Comparison of mechanical and chemical textile recycling techniques.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"68",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Discrete Time Systems",title:"Discrete Time Systems",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Discrete-Time Systems comprehend an important and broad research field. The consolidation of digital-based computational means in the present, pushes a technological tool into the field with a tremendous impact in areas like Control, Signal Processing, Communications, System Modelling and related Applications. \n\nThis book attempts to give a scope in the wide area of Discrete-Time Systems. Their contents are grouped conveniently in sections according to significant areas, namely Filtering, Fixed and Adaptive Control Systems, Stability Problems and Miscellaneous Applications. \n\nWe think that the contribution of the book enlarges the field of the Discrete-Time Systems with signification in the present state-of-the-art. Despite the vertiginous advance in the field, we also believe that the topics described here allow us also to look through some main tendencies in the next years in the research area.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-200-5",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5510-2",doi:"10.5772/599",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"discrete-time-systems",numberOfPages:540,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"5627d1f83a2abae174da1a0c5b5e4813",bookSignature:"Mario Alberto Jordán",publishedDate:"April 26th 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/68.jpg",numberOfDownloads:58869,numberOfWosCitations:30,numberOfCrossrefCitations:26,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:49,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:105,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 12th 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 9th 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 14th 2010",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 13th 2010",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 27th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"152460",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alberto",middleName:"Alberto",surname:"Jordán",slug:"mario-alberto-jordan",fullName:"Mario Alberto Jordán",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/152460/images/system/152460.jpg",biography:"Mario A. Jordán received the Dipl.-Ing. degree in Electro-Mechanical Engineering with orientation in Control Systems from the National University of San Juan, Argentina, and the Ph.D. in Control Systems from the Institute of Control at the Technical University of Darmstadt, Germany. He held a fellowship of the Foundation for Industrial Research, Cologne, Germany, for pursuing postdoctoral work. He is an Associate Professor at the National University of the South, Bahía Blanca, Argentina, from 1995. He is a Research Fellow of the Council for Scientific and Technological Research, Argentina. He has authored many publications and participated in scientific books. He leads different technological international projects and his current scientific research at the Argentinean Institute of Oceanography. His main interests are nonlinear and adaptive control theory and systems for autonomous guidance and vision-based control of underwater vehicles.",institutionString:"National Scientific and Technical Research Council",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"National Scientific and Technical Research Council",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"602",title:"Discrete Mathematics",slug:"discrete-mathematics"}],chapters:[{id:"15489",title:"Real-time Recursive State Estimation for Nonlinear Discrete Dynamic Systems with Gaussian or non-Gaussian 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Also, as cotton is the fundamental building block for denim production, denim represents a mainspring for cotton consumption. Considering the fact that the textile and apparel industry in general is pressured to increase the recycling potential for cotton to cover contemporary and prospective market demands, the use of recycled materials (fiber, yarn, and fabric) in the production of new denim products has become an area of great interest. The decision to use recycled materials in products occurs during design and product development, and it continues throughout the manufacturing processes. The most important requirements for recyclable denim designs are monomaterials, elimination of toxic substances, modular manufacturing for ease of removal or exchange, easily compatible materials, and labels or codes that can be recycled.
The environmental impact of denim products, during manufacture, use, or disposal, can be evaluated by looking at the different phases of the product’s life cycle and taking action at the phases where it will be most effective to reduce the impact. However, the lifecycle of a product is long and complicated, covering many areas with many people involved in each phase [1]. There is a variety of voluntary and mandatory tools which help achieve this objective. These include economic instruments, bans on certain substances, environmental labeling, voluntary agreements, product design guidelines, etc. Life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology is one of the aforementioned tools, and within the frame of this chapter, it is adopted to quantify and compare the environmental impact of recycled denim fabrics. But before that, the global denim market, environmental impacts of denim manufacturing, sources of denim waste, and recycling processes currently used in textiles and apparel today are also discussed in this chapter.
Denim is a type of sturdy cotton twill woven fabric with a characteristically diagonal ribbing known for its use in the form of jeans and other clothing all across the world. Originally used for workers’ clothes, denim has entered the world of high fashion for a long time, and this has urged the industry to produce innovative denim with different fibers including lyocell, bamboo, viscose, rayon, polyethylene terephthalate, and elastane. Also, several types of washes have been introduced, such as stonewash and stoneless wash, acid wash, moon wash, monkey wash, and enzymes which have been used because of their environmental-friendly nature in comparison with hypochlorite and pumice stones [2].
Rising casualization of clothing all over the world, together with the availability of high-quality, cost-effective denim products, has contributed to the growth of the market over the years. E-commerce is the other factor which has a positive influence on the denim market’s growth. In addition, brands have started to reinforce their commitments to responsible production efforts and launched more sustainable collections to the market, which has dramatically increased new retail products described as “sustainable” since 2017. Orta Anadolu, for example, introduced its organic cotton production of denim fabrics in 2006 and a capsule collection without virgin cotton in 2018. Similarly, Diesel launched a sustainable capsule collection with Coca-Cola [3].
The global denim market is segmented into North America (NA), Europe (EU), Asia-Pacific (APAC), the Middle East and Africa (MEA), and South America (SA). The major companies operating in the global denim market are Levi Strauss & Co., VF Corporation (with renowned brand names of Lee and Wrangler), Diesel SpA, Gap Inc., Hennes & Mauritz AB, Inditex, and PVH Corp., and Tommy Hilfiger Licensing LLC. The jean market is a highly fragmented market, with a strong presence of local and global players operating all over the world. Thus, to sustain their positions in the market, the active players are bringing innovation in their product offering, in order to cater to changing consumers’ fashion lifestyle [4].
Also, they have been focusing on social media platforms as well as online distribution channels for their marketing and branding activities so as to attract more customers. Denim manufacturers, however, appear to focus on acquisitions, expansions, and collaborations with mostly startup companies to gain a significant market share [2, 3].
In 2019, the global denim market was valued at approximately 90 billion US dollars and is expected to reach a value of around 107 billion US dollars by 2023 [5]. The global denim jean market size, on the other hand, was valued at USD 64.62 billion in 2018, and it is estimated to expand further at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 6.81% from 2019 to 2025 [6]. The Asia-Pacific region led the market in 2019, which was followed by North America, Europe, South America, and the Middle East as a response to the introduction of global brands and an emphasis on premium denim. Japan, China and India are expected to lead the region through 2024 as a result of the countries’ rise in promotional activities within the denim market [2, 4].
According to the World Denim Fabric Foreign Trade Report published by the Istanbul Textile and Raw Materials Exporters Association (ITHIB), global denim fabric exports increased by 5.1% in 2018 and reached approximately 5 billion US dollars. The top five countries performing most denim exports are China (42% share of total exports), Pakistan (11.7% share of total exports), India (8.2% share of total exports), Hong Kong (7.4% share of total exports), and Turkey (6.8% share of total exports). It is stated that there is a strong growth in the denim production in Bangladesh and Vietnam, although these countries are mostly importing denim fabric [7].
Europe, the United States, and Japan are the biggest consumers of denim, whereas China and India, being relatively younger economies, are witnessing a steady rise in demand for denim. In 2018, men’s wear segment accounted for the largest market share of more than 55%. It is forecasted that the segment will retain its leading position over the upcoming years mainly because of the improved standards of living and demand for trendy fashion apparels. Women’s wear segment is, on the other hand, expected to register the fastest compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 7.25% from 2019 to 2025. This growth is attributed to the high product demand, especially in emerging countries. In addition to that, constant product innovation in this segment is also expected to drive the growth further [2, 6].
It is estimated that producing a pair of jeans consumes around 2900 liters of water and large amounts of chemicals and energy. If this is multiplied by the number of jeans produced globally, one can get an idea of the enormous contribution of wastewater and harmful gases by denim industry to the environment [8, 9].
Indigo dye is one of the organic colorants used to color textiles, paper, leather, and plastic and for many applications such as cosmetic and photochemical production. Unfortunately, textile effluents containing indigo dye and other dye types make water toxic and harmful for human and animal consumption, which causes an imbalance in different aquatic ecosystem food chains [10]. The use of synthetic indigo and sulfur dyes also presents serious effluent problem. Bearing in mind that majority of warp dyeing for denim uses indigo and sulfur dyes, the environmental impacts of denim processing can be classified into three main categories:
Water pollution: dyeing and finishing effluent discharge in water bodies
Air pollution: cotton dust, abrasives, and chemicals found in air
Solid waste (sludge)
As is well-known, denim washing is imparted to fabric to improve the softness, comfort, and most importantly achieving a variety of looks such as a faded or worn-out appearance. Pumice stone is used to stonewash denim garments. The stone gets abraded during the process and becomes powdered; part of it remains in the liquor, and part of it sticks to the garment. A sizeable amount of water is required for repeated washing cycles to remove the deposited pumice from the denim. The effluent and pumice dust lead to environmental pollution. Sandblasting is a mechanical finish which uses sand containing silica. The minute silica dust spreads in air, it poses serious respiratory disease such as silicosis [10].
Micro sanding is another finish which pollutes the environment. In the case of chemical washing involving the use of sodium hypochlorite or potassium permanganate, the effluent contains chlorinated organic substances which cause severe impacts to the environment, and the bleaching chemicals are harmful to human health. Acid wash uses both pumice stone and chemicals, namely, sodium hypochlorite or potassium permanganate, and it does not require water but leads to pollution through the effluent having pumice dust and residual manganese which are hazardous [11, 12].
Despite all these setbacks of the denim processes summarized above, various suitable treatment processes have been developed and employed for the dyeing effluent on the basis of the nature and complexity of the dyes and chemicals present in denim. Fortunately, many denim companies and their suppliers have been striving hard to embrace greener methods such as laser processing and nano bubble ozone washing machines and are also making effort to develop new techniques of producing jeans, as a part of their business strategies to preserve the environment. They have also understood the importance and the need to build a sustainable business [12, 13, 14].
