Global production and major producers of different energy feed sources (2017).
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Eduardo received his PhD from the Institute for Applied Microelectronics (IUMA) at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC) in 2015, being awarded in the ULPGC Outstanding Doctoral Thesis Awards in 2016. He holds a degree in Communications Engineering (2007) and a degree in Electronics Engineering (2009) from the ULPGC and was granted with a national award to the best Master Thesis in the Official National Telecommunications Engineering Association annual awards (2008). His research interests are in the areas of image and video enhancement and their related statistics in a wide range of applications. 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For many decades, farmers and feed manufacturers have been facing the challenge of effectively reducing the cost of poultry production and produce quality products. Several factors such as genotype, diet composition, digestible nutrient content, energy to protein ratio, feed form, feed processing, environment, and disease could affect the cost of production and poultry product quality through influencing feed intake, body weight gain and feed conversion ratio (FCR). Dietary management of energy intake has been reported to decrease the cost of production and improve product quality to a greater extent than the abovementioned factors [1]. However, most energy feed ingredients that will help in achieving improved performance, health, reduced production costs and improved product quality in poultry production are continuously becoming scarce and expensive for use in broiler production due to the stiff competition for available energy sources used by industries for biofuel and as food for humans. Feeds that provide the basic nutrients which help to achieve quality broiler carcass yield accounts for over 70% of the overall cost of poultry production, with energy sources being the largest in terms of quantity (40–70%) and invariably the most expensive [2, 3, 4].
The continuous increase in the cost of poultry feed ingredients (especially energy sources) has forced some farmers as well as feed manufacturers to use poor quality energy feed ingredients. This practice has resulted to poor feed intake, weight gain, FCR and meat quality [5]. The importance of dietary energy in poultry feeding cannot be over-emphasised because increasing or decreasing the dietary energy has been reported to affect feed intake in addition to promoting or undermining efficient feed utilisation and growth rate [6, 7, 8, 9]. Singh and Panda [10] concluded that birds usually eat with the aim of satisfying their energy requirement, and once this aim is achieved, the birds will stop eating irrespective of the fact that other key nutrient requirements such as protein, minerals, and vitamins have not been met. This scenario tends to lead to malnutrition, poor performance, increased deposition of excess abdominal fat or carcass fat in broilers [9, 11], and this fat deposit is usually considered to be waste product when birds are processed. High fat deposition is regarded as an economic loss for poultry producers. Furthermore, energy intake is considered a fundamental factor in broiler production because it not only affects growth rate and carcass characteristics but also causes some metabolic diseases such as ascites and fatty liver syndrome in broiler chickens [12, 13].
Therefore, appropriate focus is usually placed on the inclusion levels of various dietary energy sources when formulating diets for broiler chickens since an increase or decrease of dietary energy could play a key factor in determining not just cost but also the final product quality [7, 8, 9]. The nutrient density in the diet should be adjusted to enable appropriate nutrient intake based on requirements and the actual feed intake. Based on these facts, several poultry researchers and nutritionists have over the years directed their research toward finding various strategies aimed at managing dietary energy intake in poultry birds in order to cut down on the cost of production and also improve the quality of poultry products. Results obtained so far have been conflicting, with some authors concluding that dietary energy content could be managed to influence broiler performance and carcass quality [8, 9, 14, 15]. Other authors report that changing the dietary energy content has no effect on broiler performance and carcass quality [16]. Kim et al. [17] reported different responses to energy concentration with different strains of broiler chickens. The management of dietary energy intake in broiler chicken production aimed at reducing production costs and improve the product quality of broiler birds has been practiced for many decades with varying outcomes. Research geared towards achieving both a reduction in the cost of production and improvement of quality broiler products has also been inconsistent so far. The variability when dietary energy strategies are applied could be due to various factors such as genotype, diet composition, digestible nutrient content, energy to protein ratio, feed form and feed processing, environment and disease. Suitable mechanisms to keep these sources of variation constant when dietary energy management is applied are worth considering. This chapter seeks to review the shortfall and progress that have been achieved in research into the management of energy content to reduce feed costs, sustain productivity and improve product quality. The nutritive value of energy sources for poultry, recent advances in understanding energy requirements of poultry, cost implications of energy sources, regulation of dietary energy and feed intake in poultry nutrition will also be discussed. The effect/implication of imbalance in energy intake on poultry (growth, fat deposition, potential disease disposition, meat quality), nutritional strategies to restrict energy intake and various implications/benefits of restricted energy intake in poultry production.
Energy and protein are the second most important feed constituents after water and are needed to maintain health, growth, and production. This explains why energy and protein sources are the most important feed ingredients for poultry feeding. Oilseed cakes and animal protein meals are considered as secondary sources due to their substantial energy content [18]. Cereal grains provide 60–70% of dietary energy for poultry, while other energy and protein sources supply the rest. Although the interaction of protein sources with the main energy sources influences the overall energy supply and utilisation, it is important to determine precisely the energy values of diets containing vegetable sources, whether for least-cost formulation purposes or for adapting feed supply to energy requirements of animals [19]. Some data on global production of energy sources are shown in Table 1.
Ingredient | Global production (m tonnes) | Top producers | References |
---|---|---|---|
Cereal grains | |||
Corn | 1031.6 | USA, China, Brazil, European Union, Argentina. | [20] |
Wheat | 2627 | China, India, Russia, USA, France. | [21, 22] |
Sorghum | 59.34 | USA, Nigeria, Mexico, India, Sudan | [23] |
Barley | 137.47 | European Union, Russia, Australia, Canada, Ukraine. | [24] |
Oat | 23.3 | European Union, Russia, Canada, Poland, Finland | [24] |
Rye | 12.6 | European Union, Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, Turkey. | [24] |
Triticale | 5.2 | Poland, Germany, Belarus, France, Russia. | [25] |
Millet | 29.9 | India, Nigeria, Niger, China, Mali. | [26] |
Root and tuber energy sources | |||
Cassava | 27.0 | Nigeria, Thailand, Indonesia, Brazil, Vietnam | [27] |
Potato | 393.75 | China, India, Russia, Ukraine, USA. | [28] |
Plant protein energy sources | |||
Soybean meal | 345.9 | USA, Brazil, Argentina, China, India | [29, 30] |
Sunflower meal | 45.6 | Ukraine, Russia, European Union, Argentina, Turkey. | [31] |
Cotton seed meal | 13.9 | India, China, Pakistan, Brazil, USA. | [32, 33] |
Global production and major producers of different energy feed sources (2017).
Cereals are the grain-producing plants, which can be used as energy sources in animal and human food. These form the largest part of the energy source in poultry diets and consist of the highest inclusion level in a standard poultry diet. Corn, wheat, sorghum, barley, rye, oats, triticale and millet [34, 35, 36, 37, 38] represent the main cereal grains used as energy sources in broiler diets. Cereal grains are cultivated in large quantities and provide more starch worldwide in comparison with other types of crops. Recently, grain by-products such as distiller’s dried grains with soluble (DDGS) have been used in poultry feeding. Starch constitutes the basis of energy in grains, which is highly digestible especially for poultry. The metabolisable energy content of frequently used grains for poultry ranges from 2734 kcal/kg in rye to 3300 kcal/kg in corn. The nutritional profiles of ground cereal grains vary according to type, location, season, cultivation, harvesting and handling conditions. Although they contain highly digestible starch, most of the grains contain anti-nutrients, which negatively affect the digestion, absorption, and availability of nutrients [39, 40].
Corn, also called maize, was first grown in America by the American-Indians. According to the physical appearance of the kernel, there are seven types of corn worldwide, including flint, flour, dent, pop, sweet, waxy and pod. Nowadays, most of the grown corn is the hybrid, produced by crossing inbred lines through several generations. As a plant, corn is efficient at converting great amounts of sunlight into constant forms of energy and stored as starch, cellulose, and oil. The corn bushel approximately consists of 65.6% starch, 26% gluten feed, 5.2% gluten meal and 3.2% corn oil. Corn is the principal cereal grain for poultry feeds around the world, especially in the United States [41]. Due to its good energy content (3300 kcal/kg of energy for poultry), high starch digestibility and low fibre, it is extremely palatable and almost free from anti-nutritional factors (ANF). Corn is considered as the standard by which alternative grains are evaluated.
China, India, the USA, the Russian Federation, France, Pakistan, Germany, Canada, and Turkey represent the main wheat producing countries. Generally, wheat is grown for human consumption. Wheat inclusion in animal feeds depends on seasonal production, price fluctuation during harvesting and the relative market prices of the other energy sources. Wheat is the premier source of energy for poultry diets in Canada, parts of Europe, Australia, and New Zealand [42]. Wheat has high starch content (about 70% DM), providing around 3153 kcal/kg energy for poultry. In addition to its high nutrient digestibility, rolled wheat is very palatable; therefore, it is considered an efficient energy source for all classes of poultry. Wheat has been classified into hard and soft varieties, depending on gluten content. Soft varieties are commonly used as main ingredients in poultry feeds [43].
Barley is one of the popular cereal grains. It is cultivated in more than 100 countries, almost across all continents. The USA, Canada, Australia, Russia, UK, France, Germany, Ukraine, Spain and Turkey produce around three-quarters of the total world production. This important seasonal plant is ranked fourth after maize, rice and wheat [42]. Barley provides around 2795 kcal/kg energy for poultry, with a low starch content, relatively high fibre content and some ANFs [44]. The lower metabolisable energy (ME) value limits the inclusion of barley in high-energy poultry diet formulation, and it is not included at high rates, particularly in diets for young birds [45].
Sorghum is mainly grown in warmer climates, especially in Africa, Asia and Central America. Kafir, Milo, Feterita, Durra and Hegari are the common African and Mediterranean varieties of sorghum, while Sballu, and Kaoliang are Asian types. United States varieties were originally produced from crossing Kafir and Milo. In addition, sorghum is classified according to the tannin content to high- and low-tannin types. Tannins are ANFs, which reduce the availability of protein during digestion [46]. The content of tannin in sorghum limits its use in poultry diets, although tannin-free varieties are available now but in inadequate amounts. Sorghum is considered the major source of energy for poultry feeds in some Asian and most African countries, due to its high energy content (3263 kcal/kg). Using rolled sorghum is a common practice in poultry feed formulation, although sometimes whole grain feeding is well known in rural areas [47].
