Categories of the nanoparticles synthesized from the various methods [1].
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8889",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Solvents, Ionic Liquids and Solvent Effects",title:"Solvents, Ionic Liquids and Solvent Effects",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Solvents and ionic liquids are ubiquitous within our whole life since ancient times and their effects are actually being studied through basic sciences like Chemistry, Physics and Biology as well as being researched by a large number of scientific disciplines.This book represents an attempt to present examples on the utility of old and new solvents and the effects they exercise on several fields of academic and industrial interest. The first section, Solvents, presents information on bio-solvents and their synthesis, industrial production and applications, about per and trichloroethylene air monitoring in dry cleaners in the city of Sfax (Tunsia) and on the synthesis of polyimides using molten benzoic acid as the solvent. The second section, Ionic Liquids, shows information about the synthesis, physicochemical characterization and exploration of antimicrobial activities of imidazolium ionic liquid-supported Schiff base and its transition metal complexes, the technology of heterogenization of transition metal catalysts towards the synthetic applications in an ionic liquid matrix, the progress in ionic liquids as reaction media, monomers, and additives in high-performance polymers, a pre-screening of ionic liquids as gas hydrate inhibitor via application of COSMO-RS for methane hydrate, the extraction of aromatic compounds from their mixtures with alkanes from ternary to quaternary (or higher) systems and a review on ionic liquids as environmental benign solvent for cellulose chemistry. The final section, Solvent Effects, displays interesting information on solvent effects on dye sensitizers derived from anthocyanidins for applications in photocatalysis, about the solvent effect on a model of SNAr reaction in conventional and non-conventional solvents, and on solvent effects in supramolecular systems.",isbn:"978-1-78985-282-0",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-281-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-530-9",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82039",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"solvents-ionic-liquids-and-solvent-effects",numberOfPages:258,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"75c7231408f17b5af0ff2952627dd5fa",bookSignature:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik and Magdalena Maciejewska",publishedDate:"January 15th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8889.jpg",numberOfDownloads:10205,numberOfWosCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:23,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:33,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 17th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 12th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 11th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 30th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 28th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"198499",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Glossman-Mitnik",slug:"daniel-glossman-mitnik",fullName:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/198499/images/system/198499.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Daniel Glossman-Mitnik is currently a Titular Researcher at the Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados (CIMAV), Chihuahua, Mexico, as well as a National Researcher of Level III at the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología, Mexico. His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 255 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 2 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"139343",title:"Dr.",name:"Magdalena",middleName:null,surname:"Maciejewska",slug:"magdalena-maciejewska",fullName:"Magdalena Maciejewska",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/139343/images/system/139343.jpeg",biography:"Magdalena Maciejewska received her M.Sc. (Polymer Technology) from Lodz University of Technology, Lodz, Poland, in 2004. She obtained her Ph.D. in the field of technical sciences (Chemical Technology) and Ph.D. D.Sc. from the same university, in 2008 and 2018, respectively. She is currently working as Assistant Professor at Lodz University of Technology, in the Institute of Polymer and Dye Technology, Lodz, Poland. Her research work has been credited with 8 national patents, 40 research and review articles in peer-reviewed national and international journals, 10 book chapters in international and national books and 31 proceedings. She has attended more than 30 international and domestic conferences. She has supervised 50 diploma thesis and was an assistant