It is considered that sustainable material management is a precursor of circular economy, which promotes recycling, reuse, and remanufacturing. It was estimated that around 65 billion tons of raw materials were processed by the industrial system at the end of the first decade of the twenty-first century, and this quantity is expected to reach about 82 billion tons by the end of 2020. Therefore, in the last two decades, circular economy (CE) is gaining growing global consideration as the new development model which is capable of influencing the existing production and consumption model [15]. Within that concept, waste is classified on the basis of generation as pre-consumer textile waste, post-consumer textile waste, and industrial textile waste. Pre-consumer waste is the remaining production processes in the industry which includes raw material to finished products ready for market. This may include offcuts, shearing, selvedges, b-grade garments, export surplus, etc. which are homogenous and clean in nature to be used for other purposes. The waste under this class has great potential for reuse and recycling. The post-consumer textile waste can include any product that has completed its life cycle and is no longer useful to the consumer in both function and esthetics. Industrial textile waste is, however, the result of the manufacturing processes and is termed as dirty waste [13, 16].
The textile and apparel industry, which generates a substantial environmental footprint from cultivation, fabric and garment manufacturing, to the landfill disposal of post-consumer items, faces tremendous environmental and resource challenges [17]. In order to tackle such challenges to some extent, several fashion companies offer their customers to take care of their worn-out clothes including denim jeans. However, studies have concluded that less than 1% of these collected clothes are being recycled while nearly 80% of them are mainly sold on the second-hand market in poor countries around the world or used as blankets or isolation material. The remaining 20% of the clothes are either sold on the second-hand market within the EU or is sent to landfill or incineration [18].
Being the largest fraction of apparel, waste jeans (or waste denim fabric from tailoring operations) are composed mainly of “cotton” and “cotton/polyester” fabric with different weight ratios [19]. Although this may lead to the understanding that denim made with 100% cotton, in particular, will readily deteriorate in the environment, in practice a pair of such jeans can stay alive in the environment for a very long time, and therefore the negative environmental impact is very high. The literature reveals that the amount of waste jeans generated annually is estimated as 2.16 million tons and only 35–50% of this amount is collected in Western Europe in order to reuse or recycle it after sorting [13, 20, 21].
As one of the sources of solid waste, the cutting waste during denim jean production—which has relatively a homogeneous nature—is between 10% and 15%, and most of the waste is recycled by unraveling and reusing the fibers in the production of insert yarns (weft direction), which is a good example of “recycling in design (RiD).” Most jeans’ producers recycle denim waste in their own manufacturing plants or have contracts with textile waste recyclers to reuse the waste material in the spinning of new yarns. There is also substantial trade of denim waste all over the world [13, 21, 22].
Another source of denim waste is the post-consumer denim jeans. Color, quality of fabric, and garment accessories like rivets, buttons, zippers, and labels are the main components of the heterogeneous nature of this very denim waste. The main problem is the collection of post-consumer jeans. Although in many countries collection systems are in place, many consumers discard their jeans as solid municipal waste. Jeans that are collected are mostly sold to textile sorting companies which manually/automatically sort the rewearable jeans for sale to second-hand shops and in Third World countries. Nonwearable jeans are, however, shredded and used for the development of various types of products such as thermal and acoustic insulators and/or textile-based composites for certain structural and other specialized applications [13, 21, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28].
Finally, as a different approach to decreasing the denim waste regarding post-consumer denim jeans, the leasing of jeans was introduced several years ago by MUD Jeans. In this concept, the producer or distributor of the jeans stays the owner. The user of the jeans only “buys” the right to the use the jeans for a period of 1 year. If the jeans need to be repaired, it is at the cost of the lease company [22]. The same company, together with several of others, has also focused on “design for recycling (D4R)” for facilitating the recycling of denim jeans, such that they do not use leather labels but printed ones at the waistband, employ rivets and buttons that are made from 100% stainless steel and no finishing (electroplating), and have utilized buttons made out of recycled jeans on their denim shirts and sweaters, etc. [13, 29, 30].
An average person buys 60% more clothing items every year and keeps them for half as long as they used to keep about 15 years ago. It is assumed that overall consumption of textiles will have reached to 102 million tons by 2030 and that the textile industry’s waste will have increased by about 60% between 2015 and 2030. That means the total level of fashion waste will reach to 148 million tons in 2030. As is known, the majority of clothing waste ends up in landfills or is incinerated, and once in landfills, it takes hundreds of years for natural fibers to decompose and may release methane and CO2 into the atmosphere. Synthetic materials, on the other hand, are not designed to decompose and may release toxic substances into groundwater and the surrounding soil. If the average life of clothing could be extended by only 3 months, it would reduce waste generation as well as their carbon and water footprints, by 5–10% [19, 31, 32, 33, 34].
The textile industry’s linear model of “make, use, and dispose of” represents an apparent pressure on scarce natural resources. Circular economy, on the other hand, aims to move away from the unsustainable linear model by decoupling economic activity from the consumption of finite resources and designing waste out of the system. When the recycling component is included, it helps to absorb the residuals of industrial and consumer use [35, 36]. Accordingly, circular economy’s principles may be given as follows:
Put an end to waste generation and pollution during the design stage.
Keep products and materials in use.
Restore and regenerate natural systems.
Within that concept, a five-step waste management hierarchy was introduced in order to direct toward a more sustainable behavior (Figure 1) [37].
Waste management hierarchy [
Waste generation prevention has the highest significance followed by reuse. Reusing is the concept of using undamaged parts of used products for manufacturing activities. When textiles turn into waste and are disposed by their consumers, recycling offers the opportunity to save raw materials and energy as well as to reduce pollution. Product/material recovery includes the activities like repairing, refurbishing, and disassembling, performed to regain the product value at the end of its life cycle. To dispose generated waste is the last step of the hierarchy [17, 38, 39, 40, 41].
Textile recycling routes can be categorized in different ways as follows:
Mechanical, chemical, thermal, and biological based on the nature of the process.
Downcycling where the product of the recycled material is of lower quality. As the length of fibers is shortened and the constituent of molecules is reduced by wear, laundry, and recycling process, the textile recycling is often in the way of downcycling.
Upcycling where the product of the recycled material is of higher quality.
Open-loop recycling covers a concept in which a product’s raw material is separated to be utilized as a part of a randomly used item. Generally, the second item is not recycled and discarded toward the end of its life. Downcycling can be equalized with open-loop recycling system in which the reclaimed material is used to make a less valuable product than the disposed one. Therefore, it results in little economic value and low environmental benefits.
Closed-loop recycling refers to recycling techniques where the material recycled is a similar material which is being delivered. For example, the waste material reenters a piece of clothing production chain. Closed-loop recycling generates a greater impact on sustainability, and a product remains in a circular stream and retains its material quality. There are a number of ways to define closed-loop recycling approaches in the apparel industry. Three of them are [41]:
Recycling pre- or post-consumer textile waste.
Cradle-to-cradle (C2C) methodology in which waste is reclaimed and used again in the production of products of the same or higher value. Biological waste can be composted, while technical waste can be reused within industry to create the same products again.
Closed-loop reuse of existing garments: Although reuse of garments is not recycling in the sense of breaking down a product into its raw materials, the product may enter a new life cycle within the same production chain.
Textile recycling technologies are also categorized into four classes as primary, secondary, tertiary and, quaternary approaches [13, 40, 42, 43]. Primary recycling involves recycling of material in its original form for recovery of equal value. Secondary recycling incorporates processing a post-consumer product into raw materials usually by mechanical means into a product with different physical and/or chemical properties (mechanical recycling). Tertiary includes processes like pyrolysis and hydrolysis, in which waste is converted to basic chemical constituents, monomers, or fuels (chemical recycling). Quaternary (recovery) covers waste-to-energy conversion processes such as incineration of solid waste or utilization of heat generated.
Recycling is the process of breaking down a product or material to make a material of a higher or equal value (upcycling) or of a lower value (downcycling), in which textiles are commonly mechanically or chemically broken down to their fiber constituents [41]. Biodegradation is another method used to recycle waste and to break down organic materials into compounds.
The difference between mechanical and chemical recycling is that wet processing is eliminated or reduced in the mechanical recycling system [44]. Most of the current recycling systems for post-consumer waste textiles mainly include reuse and mechanical processes.
The method of mechanical recycling, which is categorized as a secondary recycling approach, is composed of two main processes: sorting of the waste material and the mechanical decomposition of the fabric. The material to be recycled is sorted according to fiber type, color, quality, etc. Sorting for post-industrial waste may be performed with a risk of uncertainty as the fiber content and properties of the fibers may not be always known. The in-house reprocessing of manufacturing-related waste represents recycling on the primary level [39].
The disintegration of textile material to a fibrous form through mechanical recycling is referred to as shredding or garneting [38, 40, 41]. In mechanical recycling machines, the fabrics are cut into small pieces of 1 to 8 cm strips with a rotary blade and separated into single fibers through a process known as “picking,” “pulling,” or “tearing” by needle-equipped cylinders which have progressively smaller spiked surfaces. On such machines waste is fed through a conveyor belt of the front roller to be transferred to the spiked roller. Spiked roller rotates clockwise, and bottom roller, located under the spiked one, rotates anticlockwise. The distance between the rollers can be varied according to the type of input material, and the waste is opened while passing through rollers.
Mechanical recycling has some shortcomings since the process is too aggressive to retain fiber quality and can result in a 75% loss of value after the first cycle. The mechanical process breaks may cause a tremendous loss in fiber length and a significant decrease in the material quality. For the process, longer processing times are needed, and the production rate is lower. As a result, blending with virgin material (especially in the case of cotton and wool fibers) for spinning processes is inevitable [38, 42, 44]. Consistently, waste collected from the manufacturing supply chain produces higher-quality recycled fibers than those collected from post-consumer waste. The pre-consumer and post-industrial waste can be respun into yarns which are further woven or knitted into fabrics and then used in apparel, upholstery, etc. [13]. Heterogeneity of post-consumer waste worsens constant quality retention.
Nonetheless, despite the drawbacks of mechanical recycling, the technology has shown promising for the reprocessing of denim fabric and garments [45].
