from the soil itself. However, the main advantage is to retain nutrients from other sources. In most cases, the addition of biochar only has a net positive effect on the growth of crops if nutrients from other sources, such as inorganic or organic fertilizers, are used. Biochar increases the availability of C, N, Ca, Mg, K, and P to plants, because biochar absorbs and slowly releases fertilizers [47]. It also helps to prevent fertilizer drainage and leaching by allowing less fertilizer use and reducing agricultural pollution in the surrounding environment [48]. Biochar alleviates the impact of hazardous pesticides and complex nitrogen fertilizers from the soil, thus reducing the impact on the local environment.
\nGood healthy soil should include a wide and balanced variety of life forms, including bacteria, fungi, protozoa, nematodes, arthropods, and earthworms. Recently, biochar has been reported to increase the microbial respiration of the soil by creating space for soil microbes [49], and in turn the soil biodiversity and soil density increased. Biochar also served as a habitat for extra-radical fungal hyphae that sporulated in micropores due to lower competition from saprophytes and therefore served as an inoculum for arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi [50]. It is believed that biochar has a long average dwelling time in soil, ranging from 1000 to 10,000 years, with an average of 5000 years [51, 52, 53]. However, its recalcitrance and physical nature present significant impediment to the evaluation of long-term stability [43]. The commercially available soil microbes which can be used for inoculation include
The issues as food security, declining soil fertility, climate change, and profitability are the driving forces behind the introduction of new technologies or new farming systems. The amendment of soils for their remediation aims at reducing the risk of pollutant transfer to waters or receptor organisms in proximity. The organic material such as biochar may serve as a popular choice for this purpose because its source is biological and it may be directly applied to soils with little pretreatment [55]. There are two aspects which make biochar amendment superior to other organic materials: the first is the high stability against decay, so that it can remain in soil for longer times providing long-term benefits to soil and the second is having more capability to retain the nutrients. Biochar amendment improves soil quality by increasing soil pH, moisture-holding capacity, cation-exchange capacity, and microbial flora [56].
\nThe addition of biochar to the soil has shown the increase in availability of basic cations as well as in concentrations of phosphorus and total nitrogen [57, 58]. Typically, alkaline pH and mineral constituents of biochar (ash content, including N, P, K, and trace elements) can provide important agronomic benefits to many soils, at least in the short to medium term. When biochar with a higher pH value was applied to the soil, the amended soil generally became less acidic [59]. Acidic biochar could also increase soil pH when used in soil with a lower pH value. The pH of biochar, similar to the other properties, is influenced by the type of feedstock, production temperature, and production duration.
\nAnother valuable property of biochar is suppression of emissions of greenhouse gases in soil. It has also been demonstrated by Zhang et al. [60] that the emissions of methane and nitrous oxide were reduced from agricultural soils, which may have additional climate mitigation effects, since these are potent greenhouse gases. Spokas et al. [61] reported reduced carbon dioxide production by addition of different concentrations of biochar ranging from 2 to 60% (w/w), suppressed nitrous oxide production at levels higher than 20% (w/w), and ambient methane oxidation at all levels over unamended soil.
\nSeveral studies have shown the control of pathogens by the use of biochar in agricultural soil. Bonanomi et al. [62] reported that biochar is effective against both air-borne (e.g.
The prevention of ‘diffuse water pollution’ through ammonium sorption or the mediation of the dynamics of a soil solution containing nitrate, phosphorus, and other nutrients has been extensively studied. The application of biochar to soil can influence a wide range of soil constraints such as high availability of Al [67], soil structure and nutrient availability [24], bioavailability of organic [68] and inorganic pollutants [69], cation-exchange capacity (CEC), and retention of nutrients [70, 71]. Biochar can also adsorb pesticides, nutrients, and minerals in the soil, preventing the movement of these chemicals into surface water or groundwater and the subsequent degradation of these waters from agricultural activity.