Rye is originally a south-west Asian plant, but now it is growing in all Asia, Europe, Africa and North America (especially Canada). Rye contains high starch content (around 62%), with an energy content of about 2734 kcal/kg energy for poultry and has a low fibre content. Despite the rich nutrient profile, rye is not competitive as a source of energy for poultry because of the presence of ergotism, resorcinols and large amounts of soluble arabinoxylans, which decrease the nutrient bioavailability for birds, leading to a depression in growth and productivity. On the other hand, this composition makes it a good source of low-fibre energy diets. Rye is considered less palatable than other cereal grains [48].
Oats are one of the cool and high moisture area plants, also they can grow at high altitude of tropical areas. Russia and Canada are considered the main producers of oats followed by Poland and Australia, respectively. Undehulled oats are low in starch (around 40%), offering about 2756 kcal/kg energy for poultry, while the dehulled oats contain around 60% starch. The presence of ANF such as β-glucans and high fibre contents are the common constraints to the use of oats in poultry diets. In addition, the high oil content of oats can lead to development of off flavour in chicken meat. Inclusion of oats in low amounts is suitable for pullets and breeders [49].
Triticale is the result of crossbreeding between wheat (mainly durum type) and rye, so it is a hybrid grain produced in German and Scottish laboratories in the nineteenth century. This crossing process introduced a new cereal grain species with wide adaptability, environmental tolerance, and improved nutritional value, to be grown in areas not proper for maize, rye and wheat around the world [50]. The currently developed varieties of triticale contain on average, 110 kcal/kg energy for poultry, with low fibre content; therefore, it has been included at rates up to 30% in broiler diets, and at slightly lower levels in layers diets. Furthermore, unlike the other cereal grains, different varieties of triticale almost similar in their energy content, which maintains consistent poultry performance [51].
Starchy root and tuber crops are second only in importance to cereals [52]. Most of these roots and tubers are high in metabolisable energy, but their usage as poultry feed ingredients is limited because of the presence of anti-nutritional factors. However, these anti-nutrients are reduced or eliminated through adequate processing methods. Examples of these crops include cassava, cocoyam and potato [53, 54, 55, 56].
Fats and oils are collectively known as lipids. They provide significant amounts of energy to poultry diets, but there is a large variation in composition, quality, feeding value, and price. These notwithstanding, they are regularly used in poultry feeds to satisfy the energy need of the animal as lipids have more than twice the amount of ME than carbohydrates or proteins per kg weight. However, they are normally included at a maximum level of 4–5%. The commonly used types of fat in poultry diets include tallow, poultry fat, feed-grade animal fat and yellow grease. Animal fats provide an average ME of 8850 kcal/kg for poultry. Similarly, oils have a high content of energy, the average ME content of different types of vegetable oils ranging between 8300 and 8975 kcal/kg. The commonly used oils in broiler diets are soybean oil, canola oil, and palm oil. Besides the concentrated energy, including fats and oils in poultry diets improves the physical traits and palatability of diet, increases pellet durability and enhances the essential fatty acid contents of the diets, especially linoleic acid [57, 58, 59].
While cereal grains provide 60–70% of dietary energy for poultry, protein sources also supply a considerable amount of energy. There are plant and animal protein sources. On their own, proteins are denser in energy than carbohydrates although they are not used as energy sources due to cost and physiological burden of excreting them from the body.
Although the energy value of various plant protein sources is not as high as the cereal or root and tuber energy ingredient source, they have a considerable amount of energy that helps in furnishing the required energy needed for optimum poultry performance and cost reduction. Examples include soybean meal, canola meal, cottonseed meal, sunflower meal, peas and lupin [36, 37, 38]. Geographical location of production, the season of production, method of cultivation, genetic and environmental impacts, as well as processing method and the amount of remaining oil are the main causes of differences in energy content between different vegetable protein sources.
Although they are major sources of protein, they also contain considerable amounts of energy. Examples include meat meal, fish meal, blood meal, feather meal and poultry by-product [36, 37, 38]. The differences in the energy content of animal protein sources may be attributed to animal species, part of the body, and processing methods. Soybean, canola, cottonseed and sunflower seed contain an average of 2557, 2000, 2350, 2205 kcal/kg ME for poultry, while meat and bone, meat, fish, poultry by-product contain around 2475, 2500, 2720, 2950 kcal/kg for poultry, respectively [60].
Feed formulation involves a prudent usage of various (available) feed ingredients to supply sufficient amount and proportions of several nutrients required by poultry. Poultry feed is made up of many ingredients, and these ingredients are grouped into those that provide energy (fats, oils, and carbohydrates), protein (amino acids), vitamins, and minerals. Among the feed nutrients, dietary energy is one of the most important because it influences the utilisation of other nutrients through its ability to regulate feed intake to a high degree. Formulating poultry diets should be done with the aim of achieving optimum energy level based on the composition of the feed ingredient to lower feed cost per unit of poultry product and produce quality end-products. In animal feeds, energy supply represents a major part of the cost of the formula. Since feed ingredients that supply energy in a standard broiler diet are in the highest amount (40–70%) in terms of inclusion level [2, 3, 4, 61], it is important to improve the knowledge of energy utilisation and energy requirement by the animal to better meet its energy needs. Therefore, having systems in place to evaluate the energy content of raw materials and feeds is a determining factor in least-cost formulation. The energy requirement for broilers at different phases of growth and breeds are 3000 kcal ME/kg or 12.55 MJ/kg (starter); 3100 kcal ME/kg or 12.97 MJ/kg (growers) and 3200 kcal ME/kg or 13.39 MJ/kg (finisher) [62]. Since management of dietary energy could influence cost and product quality based on the inclusion levels of various feed ingredients, a summarised table showing various feed ingredients that supply high to moderate energy to show farmers and feed manufacturers that are interested in manipulating cost and achieving improved broiler products through the use of dietary energy will not only give the targeted audience a sense of direction but also save cost. The nutrient composition of various energy feedstuffs is shown in Table 2. Each energy source has a different composition due to factors such as regional location, manufacturing practices and climatic conditions [37].
Ingredients | Metabolisable energy (kcal/kg) | References |
---|---|---|
Cereal grains | ||
Corn | 3300–3319 | [34, 35, 36, 37, 38] |
Wheat | 3153–3430 | [34, 37, 38] |
Sorghum | 3263–3550 | [34, 35, 36, 37, 38] |
Barley | 2734–2760 | [36, 37, 38] |
Oat grain | 2550–2756 | [36, 37, 38] |
Rye | 2710–2734 | [36, 38] |
Triticale | 3110–3150 | [36, 37, 38] |
Millet | 3240 | [36, 37] |
Roots and tubers | ||
Cassava | 3000–3279 | [63, 64] |
Cocoyam | 3476 | [55, 56] |
Potato | 2370–3190 | [25, 26] |
Plant proteins | ||
Soybean meal | 2557 | [36, 38] |
Canola meal | 2000–2186 | [36, 37, 38, 65] |
Sunflower meal | 2205–2310 | [36, 37, 38] |
Cotton seed meal | 2350–2640 | [36, 37, 38] |
Peas | 2550 | [38] |
Lupine | 3000 | [36, 38] |
Animal proteins | ||
Meat meal | 2500–2685 | [37, 38] |
Blood meal | 2690–3220 | [36, 37, 38] |
Fish meal | 2600–2970 | [37, 38] |
Feather meal | 2880–3016 | [37, 38] |
Poultry by products | 2950 | [38] |
Fats and oils | ||
Animal tallow | 6020–7780 | [57, 59] |
Lard | 7200–9854 | [57, 59, 66, 67, 68] |
Soybean oil | 8800–9659 | [57, 59] |
Canola oil | 9000–9260 | [57, 59] |
Cotton seed oil | 8160–8630 | [57, 59] |
Palm oil | 5302–7810 | [57, 59] |
Fish oil | 8270–8690 | [57, 59] |
Poultry fat | 8020–10,212 | [57, 59] |
Molasses | 900–1080 | [36, 37] |
Metabolisable energy values of different energy sources for poultry nutrition.
Adequate knowledge of broiler nutritional requirements based on breed, the energy composition of a feed ingredient, availability and cost of these ingredients is fundamental in least cost formulation and achieving improved broiler performance. Manipulating dietary energy has been reported to influence feed intake with a resultant effect on performance and carcass quality. Poultry adjust their feed intake to accommodate a wide range of diets with differing energy contents at different ages and in response to various factors, including dietary energy [69]. Therefore, appropriately analysed information on different dietary energy contents of several energy-rich feedstuffs becomes important. However, the high cost of feed analysis makes it always difficult for farmers (especially for small-scale farmers) and feed manufacturers to analyse each batch of feedstuff for its nutrient content. Invariably, they usually rely on feedstuff composition data that have been compiled based on many laboratory analyses. Therefore, it becomes imperative to present a reasonable, accurate and summarised estimate of energy contents of feed ingredient for farmers, researchers and feed manufacturers, to enable them to cut down on cost and time that would have been taken to analyse and obtain more accurate laboratory data. The energy which a bird uses for maintenance and productive functions is obtained mainly from starches (carbohydrates), lipids and protein. Energy feed ingredients could be classified into cereal grains, root and tubers, plant protein sources, animal protein sources, fats and oil, as discussed in Section 2 of this chapter. These feed ingredients provide high to moderate dietary energy. Therefore, adequate knowledge and skills are required in using these ingredients to get the best possible least-cost formulation and achieve improved product quality.
The poultry industry relies on a limited number of energy sources, mainly cereal grains and their by-products, in addition to oils and fats, which are normally included in small proportions in poultry diets [70]. Utilising the low-cost locally available energy sources to feed poultry is a nutritionally and economically proven way to reduce the cost and product inefficiency. Annual production, availability, cost of production, prices of other sources, productivity variations and the stiff competition with humans are the main factors affecting the prices of vital cereal grains needed for poultry feeding. Scientifically, assessing cost of feed ingredients depends on its quality evaluation, which is very important to specify ingredient suitability to meet the nutrient specification of poultry to such production type. The ingredient dry matter content and metabolisable energy concentration are crucial keys to evaluate the cereal grain quality and enable real calculation of energy cost for each source. In addition, poultry performance is highly correlated to energy intake, therefore the best energy source is that which supports the best products to maximise the returns [71].