supervisor of 3 Ph.D. theses. Her major areas of research are polymer and elastomer composites, ionic liquids in the elastomer technology, vulcanization of elastomers, thermal analysis.",institutionString:"Lodz University of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Lodz University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"85",title:"Organic Chemistry",slug:"organic-chemistry"}],chapters:[{id:"69882",title:"Bio-Solvents: Synthesis, Industrial Production and Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86502",slug:"bio-solvents-synthesis-industrial-production-and-applications",totalDownloads:1483,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Solvents are at the heart of many research and industrial chemical processes and consumer product formulations, yet an overwhelming number are derived from fossils. This is despite societal and legislative push that more products be produced from carbon-neutral resources, so as to reduce our carbon footprint and environmental impact. Biomass is a promising renewable alternative resource for producing bio-solvents, and this review focuses on their extraction and synthesis on a laboratory and large scale. Starch, lignocellulose, plant oils, animal fats and proteins have been combined with creative synthetic pathways, novel technologies and processes to afford known or new bio-derived solvents including acids, alkanes, aromatics, ionic liquids (ILs), furans, esters, ethers, liquid polymers and deep eutectic solvents (DESs)—all with unique physiochemical properties that warrant their use as solvation agents in manufacturing, pharmaceutical, cosmetics, chemicals, energy, food and beverage industries, etc. Selected bio-solvents, conversion technologies and processes operating at commercial and demonstration scale including (1) Solvay’s Augeo™ SL 191 renewable solvent, (2) Circa Group’s Furacell™ technology and process for making levoglucosenone (LGO) to produce dihydrolevoglucosenone (marketed as Cyrene™), (3) Sappi’s Xylex® technology and demonstration scale processes that aim to manufacture precursors for bio-solvents and (4) Anellotech’s Bio-TCat™ technology and process for producing benzene, toluene and xylenes (BTX) are highlighted.",signatures:"Novisi K. Oklu, Leah C. Matsinha and Banothile C.E. Makhubela",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69882",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69882",authors:[{id:"294552",title:"Dr.",name:"Banothile",surname:"Makhubela",slug:"banothile-makhubela",fullName:"Banothile Makhubela"},{id:"295487",title:"Dr.",name:"Leah",surname:"Matsinha",slug:"leah-matsinha",fullName:"Leah Matsinha"},{id:"295489",title:"Mr.",name:"Novisi",surname:"Oklu",slug:"novisi-oklu",fullName:"Novisi Oklu"}],corrections:null},{id:"67601",title:"Per- and Trichloroethylene Air Monitoring in Dry Cleaners in the City of Sfax (Tunisia)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86725",slug:"per-and-trichloroethylene-air-monitoring-in-dry-cleaners-in-the-city-of-sfax-tunisia-",totalDownloads:710,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The use of chlorinated solvents in dry cleaning poses risks to human health. The occupational health exposure assessment to these volatile chemicals is conducted through quantification of airborne concentrations inside the facilities. Indeed, the lack of such measurements in Tunisia pushed us to conduct the study. After identifying dry cleaners in Sfax city, we conducted door-to-door canvassing in 47 facilities. Then, the levels of perchloroethylene (PCE) and trichloroethylene (TCE) in the indoor air are measured in two sampling positions: fixed and individual. The pollutants are adsorbed with charcoal sorbent tubes where their amounts correspond to given air volumes that are suctioned through the pump. It is later used to calculate their mean concentrations. These solvents are desorbed using carbon disulfide and analyzed by gas chromatography—flame ionization detection. After the analytical validation of the protocol, 19 air samples were quantified. The measured concentrations of TCE are close to the occupational exposure limit value in almost all facilities, whereas the PCE concentrations are about half of the OELV. The overall results showed that the working environment in dry cleaning in Sfax city are concerning and can lead to many adverse health effects up to several types of cancers.",signatures:"Fatma Omrane, Imed Gargouri and Moncef Khadhraoui",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67601",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67601",authors:[{id:"186371",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Imed",surname:"Gargouri",slug:"imed-gargouri",fullName:"Imed Gargouri"},{id:"188100",title:"Dr.",name:"Moncef",surname:"Khadhraoui",slug:"moncef-khadhraoui",fullName:"Moncef Khadhraoui"},{id:"294793",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma",surname:"Omrane",slug:"fatma-omrane",fullName:"Fatma