\nXie et al. [72] reported that biochar amendment enhanced soil fertility and crop production, particularly in soils with low nutrients. However, in soils with high fertility, no noticeable increase in production was noticed, and some studies even reported inhibition of plant growth. The observations of Taghizadeh-Toosi et al. [73] indicated that ammonia adsorbed by biochar could be later released to the soil. Saarnio et al. [74] showed that biochar application along with fertilizers can lead to better plant growth, but sometimes a negative effect was also observed without fertilization due to reduced bio-availability through sorption of nitrogen. It has been shown that application of biochar in the soil has a positive to neutral and even negative impact on crop production. Hence, it is crucial that the mechanisms for action of biochar in the soil be understood before its application.
\nThe consequence of biochar addition on plant productivity depends on the amount added. Recommended application rates for any soil amendment should be based on extensive field testing. At present, insufficient data are available for obtaining general recommendations. In addition, biochar materials can vary greatly in their characteristics, so the nature of the particular biochar material (e.g. pH and ash content) also influences the application rate. Several studies have reported a positive effect of using biochar on crop yields with rates of 5–50 tonnes per hectare with appropriate nutrient management. The experiments conducted by Rondon et al. [75] resulted in a decrease in crop yield in a pot experiment with nutrient deficient soil amended with biochar at the rate of 165 tonnes per hectare. An experiment conducted in the United States showed that peanut hull and pine chip biochar, applied to 11 and 22 tonnes per hectare, could reduce corn yields below those obtained in the control plots with standard fertilizer management [76]. Thus, the control of the rate of application of biochar is necessary to prevent the negative impact of biochar.
\nThere are several reports which show that biochar has the capability to stimulate the soil microflora, which results in greater accumulation of carbon in soil. Besides adsorbing organic substances, nutrients, and gases, biochars are likely to offer a habitat for bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi [64]. It has been suggested that faster heating of biomass (fast pyrolysis) will lead to the formation of biochar with fewer microorganisms, smaller pore size, and more liquid and gas components [77]. The enhancement of water retention after biochar application in soil has been well established [78], and this may affect the soil microbial populations. Biochar provides a suitable habitat for a large and diverse group of soil microorganisms, although the interaction of biochar with soil microorganisms is a complex phenomenon. Many studies reported that addition of biochar along with phosphate solubilizing fungal strains promoted growth and yield of
The use of biochar increased mycorrhizal growth in clover bioassay plants by providing the suitable conditions for colonization of plant roots [81]. Warnock et al. [82] summarized four mechanisms by which biochar can affect functioning of mycorrhizal fungi: (i) changes in the physical and chemical properties of soil, (ii) indirect effects on mycorrhizae through exposure to other soil microbes, (iii) plant-fungus signaling interference and detoxification of toxic chemicals on biochar, and (iv) providing shelter from mushroom browsers. Carrots and legumes grown on steep slopes and in soils with less than 5.2 pH showed significantly improved growth by the addition of biochar [83]. It was found that biochar increased the biological N2 fixation (BNF) of
Biochar can increase the value of non-harvested agricultural products [88] and promote the plant growth [58, 89]. A single application of 20 t ha−1 biochar to a Colombian savanna soil resulted in an increase in maize yield by 28–140% as compared with the unamended control in the 2nd to 4th years after application [90]. With the addition of biochar at the rate of 90 g kg−1 to tropical, low-fertile ferralsol, not only the proportion of N fixed by bean plants (
The direct beneficial effects of biochar addition for the availability of nutrients are largely due to the higher content of potassium, phosphorus, and zinc availability and, to a lesser extent, calcium and copper [58]. Few studies have examined the potential for amending biochar in soil to impact plant resistance to pathogens. With reference to soil pathogens principally concerned with the effect of AM fungal inoculations on asparagus tolerance to the soil borne root rot pathogen
Mixing biochar with other soil amendments such as manure, compost, or lime before soil application can improve efficiency by reducing the number of field operations required. Since biochar has been shown to sorb nutrients and protect them from leaching [70, 96], mixing of biochar may improve the efficiency of manure and other amendments. However, Kammann et al. [97] acknowledged in their recent review that very few studies that directly combined organic amendments with biochars were available. They found that co-composted biochars had a remarkable plant growth-promoting effect as compared to biochars when used pure, but no-systematic studies have been done to understand the interactive effects of biochars with non-pyrogenic organic amendments (NPOAs). Biochar can also be mixed with liquid manures and used as slurry. Additionally, combined biochar and compost applications have numerous advantages over mixing of biochar or compost with soil separately. These benefits, according to Liu et al. [98], include more efficient use of nutrients, biological activation of biochar, an enhanced supply of plant-available nutrients by biological nitrogen fixation, reduction of nutrient leaching, and the contribution of combined nutrients in comparison to a single application of compost and biochar. Diminutive biochars are most likely best suited for this type of application. Biochar was also mixed with manure in ponds and potentially reduced losses of nitrogen gas were recorded same as when it was applied to soil [99, 100].