The method of chemical recycling, which is categorized as a tertiary recycling approach, involves chemical processing of the fiber polymers, e.g., depolymerizing or dissolving. Chemical recycling depends on the quality of the processed waste to a limited degree and decomposes fibers down to the polymeric level [39]. Various chemical recycling processes have been demonstrated and developed. Chemical recycling of synthetic polymers and feedstock recycling depolymerize waste plastics into base chemical molecule called monomers with high purity [38]. The presence of additives and chemicals used in the polymerization process affects the purity and quality of the monomers obtained after recycling. The thermochemical process used to decompose polymers is referred to as pyrolysis, sometimes thermolysis. Pyrolysis is conducted at various temperatures and pressure levels and with the presence of catalysts or reactive gases. Pyrolysis processes are only economically viable for certain manufactured fibers including polyesters, polyamides, and polyolefins [13, 40]. Chemical recycling for polyester also includes glycolysis, hydrolysis, and metanolysis processes.
Chemical recycling is a promising process since it allows the recovery of a more valuable product in comparison to the products recycled by mechanical processes [34, 38, 42, 44]. As it uses a selective degradation method, chemical recycling is expected to be more suitable for large-scale recycling of blended materials, while mechanical recycling has been efficiently adopted by industry for recycling of single fiber materials. In products of cotton and polyester, the fibers can be chemically separated and then reformed into new fibers [13]. On the other hand, although chemical textile recycling has broader use than do the mechanical method, chemical and water consumption (70% lower in case of mechanical processing) for wet processing is high. Barriers to the widespread adoption of chemical recycling also include high costs, multiple processing steps requiring high operational knowledge, and energy requirement for heating and scouring processes [42, 44].
A comparison of mechanical and chemical textile recycling techniques are given in Table 1 [38, 44].
Mechanical recycling | Chemical recycling |
---|---|
Categorized as a secondary recycling approach Wet processing is eliminated It is not as energy-intensive as chemical recycling Mechanical recycling process is too aggressive to retain fiber quality Heterogeneity of post-consumer waste worsens constant quality retention Mechanical recycling has been efficiently adopted by industry for recycling of single fiber materials | Categorized as a tertiary recycling approach Involves chemical processing The biggest challenge is that chemical recycling is very energy-intensive Chemical recycling allows a more valuable product in comparison to the products recycled by mechanical processes Chemical recycling depends on the quality of the processed waste to a limited degree Chemical recycling is expected to be more suitable for large-scale recycling of blended materials |
Comparison of mechanical and chemical textile recycling techniques.
Biodegradation can be featured as a method used by nature to recycle waste and to break down organic materials into compounds by microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, insects, worms, and others. Through biodegradation processes, it is possible for nature to clean up wastes, to provide nutrients for the growth of new lives, and to produce the energy necessary for various biological processes [46]. Biochemical transformation via fermentation is an attractive way for utilizing recycling textile waste. Cotton is typically composed of 88–96% cellulose, and it is possible to hydrolyze waste cotton by enzymatic or chemical methods to obtain glucose and then ferment it into value-added products. Biogas production from textile waste via anaerobic digestion is an alternative route to utilize solid waste from textile industry. Organic compounds in solid waste can be used as a raw material to produce desired products via bioconversion processes. On the contrary, thermal and chemical processes can convert both organic and inorganic compounds to value-added products [47].
Conventional thermal processing refers to the combustion of solid waste and its conversion into energy. Since solid waste from the textile industry contains a high energy content, it can be used as a raw material to generate heat energy [47]. Solid waste from the textile industry can be used as a raw material to produce briquette. The thermal processes that are performed at high temperature with inadequate oxygen could generate carbon monoxide, which is a greenhouse gas. Therefore, a thermochemical conversion process, such as pyrolysis, is applied. Pyrolysis is referred to the decompositional process with high temperature in the absence of oxygen condition [47]. Products from pyrolysis are various, such as activated carbon fiber, char, bio-oil, and syngas. The variation of product is related to pyrolysis condition.
Despite its growing popularity, there are numerous obstacles to textile recycling [47, 48]. The major ones to the optimization of textile recycling are:
Economic viability: Due to the widespread production of lower-grade products (downcycling) from textile recycling, many recycled textile wastes are unsuitable for multiple recirculation and use. Limited recirculation and reuse are not economically viable and discourages investment in textile recycling.
Composition of textile products: The base components of many textile products make them unsuitable for recycling. The presence of plastics and metals in textile products hinders their recyclability.
Nonavailability of recyclable textile materials: A limited quantity of used textiles and textile waste are collected and sorted for recycling, and the quantity that is suitable and accessible for recycling is insufficient.
Technological limitations: One of the main reasons for the limited quantity of recyclable materials is the lack of technologies for sorting textile waste in preparation for recycling. Dyes and other contaminants cannot be separated from the original fibers by most of the existing methods.
Lack of information and limited public participation: Limited public awareness on the merits of recycling contributes immensely to the low recycling rate, causing market inefficiency.
Poor coordination, weak policies, and standards: Uncoordinated collection of waste and absence of an integrated and well-coordinated framework and policies to enhance the overall efficiency of the textile recycling are identified as barriers to efficient recycling.
There are also some constraints and challenges faced specific to denim recycling processes [29, 49]. Collection and sorting of worn-out jeans is time-consuming and laborious. Labels; metal parts like rivets, zippers, and buttons; and leather patches have to be removed manually from the jean before shredding. Generally, the metal and leather parts are removed, but it is more difficult to remove the labels, and therefore jeans are sent along with them. The consequence is that the labels contaminate the recycled denim material as they are made of other materials. Any metal parts present on the jean to be recycled may cause problems to the machinery and process. It is easier to remove buttons and zippers by using gravitation but since rivets are too small and too light, special care is needed to remove them.
Denim jeans are characterized by thick lapped seams that create problems during shredding and carding processes. The presence of elastane is another problem. It is more convenient to separate it before shredding and cutting, but this can only be done by chemical recycling. Recycling different colored jeans together results in a multicolored yarn that can create problems in dyeing. Recycled fibers might not meet the quality of virgin ones and could not be spun or woven properly.
Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a methodology where the environmental performance of a product or service is assessed starting from the raw material extraction point to the end of life of that product/service, i.e., from “cradle to grave.” The methodology of LCA is defined under the ISO 14040/44 Standard [50].
For a pair of denim jeans, the life cycle (Figure 2) starts with the production of raw materials such as fibers and chemicals. These materials are then transported to fabric manufacturer and processed to become a fabric. During fabric production, energy and water are consumed in addition to raw materials while emission to air and to water and production waste are generated. The following process for the fabric is garment manufacturing in which the fabric is cut, sewn, washed, and accessorized (rivets, buttons, etc.) according to the design. Finally, the finished garment is sent to a warehouse or directly stores to be sold. After it is bought, the garment is washed and dried (or dry-cleaned depending on its nature) many times throughout its use phase. When it completes its life span, the garment has various “end of life” scenarios such as recycling, reused, refurbished, and disposed in landfill or incinerated, etc., which were discussed in the previous sections.
Lifecycle of a jean.
Life cycle assessment (LCA) helps us analyze the environmental performance of denim production in a transparent and systematic way and identify the hot spots.
The methodology behind life cycle assessment (LCA) is to accumulate all the impacts originated from the inputs and outputs of a system starting from the “cradle to grave” and to give a total impact number for the system under discussion. Accordingly, in an attempt to exemplify the importance of recycling of denim from the perspective of its environmental impact, an experimental work regarding the life cycle assessment of a denim fabric with and without recycled fiber content was conducted. For the work, the inventory was based on the 2019 denim production figures of a Turkish denim manufacturer in their manufacturing plant in Turkey. As assessment tool, SimaPro software developed by the Pré Sustainability, was used. SimaPro is the leading life cycle assessment (LCA) software that has been used for more than 25 years by the industry and academics in more than 80 countries [51]. SimaPro uses two types of data: primary and secondary. The primary data involves the basics of a denim production such as the amount of cotton used to manufacture 1 m of denim, i.e., 0.5 kg cotton. This data is exclusive to the fabric production practices of the factory. The secondary data, however, comes from the database, and it includes the impacts originated from producing that much raw material (in our case cotton fiber) and all other inputs such as chemicals at every stage. For secondary data, Ecoinvent database that is embedded into the software and is the most common life cycle inventory (LCI) database worldwide is used [52].
To be able to perform life cycle assessment of a specific good or service, one needs to have inventory data for the complete supply chain. Due to the amount of data needed in order to be able to perform a life cycle assessment (LCA) study for a full supply chain, it is practically impossible to collect and organize the data of the complete background system. In that respect, the Ecoinvent database provides this very background system fulfilling the data required for the assessment. The Ecoinvent v3 database contains life cycle inventory (LCI) data taken from various sectors such as energy supply, agriculture, transport, building materials, production of chemicals, and metal production and consists of around 17,000 datasets, each of which describes a life cycle inventory (LCI) on a process level [52, 53].
SimaPro software provides six libraries that each contain all the processes that are found in the Ecoinvent database but uses different system models and contains either unit or system processes. The three Ecoinvent system models are “allocation at point of substitution,” “cutoff by classification,” and “consequential.” The system model “allocation at the point of substitution” follows the attributional approach in which burdens are attributed proportionally to specific processes. “Allocation, cutoff by classification” system model is based on the recycled content or cutoff approach in which the primary production of materials is always allocated to the primary user of a material. In this approach, if a material is recycled, the primary producer does not receive any credit for the provision of any recyclable materials available and burden-free to recycling processes; therefore recycled materials bear only the impacts of the recycling processes. The system model “substitution, consequential, long-term” uses different basic assumptions to assess the consequences of a change in an existing system and can be used for perspective studies and prediction of future changes [54]. In this study, for recycled materials “cutoff by classification” system model and for all other data “allocation at point of substitution” system model are used.
For life cycle assessment (LCA) of a product, the production of an item (e.g., denim fabric) is simulated, using both consumption and production data (primary) of a factory and the corresponding secondary data from the Ecoinvent database. The next step is to choose the environmental impacts to be calculated. The whole process is given in Figure 3.
LCA calculation process.
One of the most important parts of life cycle assessment (LCA) is the outputs, in other words the environmental impacts of the product. With SimaPro software, it is possible to calculate over 100 environmental impact categories. For that reason, the academic- and industry-specific life cycle assessment (LCA) studies’ guidelines and standards were surveyed to determine the environmental impacts for our study (Table 2).