Omrane"}],corrections:null},{id:"67889",title:"Synthesis of Polyimides in the Melt of Benzoic Acid",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87032",slug:"synthesis-of-polyimides-in-the-melt-of-benzoic-acid",totalDownloads:715,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Review of the authors’ works on the synthesis of polyimides (PIs) by the method of one-stage high-temperature polycondensation in an unusual solvent—molten benzoic acid (BA). Compared with a known synthesis in inert high-boiling solvents, synthesis in BA takes place under mild conditions (140°C, 1–2 hour) to give completely imidized PIs. The approach has a number of advantages. Due to catalysis of the first reversible stage of amiс acid (AA) formation and low equilibrium constant (K = 10–20 l/mol), the first stage disappears kinetically, and the imidization reaction becomes limiting. The process becomes less sensitive to the basicity of diamines; therefore, low reactivity diamines can be involved. Water is easily removed from the melt by evaporation, which makes the whole process irreversible. Specific features of the method are successfully used to control the microstructure of the chain copolyimides (statistical to multiblock) and to synthesize hyperbranched PIs and star-shaped PIs with narrow molecular weight distribution.",signatures:"Kuznetsov Alexander Alexeevich and Tsegelskaya Anna Yurievna",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67889",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67889",authors:[{id:"293433",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",surname:"Tsegelskaya",slug:"anna-tsegelskaya",fullName:"Anna Tsegelskaya"},{id:"293581",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander A.",surname:"Kuznetsov",slug:"alexander-a.-kuznetsov",fullName:"Alexander A. Kuznetsov"}],corrections:null},{id:"67389",title:"Extraction of Aromatic Compounds from Their Mixtures with Alkanes: From Ternary to Quaternary (or Higher) Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86229",slug:"extraction-of-aromatic-compounds-from-their-mixtures-with-alkanes-from-ternary-to-quaternary-or-high",totalDownloads:745,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Ionic liquids have been proposed as separation agents for liquid extraction of aromatic compounds from their mixtures with alkanes, with the aim of improving the separation process and replacing conventional organic solvents. A significant number of experimental liquid-liquid equilibrium data for ternary system alkane + aromatic compound + ionic liquid can be found in literature; however there are few data for quaternary or higher systems involving more than one aliphatic compound, several aromatic compounds or a mixture of ionic liquids as separation agent. These data are also necessary because molecular interactions between the compounds in the mixture can modify the affinity of the solvent for the aromatic compound of interest. In this chapter we review the published data involving more than three components, and we present new liquid-liquid equilibrium data for the quaternary systems heptane + cyclohexane + toluene +1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium bis{(trifluoromethyl)sulfonyl}imide and heptane + cyclohexane + toluene + 1-hexyl-3-methylimidazolium bis{(trifluoromethyl)sulfonyl}imide.",signatures:"Ángeles Domínguez, Begoña González, Patricia F. Requejo and Sandra Corderí",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67389",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67389",authors:[{id:"171493",title:"Dr.",name:"Angeles",surname:"Dominguez",slug:"angeles-dominguez",fullName:"Angeles Dominguez"},{id:"294467",title:"Dr.",name:"Begoña",surname:"Gonzalez",slug:"begona-gonzalez",fullName:"Begoña Gonzalez"},{id:"300565",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricia F.",surname:"Requejo",slug:"patricia-f.-requejo",fullName:"Patricia F. Requejo"},{id:"300566",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",surname:"Corderí",slug:"sandra-corderi",fullName:"Sandra Corderí"}],corrections:null},{id:"67241",title:"Imidazolium Ionic Liquid-Supported Schiff Base and Its Transition Metal Complexes: Synthesis, Physicochemical Characterization and Exploration of Antimicrobial Activities",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86379",slug:"imidazolium-ionic-liquid-supported-schiff-base-and-its-transition-metal-complexes-synthesis-physicoc",totalDownloads:684,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"New Co(II), Ni(II) and Cu(II) metal complexes from an imidazolium ionic liquid supported Schiff base, 1-{2-(2-hydroxy-5-nitrobenzylideneamino)ethyl}-3-ethylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate were synthesized and characterized by different analytical and spectroscopic techniques such as elemental analysis (CHN analysis), UV-Visible, 1H NMR, 13C