\nThe problem of the depletion of agricultural land as a result of the pressure caused by the ever-growing population necessitated the sustainable practice of crop production. It was suggested to use biochar as a means of remediating contaminated agricultural soil, improving soil fertility by reducing the acidity, and increasing the availability of nutrients. Thus, addition of biochar to the soil can be one of the best practices to overcome any biotic stress in soil and to increase the crop productivity. The positive effects of biochar on the interactions between soil-plant-water caused better photosynthetic performance and improved nitrogen and water use efficiency. Hence, it can be concluded by this comprehensive review that biochar has the potential to improve the properties of soil, microbial abundance, biological nitrogen fixation, and plant growth. Therefore, it is recommended to use biochar as a soil amendment for long-term carbon sink restoration.
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\n\nIntechOpen works with award winning print-houses and we hold to the fact that all of our printed products are of the highest quality.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. 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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Koopman-van Gemert"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:3,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"70657",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90372",title:"Distribution of Clinically Relevant Blood Group Antigens among Nigerians and the Management of Rhesus D Negative Pregnancies: Implications for Haemolytic Disease of the Foetus and Newborn and Haemolytic Transfusion Reactions",slug:"distribution-of-clinically-relevant-blood-group-antigens-among-nigerians-and-the-management-of-rhesu",totalDownloads:771,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The ABO and Rhesus blood group systems are the most clinically relevant blood group systems from haemolytic disease of the foetus and newborn (HDFN) and haemolytic transfusion reaction (HTR) perspectives. Other clinically relevant blood group systems include the Kell, Duffy, Kidd and MNSs blood group systems. The clinical relevance of a blood group system depends on the ability of antibodies of the system to cause HDFN and HTR. This chapter discusses the distribution of ABO, Rhesus and other clinically relevant red cell antigens among Nigerians and implications for HDFN and HTR. There are several challenges associated with the management of Rhesus negative pregnancies, pregnancies associated with clinically significant alloantibodies, implementation of policy on routine antenatal anti-D prophylaxis (RAADP), management of Rhesus negative women that require termination of pregnancy (TOP), provision of antigen negative blood for certain patient groups and the management of pregnant and non-pregnant patients with clinically significant alloantibodies. This chapter highlights the need for Nigeria and other African countries to implement best practices to optimize the care offered to pregnant women as well as patients in whom red cell transfusion is indicated.",book:{id:"9027",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",fullTitle:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies"},signatures:"Osaro Erhabor, Tosan Erhabor, Teddy Charles Adias and Iwueke Ikechukwu Polycarp",authors:[{id:"35140",title:"Dr.",name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"},{id:"35151",title:"Prof.",name:"Teddy",middleName:"Charles",surname:"Adias",slug:"teddy-adias",fullName:"Teddy Adias"},{id:"308337",title:"Dr.",name:"Tosan",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"tosan-erhabor",fullName:"Tosan Erhabor"},{id:"308338",title:"Dr.",name:"Iwueke",middleName:null,surname:"Ikechukwu",slug:"iwueke-ikechukwu",fullName:"Iwueke Ikechukwu"}]},{id:"70802",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90995",title:"Sickle Cell Anemia, Representations and Care: Experience of a Brother of a Sick Child in Cameroon",slug:"sickle-cell-anemia-representations-and-care-experience-of-a-brother-of-a-sick-child-in-cameroon",totalDownloads:507,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"In Africa, families often with more than one child consult with both modern and traditional African medicine to treat their child with sickle cell anemia. This research aimed to understand how a child experiences both the medical and traditional care of his sister. We collected data from an interview and family drawing of a