References | Global warming potential (GWP) climate change | Acidification | Eutrophication | Ozone layer depletion | Abiotic depletion | Photochemical oxidant formation | Freshwater use | Human toxicity | Water consumption | Terrestrial ecotoxicity | Greenhouse gases (GHG) | Nonrenewable energy use | Carcinogens | Land occupation | Aquatic eutrophication | Mineral extraction | Ecotoxicity | Freshwater eutrophication | Freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity | Ionizing radiation | Water depletion |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[55] | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||||||||||||||
[56] | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||||||||||||||
[57] | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||||||||||
[58] | 1 | 1 | |||||||||||||||||||
[59] | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||||||||
[60] | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||||||||||||||
[61] | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||||||||||||||||
[62] | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||||||||||||
[63] | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||||||||||||||
[64] | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||||||||
[65] | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||||||||
[66] | 1 | ||||||||||||||||||||
[9] | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||||||||||||||
[67] | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||||||||||||||||
Total | 10 | 8 | 8 | 5 | 5 | 4 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 |
A taxonomy of environmental impact categories for textiles.
With this taxonomy (Table 2), the commonly used environmental impact categories are listed for textiles. Consequently, based on the taxonomy given in Table 1 and the raw material need for a denim fabric, five impact categories are selected. These impact categories, their definitions, and calculation methodologies within the SimaPro software are presented in Table 3.
Indicator | Unit | Description | Example impact | Methodology |
---|---|---|---|---|
Global warning potential | kg CO2 eq (kilogram carbon dioxide equivalent) | Emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs) | Climate change | IPCC 2013 GWP 100a [68, 69] |
Freshwater use | lt (liters) | Excessive freshwater taken from the environment | Water scarcity | Life cycle inventory |
Land use | m2 a (meter square per annum) | The amount of agricultural area uccupied | Deforestation | ReCiPe 2016 Midpoint (H) [70, 71] |
Eutrophication potential (EP) | kg PO43− eq (kilogram phosphate equivalent) | Emission of substances to water contributing to oxygen depletion | Nutrient loading to water stream-water pollution | CML-IA baseline [72, 73, 74, 75] |
Abiotic resource depletion | kg Sb eq (kilogram antimony equivalent) | Measure of mineral, metal, and fossil fuel resources used to produce a product | Mineral scarcity | CML-IA baseline [72] |
Selected environmental impact categories.
As was mentioned above, the life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology is selected to calculate the environmental impacts of denim fabrics having different recycled contents in the same article so that the whole system can be taken into consideration. This means that we have to calculate the effect of every step in the life cycle to see the whole impact of our choices, including cultivation/production of the fiber, fabric production, garment manufacturing, distribution, consumer laundering, reuse, and final disposal [76, 77]. One may think that using recycled cotton reduces the impact drastically, but parameters such as increased waste during production and increased energy usage should also be taken into account in a system perspective.
If only one process or only fabric production as a system were calculated, this would have represented a single framed approach which is generally not preferable as calculations for production of single frames may lead to unwanted and unforeseen effects elsewhere in the whole system.
The specifications of the denim article selected for the work is given in Table 4. Life cycle assessment (LCA) was conducted for 1 m of the article in accordance with the process steps including fiber cultivation, transportation, and all the production steps covered in the Turkish denim manufacturing company. The five environmental impacts are presented in Figure 4. For the comparative study, the results are given in terms of percentages (%) so that unit differences of the impact categories were eliminated.
Article Code | Width (cm) | Weight (oz/yd2) | Composition |
---|---|---|---|
Article A | 150 | 14.89 | 100% cotton |
Article specifications.
Five environmental impacts of selected fabric according to process steps.
In denim production, the hottest spot for the selected four categories is the fiber growth stage. In the fifth impact category, abiotic resource depletion, fiber stage has the second highest impact. This clearly shows the importance of raw material selection for denim fabric production.
This section aims to determine the impact of recycled cotton content in the denim fabric under discussion (Table 4). Accordingly, different recycled cotton contents are used in the life cycle assessment calculations of Article A. These are as follows:
Article A-1: 100% cotton
Article A-2: 80% cotton +20% recycled cotton
Article A-3: 70% cotton +30% recycled cotton
Article A-4: 60% cotton +40% recycled cotton
Article A-5: 50% cotton +50% recycled cotton
In each version, the recycled cotton content was increased by 10%. The recycled cotton used in the calculations is post-consumer recycled cotton, and its industrial data such as production and transportation data is obtained from a local supplier.
The results of the life cycle assessment (LCA) calculations are presented in Figure 5. As may be seen from these results, global warming potential decreases by 5%, eutrophication drops by 8%, and abiotic resource depletion drops by 3% with each addition of 10% recycled content in the blend.
Results of LCA calculations of virgin and post-consumer recycled cotton blends.
Global warming potential, in other words climate change impact, is affected by two main stages: fiber cultivation and spinning. The energy usage in spinning increases when the recycled cotton content is increased, which implies a negative impact of the use of such fiber on global warming potential. However, since the percentage of the virgin cotton usage is decreased, this decline delivers a high positive impact for global warming potential, lessening the effect of energy usage.
In eutrophication calculation, the main effect derives from usage of fertilizers, pesticides, and insecticides at farm level. During irrigation of cotton, the probability of water pollution caused by these chemicals increases. Once the usage of virgin cotton decreases in the blend, the value of eutrophication decreases. Overall, the decrease results as 8% with a use of 10% recycled cotton.
Water use and land use impacts decrease by 10% with an addition of 10% recycled cotton. Since cotton uses land, and a high amount of water in the field during cultivation, avoiding the use of virgin cotton creates a high decrease in impact categories. If one can spin and weave a blend of 50% virgin and 50% recycled cotton, the overall impact on these two categories decreases 50%, which is a considerable figure when the amount of fabric produced reaches approximately 3 billion meters annually.
This section aims to determine the impact of blending recycled cotton with organic cotton. Organic cotton data used in the calculations is generated from the literature [78, 79]. The percentages used in the life cycle assessment (LCA) calculations are as follows:
Article A-1: 100% cotton
Article A-6: 100% organic cotton
Article A-7: 80% organic cotton +20% recycled cotton
Once organic cotton is used, at least 25% decrease appears in three categories: namely, global warming potential, eutrophication, and abiotic resource depletion. The decrease in water use (11%) is comparably low. On the other hand, real decrease happens in the land use, nearly 40%. This is due to the data for Aegean Region organic cotton. The yield in Turkish organic cotton is comparably high. The land use for 1 kg of lint organic cotton is 4.65m2 for Turkish organic cotton. The same figure appears to be 19.7 for global production and 20.9 for the US organic cotton (Figure 6).
Land needed for 1 kg lint organic cotton, m2 [
The virgin cotton used in study for calculations is a blend of the US, Turkish, Greek, and Brazilian cotton.
The results of the life cycle assessment (LCA) calculations are presented in Figure 7. The data shows that diverting from 100% regular cotton to 100% organic cotton reduces global warming potential by 27%, eutrophication by 26%, abiotic depletion by 24%, and land use by 39%. In addition, as in Article A-7, blending organic cotton with 20% recycle cotton generates an additional 10% decrease in land use. With the aid of this blend, the comparably lowest impact in land use is achieved in this study. The same is true for global warming potential and abiotic depletion. Article A-7 has the lowest values compared to the rest of the articles in Figures 5 and 7.
Results of LCA calculations of organic and post-consumer recycled cotton blends.
On the other hand, eutrophication and water use remain higher than those of the articles in Figure 5. Organic cotton still uses a decent amount of water during cultivation. Therefore, Article A-7 could not result with the lowest impact on water use and eutrophication.
Fiber selection stage—in this study fiber cultivation stage—has the main role in environmental impact of a denim fabric. Selected five impact categories are divided into the article’s process steps starting from cradle, meaning cotton cultivation, to gate, the end of fabric production. When it is analyzed (Section 4.3.2), one can see that fiber has more than 50% of the total impact in four out of the five categories. Only in abiotic depletion, warp preparation and dyeing have a greater effect than that of the fiber itself. Since recycled cotton usage means eliminating the fiber growing stage or in other words not using virgin raw material that requires natural resource, the environmental impact decreases as the recycle content increases in the fabric. And this is mainly true for global warming potential, eutrophication, water use, and land use. Especially for water and land use, fiber growth stage has more than 90% impact on the overall score. Fifty percent recycled cotton use decreases both impacts by 50%. Therefore, it is better to use recycled content to decrease the environmental impact of water and land use mainly.
Organic cotton with recycled cotton combination has the lowest impact in land use. Using 100% organic cotton also helps reduce global warming potential and eutrophication more than using 50% recycled cotton. However, when it comes to water use and land use, recycled cotton always scores the best since it is not a grown raw material. Here, one can question the production of recycling. The data related to production and transportations are taken into account in the LCA calculations.
In conclusion, denim recycling is very crucial to reduce the water and land use impact of jeans. Combining recycled cotton with organic cotton also leads to reductions in other impact categories such as eutrophication, global warming potential, and abiotic depletion as well. As a future study, the impact of different fibers used in denim fabric production may also be analyzed with a combination of recycled cotton.
Recycled cotton source appears to be the first challenge when whole textile system is considered. There are regulations in countries either limiting or declining the import of second-hand garments. This creates a limitation in source since the collection of second-hand garments is not organized in some countries.
The second challenge is the composition of jeans. Historically, the main composition was 100% cotton. Right now, more than half of the jeans include elastane fiber as well. Besides elastane, new compositions include man-made fibers and regenerated cellulosic fibers. The more complex the composition, the harder it gets to recycle jeans mechanically.
The most important challenge here is always the consumer mindset. Across the industry, only 13% of the total material input is in some way recycled after clothing use. Most of this recycling consists of cascading to other industries and is used in lower-value applications, for example, insulation materials, wiping cloths [81], Once discarded, over half the garments are not recycled but end up in mixed household waste and are subsequently sent to incinerators or landfill. According to a McKinsey analysis, as was mentioned before, an average consumer buys 60% more clothes per year than 15 years ago but keeps the clothes only half the time, and this really is shocking once the numbers become visible [82]. Consumer awareness should be increased via marketing channels and mainly in schools.