Feed manufacturers target the available energy sources with reasonable price to use, so availability, price, competition, and quality represent the main handicaps that facing processors to produce cost-efficient and high quality feeds. Globally, corn is the premier energy source, but the high demand for it by humans and animals affects its price and availability. Therefore, to solve this problem, in the most consuming countries such as US, Brazil, and some Asian countries they have started to use a major co-product – distillers’ dried grains with soluble (DDGS), because of its cost-effectiveness, good nutrient profile and ready availability. Wheat has been used to replace corn in some parts of the USA, China and India due to the price difference. The expansion in poultry production in the developing countries is forcing the producers to import feed ingredients, increasing the pressure on the prices and quality of feeds. In Australia, because of the low price of sorghum it has been used instead of expensive wheat in summer, while barley and rye are used in some European countries when their prices are lower [72, 73].
The principal goals of manipulations in use of energy sources are to adjust ingredient costs, to reduce the cost of production and maintain the sustainability of the poultry industry. This can be achieved by meeting the nutrient requirements of birds and producing low-cost meat and eggs to satisfy the consumer desire. The rate of inclusion of cereal grains in poultry diets mainly depends on their current costs and nutritive values, therefore changing and replacing energy sources should not be in huge and sudden, to prevent digestive upsets and feed intake depression, which will reduce birds’ productivity and production efficiency. Likewise, the price of energy sources has an impact on the cost of poultry feed and a corresponding increase in the total cost of poultry production and the cost of poultry products. This dilemma has affected the profitability of poultry production globally, reducing the interest of existing and potential poultry farmers in the business. Furthermore, this situation, coupled with the increasing demand for animal protein by humans, has caused great concern globally [74].
Meremikwu [75] reported that one of the technical constraints to successful poultry production in the tropics is strict adherence to nutritional standards. According to Meremikwu [75], nutritional standards such as NRC [57] may over-specify diets in many low-income, resource-poor countries (particularly those in the humid tropics) because of environmental constraints. For decades, the widely accepted theory was that birds eat to constant energy intake, irrespective of the energy level of the feed. However, with advances in genetic selection over the years, this understanding has shifted drastically. The continuous improvement of poultry birds, especially broiler chickens through genetic selection, initially developed by focusing on growth and laying rate, then, by taking other physiological aspects into account has reinforced the poultry bird’s potential for better feed efficiency. From a nutritional perspective, such genetic selection has led to changes in nutrient requirements of improved birds, which infers that feed characteristics have had to be continuously changed by feed manufacturers [76], to possibly meet the demand imposed by this development. The performance of poultry in terms of feed conversion ratio is largely dependent on ME values of feed ingredients. While Pym [77] and Fairfull and Chambers [78] once postulated that the effect of genetic selection on ME is relatively insignificant, this theory requires a second look at recent studies indicate otherwise, with growing birds fed wheat-based diets showing high heritability of ME values [79]. The assumption is that birds selected for fast growth rate should require a higher energy. However, one possibility may be that broiler genetic improvement results in the consequent loss of sensitivity to control feed intake based on dietary energy level. Richards [80] reported that feed intake is not properly regulated voluntarily in broilers selected both for faster body weight gain and deposition of muscle according to energy level, as in an ad libitum program where compulsive appetite and excessive fat accumulation was observed. Hence, the energy concentration of diets used for broiler selection has remained unchanged over time, suggesting that selection has accustomed broilers to a diluted diet compared to the concentration required to support their growth rate [76]. Hence, determining the energy requirements of poultry with the recent improvement may require species-specific as well as selection information to obtain optimal energy requirement for birds.
The amount of feed consumed by an animal determines the amount of nutrient that is available to the animal for maintenance and production functions [81]. Feed intake tends to influence body weight gain, FCR, cost and carcass quality. Based on these facts, adequate regulation of feed intake using several strategies becomes a critical action aimed towards achieving quality product and controls the cost of poultry production. Factors such as dietary factors (dietary nutrient composition, feed formulation, feedstuff inclusion levels and pellet quality) and managerial factors (feed and water availability to the birds, environmental management, stocking density and disease regulation) individually or collectively influence feed intake in poultry production [1, 81]. Among the abovementioned factors, dietary factors (dietary nutrient composition) have been reported to have a great/significant effect, with dietary energy intake having the most predictable effect on feed intake when applied on poultry [1, 82]. Feed intake has been reported to increase or decrease as dietary energy intake decreases or increases, respectively [69]. This increase or decrease in feed intake in relationship to dietary energy content is influenced by the amount of feed in the gut or other physiological limitations. Dietary energy intake has been reported to also influence growth rate and carcass quality through its effect on feed intake [83]. The ability to sense energy status and adjust metabolic pathway activity in response is a basic function of cells in all animal species [84]. Energy-sensing pathways are present in the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral tissues of birds, and they represent another set of regulatory mechanisms that are used to modulate peripheral tissue metabolic activity as well as regulate feed intake, energy expenditure to maintain energy balance and body weight [85]. To regulate feed intake, dietary energy intake must be balanced with energy expenditure in the birds. This is monitored/controlled by the hypothalamus [86]. The hypothalamus in the brain of poultry plays an essential role in interpreting all information and generating the appropriate responses in feed intake and energy requirement needed to maintain energy homeostasis [84]. As shown in Figure 1, the hypothalamic melanocortin system comprises the vital feeding regulatory neural circuitry, which consists of two groups of neurons, the first group expresses neuropeptide Y (NPY) and agouti-related protein (AgRP) while the second group expresses proopiomelanocortin (POMC), a precursor containing α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone. Stimulation of NPY/AgRP-expressing (anabolic) neurons mediates a net increase in feed intake and energy storage, whereas activation of the POMC-expressing (catabolic) neurons results in a net decrease in energy intake and storage. Initiation of AMPK in the hypothalamus in response to lowered energy status stimulates the activity of the NPY/AgRP-expressing (anabolic) neurons and thus leads to increased feed intake and reduced energy expenditure, which work together to increase energy status. On the other hand, activation of mTOR causes increased activity of the POMC-expressing (catabolic) neurons, which in turn causes a reduction in feed intake as a result of the presence of increased energy expenditure, thereby promoting the utilisation of energy for maintenance, growth, and reproduction. Thus, balance in the activity of hypothalamic melanocortin system neurons is what ultimately determines feed intake considering dietary energy concentration and a resultant improvement in whole-body energy balance and body weight.
Diagram showing hypothalamic response in regulating feed intake when dietary energy intake is reduced or increased in poultry. Adopted and slightly modified from Bungo et al. [86]. NPY = neuropeptide Y; AGPR = agouti-related protein; POMC = pro-opiomelanocortin; α MSH = α-melanocyte – stimulating hormone; ARC = arcuate nucleus, + = activate; − = inhibit.
However, reports and research on the influence of dietary energy intake on feed intake in poultry have been conflicting. These inconsistencies could be due to differences in genotype/strain, environmental influence, stocking density, size of bird used, among other factors [81]. It is worthy to note that low-mass birds such as laying hens because of their size tend to adjust their feed intake in response to dietary energy concentration effectively than heavier birds such as broilers that maintain a constant feed intake, irrespective of the dietary energy concentration except this is limited by the gut content or other physiological factors [1]. Although there is a topic of great debate and discussion, a great number of research have reported the effect of high or low dietary energy in increasing or decreasing the feed intake in broiler chickens. It is well documented that most broiler chickens and laying hens tend to eat to satisfy their energy requirements or that they will consume a reduced amount of a feed greater in energy content than the one with a reduced energy concentration [87, 88, 89]. For instance, an earlier report by Sheriff et al. [90] indicated a higher feed consumption in broilers fed with low-energy diet. Moraes et al. [91] reported that high ME content results in low feed intake in laying hens. Almeida et al. [92] agreed with Moraes et al. [91] by also concluding that high dietary energy concentration led to a reduction in feed intake of commercial laying hen. Harms et al. [93] also observed that hens receiving the low-energy diet consumed significantly more feed than hens receiving the control and high-energy diets.
Van Krimpen et al. [94] concluded that hens that are fed low-energy diets or diets that are high in non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) spend more time on feed, compared with hens that were fed the normal control diets. Based on these facts, the authors concluded that laying hens adjust more rapidly to a decrease in dietary energy than to an increase in dietary energy. Compared to research results obtained using broilers and laying hens where an increase in dietary energy resulted to a decrease in feed intake and vice versa, Mbajiorgu et al. [81] observed an increase in feed intake when indigenous Venda chickens were fed increased dietary energy level. This difference in response between broiler chickens and laying hens compared to indigenous Venda chickens was attributed to the difference in intrinsic genetic limitations inherent in indigenous Venda chickens that may have led to the loss of sensitivity to influence feed intake when dietary energy regulatory strategy is applied [95]. Although there is a dearth of research on the nonsignificant effect of dietary energy concentration on feed intake of laying hens. Rather there are more consistent reports that laying hens can respond more effectively to dietary energy concentration on feed intake, unlike genetically improved broiler chickens. On the other hand, there are several reports that dietary energy intake did not affect feed intake especially in genetically modified broilers chickens. For instance, Araújo et al. [96] reported that there was no significant difference observed in feed intake among broilers fed high- and low-energy diets. A similar result was observed by Richards [80], who concluded that there was no effect on feed intake when varying concentration of dietary energy was administered on genetically improved broilers. Rosa et al. [97] also reported that feed intake was not affected by two different genetic broiler chicken groups. Richards and Proszkowiec-Weglarz [85] reported that modern commercial broiler breeders do not adequately control voluntary feed intake to meet their energy requirements and maintain energy balance. These authors thus advised that feeding must be limited in these birds using other feed intake regulatory strategies to avoid overconsumption, ascites and excessive fattening during production since dietary energy concentration does not influence feed intake in these breeds of birds.