young boy growing up with an affected sister in Cameroon. Results showed this child persisted to feel as though his sister had fallen victim to a sorcerer and that he was at risk of the same fate even after the two of them received traditional treatment. He also felt neglected about his suffering because of his sister’s disease by hospital professionals that were caring for her. It is therefore necessary to establish a support system for affected children and their family by providing a safe space in hospitals where they can express and contain their experiences with the disease.",book:{id:"9027",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",fullTitle:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies"},signatures:"Hassan Njifon Nsangou and Régine Scelles",authors:[{id:"312724",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hassan",middleName:null,surname:"Njifon Nsangou",slug:"hassan-njifon-nsangou",fullName:"Hassan Njifon Nsangou"},{id:"312830",title:"Prof.",name:"Régine",middleName:null,surname:"Scelles",slug:"regine-scelles",fullName:"Régine Scelles"}]},{id:"55954",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69551",title:"Red Blood Cells and Relation to Thrombosis",slug:"red-blood-cells-and-relation-to-thrombosis",totalDownloads:2051,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Blood coagulation and thrombin generation are primarily a function of platelets, coagulation factors, and endothelial cells. Red blood cells (RBCs) have generally been viewed as innocent bystanders in the clotting process. However, there has been a steadily growing clinical data revealing the active roles of erythrocytes in hemostasis. RBCs may contribute to thrombosis in several ways. In polycythemia, RBCs increase blood viscosity and marginate platelets toward the endothelium. The increased incidence of thrombosis is also associated with hemolytic anemia, especially with sickle cell disease and paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria. RBCs express phosphatidylserine and microparticles, supporting thrombin generation. They interact with platelets, endothelial cells, and fibrinogen, and these interactions lead their incorporation into the thrombi. The presence of RBCs in clots suppresses plasmin generation and reduces clot dissolution. Decreasing thrombus RBC content would accelerate thrombus resolution. In conclusion, RBCs are important complements of the complex reactions of clot formation.",book:{id:"5965",slug:"transfusion-medicine-and-scientific-developments",title:"Transfusion Medicine and Scientific Developments",fullTitle:"Transfusion Medicine and Scientific Developments"},signatures:"Anil Tombak",authors:[{id:"202814",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Anil",middleName:null,surname:"Tombak",slug:"anil-tombak",fullName:"Anil Tombak"}]},{id:"64280",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81895",title:"Lymphocytes Studied by Raman Microspectroscopy",slug:"lymphocytes-studied-by-raman-microspectroscopy",totalDownloads:1034,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The Raman spectroscopy detects the interaction of the incident light with the electrons in the illuminated molecule. The use of Raman spectroscopy to investigate biological molecular structures and the recognition of their particular functional groups have been growing rapidly, and nowadays the use of Raman spectroscopy has expanded toward the cellular level. The activation of lymphocytes occurs when they are exposed to viruses or other foreign antigens. We have observed that Raman spectroscopy can be used to screen the activation of lymphocytes during viral infection. We have indicated the bands that reveal differences between activated and intact cells. The most important marker of the lymphocyte activation process is the prominent 521 cm−1 disulfide band which marks the immunoglobulin formation. The blood from the patients with viral infections, e.g., mononucleosis, and from healthy volunteers was obtained by venipuncture during hospitalization in the University Hospital in Kraków.",book:{id:"6969",slug:"lymphocytes",title:"Lymphocytes",fullTitle:"Lymphocytes"},signatures:"Magdalena Pietruszewska, Grażyna Biesiada, Jacek Czepiel,\nMalwina Birczyńska, Paulina Moskal, Mateusz Kozicki, Emilia Hola,\nAleksander Garlicki and Aleksandra Wesełucha-Birczyńska",authors:null},{id:"69794",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89952",title:"The Duffy Blood Group System",slug:"the-duffy-blood-group-system",totalDownloads:889,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The