NMR, FT-IR, powder X-ray diffraction, mass-spectra, magnetic susceptibility measurements and molar conductance data. From these spectroscopic and analytical data, tetra coordinated 1:2 metal-ligand stoichiometry was suggested for the metal complexes. The molar conductance data of the complexes revealed their electrolytic nature (1:2). The synthesized complexes along with the ligand were screened for in vitro antibacterial applications against Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria to assess their inhibition potentials. The complexes were proved very effective against the tested organisms.",signatures:"Biswajit Sinha and Sanjoy Saha",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67241",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67241",authors:[{id:"294137",title:"Dr.",name:"Sanjoy",surname:"Saha",slug:"sanjoy-saha",fullName:"Sanjoy Saha"},{id:"294187",title:"Prof.",name:"Biswajit",surname:"Sinha",slug:"biswajit-sinha",fullName:"Biswajit Sinha"}],corrections:null},{id:"67532",title:"Progress in Ionic Liquids as Reaction Media, Monomers and Additives in High-Performance Polymers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86472",slug:"progress-in-ionic-liquids-as-reaction-media-monomers-and-additives-in-high-performance-polymers",totalDownloads:949,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, we will review the progress in ionic liquids (ILs) widely used as reaction media, monomers and additives in the synthesis, chemical modification and physical processing of high-performance polymers (HPPs). Using ILs as reaction media in the syntheses of HPPs, the high-molecular-weight polymers were obtained in good yields and the shortened dehydration time compared to the conventional methods, the separation efficiency of products was improved. It is particularly noteworthy that the number of novel copolymers of HPPs with polymerisable ILs has steadily increased in recent years. In addition, ILs have been used as various types of additives such as the components of polymer materials, plasticizers and porogenic agents in the physical processing of HPPs, and the materials prepared include membranes, microcapsules, nanocomposites (NCs), electrolytes and grease.",signatures:"Dan He, Zhengping Liu and Liyan Huang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67532",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67532",authors:[{id:"293341",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhengping",surname:"Liu",slug:"zhengping-liu",fullName:"Zhengping Liu"},{id:"294182",title:"Dr.",name:"Dan",surname:"He",slug:"dan-he",fullName:"Dan He"},{id:"301037",title:"Dr.",name:"Liyan",surname:"Huang",slug:"liyan-huang",fullName:"Liyan Huang"}],corrections:null},{id:"69660",title:"On the Technology of Heterogenization of Transition Metal Catalysts towards the Synthetic Applications in Ionic Liquid Matrix",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86846",slug:"on-the-technology-of-heterogenization-of-transition-metal-catalysts-towards-the-synthetic-applicatio",totalDownloads:713,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"With the invention of ionic liquids, synthetic chemistry reached a new arena towards the transition metal catalyzed reactions in the syntheses of fine, specialty, agricultural, commodity, fragrant chemicals and building blocks. Inside the ionic liquid matrix, the transition metal catalysts, when immobilized, offer a valuable solution in terms of heterogenization. This technology offers high level of recyclability without loss of activity and improves the turnover number with high selectivity. Synthetic chemists, chemical engineers and technologists continue their efforts to recover and recycle the transition metal catalysts through various methodologies to convert the processes cost effective. The processes that are reported in the literature reveals that the ionic liquids by virtue of their inertness coupled with ability to retain the catalytic materials provide an excellent solution in terms of high levels of recovery and recyclability. This chapter presents a short account on the recent development in the transition metal catalyzed reactions in ionic liquid systems where both the solvent and the catalyst were recycled and reused without any emission of volatile materials.",signatures:"Alwar Ramani, Suresh Iyer and Murugesan Muthu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69660",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69660",authors:[{id:"297110",title:"Dr.",name:"Alwar",surname:"Ramani",slug:"alwar-ramani",fullName:"Alwar Ramani"},{id:"299930",title:"Dr.",name:"Suresh",surname:"Iyer",slug:"suresh-iyer",fullName:"Suresh Iyer"},{id:"299931",title:"Dr.",name:"Murugesan",surname:"Muthu",slug:"murugesan-muthu",fullName:"Murugesan Muthu"}],corrections:null},{id:"67620",title:"Pre-Screening of Ionic Liquids as Gas Hydrate Inhibitor via Application of COSMO-RS for Methane