From the aforementioned, reports on regulating feed intake through dietary energy intake have been inconsistent. These contradictions could be attributed to the influences of several factors as mentioned in this chapter. Factors such as genotype, environment, variability in stocking density, and so on must be kept uniform with dietary energy concentration being a major source of variation for future variation. More research needs to be geared towards confirming or considering the effects of other nutrients and ANF on energy concentration as regards its efficacy on feed intake regulation needs to be considered. The effect of size with regard to the response of heavy or light breeds of birds to dietary energy concentration and its effects on the amount of feed these birds consume. Thus, a better understanding of the interaction of dietary energy concentration with other factors will go a long way to understand the mechanism of how dietary energy intake affects feed intake and to what degree/level feed intake can be influenced in poultry birds. However, more reports favour the fact that dietary energy regulates feed intake more in laying hens and to some extent in broilers. The differences that have occurred between broilers and laying hens in terms of the response of these birds to feed intake according to dietary energy intake was explained by Denbow [98]. The author stated that due to years of genetic selection for improved growth in broiler chickens, the various mechanisms that control feed intake in broiler chickens have altered compared to laying chickens that have not been selected for growth. Invariably, the author recommended the need for comparative studies to investigate the mechanisms involved in feed intake regulation for broiler chickens that have been selected for growth against laying chickens that have not been selected for growth.
Broiler chickens have been genetically bred for increased weight gain, feed efficiency, growth rate, and breast muscle weight to meet the requirements of consumers [99]. This process has produced modern commercial chicken lines with a faster growth rate, better breast meat yield and feed conversion, as well as higher body fat compared with unselected lines [100]. Dietary energy is essential for maintenance of the chicken’s normal metabolism and meat yield. However, when the amount of energy consumed by the bird exceeds that required for the purpose of maintenance and growth, the remainder is deposited as fat [101]. This situation may be further aided by the imbalance in nutrients in the diets, especially the energy to protein ratio [102, 103]. After hatching, birds are expected to increase their body weights over time and the amount and ratios of body protein and fat augment at various rates [104]; however, there is potential to deposit fat faster at later phases [102]. More so, the excessive fat in modern chicken strains is one of the most important challenges facing the poultry industry [105]. For example, Choct et al. [106] found that modern broilers contain 15–20% fat, and >85% of this fat is not required for physiological body processes. In general, disproportionate fat laydown is an undesirable trait for producers and consumers alike because it is considered a waste of dietary energy and a product with little economic value, which reduces carcass yield, and quality, and affects consumer acceptance [107]. In the modern broiler industry, carcass fat is always considered to be an unfavourable characteristic [108], as it decreases feed efficiency and carcass yield; moreover, it leads to rejection of the broiler meat by the consumers [109, 110]. However, fatty acids and overall fat, both in muscle or adipose tissue, impact vitally on many different areas of meat quality and are necessary to the nutritional value of meat [111]. Additionally, the development of flavour in meat is significantly affected by the lipids of fatty tissue. Lipids impact flavour through their influence on flavour generation, flavour perception (mouth-feel, aroma and taste) and flavour stability. Tumova and Teimouri [110] and Lawrence and Fowler [112] reported that high densities of linoleic acid in the fatty tissue could have a remarkable impact on flavour. Apart from the problem of fat deposition, there is a tendency for high mortality as well as development of metabolic diseases and skeletal disorders [110].
As discussed earlier in this chapter, high or low dietary energy content can lower or increase feed intake [69]. Low feed intake as a result of high energy content (leading to inadequate intake of other vital nutrients) has been reported to result in poor performance. In most cases, high dietary energy intake causes high fat deposition with a resultant poor quality end-product and increased mortality rate. On the other hand, low dietary energy intake has been reported to result in low energy storage, inability to achieve homeostasis and reduced body weight of poultry birds [101, 110]. Therefore, practices aimed at managing dietary energy will aid in ensuring adequate feed intake with a resultant improvement in performance, product quality as well as reduced cost of poultry production. For many decades, meat type broiler and broiler breeder farmers have knowingly and unknowingly used different methods individually or collectively to manage dietary energy intake. Examples of these practices include nutritional strategies (use of high or low energy and fibre diets, pelleting as well as the use of microbial enzymes); use of genetically improved breeds; feeding practices (panned restriction feeding system or ad libitum feeding practice); type of rearing system used (intensive housing system, free ranging system or semi-intensive system), and disease prevention practices [1, 81]. These practices will be briefly discussed in this section. The positive or negative effect of these practices as reported by various researchers will be concisely discussed. The application of these practices to manage dietary energy intake to improve productivity and reduce the cost of production for broiler farmers and hatcheries will also be discussed.
Reduction in abdominal fat is a current goal in poultry industry so as to improve the efficiency of diets and to provide a less fat-laden meat product for consumers. Different nutritional strategies provide an opportunity to reduce production costs and at the same time, improve carcass quality in broiler chickens. Lowering the dietary energy level has been used to achieve the reduction in abdominal fat deposition. A study by Rosa et al. [97] evaluated the effect of energy intake and broiler genotype on performance, carcass yield, and fat deposition in two different genetic groups of broilers and reported that genetic improvement had a significant effect on broiler energy metabolism, and that abdominal fat decreased with low energy intake (2950 kcal/kg) compared to the other diets. In another study, Choct et al. [106] examined the influence of different fat sources at two dietary levels on lean growth in broilers and concluded that the addition of fish oil to broiler diets reduced the abdominal fat pad weights. Fish oil contains long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, which enhance low-density lipoprotein and triglyceride levels while increasing glucose uptake into the muscle tissue in blood and lessening the negative effects of the immune system on protein breakdown. However, one consideration with the use of fish oil is its development of off-flavour in bird diets and the reduced shelf life of the chicken meat, which can be improved with the use of preserving agents and antioxidants [113]. According to Leeson [114], the success of the use of lower-energy diets is in the ability to predict change in feed intake and corresponding modification to all other nutrients in the diet, hence, a reduced dietary energy intake may be triggered by excess or imbalance of other nutrients in broiler diet. Leeson [114] further proposed that when all nutrients are tied to dietary energy, broilers are able to remarkably maintain energy intake when confronted with a major reduction in dietary energy concentration. More so, a recent study at the University of New England tested the effect of dietary fibre and energy levels on energy intake. It was observed that low while an optimum energy level in diet in combination with high dietary fibre inclusion reduced abdominal fat and cost in broilers as shown in Table 3[115]. Another nutritional strategy that has been used to manage dietary energy intake in broiler chickens is supplementation with exogenous that target energy-yielding substrates. Table 4 shows examples of various carbohydrate- and lipid-targeting enzymes as well as their targeted substrates and energy sources. Such exogenous enzymes aid in the release of trapped dietary energy, especially energy sources such as wheat, rye, barley and oat that are high in NSP [116]. Exogenous carbohydrase enzymes have been reported to reduce or eliminate the effect of NSP, thereby furnishing more nutrients. Increased feed consumption in broilers leads to increased dietary energy intake. In the same vein, increased dietary intake leads to increased fat deposition and poor product quality. Based on this fact, most poultry farmers have imbibed the practice of reducing the quantity of feed offered to their birds and simultaneously adding exogenous enzymes to help release nutrients bound by antinutritional factors. This practice has been reported to result in broilers that grow faster and also have leaner meat [117].
Feed consumption and utilisation (0–35 d) | |||||||
Dietary fibre content | Energy content | Feed intake (g/b) | Body weight (g/b) | Body weight gain (g/b) | FCR | ||
Low | Optimum | 3432.0 | 2250.9 | 2209.6 | 1.55 | ||
Low | Low | 3248.0 | 2177.2 | 2136.1 | 1.52 | ||
Medium | Optimum | 3332.9 | 2143.6 | 2102.2 | 1.59 | ||
Medium | Low | 3337.7 | 2026.3 | 1984.7 | 1.68 | ||
High | Optimum | 3510.5 | 2142.9 | 2101.7 | 1.67 | ||
High | Low | 3324.7 | 2103.8 | 2062.8 | 1.61 | ||
Meat yield (g/kg live weight) (35 d) | |||||||
Dietary fibre content | Energy content | Live weight | Carcass weight | Thigh | Drumstick | Breast (skin-less) | Abdominal fat pad |
Low | Optimum | 2248.4 | 1678.3 | 263.9 | 216.4 | 416.5 | 30.6 |
Low | Low | 2201.0 | 1630.0 | 250.1 | 215.5 | 392.2 | 23.0 |
Medium | Optimum | 2179.2 | 1629.3 | 250.9 | 213.5 | 395.0 | 25.1 |
Medium | Low | 2093.2 | 1562.3 | 240.4 | 199.9 | 391.8 | 22.6 |
High | Optimum | 2201.2 | 1621.2 | 244.2 | 207.5 | 413.4 | 22.2 |
High | Low | 2250.6 | 1684.0 | 278.3 | 211.2 | 410.9 | 24.6 |
Economic analysis | |||||||
Dietary fibre content | Energy content | Feed cost ($/bird) | Feed cost ($/kg gain) | ||||
Low | Optimum | 1.25 | 0.57 | ||||
Low | Low | 1.16 | 0.54 | ||||
Medium | Optimum | 1.23 | 0.58 | ||||
-Medium | Low | 1.19 | 0.60 | ||||
High | Optimum | 1.30 | 0.62 | ||||
High | Low | 1.21 | 0.59 |
Feed intake, feed utilisation, meat yield and economic analysis of broiler chickens fed finisher diets differing in fibre and energy contents.
Source: Chen [115].
Enzyme | Substrate targeted | Mode of action | Feed ingredient of interest |
---|---|---|---|
β-Glucanase | β-Glucans | Oats, rye and barley | |
Xylanases | Arabinoxylans | Wheat, triticale, barley and rye | |
Amylase | Starch | Cereal grains, roots and tubers | |
Lipase | Lipid | Lipid in feed ingredient |
Different types of commercially available energy-targeting enzymes used to manage dietary energy.
Adopted from Ravindran [116].