Since mechanical recycling technique is a challenge in the process, recently, new techniques have emerged to use denim jeans and other cellulosic materials as a source/raw material. Companies like Re:newcell, Infinited Fibers, and Nanollose are taking second-hand garments, applying fiber separation and turning cellulosic part into liquid [83, 84, 85]. Some of them include fermentation, and as a last step, they turn the liquid into the material. The process resembles regenerated cellulosic fiber process. The use of fermentation appears to be a promising step into bio design for textiles, and this also eliminates all the negative sides of mechanical recycling.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Meat is defined as skeletal muscles and their associated tissues from certain mammals and birds that are appropriate for human consumption. It encompasses the flesh or other edible parts of four kinds of vertebrates, which are as follows:
Warm-blooded food-producing animals with red meat, such as cattle, buffaloes, camels, sheep, goats, and pigs.
Warm-blooded animals and birds with white meat, including poultry (chicken, turkeys, and quails) and birds that are hunted for their meat, such as pigeons.
Fish are cold-blooded animals with low-fat and high-protein white meat that gives a range of health benefits.
Rabbits are warm-blooded animals with a rapid reproduction rate and low-fat, high-protein white meat.
Meat is a highly nutritious food owing to its high-quality proteins containing all the essential amino acids as well as various minerals, namely, iron, zinc, selenium, and magnesium. It is also a major source of five of the B-complex vitamins, which are the important cofactors for energy metabolic pathways [1]. The human population has been increasing speedily, which increases human consumption of foods, particularly food of animal origin. Therefore, demands for animal protein are remarkably increasing globally. To meet such demands, intensive animal and aquaculture farming is gaining popularity and became an important field within the food industry [2].
The twentieth century had witnessed a massive expansion in livestock farming, including cattle, sheep, pigs, horses, poultry, and rabbits. Similarly, aquaculture, which is the production of fish, crustaceans, and mollusks, was also introduced and more than 580 aquaculture species are currently cultivated globally [2, 3]. This modern food industry needs to use antimicrobial agents at different phases of production to provide safe products for consumers. International usage of antimicrobials in the food industry has been estimated to reach 63,151 ± 1560 tons in 2010 and it is expected to increase by 67% to 105,596 ± 3605 tons by 2030. These chemicals are extensively used in food-producing animals for therapeutic, prophylactic, and metaphylactic purposes [4].
Antimicrobials are chemical ingredients, which at low concentrations have biological properties to kill or inhibit microorganisms, such as bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and parasites. It is a general term that refers to a group of drugs that include antivirals, antibiotics, antifungals, and antiprotozoals. After administering antimicrobials, their residues could remain in the tissues of treated animals and the foods derived from them, such as milk, meat, and eggs [5, 6].
The misuse and overuse of these antimicrobials in food-producing animals and aquaculture are major contributing factors in the accumulation of AMRs in animal source foods (ASFs), particularly meat and meat products [7, 8]. These AMRs have severe harmful impacts on human health (see part 3). The Centre for Veterinary Medicine, an agency under the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the USA, and the European Union (EU) define the residues as “pharmacologically active substances (whether active principles, recipients, or degradation products) and their metabolites which remain in foodstuffs obtained from animals to which the veterinary medicinal products in question has been administered” [9].
Practically, 80% of globally manufactured antibiotics are used in the animal production and several animal producers currently manage sub-therapeutic concentrations of antibiotics for different purposes, such as growth enhancement, acceleration of weight gain, improving digestion, rise in feed conversion ratio (FCR), and hindrance or decrease of disease outbreaks. Therefore, residues of veterinary drugs may be present in animal source foods (ASFs) even if their use is fully regulated [10, 11]. The insufficiency of attention among farmers and breeders concerning the withdrawal periods (WDPs) and health risks related to the presence of AMRs in different types of food, especially in developing countries, is globally recognized [12]. Additionally, failure to follow the instructions of antibiotics manufacturers also accounts for residue occurrence in meat [13, 14]. The phrase withdrawal period (WDP) is often used more broadly to describe the time that must pass after the last given dose of veterinary medication and before the slaughter or production of food from the treated animal to ensure that the food does not contain levels of the medicine that exceed the maximum residue limit (MRL) [15].
The length of WDP may vary widely between drugs because it depends on the physical and chemical characteristics of the antimicrobial agent, route of administration, and dosage. It generally ranges from only a few hours to several days or weeks [5, 16].
The presence of AMRs above the maximum residue limit (MRL) in meats is considered an unlawful application of such drugs by different public health authori¬ties worldwide [17]. European Medicines Agency (EMA) defines the MRL as the maximum allowed concentration of residue in a food product obtained from an animal that has received a veterinary medicine or that has been exposed to a biocidal product for use in animal husbandry. EMA provides guidance on establishing MRLs and their application. The European Union (EU) requires, by law, that foodstuffs, such as meat, milk, or eggs, must not contain residue levels of veterinary medicines or biocidal products that might represent a hazard to the health of the consumer. Regulations of the European committee (470/2009) lay down the rules and procedures for the establishment of MRLs (EMA, 2021). The unit used for this maximum allowable concentration is milligrams per kilogram for solid products and milligrams per liter for liquids [18, 19].
Recent reports have confirmed that the misuse and overuse of veterinary drugs could result in the deposition of AMRs in muscles and organs of animals [20]. Consumption of these residues present in animal products may pose health risks to consumers by triggering health conditions, including allergies, reproductive disorders, hypersensitivity reactions, and the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Therefore, the solution to AMRs requires coordinated work between regulatory bodies to monitor the use of antimicrobial drugs and to enforce penalties on indiscriminate usage. Moreover, the application of accurate and reliable analytical methods to easily detect and monitor AMRs in meat products should also be encouraged. This chapter aims to address the problem of AMRs in meat and meat products in terms of their sources and potential negative effects on human health and economy. A diverse group of screening tests was also discussed in addition to the strategies for prevention and control of AMRs in meat.
By keeping a large number of animals in small spaces, infections may spread quickly, so the use of antimicrobials, including antibiotics in livestock farming, is inevitable [21, 22]. AMRs are mostly found in meat and meat products due to their injudicious usage during the treatment of diseased animals or preventive treatment of the still healthy ones [23]. The majority of the residues are pharmaceutical drugs, such as antimicrobials, anthelminthic agents, and hormones. From the different types of pharmaceuticals, antibiotics are most extensively used in medical and veterinary practices [24]. Conversely, other compounds, such as insecticides, herbicides, pesticides, mycotoxins, heavy metals, detergents, disinfectants, nitrates, and nitrites, were also detected [25]. Generally, the provenance of AMRs in meat and meat products stems from one or more of the following routes:
In recent years, antimicrobials, especially antibiotics, have been widely used in animal husbandry to treat and prevent infections. Global estimations have revealed that ~45, 148, and 172 mg/kg of antibiotics are required per head of cattle, chicken, and pig produced each year, respectively [26].
With few exceptions, the food industry plans to administer antimicrobial agents prophylactically to prevent the spread of infections among animals living in overcrowded and inevitably unsanitary conditions. In the United States, for example, 80% of all antibiotics sold each year are administered to animals living on factory farms. On a global scale, this figure is also between 70% and 80% [27].
Antimicrobials are sometimes added to animal feed at low doses in order to promote the faster growth of animals. The ability of antibiotics to promote the growth of animals and birds was discovered serendipitously in the 1940s [28]. Subsequently, it was widely exploited, and by this time, the addition of antibiotics to animal feed to stimulate growth has turned into a global practice. In the US alone, about 24.6 million pounds of antibiotics are used in animal agriculture annually and a substantial portion of this is used as growth promoters and not for the treatment of infections. According to a recent report, out of 13 million kg of antibiotics administered to animals in 2010, the major portion was meant for promoting the growth of the livestock. The basis of the growth-promoting effect of antibiotics is not clearly known. It is postulated that microorganisms present in the animal gut consume a considerable portion of nutrients in the feed. They also inhibit absorption from the intestine and produce toxins that have adverse effects on the health of the animals [29]. The growth-promoting effect of antibiotics might stem from their ability to suppress these harmful organisms that cause chronic or latent infections.
ELU refers to using an approved drug in a way that does not follow the approved label directions. ELU occurs when a drug only approved for human use is used in animals, a drug approved for one species of animal is used in another, a drug is used to treat a condition for which it was not approved, or the use of drugs at levels above recommended dosages [30]. However, other examples of extra-label drug practices are also documented below, including [31]:
Altering the route of administration, such as giving flunixin I.M or S.Q , instead of I.V.
Changing the dose, such as giving more penicillin than is listed on the label.
Giving a drug for any disease not listed on the label.
Changing the duration of therapy.
Changing the amount of drug per injection site.
Antibiotics are used in the preservation of foods, particularly food of animal origin, such as poultry and fish. The antibiotics are added to water at a concentration of 5 to 40 ppm and poultry meat is dipped into treated water for chilling purposes during production. Otherwise, the antibiotics are added to ice in amounts of 2 to 5 ppm to increase the shelf life of the foods considerably [32]. Consumers due to concerns related to negative health issues are currently less accepting the use of synthetic chemical preservatives. However, the preservation of foods using antibiotics has been banned in many countries due to public health concerns [33].
The safety of meat and meat products ensures that the meat and its products do not contain any constituents that cause any health complications or toxicity for consumers. Meat manufacturers need to follow meat safety procedures to reach specific standards in order to meet consumers’ higher safety demands. There is a developing awareness regarding the potential risk of meat contaminants to initiate health conditions and diseases, such as cancers and disruption of the body’s func¬tional and system integrity, particularly nervous, immune and reproductive systems, as well as the endocrine system [34]. Other hazardous threats include drug residues that are implicated in direct toxicity, drug allergy, hypersensitive reactions, and the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria that have been known as a global health challenge in the twenty-first century [35]. The presence of AMRs can also negatively affect the meat processing chain and cause economic losses for the manufacturing sector. The implications of AMRs in meat and meat products on human health and the international economy are detailed below.