Hydrate",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86847",slug:"pre-screening-of-ionic-liquids-as-gas-hydrate-inhibitor-via-application-of-cosmo-rs-for-methane-hydr",totalDownloads:741,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Ionic liquids (ILs) due to their potential dual functionality to shift hydrate equilibrium curve and retard hydrate nucleation are considered as a very promising gas hydrate inhibitor. However, experimental testing alone is insufficient to examine all potential ILs combinations due to a high number of cation and anion to form ILs. In this context, four fundamental properties of IL-hydrate system, namely, sigma profile, hydrogen bonding energies, activity coefficient, and solubility, were stimulated through conductor-like screening model for real solvent (COSMO-RS). ILs were then analyzed to determine if they can be correlated with IL inhibition ability. Among them, sigma profile and hydrogen bonding energies, which later upgraded to total interaction energies, exhibit a significant relationship with IL inhibition ability. Total interaction energies of ions, on the other hand, have successfully been applied to develop a model. The model can predict the thermodynamic inhibition ability in terms of average temperature depression. The correlation was further validated with experimental values from literature with an average error of 20.49%. Finally, using sigma profile graph and developed correlation, the inhibition ability of 20 ammonium-based ILs (AILs) have been predicted. Tetramethylammonium hydroxide (TMA-OH), due to its short alkyl chain length cation and highly electronegative anion, has shown the most promising inhibition ability among the considered system.",signatures:"Muhammad Saad Khan and Bhajan Lal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67620",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67620",authors:[{id:"243669",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Muhammad Saad",surname:"Khan",slug:"muhammad-saad-khan",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Khan"},{id:"249708",title:"Dr.",name:"Bhajan",surname:"Lal",slug:"bhajan-lal",fullName:"Bhajan Lal"}],corrections:null},{id:"60818",title:"Ionic Liquids as Environmental Benign Solvents for Cellulose Chemistry: A Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76433",slug:"ionic-liquids-as-environmental-benign-solvents-for-cellulose-chemistry-a-review",totalDownloads:741,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The application of cellulose and its derivatives is restricted because of their limited solubility in water and many organic solvents. Recently, several attempts are being made to dissolve them in inorganic and organic solvents. The solubility of these polymeric materials mainly depends upon their molecular weight, pH, and source of origin. Nowadays, there has been a new breakthrough of applying ionic liquids (ILs; designer solvents) in the field of cellulose solvent chemistry. Association of ionic liquids with several salient features such as high thermal, chemical and low vapor pressure, and so on makes them ideal environmentally green solvents to be used for cellulose. The present chapter deals with a collection of some major works in which ionic liquids have been used as solvents for cellulose dissolution. The articles also describe the works illustrating the use of ionic liquids as cosolvents (organic aprotic solvents) for the better increase of the solvent activity (solubility).",signatures:"Indra Bahadur and Ronewa Phadagi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60818",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60818",authors:[{id:"248592",title:"Mr.",name:"Ronewa",surname:"Phadagi",slug:"ronewa-phadagi",fullName:"Ronewa Phadagi"},{id:"249617",title:"Prof.",name:"Indra",surname:"Bahadur",slug:"indra-bahadur",fullName:"Indra Bahadur"}],corrections:null},{id:"67935",title:"Solvent Effects on Dye Sensitizers Derived from Anthocyanidins for Applications in Photocatalysis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87151",slug:"solvent-effects-on-dye-sensitizers-derived-from-anthocyanidins-for-applications-in-photocatalysis",totalDownloads:808,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Anthocyanidins under the effects of solvents water, ethanol, n-hexane, and methanol are interesting due to their suitability as natural dyes for photocatalytic applications. In this chapter, DFT and TDDFT methodologies are used to study their electronic structure. The results displayed include HOMO, LUMO, HOMO-LUMO gap, chemical properties, and reorganization energies for the ground states, and excited state data are also displayed. Malvidin in gas phase has lower gap energy. After addition of solvents, gap energy increases in all cases but malvidin with n-hexane presents narrower gap. Conceptual DFT results show that cyanidin and malvidin may have good charge