Duffy group system includes six known antigens that reside on a glycoprotein which acts as a receptor for chemokines. It is also a receptor for some malaria species. There are significant racial variations in expression of Duffy antigens. Approximately 68% of Blacks lack both Fya and Fyb antigens. Individuals with this unique phenotype are resistant to two malaria species. Antibodies formed against the Duffy antigens are of IgG subclass and are clinically significant as they can be implicated in acute and delayed hemolytic transfusion reactions as well as hemolytic disease of fetus and newborn. Patients who form anti-Fya or anti-Fyb must receive antigen negative blood units in the future.",book:{id:"9027",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",fullTitle:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies"},signatures:"Fatima A. Aldarweesh",authors:[{id:"307172",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatima A.",middleName:null,surname:"Aldarweesh",slug:"fatima-a.-aldarweesh",fullName:"Fatima A. Aldarweesh"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"73837",title:"Inherited Disorders of Hemoglobin and Plasmodium falciparum Malaria",slug:"inherited-disorders-of-hemoglobin-and-em-plasmodium-falciparum-em-malaria",totalDownloads:563,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"An estimated 300,000 babies are born each year with severe Inherited Disorders of Hemoglobin (IDH). Despite major advances in the understanding of the molecular pathology, control, and management of the IDH thousands of infants and children with these diseases are dying due to the accessibility to appropriate medical care. In addition, as malaria has been the principal cause of early mortality in several parts of the world for much of the last 5000 years, as a result, it is the strongest force for selective pressure on the human genome. That is why, in the world, there is an overlap of malaria endemicity and IDH. Over the past twenty years several studies have shown that IDH such us hemoglobin and/or red cell membrane abnormalities confer resistance to malaria reducing hence the mortality during the first years of life. This has led to the selection of populations with IDH in malaria-endemic areas. This may explain the overlap between these two pathologies. This chapter aims to present the relationship between IDH and malaria susceptibility, make an overview of the current state of knowledge and the burden of IDH, and highlight steps that require to be taken urgently to improve the situation.",book:{id:"9027",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",fullTitle:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies"},signatures:"Edith Christiane Bougouma and Sodiomon Bienvenu Sirima",authors:[{id:"319317",title:"Dr.",name:"Edith Christiane",middleName:"Christianne",surname:"Bougouma",slug:"edith-christiane-bougouma",fullName:"Edith Christiane Bougouma"},{id:"319864",title:"Dr.",name:"Sodiomon Bienvenu",middleName:null,surname:"Sirima",slug:"sodiomon-bienvenu-sirima",fullName:"Sodiomon Bienvenu Sirima"}]},{id:"55676",title:"Transfusion in Transplantation",slug:"transfusion-in-transplantation",totalDownloads:1830,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation is increasingly performed in several diseases; majority of them are hematologic malignancies. Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation is not an instant procedure; contrarily, its unique clinical and laboratorial consequences may take life‐long time. Blood product transfusion is an inevitable and critical component for the management. Hematopoietic stem cell transplant patients have different requirements regarding blood products transfusion because of their immune status, long‐term cytopenias and especially HLA and ABO incompatibilities. Health‐care staff who take a part in the management of those patients should be aware of specific and specialized transfusion requirements.",book:{id:"5965",slug:"transfusion-medicine-and-scientific-developments",title:"Transfusion Medicine and Scientific Developments",fullTitle:"Transfusion Medicine and Scientific Developments"},signatures:"Eren Arslan Davulcu, Fahri Sahin and Güray Saydam",authors:[{id:"94230",title:"Prof.",name:"Guray",middleName:null,surname:"Saydam",slug:"guray-saydam",fullName:"Guray Saydam"},{id:"94231",title:"Prof.",name:"Fahri",middleName:null,surname:"Sahin",slug:"fahri-sahin",fullName:"Fahri Sahin"},{id:"202813",title:"M.D.",name:"Eren",middleName:null,surname:"Arslan Davulcu",slug:"eren-arslan-davulcu",fullName:"Eren