High carcass fat is considered unfavourable by consumers in most parts of the world. Based on this fact, breeding programs have been developed with the aim of selecting against high fat deposition in broiler carcass in order to improve the quality of the product [118]. Modern broilers have been genetically selected to have significantly reduced fat deposition and also have better weight gain and FCR as a result of significantly masking the effect of dietary energy content in the diet [119]. Because of the tremendous success achieved through artificial selection of broiler chickens, there has been a reduction in total feed and energy required to raise broiler chickens to slaughter or market weight. Genetically, lean birds have better energy use efficiency [120]. This achievement has also resulted to a reduction in cost of production [121]. It is worthy to note, however, that genetic improvement of broilers with the aim of controlling the effect of high or low dietary energy intake could be influenced by several factors such as: nutrition, health of the bird, environment, and so on. The authors of Refs. [1, 97, 122] reported that the genetic make-up of a broiler bird is not the sole reason for the success achieved in managing dietary energy intake by some broiler producers. The authors suggested that the success achieved in this area may be as a result of the combination of genetics and other factors such as environmental influence, nutrition, management practices, age, sex of the birds and disease prevention strategies.
Various practices such as restricted feeding and ad libitum feeding have been reported to influence dietary energy intake in meat broilers, laying hens as well as in broiler breeders [123]. These practices could have negative or positive effect on broiler performance and cost of production. Several researchers have reported the advantages and disadvantages of these feeding strategies [124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129]. For instance, Acar et al. [125] and Butzen et al. [128] both agreed that excessive fat deposition, ascites, sudden death syndrome as well as various metabolic disorders and disease in broiler can be reduced through planned feed restriction practice. To achieve success in managing dietary energy intake using these practices, adequate knowledge and skills in administering these strategies become key factors towards using them to achieve the right dietary energy intake in meat broilers, laying hens as well as in rearing broiler breeders.
Ad libitum feeding is defined as an animal husbandry practice in which animals are allowed unlimited access to feed on free choice basis [128, 130]. Feeding meat and breeder broilers ad libitum lead to increased feed and dietary energy intake and fat deposition compared to birds on restricted feeding [131]. According to Heck et al. [132], energy conversion (kJ/g egg) from 32 to 40 weeks of age was much higher in the broiler breeders on ad libitum feeding group than in broiler breeders that were on restricted feeding plan. The authors further explained that sexual maturity was delayed by 6 weeks in restricted breeders compared to ad libitum fed broiler breeders that started to lay at 20 weeks. On the contrary, the authors also reported that broiler breeder hens fed ad libitum, had low egg production and a high proportion of defective eggs, which was largely rectified by feed restriction.
Feed restriction involves a calculated or planned practice of decreasing the amount of feed being offered to broiler birds with the aim of decreasing feed intake over a certain time interval in an attempt to slow the rate of weight gain, fat deposition and various metabolic disorders associated to excessive feeding. Contemporary commercial broilers are the product of intensive genetic selection for rapid growth. An unpremeditated result of these genetic selection programs has been the loss of ability by broilers to control feed intake to adequately meet up with maintenance, growth, and reproductive function [133]. Based on this fact, broilers tend to overfeed, and this uncontrollable feeding habit has been reported to cause nutritional, metabolic and health problems related to obesity. To manage this problem, most farmers have resorted to the subjecting of their meat or breeder broilers to planned feed restriction. Early age planned feeding restriction practice in meat or breeder broilers is geared towards ensuring that appropriate body composition and weight are achieved at important phases of the production cycle [133]. The success of a planned feed restriction in managing dietary energy intake depends on quantity of feed and timing of the feed restriction. This statement is in agreement with the report of Chenxi et al. [134] who concluded that feed restriction done by dilution of dietary energy and protein by 10% from 8 to 14 (early age planned feed restriction) is a suitable feeding program. The authors further explained that compared to the control group, there was no significant difference in body weight FCR and feed intake at 42 days. Chen et al. [135] also observed that 30% dietary energy restriction resulted in a decrease in fat deposition and an improvement in body weight and FCR at later phase of life. Bruggenan et al. [136] suggested that restriction applied at 7–15 weeks of age followed by either ad libitum feeding or continued feed restriction controlled feed and nutrient intake which was the best for improving reproductive performance in broiler breeder females.
Birds try to make adjustments geared towards controlling the amount of energy they consume. Feed processing is an important strategy used by poultry producers to manage dietary energy intake. The form in which feed is presented to broiler birds can affect the energy and nutrient (energy, protein, vitamins and mineral) intake. Feeding broilers with mash leads to ingredient selection, which results in poor performance [137]. According to Davis et al. [138] cited by Amerah et al. [139], poultry tends to select maize particles while ignoring soybean (protein source needed for growth and tissue build up), which would affect the intake of amino acids, vitamins and minerals, when fed with mash diets. The selection of maize feed particles tends to increase the dietary energy intake, with a resultant increase in fat deposition. This condition leads to poor growth and poor product quality in broilers. To solve this problem, broiler producers now use crumbles at the starter phase, and pellets at grower and finisher phases. This strategy tends to eliminate the issue of feed ingredient particle selection noticed when mash diets are fed to broilers. In laying hens, excessive fat deposition hinders egg production and thus feeding of mash to layers is a common practice, especially if the mash diet is properly/uniformly mixed.
The increasing global demand by broiler meat and egg consumers for high-quality poultry products has necessitated the drive of breeders and producers towards meeting this demand at the least possible cost. In an effort to meet this demand, farmers are adopting different housing and rearing strategies (a deviation from the normal intensive system) such as free range and semi-intensive [140, 141]. It is well documented that the environment under which a poultry are reared plays a pivotal role in the quality of the product. Environment and housing system influence feed intake with a corresponding effect on dietary energy intake. Two types of rearing system are mostly employed in poultry production and they include intensive housing system and free range system. However, in order to reduce the shortcomings of these two rearing systems, a rearing strategy known as semi-intensive system is gradually gaining popularity [140]. Although free range and semi-intensive rearing systems are mostly used for egg laying hens, the increasing demand by consumers for meat produced from organically reared broilers is driving the introduction of these rearing systems in meat-type broiler production [141].
Light is a critical factor used to manipulate feed intake in broilers. By artificially increasing the length of time, the bird is subjected to light, its feed or dietary energy intake can be increased. On the other hand, lowered or total light-out tends to reduce feed intake in broilers. This fact is true because broilers tend to stop feeding once the light is off but resume feeding once the light is on. This technique has been employed in modern poultry systems to achieve optimum growth rates [142]. Intermittent lighting programs are routinely used by broiler producers. Buryse et al. [143] concluded that intermittent lighting program had a favourable effect on feed conversion and weight gain, with a decrease in fat deposition. Apeldoorn et al. [144] reported that the improvement in feed conversion with intermittent lighting programs was related to reduction in feed intake. This reduces the cost of production while growth rate and meat quality are unaltered. The author also showed that reduced feed efficiency was related to higher ME/GE utilisation.
Broilers in optimum health condition up to finisher phase have been reported to yield quality meat. Diseased birds tend to have reduced feed and dietary energy intake with a resultant decrease in meat, egg quality and mortality of poultry birds. The ability of a producer to effectively prevent disease or infections will go a long way to maintain feed and dietary energy intake and prevent unnecessary expenditure associated with purchase of drugs. Disease conditions tend to reduce feed intake and lead to malnutrition, which is a predisposing factor to various metabolic diseases [1]. Several disease prevention strategies such as the use of disease-free poultry birds, adherence to biosecurity, adequate and prompt vaccination when and if needed, isolation of sick birds, prevention of predators and potential disease-carrying vectors could go a long way to enable the birds to consume the right dietary energy content, leading to quality at least cost.
Improving poultry meat quality as well as cutting down on the cost of broiler production has been some of the major objectives of most farmers, processors and researchers. To achieve these objectives, several strategies have been adopted, one of which is dietary energy management. Increasing or decreasing dietary energy intake has been reported to influence feed intake with a corresponding effect on performance and cost of production. Results on the use of this method have been inconsistent. These inconsistencies are due to several factors, including genotype, diet composition, digestible nutrient contents, energy to protein ratio, feed form, feed processing, dietary energy sources, physical environment and disease. However, the progress achieved is also very encouraging. It is therefore necessary to explore the effect of the abovementioned factors on dietary energy intake and seek for innovative ways to mask the effect of these factors so as to have a more consistent outcome when dietary energy intake strategy is used to influence the cost of production and product quality of broiler chickens. Various strategies aimed at reducing dietary energy intake through the use of high fibre diet combined with enzyme is very promising in improving carcass quality and reduce cost.
A compact heat exchanger is a heat exchanger with a large area to volume ratio so that it has a high surface area of heat transfer to volume [1]. Compact heat exchangers are widely used in the air conditioning, refrigeration, chemical, petroleum, and automotive industries. Fin and tube heat exchanger is one type of compact heat exchanger that is often encountered. One example is the condenser in air conditioning, where air is used as a refrigerant cooling medium. However, the high thermal resistance on the airside results in a low heat transfer rate [2]. Therefore, to increase the heat transfer rate, the thermal resistance needs to be lowered by increasing the convection heat transfer coefficient [3].
The method of increasing the convection heat transfer coefficient has become an interesting thing to investigate [1]. In general, the method of increasing the convection heat transfer coefficient is divided into two, namely the active method and the passive method [4]. The active method is a method that uses external energy to increase the rate of convection heat transfer, for example, by electrostatic fields, fluid vibration, and flow pulsation [1, 5]. In contrast, the passive method is a method that does not use external energy to increase the convection heat transfer rate. Passive methods are more often used than active methods because they are simpler and more effective [6]. The increase in the convection heat transfer rate in the passive method is performed by adding an insert structure and surface modification, which results in the formation of swirl flow [4, 6].
Vortex generator (VG) is an insert that produces vortices due to the formation of swirl flow, which increases the heat transfer rate [7, 8, 9]. The vortex can be divided into two, namely the transverse vortex and the longitudinal vortex [9]. The transverse vortex has a vortex axis that is perpendicular to the main flow. Meanwhile, the longitudinal vortex has a vortex axis parallel to the main flow. Longitudinal vortices are more efficient in increasing convection heat transfer because they can improve thermal performance better than transverse vortices with the same pressure drop. Longitudinal vortex causes increased fluid mixing, boundary layer modification, and flow instability resulting in increased convection heat transfer coefficient [10].