transfer. Cyanidin presented lower electron reorganization energy (λe) using solvent water; however, ethanol and methanol had similar values. TDDFT is used to calculate excited states, and absorption data show wavelength main peak between 479.1 and 536.4 nm. UV-Vis absorption spectra were generated and solvent effects on each molecule is discussed. Anthocyanidins work well in the visible region with the stronger peak at the green region. These pigments are good options for photocatalysis application and cyanidin and malvidin, in this order, may be the best choices for dye sensitization applications.",signatures:"Diana Barraza-Jiménez, Azael Martínez-De la Cruz, Leticia Saucedo-Mendiola, Sandra Iliana Torres-Herrera, Adolfo Padilla Mendiola, Elva Marcela Coria Quiñones, Raúl Armando Olvera Corral, María Estela Frías-Zepeda and Manuel Alberto Flores-Hidalgo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67935",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67935",authors:[{id:"198497",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel Alberto",surname:"Flores-Hidalgo",slug:"manuel-alberto-flores-hidalgo",fullName:"Manuel Alberto Flores-Hidalgo"},{id:"304001",title:"Dr.",name:"María Leticia",surname:"Saucedo-Mendiola",slug:"maria-leticia-saucedo-mendiola",fullName:"María Leticia Saucedo-Mendiola"},{id:"304002",title:"Dr.",name:"Diana",surname:"Barraza-Jiménez",slug:"diana-barraza-jimenez",fullName:"Diana Barraza-Jiménez"},{id:"304003",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra Iliana",surname:"Torres-Herrera",slug:"sandra-iliana-torres-herrera",fullName:"Sandra Iliana Torres-Herrera"},{id:"304041",title:"MSc.",name:"Adolfo",surname:"Padilla Mendiola",slug:"adolfo-padilla-mendiola",fullName:"Adolfo Padilla Mendiola"},{id:"304042",title:"MSc.",name:"María Estela",surname:"Frías-Zepeda",slug:"maria-estela-frias-zepeda",fullName:"María Estela Frías-Zepeda"},{id:"306131",title:"Dr.",name:"Azael",surname:"Martínez De La Cruz",slug:"azael-martinez-de-la-cruz",fullName:"Azael Martínez De La Cruz"},{id:"306132",title:"MSc.",name:"Elva Marcela",surname:"Coria-Quiñones",slug:"elva-marcela-coria-quinones",fullName:"Elva Marcela Coria-Quiñones"},{id:"306133",title:"Dr.",name:"Raúl Armando",surname:"Olvera-Corral",slug:"raul-armando-olvera-corral",fullName:"Raúl Armando Olvera-Corral"}],corrections:null},{id:"67774",title:"Solvent Effects in Supramolecular Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86981",slug:"solvent-effects-in-supramolecular-systems",totalDownloads:969,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Today it is well-established that solvents demonstrate an important role in chemistry. Solvents are able to affect the reactivity, as well as the electronic, optical, and generally physicochemical properties of compounds in solution. Taking this into account, in this chapter we analyze the importance of solvent polarity in phenomena closely related to supramolecular systems as well as the aptitude of various supramolecules to interact with solvent molecules and thus to give rise to chromic effects such as solvatochromism. Main focus is placed on mechanically interlocked molecules, e.g., rotaxanes, catenanes, etc., exhibiting solvent-controlled shuttling movements, switching, and/or solvatochromism. The effect of solvents in various supramolecular architectures is a further focus of this chapter.",signatures:"Raffaello Papadakis and Ioanna Deligkiozi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67774",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67774",authors:[{id:"251885",title:"Dr.",name:"Raffaello",surname:"Papadakis",slug:"raffaello-papadakis",fullName:"Raffaello Papadakis"},{id:"252046",title:"Dr.",name:"Ioanna",surname:"Deligkiozi",slug:"ioanna-deligkiozi",fullName:"Ioanna Deligkiozi"}],corrections:null},{id:"69890",title:"Solvent Effect on a Model of SNAr Reaction in Conventional and Non-Conventional Solvents",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89838",slug:"solvent-effect-on-a-model-of-s-sub-n-sub-ar-reaction-in-conventional-and-non-conventional-solvents",totalDownloads:948,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter some theoretical and experimental reports in order to elucidate solvent effects (preferential solvation and iso-solvation effects, respectively) over nucleophilic aromatic substitution reactions as reaction model were examined. Solvent effects phenomena are introduced to predict their mechanism highlighting the hydrogen bond role mainly in ionic liquids, a new generation of solvents that can be designed in order to improve the reactivities of the reacting pair and intermediate species through of the potential energy surface (PES). Then, the preferential solvent effect may be defined as the difference between local and bulk compositions of the solute with respect to the various components of the solvent; usually mixtures of solvents and iso-solvation effect indicate