Residuals of antimicrobials or their toxic metabolites are often found in different types of meat and meat products, which are collectively called veterinary drug residues [36]. Consumption of such food products poses a major health risk. According to Falowo and Akimoladun [37], there are two main types of adverse effects caused due to the presence of residues of antibiotics in food of animal origin in terms of human health. The first is immunological reactions (allergy and hypersensitivity reaction) that range from a weak reaction, such as rash to direct life-threatening conditions like anaphylactic shock. The second type of negative impact is the development of antibiotic resistance. However, there are other adverse impacts of AMRs on human health, which are summarized below.
Allergy or immune-mediated response to a chemical agent, such as a drug (a.k.a. drug allergy), may range from mild cutaneous reactions, such as rashes and itches, to life-threatening responses as in case of direct toxicity and anaphylaxis. Several researchers estimated that ~4–11% of the human population is considered hypersensitive to penicillin. Such individuals are at risk of developing allergy that can manifest as a skin rash or even severe anaphylaxis if they consumed meat or meat products containing penicillin residues [38]. Studies have also shown that damage to hepatic liver cells can be traced to allergic response to macrolide antibiotics (e.g., erythromycin and clarithromycin) [39].
Healthy intestinal normal flora is vital for keeping a healthy host. The establishment of an unusual microbiota can cause several types of diseases at different ages ranging from allergies at an early age to inflammatory bowel disease in young adults. The human microbiota is estimated to be ∼1013–1014 microbial cells, with ~1:1 microbial cells to human cells ratio, and the diversity of the microbiota will vary from person to person [40]. Intestinal normal flora controls and prevents the colonization of pathogenic bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract [41]. However, studies have shown that antimicrobials administered for therapeutic purposes can potentially change the balanced communities of the intestinal flora [42, 43]. The degree of change depends on the type of drug, route of administration, dosage of the antimicrobial drug, metabolism, exposure time to the drug, distribution in the body including excretion route, and its bioavailability [44]. Frequently used drugs, such as metronidazole, streptomycin, macrolides, vancomycin, and nitroimidazole, are usually associated with gastrointestinal disorders in humans [45].
The WHO has declared that antimicrobial drug resistance is one of the top 10 global public health threats that humanity is facing. Residues in foods, including meat and meat products, are believed to act as a selective pressure to favor the resistant phenotypes or to trigger the development of resistant strains from the susceptible wild types [46]. Antimicrobial resistance is a worldwide health threat, and failure of antimicrobial therapy due to resistant strain is a future concern. It requires serious multi-sector actions in order to reach the goals of sustainable development [47]. Recent studies have reported that, by 2050, 10 million people will die every year due to antimicrobial resistance, if there is no solution to the problem of antimicrobial resistance [48].
Some antibiotic residues, such as chloramphenicol residues, lead to an increased risk of developing blood cancer. At very low concentration, long-term exposure to chloramphenicol may cause aplastic anemia, a disease that causes bone marrow to stop producing white and red blood cells and is frequently irreversible and deadly [49]. Aplastic anemia occurs in susceptible individuals exposed to concentrations of chloramphenicol that might persist as residues in meat, meat products, and edible portion of chloramphenicol-treated animals. According to the recommendation of WHO, because of the toxicity of chloramphenicol (aplastic anemia), its use in ASF has been banned in many countries [50].
The term carcinogen refers to a chemical that has the potential to trigger cancer. Different veterinary drugs are considered as carcinogens, including nitrofurans, nitroimidazoles, quinoxaline, oxytetracycline, and furazolidone. It is proved that these drugs might be acquired through ASF as AMRs. Kyuchukova in Bulgaria had specified that consumption of antimicrobial residues through animal products may cause carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, teratogenicity, bone marrow dysfunction, and disruption of normal intestinal flora [51].
The term mutagen is used to describe physical or chemical agents that can cause a mutation in a DNA molecule. The drug residues can cause mutagenic effects. Okocha and associates reported that about 80% of antimicrobials used in aquaculture enter the environment where they select bacteria whose resistance arises from mutations [49]. There is also an increasing fear of probable drug-related gene mutagen or chromosome breakage among the human population.
The term teratogen applies to a drug or chemical agent that produces malformations in embryos during a critical gestation phase. However, various congenital malformations of newborn children, due to long-term exposure to AMRs during the gestation period, have been reported. According to Beyene [35], antibiotic residues can produce congenital malformations, which affect the structural and functional integrity of the organism. Studies have shown that benzimidazole, an anthelmintic drug, is not only mutagenic but also has teratogenic activities and is highly toxic to the embryo when ingested at the early stages of pregnancy.
Some veterinary drugs, such as tetracycline, are reabsorbed through enterohepatic circulation and persist in the body for a long time after administration, resulting in photosensitivity reactions and pigmentation of nails. Consumption of tetracycline-contaminated milk for a short or long duration may lead to permanent discoloration of the teeth in children [52]. Similarly, drinking milk contaminated with high levels of azithromycin can severely affect the human immune and cardiovascular system [53]. In 1969, the Swann Committee reported a significant problem about antimicrobial misuse in both human and veterinary practices. It is worth mentioning that the UK Government had recommended an establishment of a committee that should have overall responsibility for the whole field of antimicrobial use [54].
AMRs in meat and meat products are the results of antibiotics overdosing, the continuous use of antibiotics banned for treatment of economic animals, and noncompliance with withdrawal periods [55, 56]. The presence of AMRs in ASF constitutes socioeconomic challenges in global trade for animal and animal products, including meat and meat products. The trouble of AMRs in animal products is not new. However, due to the globalization of the food trade, we are continuously facing new challenges. Although efforts have been made to harmonize MRLs globally under the sponsorship of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the Codex Alimentarius, MRLs still vary from one country to another.
AMRs detection in ASF, including meat and meat products, is of paramount importance to ensure safety and quality standards. Detection of AMRs is best performed by a two-step procedure, screening and identification with a quantitative analysis [57]. However, the lack of resources for identification and quantitative analyses is a major issue in developing countries since such analyses are only possible in well-equipped laboratories. Tests of AMRs are diverse and can be grouped into four categories—microbial screening technique, immunological assays, chromatographic methods, and biosensors-based detection [58]. Generally, the routine test method for surveillance purpose needs to have certain attributes including:
Good sensitivity and specificity
Accepted detection capability
Reduced time to obtain the result
Easy to use and handle
Low set-up and running costs
High throughput
Possibility of automation
These tests, also known as bacteriological assays, are based on the principle of inhibition of bacterial replication upon exposure to an inhibitor. The growth of test bacteria is halted due to the presence of AMRs in the test sample. These tests gained popularity due to different characteristics, including low-cost requirements and the ability to analyze a large number of samples easily. The short time required for sample processing and the capacity to detect a broad spectrum of antibiotics add further advantages to these methods. The bacterial strains used in these tests are highly sensitive to antibiotics, fast-growing species, resistant to environmental conditions, including heat and genetically stable (the incidence of genetic mutations is rare). The most commonly used stains are
The microbial inhibition assay can cover a complete antibiotic spectrum under one test. Although this method was used dates back as early as 1964 and was adopted initially to screen the dairy industry with the purpose of preventing drawbacks in fermentative dairy manufacturing; it has now been extended as a regular residue monitoring method to date [22]. Generally, there are two flavors for the inhibition assay:
This method is commonly used in Europe for screening antibiotic residues in slaughterhouses of animals. The test sample is placed on the surface of the plate containing inoculated Muller-Hinton agar or nutrient agar. The presence of AMRs is inferred by the formation of clear zones against the remaining opaque layer by the growing bacteria, thus yielding a clear growth-free area around the sample after a specific incubation period.
Tube test is commonly used in the milk industry but can also be used for the analysis of other matrices. This method is adopted by using an ampule, vial, or tube containing a growth medium inoculated with spores of a sensitive test bacterium, supplemented with a pH or redox indicator. At the suitable conditions of pH and temperature, there is a color change that results from the acid produced by the growing bacteria. Delay or absence of color change is indicative of the presence of AMRs.
The immunological methods work on the principle of antibody-antigen interactions and are commonly very specific and help in determining AMRs in meat and milk samples from food-producing animals (FPAs). Three different approaches to immunological tests are known: radioimmunoassay (RIA), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and immuno-electrophoresis method. The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is frequently used for the identification of antimicrobials and is based on enzyme-labeled reagents. ELISA has proven very useful for residual screening in meat. ELISA’s antigen-quantification assays are available in two different forms, direct and indirect. The indirect sandwich ELISA has the advantage of being highly specific and sensitive. On the contrary, radioimmunoassay measures the radioactivity of the immunological complex using a counter.
Numerous techniques of chromatography are used to separate chemical compounds from a heterogeneous mixture. Liquid chromatography is useful in the qualitative and quantitative screening of multiple residues in food animals, though its use has rapidly decreased during the last decade. High-performance liquid chromatography is the most accurate and efficient technique for quantitative and qualitative analyses. It depends on pumps to pass a pressurized liquid solvent containing the sample mixture through a column filled with a solid adsorbent material. Each constituent in the sample interacts slightly differently with the adsorbent material, causing several flow rates for the various constituents and leading to the separation of the ingredients as they flow out of the column. It has been applied for the detection of AMRs in meat, fish, and internal organs as a screening technique. Laboratory use of HPLC has developed very quickly and has the ability to analyze multiple residues in a sample within a short time. Also, the equipment is fully automated, such as injection, elution, washing of columns, and detection, and controlled with the aid of a computer. The combination of HPLC with mass spectrometry (MS-MS) has resulted in a considerable decrease in analysis time for confirmation in presumed positive samples after initial surveillance. Such a combination could efficiently be used at the same time for screening and confirmation.
Biosensor is made up of a bio-receptor (biological recognition element), which recognizes the target AMRs, and a transducer (a signal transduction element), which converts the recognition event into a measurable signal. Biosensor is simple, highly selective, rapid, inexpensive, and can be handled by any person. This technique is a recent approach for detecting AMRs in food, including different types of meat, while ensuring their quality and safety. It has applications for high outputs in biotechnology. Cellular biosensors employed for the detection of antibiotic residues, such as beta-lactam antibiotics, quinolones, tetracyclines, chloramphenicol, and quinolones, have proven to be very effective in detecting multiple residues at the same time within a very short period.