Various studies regarding the use of VGs to improve convection heat transfer have been carried out. A. Datta et al. (2016) conducted a numerical investigation of heat transfer on a rectangular microchannel installed with VGs with angle position variations in two VGs with a Reynolds number range of 200–1100 [11]. The simulation results proved that the increase in heat transfer is directly proportional to the increase in the Reynolds number and the angle of attack of VG. Installation of angle of attack of 30̊° with Reynolds number 600 is the best combination. In addition, H. Y Li (2017) conducted an experimental and numerical study on the case of fluid flow in a pin-fin heat sink mounted with a delta winglet vortex generator (DW VGs) [12]. The study was conducted to determine the effect of Reynolds number, angle of attack of VGs, and height of VGs on convection heat transfer. The results show that the increase in the Reynolds number causes a decrease in thermal resistance resulting in an increase in the convection heat transfer coefficient. The results of these studies also indicate that the angle of attack of 30̊° is the best. Meanwhile, the optimum VGs height is 3/2 H.
In 2017, H.E. Ahmed et al. conducted a heat transfer study on a triangular duct with a DWP VGs in three-dimensional modeling with nanofluid flow [13]. The simulation results showed an increase in heat transfer and pressure drop of 45.7% and < 10% respectively due to the installation of VGs and 3% Al2O3 nanoparticles. Overall, the use of VGs and nanofluids can improve heat transfer with lower pressure drops. In addition, Syaiful et al. (2017) conducted a numerical study of the installation of CDW VGs on rectangular channels [14]. The results showed that the increase in the heat transfer coefficient due to the installation of CDWP VGs is much better than DWP VGs. However, the use of CDWP VGs results in a higher increase in pressure drop. In general, the results showed that the increase in convection heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop due to the installation of three rows of CDW VGs are 42.2–110.7% and 180–266.9%, respectively.
Then, M. Oneissi et al. (2018) conducted a numerical study on the increase in heat transfer due to the installation of DWP VGs and inclined projected winglet pair VGs with the k-ω turbulent model [15]. In this three-dimensional simulation, the increase in heat transfer was viewed from the distribution of the Nusselt number, the coefficient of friction, and the vortices. The simulation results showed that the inclined projected winglet pair produces 7.1% better performance in increased heat transfer than that of the DWP VGs. Zhimin Han et al. (2018) conducted a three-dimensional simulation study of the heat transfer characteristics through the perforated rectangular type of VGs [16]. In this study, the flow velocity was varied in the Reynolds number range of 214–10,703. The simulation results showed that giving holes to VGs can reduce pressure drop. The optimal thermo-hydraulic performance was observed for VGs with a hole diameter of 5 mm.
In addition, M. Samadifar et al. (2018) studied the effect of a new type of VG with variations in the angle of attack on the increase in heat transfer in the plate-fin heat exchanger in the triangular channel [17]. Six types of VGs were used in this numerical simulation, namely rectangular VG, rectangular trapezius VG, angular rectangular VG, wishbone VG, intended VG, and wavy VGs. M. Samadifar et al. performed a numerical simulation approach with turbulent k-ω SST modeling. The simulation results showed that rectangular VGs provide a better heat transfer increase than other VGs, with an increase of 7%. The simulation results also showed that the best VGs installation is VGs with an angle of attack of 45°. Jiyang Li et al. (2019) investigated the increase in heat transfer in finless flat-tube heat exchangers due to the installation of double triangle, triangular, and rectangular VG [18]. In modeling, VGs were installed in front of the finless heat exchanger with a distance of 1 mm so that the condensation water does not hit VGs. The results showed that VGs could disturb the thermal boundary layer so that the mixing of cold and hot air increases, which results in an increase in heat transfer performance. In addition, the results also showed that the double triangle VG increases the heat transfer coefficient by 92.3% at an air velocity of 2 m/s. The double triangle VGs increase the heat transfer coefficient by 20% greater than that of the triangular and rectangular VGs but also an increase in pressure drop.
G. Lu and X. Zhai (2019) conducted a numerical investigation of the flow characteristics through the curved VG on the fin and tube heat exchanger [19]. G. Lu and X. Zhai varied the curvature and angle of attack of VG in their research. Flow characteristics were reviewed based on several non-dimensional parameters, namely Nu/Nu0, f/f0 and R = (Nu/Nu0)/(f/f0)1/3 with a Reynolds number range of 405–4050. Their results showed that the best thermal–hydraulic performance was obtained for VG at a curvature of 0.25 with a value of R = 1.06 at a 15 ̊ angle of attack. R.K.B. Gallegos and R.N. Sharma (2019) also conducted heat transfer experiments due to the installation of VG flapping flags on the rectangular channel [20]. Their experimental results showed that VG increases the flow instability and the turbulence rate so that the Nusselt number increases by 1.34 to 1.62 times. However, VG also causes an increase in pressure drop because of the resistance to VG. This can be identified by an increase in the friction factor, which increased by 1.39–3.56 times.
The use of VG causes an increase in thermal performance, but its use has an impact on an increase in pressure drop, which results in low hydraulic flow performance. This study discusses the effect of installing RWP VGs and CRWP VGs on thermal and hydraulic performance. Thermal performance is investigated through analysis of the field synergy angle, spanwise average Nusselt number, and convection heat transfer coefficient values. Meanwhile, the hydraulic performance is analyzed through an increased pressure drop. This study aims to determine the effect of the type of VG and the effect of giving a hole on VG on thermal–hydraulic performance.
Experiments on the effect of VG on heat transfer and pressure drop flow were carried out in a rectangular channel made of glass with a thickness of 1 cm and a length of 370 cm, a width of 8 cm, and a height of 18 cm, as shown in Figure 1. The blower sucks air into the channel from the inlet side through a straightener composed of pipes with a diameter of 5 mm and wire mesh to equalize the flow velocity. The flow velocity in the channel was varied in the range of 0.4 m/s to 2.0 m/s with an interval of 0.2 m/s using a motor regulator controlled by an inverter (Mitsubishi Electric-type FR-D700 with an accuracy of ±0.01 Hz) and measured with a hotwire anemometer (Lutron type AM-4204 with an accuracy of ±0.05). In this study, the airflow flowed through VGs with variations in the number of rows (one, two, and three rows) as well as variations with/without holes to investigate the effect on heat transfer rate and pressure drop. The VGs were mounted on a flat plate that was heated at a constant rate of 35 W using a heater that was regulated by a heater regulator and monitored by a wattmeter (Lutron DW-6060 with an accuracy of ±0.01). Thermocouples K type was used to measure surface temperature, inlet and outlet temperatures, which were connected to data acquisition (Advantech type USB-4718 with accuracy ±0.01) and were monitored and stored in the CPU. In the pressure drop test, two pitot tubes were installed at the inlet and outlet of the test section and connected to a micro manometer (Fluke 922 with accuracy ±0.01) to monitor the pressure drop due to the installation of VGs. Flow visualization tests were also carried out to observe the longitudinal vortex formed as a result of VGs insertion. The longitudinal vortex was formed when the smoke resulting from the evaporation of oil in the heater was flowed through VGs and captured by the transverse plane formed by the luminescence of the laser beam. The camera was used to record the longitudinal vortex structure that was formed.
Schematic of experimental set-up.
In this study, the effects of the installation of RWP and CRWP VGs in the rectangular channel on thermal–hydraulic performance were compared. The geometry of the VG used in this study can be seen in Figure 2. In this simulation, VGs were made from an aluminum plate with a thickness of 1 mm with/without holes with a diameter of 5 mm. Table 1 shows the geometric parameters of the CRWP and RWP VGs. Figure 3 is a top view of the RWP and CRWP VGs. VG with the angle of attack (α) 45° arranged in-line in common flow-down orientation with a longitudinal pitch of 125 mm. The distance between the first row and the inlet channel is 125 mm. Meanwhile, the leading-edge transverse distance between winglet pairs VG is 20 mm. The rectangular channel modeled in this simulation has dimensions of length (P), width (L), height (H) of channels of 500 mm, 75.5 mm, 65 mm, respectively.
Geometry of RWP and CRWP VG with and without holes.
VGs | α (°) | a (mm) | cv (mm) | dv (mm) | ev (mm) | ch (mm) | dh (mm) | eh (mm) | t (mm) | R (mm) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
CRWP without holes | 45 | 59 | — | — | — | — | — | — | 40 | 58 |
CRWP with holes | 45 | 59 | 15 | 14.56 | — | — | 20 | 9.85 | 40 | 58 |
RWP without holes | 45 | 60 | — | — | — | — | — | — | 40 | — |
RWP with holes | 45 | 60 | 15 | — | 15 | 20 | — | 10 | 40 | — |
Geometry parameters of vortex generator (VG).
Top view of (a) RWP VG, (b) CRWP VG.
Figure 4 shows the computational domain used in this modeling. This domain consists of an inlet extended region and an outlet extended region. An inlet extended region was provided to ensure that the airflow entering the channel is a fully developed flow. Meanwhile, an extended region outlet was added so that the air does not experience reverse flow in the channel.
Computational domain.
In this 3-D flow modeling, air was assumed to be steady state, incompressible and has constant physical properties. Flow can be laminar or turbulent based on its Reynolds number value. Flow velocities were set in the range of 0.4–2 m/s with 0.2 m/s intervals. The Reynolds number is determined from
Continuity equation
Momentum equation
Energy equation
where ρ, p, ui, and μ are the density, pressure, mean velocity on the x-axis, and dynamic viscosity, respectively. Meanwhile, Γ is the diffusion coefficient
where λ is the thermal conductivity, and cp is the specific heat of air.
The turbulent flow modeling used in this simulation is the standard k-ω model. The transport equation for the standard k-ω model consists of the turbulent kinetic energy (k) and specific dissipation rate (ω) equations, respectively, which are stated as follows:
where
The boundary conditions used in this computational domain are described as follows:
Inlet upstream extended region
Outlet downstream extended region
Wall
Symmetry
The finite volume method (FVM) was used to analyze the thermo-hydraulic characteristics of the rectangular channel installed with VGs. Laminar flow was simulated using a laminar model, while the turbulent flow was simulated using the k-ω model. The turbulent k-ω model was used in this simulation because this model is suitable for modeling fluid flow in the viscous region [21]. The SIMPLE algorithm was chosen to obtain a numerical solution of the continuity and momentum equations. The governing equations for momentum, turbulent kinetic energy, specific dissipation rate and energy were discretized with a second-order upwind scheme. The convergence criterion assigned to the continuity, momentum, and energy equations was 10−5, 10−6, 10−8, respectively.