the composition of a mixture in which the probe under consideration is solvated by approximately an equal number of cosolvent molecules in the solvent mixture.",signatures:"Paola R. Campodónico",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69890",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69890",authors:[{id:"298882",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Paola",surname:"Campodonico",slug:"paola-campodonico",fullName:"Paola Campodonico"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7553",title:"Density Functional Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7e98c652fe7f0cf7310a33a74e9f3df5",slug:"density-functional-theory",bookSignature:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7553.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"198499",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Glossman-Mitnik",slug:"daniel-glossman-mitnik",fullName:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7326",title:"Phosphorus",subtitle:"Recovery and Recycling",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"463481a56cd0f4b649285f54a9e5008c",slug:"phosphorus-recovery-and-recycling",bookSignature:"Tao Zhang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7326.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185487",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tao",surname:"Zhang",slug:"tao-zhang",fullName:"Tao Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7715",title:"Recent Advances in Pyrolysis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"76f7f501be4b6e4f5d3f97e81bac2c26",slug:"recent-advances-in-pyrolysis",bookSignature:"Hassan Al- Haj Ibrahim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7715.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"12400",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan Al- Haj",surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"hassan-al-haj-ibrahim",fullName:"Hassan Al- Haj Ibrahim"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8346",title:"Chirality from Molecular Electronic States",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c8c9c50832625da3dc4cee759352246",slug:"chirality-from-molecular-electronic-states",bookSignature:"Takashiro Akitsu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8346.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"147861",title:"Dr.",name:"Takashiro",surname:"Akitsu",slug:"takashiro-akitsu",fullName:"Takashiro Akitsu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7265",title:"Organochlorine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67784ff0ecf9cb18c3667be3c84c3c",slug:"organochlorine",bookSignature:"Aurel Nuro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7265.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14427",title:"Dr.",name:"Aurel",surname:"Nuro",slug:"aurel-nuro",fullName:"Aurel Nuro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10799",title:"Phenolic Compounds",subtitle:"Chemistry, Synthesis, Diversity, Non-Conventional Industrial, Pharmaceutical and Therapeutic Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"339199f254d2987ef3167eef74fb8a38",slug:"phenolic-compounds-chemistry-synthesis-diversity-non-conventional-industrial-pharmaceutical-and-therapeutic-applications",bookSignature:"Farid A. 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Chapters cover such topics as serum protein electrophoresis, urinary iodine measurement, blood collection tubes, semi-solid phase assay and advancement in analytical and bioanalytical techniques, and serological diagnostic tools for Zika virus, among other subjects. All these will not be possible without a proper laboratory management where this book also includes the Tissue Bank ATMP Production as a model. The chapters are expected to provide a new perspective in health science which may trigger a further exploration into the diagnostic and research field.",isbn:"978-1-78985-086-4",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-085-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-371-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73769",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"biochemical-testing-clinical-correlation-and-diagnosis",numberOfPages:172,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"1aa28a784b136633d827933ad91fe621",bookSignature:"Varaprasad Bobbarala, Gaffar Sarwar Zaman, Mohd Nasir Mohd Desa and Abdah Md Akim",publishedDate:"April 29th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7012.