The general public health effect of drug residues in meat and meat products can be reduced by the cooperation and support of researchers, veterinarians, legislative authorities, farmers, producers, manufacturers, and consumers. Several global organizations, such as the WHO, FAO, OIE, and the EC (European Commission), the executive branch of the European Union, have confirmed the importance of prudent, wise, and rational use of antimicrobials in food-producing animals to reduce the impact of AMRs on human and animal health. Avoidance or totally removing AMRs from meat and meat products is not an easy task. Health programs that address threats of antimicrobial misuse and the relationship between people, animals, and the environment are crucial to managing this issue. Establishing national programs to monitor veterinary drugs, pesticides, and environmental pollutants in local and imported meat is a current strategy in different countries. However, approval of confirmed safety measures and guidelines may help reduce the residues to nontoxic levels [31, 59, 60]. These guidelines are summarized as follows:
Legislation is a key constituent in any endeavor to stop the abuse of antimicrobial agents. It is also significant in regulating global antimicrobial use and minimizing possibilities for the emergence of antimicrobial resistance. Usually, there is no specific occupational health and safety (OHS) legislation that applies to the dairy industry and the current OHS legislation applies to all workplaces with specific guidelines that apply to agricultural industries. The main difference between countries is in the application of OHS legislation specifically in relation to the size of the farms [61]. Moreover, only professionals who should sell them only with a prescription from a veterinarian should market antibiotics. Implementation of systematic testing for the presence of antibiotics used in the production is also recommended. Furthermore, rigorous control over the types and concentrations of antibiotics used should be established. The meat industry sector should not use antibiotics for preservation purposes. There is an immediate need to support scientific research that is aimed at the development of alternatives to antimicrobials for use in food-producing animals. Probiotics and active phytochemical compounds should be further investigated as alternatives to antibiotics for prophylactic and preservative purposes. The restriction on the use of medically important antibiotics for treatment purposes in food-producing animals is essential [62].
Management practices, including on-farm biosecurity, play crucial roles in reducing the need for drug use. Implementation of such measures reduces the exposure to disease by manipulating the animal’s environment to reduce infections. The development of methods to enhance immunity is also guaranteed if hygiene measures are followed continuously. Generally, antibiotics should not be used to replace good hygiene, but when employed such that all the above dangers are avoided, and in conjunction with mild refrigeration or pasteurizing and doses of irradiation, they provide convenient means of preservation without materially altering the product [63].
Awareness of dangers posed by antibiotic residues in food is an important approach to fight antibiotic resistance. The priority action in the vital prevention and control of AMRs in milk and dairy products is the extensive awareness-training program. We must create awareness through periodic educational training, compliance with the withdrawal period, effective surveillance systems, and monitoring to control AMRs in milk. However, the dissemination of health awareness through the media (audio, visual media, and newspapers) highlights the hazards of AMRs. Farmers and the person in charge should be aware of the necessity of adherence to withdrawal times and other good practices related to antibiotics used in food-producing animals [33].
The presence of AMRs in different types of meat and meat products is one of the global challenges for the meat industry and consumers. The most common causes of drug residues in food products are prophylactics use of antibiotics, and usage of antibiotics as growth promoters and as feed additives. The misuse and overuse of antimicrobials, particularly in the local animal industry, pose a serious health risk to the public and may complicate the treatment of human infections. Food-borne hypersensitivity reactions and the emergence of microbial resistance, as well as cross-resistance to the various groups of antibiotics in animals and their transfer to human pathogens, are well-documented consequences of AMRs in food. Insufficient withdrawal period and inappropriate health status of animals, which affect the drug metabolism, both result in residues presence in meat. Adherence to usage instructions and medical guidelines could significantly reduce the incidence of AMRs in meat and meat products. Finally, veterinary use of antimicrobial agents, especially those with dual animal and human applications, should therefore be restricted.
This is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Author Service Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.
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If its use complies with the five specifications including synthesis pathway, crystallographic phase, purity, amount and innocuousness, all other parameters are not defined and were hardly documented. However, in the last 3 years, two studies have deeply characterized food-grade TiO2 and converged to the fact that the size distribution of food-grade TiO2 spans over the nanoparticle range (<100 nm) and the surface is not pure TiO2 but covered by phosphate and eventually silicon species or aluminium species, which modify the surface chemistry of these particles. Until now, this material was considered as safe. However, the toxicological studies later to the last re-evaluation by the European Food Safety Agency reveal some concerns due to the ability of TiO2 particles to alter the intestinal barrier. This reinforces the idea to go on reinforcing the risk assessment about food-grade TiO2.",book:{id:"6407",slug:"application-of-titanium-dioxide",title:"Application of Titanium Dioxide",fullTitle:"Application of Titanium Dioxide"},signatures:"Marie-Hélène Ropers, Hélène Terrisse, Muriel Mercier-Bonin and\nBernard Humbert",authors:[{id:"203603",title:"Dr.",name:"Marie-Hélène",middleName:null,surname:"Ropers",slug:"marie-helene-ropers",fullName:"Marie-Hélène Ropers"},{id:"206434",title:"Dr.",name:"Hélène",middleName:null,surname:"Terrisse",slug:"helene-terrisse",fullName:"Hélène Terrisse"},{id:"206435",title:"Dr.",name:"Muriel",middleName:null,surname:"Mercier-Bonin",slug:"muriel-mercier-bonin",fullName:"Muriel Mercier-Bonin"},{id:"206436",title:"Prof.",name:"Bernard",middleName:null,surname:"Humbert",slug:"bernard-humbert",fullName:"Bernard Humbert"}]},{id:"51808",doi:"10.5772/64654",title:"Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition: Where we are and the Outlook for the Future",slug:"plasma-enhanced-chemical-vapor-deposition-where-we-are-and-the-outlook-for-the-future",totalDownloads:7757,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:29,abstract:"Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) is a technique for the fabrication of thin films of polymeric materials, which has successfully overcome some of the issues faced by wet chemical fabrication and other deposition methods. There are many hybrid techniques, which arise from CVD and are constantly evolving in order to modify the properties of the fabricated thin films. Amongst them, plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) is a technique that can extend the applicability of the method for various precursors, reactive organic and inorganic materials as well as inert materials. Organic/inorganic monomers, which are used as precursors in the PECVD technique, undergo disintegration and radical polymerization while exposed to a high-energy plasma stream, followed by thin film deposition. In this chapter, we have provided a summary of the history, various characteristics as well as the main applications of PECVD. By demonstrating the advantages and disadvantages of PECVD, we have provided a comparison of this technique with other techniques. PECVD, like any other techniques, still suffers from some restrictions, such as selection of appropriate monomers, or suitable inlet instrument. However, the remarkable properties of this technique and variety of possible applications make it an area of interest for researchers, and offers potential for many future developments.",book:{id:"5211",slug:"chemical-vapor-deposition-recent-advances-and-applications-in-optical-solar-cells-and-solid-state-devices",title:"Chemical Vapor Deposition",fullTitle:"Chemical Vapor Deposition - Recent Advances and Applications in Optical, Solar Cells and Solid State Devices"},signatures:"Yasaman Hamedani, Prathyushakrishna Macha, Timothy J. Bunning,\nRajesh R. Naik and Milana C. Vasudev",authors:[{id:"181604",title:"Dr.",name:"Milana",middleName:null,surname:"Vasudev",slug:"milana-vasudev",fullName:"Milana Vasudev"}]},{id:"55301",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68802",title:"Recent Overview on the Abatement of Pesticide Residues in Water by Photocatalytic Treatment Using TiO2",slug:"recent-overview-on-the-abatement-of-pesticide-residues-in-water-by-photocatalytic-treatment-using-ti",totalDownloads:1982,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:"The water bodies’ pollution with phytosanitary products can pose a serious threat to aquatic ecosystems and drinking water resources. The usual appearance of pesticides in surface water, waste water and groundwater has driven the search for proper methods to remove persistent pesticides. Although typical biological treatments of water offer some advantages such as low cost and operability, many investigations referring to the removal of pesticides have suggested that in many cases they have low effectiveness due to the limited biodegradability of many agrochemicals. In recent years, research for new techniques for water detoxification to avoid these disadvantages has led to processes that involve light, which are called advanced oxidation processes (AOPs). Among the different semiconductor (SC) materials tested as potential photocatalysts, titanium dioxide (TiO2) is the most popular because of its photochemical stability, commercial availability, non-toxic nature and low cost, high photoactivity, ease of preparation in the laboratory, possibility of doping with metals and non-metals and coating on solid support. Thus, in the present review, we provide an overview of the recent research being developed to photodegrade pesticide residues in water using TiO2 as photocatalyst.",book:{id:"6407",slug:"application-of-titanium-dioxide",title:"Application of Titanium Dioxide",fullTitle:"Application of Titanium Dioxide"},signatures:"Nuria Vela, Gabriel Pérez-Lucas, José Fenoll and Simón Navarro",authors:[{id:"202983",title:"Dr.",name:"Simón",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro",slug:"simon-navarro",fullName:"Simón Navarro"},{id:"202988",title:"Dr.",name:"Nuria",middleName:null,surname:"Vela",slug:"nuria-vela",fullName:"Nuria Vela"},{id:"202989",title:"Dr.",name:"José",middleName:null,surname:"Fenoll",slug:"jose-fenoll",fullName:"José Fenoll"},{id:"206059",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",middleName:null,surname:"Pérez-Lucas",slug:"gabriel-perez-lucas",fullName:"Gabriel Pérez-Lucas"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"57464",title:"General Aspects of the Cobalt Chemistry",slug:"general-aspects-of-the-cobalt-chemistry",totalDownloads:2271,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"This chapter aims to collect and summarize the chemical properties of cobalt and some new cobalt compounds. It deals with the progress of cobalt chemistry. Cobalt has been substantial in both chemical reactions and within many compounds. Some of them are heterocyclic reactions, cobalt-based catalyst and cobalamin. Also, it discusses variety of applications of cobalt in a wide range of areas and toxicity of cobalt. The studies carried out in this area so far have enabled and will be continued to be responsible for producing unknown and difficult reactions. This survey of the recent literature illustrates the fact that many different approaches on cobalt and new cobalt compounds are being used in many different areas.",book:{id:"6133",slug:"cobalt",title:"Cobalt",fullTitle:"Cobalt"},signatures:"Yasemin Yildiz",authors:[{id:"208129",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasemin",middleName:null,surname:"Yıldız",slug:"yasemin-yildiz",fullName:"Yasemin Yıldız"}]},{id:"55301",title:"Recent Overview on the Abatement of Pesticide Residues in Water by Photocatalytic Treatment Using