In this numerical simulation, the mesh type was differentiated between the upstream extended and downstream extended regions with the computational domain, as shown in Figure 5. The hexagonal mesh was used in both parts of the extended region because it has a simple geometric shape. Meanwhile, the part of the computational domain, namely the fluid and plate, uses a tetrahedral mesh because it has a more complex geometry due to the presence of VGs. The tetrahedral mesh was also used to obtain more accurate results in this area so that it can show flow separation and secondary flow in the test section.
Mesh generated.
The parameters used in this study are as follows:
Reynolds number
Nusselt number
where ρ, um, μ, Dh, and λ are the density, average fluid velocity, dynamic viscosity, hydraulic diameter, and thermal conductivity of the fluid, respectively. h is the convection heat transfer coefficient obtained from the following equation:
q, AT, and Tw are the convection heat transfer rate, heat transfer surface area, and hot wall temperature, respectively, while Tf is the bulk fluid temperature which is defined as follows:
Tin is the inlet temperature and Tout is the temperature at the outlet side which is determined by the following equation:
∆P is the pressure drop of fluid flow which can be formulated as ΔP = Pin-Pout in which Pin and Pout can be described as follows:
An independent grid test was performed to ensure that the number of grids does not affect the numerical simulation results. Four different grid numbers were used for grid-independent testing. The test was carried out on the computational domain with three CRWP pairs at a velocity of 0.4 m/s. Table 2 shows the simulation results of the variation in the number of different grids on the convection heat transfer coefficient. Because the convection heat transfer coefficient of the simulation results shows a slight difference, the optimum number of grids is determined by comparing the heat transfer coefficient from the modeling results and the results from the experiment. The smallest error from the simulation results and experimental results is used as an independent grid. Based on the comparison of the simulation results for the various numbers of grids with the experimental results, it is found that the grid with the number of elements close to 1,600,000 was chosen for use in this numerical simulation because it has the lowest error, namely 0.337%. Validation was also carried out by comparing the experimental results of Wu et al. (2008) and current experimental results with slightly different conditions, see Ref. [22].
Number of element | h(simulation) | h(experiment) | Error (%) |
---|---|---|---|
1,262,840 | 18.27726 | 18.18571 | 0.503 |
1,478,060 | 18.34781 | 18.18571 | 0.891 |
1,661,610 | 18.24699 | 18.18571 | 0.337 |
1,868,587 | 18.29429 | 18.18571 | 0.597 |
Grid independent test.
This study aims to investigate the effect of holes on VGs and the number of pairs of VGs on airflow and heat transfer characteristics. The installation of VG generates vortices and forms swirl flow so that the convection heat transfer rate on the airside increases [7, 8, 9].
To determine the difference in flow structure in the test section, simulations were carried out on a channel with VGs and without VGs (baseline). Figure 6(a) is a flow in the baseline case where vortices and swirl flows are not observed. Whereas in Figure 6(b), the simulation results show that the installation of VGs on the channel results in the formation of swirl flow [7], which results in longitudinal vortices due to flow separation along the VGs caused by pressure differences on the upstream and downstream VGs [10]. Figure 7 illustrates the counter-rotating pairs of longitudinal vortices due to the installation of RWPs and CRWPs VGs with a 45° angle of attack. A strong counter-rotating longitudinal vortex forms behind the VG with the left rotating clockwise and the right rotating counterclockwise [23]. These two longitudinal vortices result in the formation of downwash flow in the center of the channel towards the lower wall of the channel and upwash flow on both sides of the channel to the upper wall of the channel. This longitudinal vortex configuration is also called common-flow-down.
Velocity streamline in a channel; (a) without VG (baseline), (b) with VG.
Tangential velocity vector on a channel with three pairs of VG: (a) perforated CRWP and (b) perforated RWP.
Figure 8 is a comparison of tangential velocity vectors in the cross-plane X1 with three pairs of RWP and CRWP VGs for with and without holes at 2.0 m/s. The tangential velocity vector in the use of RWP and CRWP VGs is high in the downwash region, which results in improved heat transfer [7]. In the case of CRWP VGs, the longitudinal vortex radius formed is larger than that of the RWP VGs. This is because the frontal area of the CRWP is larger, which results in a better heat transfer rate increase than that of the RWP VGs [24, 25]. The hole in VG causes a jet flow, which removes stagnant fluid in the back region of VG and increases the kinetic energy in this area so that the pressure difference before and after passing VG can be reduced [26]. Because of this decrease in the pressure difference, the longitudinal vortex strength decreases. The main vortex, induced vortex, and corner vortex are observed on CRWP VGs installation, as shown in Figure 9. The structure of the longitudinal vortex is formed due to several factors. The main vortex is formed due to flow separation when the flow passes through the VG wall due to the pressure difference [27]. Induced vortex is formed due to the interaction between the main vortex. Meanwhile, the corner vortex is formed as a result of the interaction between the VG wall and the main vortex.
Tangential velocity vector in the cross-section X1.
Tangential velocity vector in the cross-section X1 in the channel installed VG: (a) perforated RWP, (b) perforated CRWP.
Figures 10 and 11 show the counter-rotating longitudinal vortex as the flow passes through the VGs. Counter-rotating longitudinal vortices are observed in the cross-sectional plane at positions X1 to X6 and move spirally downstream to a certain distance and sweep towards the lower wall of the channel [26]. The strength of the longitudinal vortex is observed to be greater in CRWP than in RWP. CRWP has greater longitudinal vortex strength because CRWP has a larger frontal area than that of RWP, which results in a larger longitudinal vortex radius causing in better heat transfer performance [19]. From Figures 10 and 11, it is observed that the longitudinal vortex in the X1 plane is stronger than that in the X2 plane for all types of VG with/without holes. This is due to viscous dissipation, which causes the longitudinal vortex to gradually weaken as the flow away from VG [28]. In the X3 plane, the longitudinal vortex strength increases compared to the X2 plane due to the addition of VGs, which results in an increase in fluid velocity in the downwash region [29]. The hole in the VG results in the weakening of the longitudinal vortex strength due to jet flow formation [26].
Comparison of the tangential velocity distribution in the channel installed RWP at several cross-section positions at a velocity of 2.0 m/sec.
Comparison of the tangential velocity distribution in the channel installed CRWP at several cross-section positions at a velocity of 2.0 m/sec.
The longitudinal vortex intensity is a dimensionless number studied by K Song et al. [30] and represents the magnitude of the inertia force induced by secondary flow to the viscous force. In this study, the longitudinal vortex intensity is defined in Eq. (22)
where Se is the longitudinal vortex intensity, and U is the secondary flow velocity characteristic, which can be formulated in the following equation:
where
Figures 12 and 13 show the ratio of Sex in RWP and CRWP cases at a velocity of 0.4 m/s and 2.0 m/s. In general, CRWP insertion produces a greater longitudinal vortex intensity than that of RWP because the frontal area of the CRWP is larger than that of the RWP and due to the instability of centrifugal force when the flow passes over the CRWP surface [19, 31]. The longitudinal distribution of the vortex intensity is shown in Figure 14 for a velocity of 0.4 m/s and Figure 15 for a velocity of 2.0 m/s. In the case of CRWP and RWP, the longitudinal vortex intensity tends to dissipate after passing VGs due to viscous effects [2, 26, 28]. Therefore, the installation of the second and third rows of VG reinforces the intensity of the longitudinal vortex as illustrated in Figures 12(c)–(f) and Figures 13(c)–(f) for velocities of 0.4 m/s and 2 m/s, respectively.
The mean spanwise longitudinal vortex intensity at a velocity of 0.4 m/s for the case of (a) one-pair RWP; (b) one-pair of CRWP; (c) two pairs RWP; (d) two-pairs CRWP; (e) three pairs RWP; (f) three-pairs CRWP.
The mean spanwise longitudinal vortex intensity at a velocity of 2.0 m/s for the case of (a) one-pair RWP; (b) one-pair of CRWP; (c) two pairs RWP; (d) two-pairs CRWP; (e) three pairs RWP; (f) three-pairs CRWP.
The longitudinal vortex intensity for the case of three pairs of RWP and CRWP at locations x / L = 0.34 and x/L = 0.32 at a velocity of 0.4 m/s, respectively.
The longitudinal vortex intensity for the case of three pairs of RWP and CRWP at locations x / L = 0.34 and x/L = 0.32 at a velocity of 2.0 m/s, respectively.
The hole in the VG results in a decrease in the intensity of the longitudinal vortex, as shown in Figures 12–15. The hole in VG causes jet flow formation, which can interfere with the generation of the longitudinal vortex [26]. For RWP VGs with a velocity of 2.0 m/s, the intensity of the longitudinal vortex experiences the highest decrease, namely 17% at x/L = 0.48 for the case of one pair with holes, 11% at x/L = 0.4 for the case of two pairs with holes and 13% at x/L = 0.48 for the case of three pairs with holes of ones without holes. Meanwhile, in the case of CRWP VGs with a velocity of 2.0 m/s, the intensity of the longitudinal vortex experiences the highest decrease, namely 35% at x/L = 0.48 for the case of one pair with holes, 14% at x/L = 0.68 for the case of two pairs with holes and 22% at x/L = 0.68 for the case of three pairs with holes compared to ones without holes.
The temperature distribution for the RWP and CRWP cases with/without holes and the baseline in the spanwise plane at a certain position with a velocity of 2.0 m/s is shown in Figures 16 and 17. Visually, the temperature distribution in the channel in the presence of VG is better than the baseline. The placement of VG in the channel increases the temperature distribution due to the counter-rotating pairs of longitudinal vortices, which result in increased fluid mixing [32]. Counter-rotating pairs of longitudinal vortices produce a downwash that pushes the fluid towards the surface of the heated plate resulting in increased local heat transfer coefficients and thinning of the thickness of the thermal and dynamic boundary layers [32, 33].