Arslan Davulcu"}]},{id:"55954",title:"Red Blood Cells and Relation to Thrombosis",slug:"red-blood-cells-and-relation-to-thrombosis",totalDownloads:2051,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Blood coagulation and thrombin generation are primarily a function of platelets, coagulation factors, and endothelial cells. Red blood cells (RBCs) have generally been viewed as innocent bystanders in the clotting process. However, there has been a steadily growing clinical data revealing the active roles of erythrocytes in hemostasis. RBCs may contribute to thrombosis in several ways. In polycythemia, RBCs increase blood viscosity and marginate platelets toward the endothelium. The increased incidence of thrombosis is also associated with hemolytic anemia, especially with sickle cell disease and paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria. RBCs express phosphatidylserine and microparticles, supporting thrombin generation. They interact with platelets, endothelial cells, and fibrinogen, and these interactions lead their incorporation into the thrombi. The presence of RBCs in clots suppresses plasmin generation and reduces clot dissolution. Decreasing thrombus RBC content would accelerate thrombus resolution. In conclusion, RBCs are important complements of the complex reactions of clot formation.",book:{id:"5965",slug:"transfusion-medicine-and-scientific-developments",title:"Transfusion Medicine and Scientific Developments",fullTitle:"Transfusion Medicine and Scientific Developments"},signatures:"Anil Tombak",authors:[{id:"202814",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Anil",middleName:null,surname:"Tombak",slug:"anil-tombak",fullName:"Anil Tombak"}]},{id:"70920",title:"Harmonized and Quality Sample Handling in Biobank-Supported Multicenter Prospective Studies",slug:"harmonized-and-quality-sample-handling-in-biobank-supported-multicenter-prospective-studies",totalDownloads:650,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"In the frame of multicenter research studies, biobanks ensure the harmonization and traceability of the prospective collection of quality samples. This is significant because pre-analytical variables must be carefully considered to guarantee the integrity of biomarkers to be tested and to avoid bias affecting the validity of the analytical results. According to a quality management system, biobanks contribute with documents and records; consumable preparation for collection, processing, and conservation; sample quality controls; and centralized management of sample handling, storage, and distribution. Traceability of samples is based on unique standard codes and the use of pre-assigned, pre-coded, and pre-labeled materials for sample collection, processing, and conservation. By using these supporting tools, quality derivatives are obtained based on common and evidence-based standard operating procedures (SOPs), with associated traceability information in relation with their collection, processing, conservation, and distribution. The biobank-supported workflow, specifically designed and implemented for each project, allows obtaining harmonized quality samples contributing to the quality of large and complex research projects and the corresponding validity of the analyses.",book:{id:"9027",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",fullTitle:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies"},signatures:"Verónica Valdivieso-Gómez, Javier Garrancho-Pérez, Inés Aroca-Siendones and Rocío Aguilar-Quesada",authors:[{id:"217457",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Rocio",middleName:null,surname:"Aguilar-Quesada",slug:"rocio-aguilar-quesada",fullName:"Rocio Aguilar-Quesada"},{id:"217467",title:"Ms.",name:"Veronica",middleName:null,surname:"Valdivieso-Gomez",slug:"veronica-valdivieso-gomez",fullName:"Veronica Valdivieso-Gomez"},{id:"311385",title:"Mr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Garrancho-Pérez",slug:"javier-garrancho-perez",fullName:"Javier Garrancho-Pérez"},{id:"311386",title:"Ms.",name:"Inés",middleName:null,surname:"Aroca-Siendones",slug:"ines-aroca-siendones",fullName:"Inés Aroca-Siendones"}]},{id:"62616",title:"Understanding B Lymphocyte Development: A Long Way to Go",slug:"understanding-b-lymphocyte-development-a-long-way-to-go",totalDownloads:1720,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"B lymphocytes play a significant role in both antigen-dependent and antigen-independent pathways. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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