TiO2",slug:"recent-overview-on-the-abatement-of-pesticide-residues-in-water-by-photocatalytic-treatment-using-ti",totalDownloads:1982,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:"The water bodies’ pollution with phytosanitary products can pose a serious threat to aquatic ecosystems and drinking water resources. The usual appearance of pesticides in surface water, waste water and groundwater has driven the search for proper methods to remove persistent pesticides. Although typical biological treatments of water offer some advantages such as low cost and operability, many investigations referring to the removal of pesticides have suggested that in many cases they have low effectiveness due to the limited biodegradability of many agrochemicals. In recent years, research for new techniques for water detoxification to avoid these disadvantages has led to processes that involve light, which are called advanced oxidation processes (AOPs). Among the different semiconductor (SC) materials tested as potential photocatalysts, titanium dioxide (TiO2) is the most popular because of its photochemical stability, commercial availability, non-toxic nature and low cost, high photoactivity, ease of preparation in the laboratory, possibility of doping with metals and non-metals and coating on solid support. Thus, in the present review, we provide an overview of the recent research being developed to photodegrade pesticide residues in water using TiO2 as photocatalyst.",book:{id:"6407",slug:"application-of-titanium-dioxide",title:"Application of Titanium Dioxide",fullTitle:"Application of Titanium Dioxide"},signatures:"Nuria Vela, Gabriel Pérez-Lucas, José Fenoll and Simón Navarro",authors:[{id:"202983",title:"Dr.",name:"Simón",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro",slug:"simon-navarro",fullName:"Simón Navarro"},{id:"202988",title:"Dr.",name:"Nuria",middleName:null,surname:"Vela",slug:"nuria-vela",fullName:"Nuria Vela"},{id:"202989",title:"Dr.",name:"José",middleName:null,surname:"Fenoll",slug:"jose-fenoll",fullName:"José Fenoll"},{id:"206059",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",middleName:null,surname:"Pérez-Lucas",slug:"gabriel-perez-lucas",fullName:"Gabriel Pérez-Lucas"}]},{id:"49965",title:"Utilization of Apatite Ores",slug:"utilization-of-apatite-ores",totalDownloads:2590,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Phosphate rock is an important mineral commodity used in the chemical industry and production of food. The first section of ninth chapter of this book introduces utilization of apatite ores for manufacturing of phosphorus. The second part deals with production of phosphoric acid via wet and thermal process and utilization of byproducts such as phosphogypsum, phosphorous slag and ferrophosphorus. The last section of this chapter describes the methods for production of fertilizers, such as supephosphates, Thomas slag, ammonium phosphates, thermophosphates, etc., and the chapter ends with environmental demand of phosphate fertilizers.",book:{id:"4783",slug:"apatites-and-their-synthetic-analogues-synthesis-structure-properties-and-applications",title:"Apatites and their Synthetic Analogues",fullTitle:"Apatites and their Synthetic Analogues - Synthesis, Structure, Properties and Applications"},signatures:"Petr Ptáček",authors:[{id:"76186",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Petr",middleName:null,surname:"Ptáček",slug:"petr-ptacek",fullName:"Petr Ptáček"}]},{id:"49970",title:"Introduction to Apatites",slug:"introduction-to-apatites",totalDownloads:3058,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Apatite is the generic name, which was first introduced by German geologist A.G. Werner. These minerals and their synthetic analogs represent a major class of ionic compounds and the most common crystalline form of calcium phosphates, which are of interest of many industrial branches and scientific disciplines. Since, apatite (fluorapatite) is the most abundant phosphate mineral, apatite bearing phosphate rocks represents an important source of inorganic phosphorus. First chapter of this book introduces the basic concepts of nomenclature, composition, classification, crystal structure, mineralogy and properties of minerals from the supergroup of apatite. Furthermore, the minerals from the group of apatite and polysomatic apatites are described. Since, the most of the topics mentioned in this chapter will be developed in the following chapters, the key concepts provided in this chapter are important to understood before proceeding further.",book:{id:"4783",slug:"apatites-and-their-synthetic-analogues-synthesis-structure-properties-and-applications",title:"Apatites and their Synthetic Analogues",fullTitle:"Apatites and their Synthetic Analogues - Synthesis, Structure, Properties and Applications"},signatures:"Petr Ptáček",authors:[{id:"76186",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Petr",middleName:null,surname:"Ptáček",slug:"petr-ptacek",fullName:"Petr Ptáček"}]},{id:"39146",title:"ArF Excimer Laser Annealing of Polycrystalline Silicon Thin Film",slug:"crystallization-of-silicon-copper-film-by-excimer-laser-annealing",totalDownloads:7035,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:null,book:{id:"1980",slug:"crystallization-science-and-technology",title:"Crystallization",fullTitle:"Crystallization - Science and Technology"},signatures:"Noriah Bidin and Siti Noraiza Ab Razak",authors:[{id:"112868",title:"Prof.",name:"Noriah",middleName:null,surname:"Bidin",slug:"noriah-bidin",fullName:"Noriah Bidin"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"492",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:133,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. 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From\r\n1964 to 1974, he worked as Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of MedicineUniversidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. From 1974 to 1976, he was a Fellowof the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor oBiochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Angel Catalá belongto the Editorial Board of Journal of lipids, International Review of Biophysical ChemistryFrontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics, World Journal oExperimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International, W orld Journal oBiological Chemistry, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, Diabetes and thePancreas, International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, International Journal oNutrition, Co-Editor of The Open Biology Journal.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"12",title:"Human Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. Her main research interest is sarcopenia in older adults, especially its association with nutritional status. Additionally, to understand how to maintain and improve physical function in older adults, to conduct studies about the mechanism of sarcopenia and determine when possible interventions are needed.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ritsumeikan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/13.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"332229",title:"Prof.",name:"Jen-Tsung",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"jen-tsung-chen",fullName:"Jen-Tsung Chen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332229/images/system/332229.png",biography:"Dr. Jen-Tsung Chen is currently a professor at the National University of Kaohsiung, Taiwan. He teaches cell biology, genomics, proteomics, medicinal plant biotechnology, and plant tissue culture. 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He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. from Integral University, Lucknow, India, with his work titled ‘Development and evaluation of silymarin nanoformulation for hepatic carcinoma’. Currently, he is an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics, at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. He has been teaching PharmD, BPharm, and MPharm students and conducting research in the novel drug delivery domain. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than twenty-four original journal articles, two edited books, four book chapters, and several scientific articles to his credit. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, the International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333824",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad Farouk",middleName:null,surname:"Musa",slug:"ahmad-farouk-musa",fullName:"Ahmad Farouk Musa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333824/images/22684_n.jpg",biography:"Dato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa\nMD, MMED (Surgery) (Mal), Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery (Monash Health, Aust), Graduate Certificate in Higher Education (Aust), Academy of Medicine (Mal)\n\n\n\nDato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa obtained his Doctor of Medicine from USM in 1992. He then obtained his Master of Medicine in Surgery from the same university in the year 2000 before subspecialising in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Institut Jantung Negara (IJN), Kuala Lumpur from 2002 until 2005. He then completed his Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Monash Health, Melbourne, Australia in 2008. He has served in the Malaysian army as a Medical Officer with the rank of Captain upon completing his Internship before joining USM as a trainee lecturer. He is now serving as an academic and researcher at Monash University Malaysia. He is a life-member of the Malaysian Association of Thoracic & Cardiovascular Surgery (MATCVS) and a committee member of the MATCVS Database. He is also a life-member of the College of Surgeons, Academy of Medicine of Malaysia; a life-member of Malaysian Medical Association (MMA), and a life-member of Islamic Medical Association of Malaysia (IMAM). Recently he was appointed as an Interim Chairperson of Examination & Assessment Subcommittee of the UiTM-IJN Cardiothoracic Surgery Postgraduate Program. As an academic, he has published numerous research papers and book chapters. 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He was awarded the Darjah Setia Pangkuan Negeri (DSPN) by the Governor of Penang in July, 2015.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Monash University Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. 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Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. 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He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. 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Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment"},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology"},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",keywords:"Novel Viruses, Virus Transmission, Virus Evolution, Molecular Virology, Control and Prevention, Virus-host Interaction"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"11672",title:"Chemokines Updates",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c00855833476a514d37abf7c846e16e9",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Murat Şentürk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",editedByType:null,submissionDeadline:"May 6th 2022",editors:[{id:"14794",title:"Prof.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Şentürk",slug:"murat-senturk",fullName:"Murat Şentürk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14794/images/system/14794.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Murat Şentürk obtained a baccalaureate degree in Chemistry in 2002, a master’s degree in Biochemistry in 2006, and a doctorate degree in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. Dr. Şentürk currently works as an professor of Biochemistry in the Department of Basic Pharmacy Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ağri Ibrahim Cecen University, Turkey. \nDr. Şentürk published over 120 scientific papers, reviews, and book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists. \nHis research interests span enzyme inhibitor or activator, protein expression, purification and characterization, drug design and synthesis, toxicology, and pharmacology. \nHis research work has focused on neurodegenerative diseases and cancer treatment. Dr. Şentürk serves as the editorial board member of several international journals.",institutionString:"Ağrı İbrahim Çeçen University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Ağrı İbrahim Çeçen University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}],selectedSeries:{title:"Infectious Diseases",id:"6"},selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/26303",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"26303"},fullPath:"/profiles/26303",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()