Temperature distribution in channel with: (a) RWP without holes; (b) RWP with holes.
Temperature distribution in channel with: (a) CRWP without holes; (b) CRWP with holes.
Meanwhile, counter-rotating pairs of longitudinal vortices also generate upwash on the outer side of the vortex and push the hot fluid on the plate wall towards the flow-stream resulting in a decrease in the local heat transfer coefficient and a thickening of the boundary layer as observed in Figures 16 and 17 comparing to the baseline case, as shown in Figure 18. Visually, the temperature distribution in the CRWP case is more even than the temperature distribution in the RWP case. This is because CRWP produces a higher longitudinal vortex intensity than that of RWP [31]. In addition, the holes in each VG result in the formation of jet flow, which can reduce the intensity of the longitudinal vortex resulting in an increase in temperature gradient [26], as shown in Figure 16(b) and 17(b).
Figure 19 shows the pressure distribution for the three-pairs RWP and CRWP cases with/without holes at a Velocity of 2.0 m/s. Installation of VG in the channel results in an increase in pressure drop due to drag generated on the flow [34, 35]. As observed in Figure 3.14, the pressure drop generated by CRWP is higher than that from RWP. This is because the frontal area of the CRWP is larger than that of the RWP, which results in a higher longitudinal vortex intensity and results in increased pressure drop [19]. A low-pressure zone is formed behind VG in the RWP and CRWP cases [26]. The hole in VG causes in the formation of jet flow, which results in a decrease in the low-pressure zone. This is because the jet flow reduces the stagnant fluid in the area behind VG and increases the kinetic energy in this area, causing the pressure difference before and after passing VG to decrease [26].
The local heat transfer improvement can be identified with the mean spanwise Nusselt number, as informed by Hiravennavar [36]. The equation used by Hiravennavar is as follows:
where B, q, H, and k are channel width, heat flux, channel height, and fluid thermal conductivity, respectively. Meanwhile, Tw and Tb are the wall temperature and bulk fluid temperature, respectively.
Temperature distribution in the channel without VG (baseline).
Comparison of the pressure distribution at z = 0.41H.
Figures 20 and 21 compare the mean spanwise Nusselt numbers in the RWP and CRWP cases at velocities of 0.4 m/s and 2.0 m/s. The use of VG in the channel increases the Nusselt number [30]. Figures 20 and 21 show that the mean spanwise Nusselt number in the CRWP case is higher than that in the RWP case. This is because the longitudinal vortex intensity generated by the CRWP is stronger than that of the RWP. The holes in VG result in a decrease in the mean spanwise Nusselt number because the holes in VG reduce the intensity of the longitudinal vortex [16]. The highest decrease of the average spanwise Nusselt number in perforated RWP and CRWP at a velocity of 0.4 m/s was 24% at x/L = 0.32 and 11% at x/L = 0.56 of VG without holes, respectively. Whereas for the same case at a velocity of 2.0 m/s, the highest reduction is 2% at x/L = 0.8 and 7% at x/L = 0.32, respectively.
Average spanwise Nusselts numbers the RWP and CRWP at a velocity of 0.4 m/s.
Average spanwise Nusselts numbers the RWP and CRWP at a velocity of 2.0 m/s.
Figures 22 and 23 show the comparison of the heat transfer coefficient values due to the installation of RWP and CRWP. In general, the convection heat transfer coefficient increases with increasing Reynolds number. From Figures 22 and 23, it is found that the convection heat transfer coefficient with the CRWP installation is higher than that of the RWP. This is because CRWP produces a stronger longitudinal vortex intensity than that of RWP due to the instability of the flow as it crosses the CRWP surface [25]. The convection heat transfer coefficient in the RWP and CRWP cases with a three-pair installation configuration with holes is increased by 198% and 207%, respectively, from the baseline at the highest Reynolds number.
Comparison of the convection heat transfer coefficient on RWP with and without holes for installation: (a) one; (b) two, and (c) three pairs.
Comparison of the convection heat transfer coefficient on CRWP with and without holes for installation: (a) one; (b) two, and (c) three pairs.
The addition of pairs of VG results in an increase in the convection heat transfer coefficient because the addition of VG pairs strengthens the longitudinal vortex strength and interferes with the formation of boundary layers and increases fluid mixing [29]. Meanwhile, the hole in VG results in a slight decrease in the value of the convection heat transfer coefficient, as seen in Figures 22 and 23, because the holes in VG generate jet flow, which can weaken the intensity of the longitudinal vortex [26]. The decrease in the convection heat transfer coefficient at the highest Reynolds number for the perforated RWP and CRWP cases of three pairs is 2% and 8% of the without holes, respectively.
A comparison of pressure drop between experiment and simulation for the RWP and CRWP cases is observed in Figures 24 and 25, respectively. From the two figures, it is found that the pressure drop for all cases increases with increasing Reynolds number. The main reason is the increase in the drag generated with increasing flow velocity [14]. Installation of RWP and CRWP in the channel results in an increase in pressure drop due to the drag formed on the flow. The pressure drop due to CRWP insertion is higher than RWP because CRWP produces a stronger longitudinal vortex than RWP [37]. For the perforated RWP case, the increase in pressure drop with variations of one, two, and three pairs at the highest Reynolds number is 4.26 times, 8.98 times, and 9.96 times, respectively, from the baseline. Meanwhile, for the perforated CRWP case with the highest Reynolds number in the same case, it is 12.52 times, 19.27 times, and 26.31 times from the baseline. The hole in VG causes a decrease in the pressure drop value because the hole in VG reduces fluid resistance due to the longitudinal vortex [31]. The highest reduction in pressure drop due to the hole in the RWP with variations of one, two, and three pairs is 7%, 4%, and 13%, respectively. On the other hand, the decrease in pressure drop on CRWP with the highest Reynolds number for the same case is 5%, 5%, and 11%, respectively.
Comparison of pressure drop on RWP with and without holes for installation: (a) one; (b) two and (c) three pairs.
Comparison of pressure drop on CRWP with and without holes for installation: (a) one; (b) two and (c) three pairs.
FSP is a method for analyzing improvement in heat transfer rate, which was informed by Guo et al. [38]. In their study, Guo et al. define the increase in the rate of heat transfer by decreasing the angle of the intersection of the velocity vector and the temperature gradient. The energy conservation equation used by Guo et al. in their research are as follows:
where ρ, Cp, and λ are assumed to be constant so that the dimensionless form of Eq. (25) is
where
where β is the angle between the velocity vector and the temperature gradient. Thus, Eq. (27) can be written as follows:
Figures 26 and 27 illustrate the local synergy angle in the RWP and CRWP cases, respectively, with speeds of 0.4 m/s and 2.0 m/s. In general, inserting VG in the channel reduces the synergy angle because VG generates a longitudinal vortex [39]. The longitudinal vortex alters the flow and temperature fields resulting in improved heat transfer. From Figures 26 and 27, it can be observed that the decreased synergy angle is higher in the case of CRWP than that of RWP because the strength of the longitudinal vortex produced by CRWP is stronger than that of RWP [25, 40]. The lowest synergy angle in the case of three pairs of perforated RWP at a velocity of 0.4 m/s are 78.25°, 77.98°, and 79.33° at x/L = 0.28, 0.52, and 0.76, respectively. Meanwhile, at velocity of 2.0 m/s, they are 81.15°, 79.42°, and 81.19° at x/L = 0.28, 0.52, and 0.76, respectively.
Synergy angle at a speed of 0.4 m/s for the case of (a) one-pair of RWP; (b) one pair of CRWPs; (c) two pairs of RWP; (d) two-pairs of CRWP; (e) three pairs of RWP; (f) three-pairs of CRWP.
Synergy angle at a speed of 2.0 m/s for the case of (a) one-pair of RWP; (b) one pair of CRWPs; (c) two pairs of RWP; (d) two-pairs of CRWP; (e) three pairs of RWP; (f) three-pairs of CRWP.
In the case of CRWP with the same configuration, the largest synergy angles are 71.64°, 77.52°, and 79.04° at x/L = 0.24, 0.52, and 0.76 at 0.4 m/s, respectively. Meanwhile, at velocity of 2.0 m/s, they were 72.68o, 78.81o, and 81.57o at x/L = 0.28, 0.52, and 0.8, respectively. The hole in VG increases the synergy angle due to a decrease in the heat transfer coefficient [41]. The increase in the mean synergy angle due to the addition of holes in the RWP and CRWP three pairs is 0.25° and 0.29° at a velocity of 2.0 m/s, respectively.
In this study, a numerical fluid flow simulation was performed to determine the effect of installing RWP and CRWP with/without holes at 45° angle of attack on heat transfer and pressure drop in the rectangular channel. The hole in VG results in a slight decrease in the convection heat transfer coefficient. The reduction of the convection heat transfer coefficient in the channel with the installation of three pairs of perforated RWP and CRWP for the highest Reynolds number was 2% and 8% of the without holes, respectively. The hole in the VG was able to reduce the pressure drop in the channel. The highest reduction in pressure drop due to holes in RWP with variations of one, two, and three pairs was 7%, 4%, and 13%, respectively. On the other hand, the decrease in pressure drop on CRWP with the highest Reynold number for the same case was 5%, 5%, and 11%, respectively. The hole in VG caused a decrease in the mean spanwise Nusselt number in all cases. The decrease in the average spanwise Nusselt number in the perforated RWP and CRWP cases at a velocity of 0.4 m/s was the greatest of 24% at x/L = 0.32 and 11% at x/L = 0.56, respectively, from those without holes. Whereas for the same case at a velocity of 2.0 m/s, the largest decrease was 2% at x/L = 0.8 and 7% at x/L = 0.32, respectively. The synergy angle increased due to the holes in the RWP and CRWP. The average synergy angle increase in the use of RWP and CRWP three pairs was 0.25 and 0.29 at a velocity of 2.0 m/s, respectively.
This work was supported by the Fundamental Research of Minitry of Education and Culture, Indonesia, with contract number: 225-110/UN7.6.1/PP/2020. The authors are grateful to all research members, especially Lab. Thermofluid of Mechanical Engineering of Diponegoro University, Indonesia.
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