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:11601,numberOfWosCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitations:5,numberOfDimensionsCitations:13,numberOfTotalCitations:20,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 16th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 31st 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 29th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 18th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 16th 2019",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"4 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"207119",title:"Dr.",name:"Varaprasad",middleName:null,surname:"Bobbarala PhD",slug:"varaprasad-bobbarala-phd",fullName:"Varaprasad Bobbarala PhD",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/207119/images/system/207119.jpg",biography:"Varaprasad Bobbarala has a doctorate from Andhra University\nwith a specialization in Biochemistry, Medicinal Chemistry,\nand Microbiology. He is currently editor-in-chief, associate\neditor, editorial board member as well as reviewer of dozens of\nhigh-impact international periodicals. He has authored/co-authored research and review articles in numerous peer-reviewed\nnational and international journals in various subjects related\nto biomedicine, pharmacy, and microbiology. Dr. Varaprasad previously served as\nthe Chief Scientist of Research and Development at Krisani Innovations Pvt. Ltd.,\nbefore his current role as the Chief Scientist and Director of Adhya Biosciences Pvt.\nLtd., India. He is currently working in the area of clinical diagnostics, antimicrobial\nresistance, drug discovery, production of commercially important chemicals by\nbiotechnology routes, isolation of bio-active metabolites, and bio-efficacy studies.",institutionString:"Adhya Biosciences",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:null}],coeditorOne:{id:"203015",title:"Dr.",name:"Gaffar",middleName:"Sarwar",surname:"Zaman",slug:"gaffar-zaman",fullName:"Gaffar Zaman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/203015/images/system/203015.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Zaman obtained an MD in Biochemistry from Assam Medical College & Hospital, Srimanta Sankaradeva University of Health Sciences (formerly under Dibrugarh University), India. He completed a Fellowship in Diabetes (FID) at Royal Liverpool Academy, United Kingdom, and a Fellowship in Applied Nutrition (FIAN) at Medvarsity, Apollo Hospitals, India. Dr. Zaman obtained a Post Graduate Diploma in Clinical Research (PGDCR) from Symbiosis University, India. He has almost fifteen years of experience as an Associate Professor at King Khalid Government University, Saudi Arabia, and Rajiv Gandhi University of Health Sciences, India. He has expertise in quality development and curriculum design and is trained in e-learning methods. He has more than fifty research publications to his credit in both national and international journals. He has also edited/co-edited books and authored many book chapters.",institutionString:"King Khalid University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:null},coeditorTwo:{id:"189666",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mohd Nasir",middleName:null,surname:"Mohd Desa",slug:"mohd-nasir-mohd-desa",fullName:"Mohd Nasir Mohd Desa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/189666/images/system/189666.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Nasir Mohd Desa currently serves as an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia. He was a former head for Laboratory of Halal Science Research at Halal Products Research Institute, Universiti Putra Malaysia. He holds a BSc in Microbiology from the University of Arizona, USA, Master of Medical Science and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology from the University of Malaya, Malaysia. He has authored/co-authored research articles in numerous peer-reviewed journals locally and internationally in various subjects related to biomedical science and food authentication. In addition, He has also been an active reviewer for papers from various journals. Apart from administrative, postgraduate supervision and research work, he teaches undergraduate courses in medical microbiology and laboratory management to health science students.",institutionString:"Universiti Putra Malaysia",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Universiti Putra Malaysia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},coeditorThree:{id:"290714",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdah",middleName:null,surname:"Akim",slug:"abdah-akim",fullName:"Abdah Akim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/290714/images/system/290714.png",biography:"Abdah Md Akim is an Associate Professor in Biochemistry, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia. She obtained her bachelor’s degree in Biochemistry in the University of Cardiff, master’s degree and Ph.D. in Biochemistry in Universiti Putra Malaysia. Her International Atomic Energy Agency fellowship training was in the School of Pharmacy, University of London. She is a Chief Editor for Malaysian Journal of Microscopy. She reviewed papers from various local and international journals. She is an examiner for undergraduate and postgraduate research project in various universities in Malaysia. She teaches Clinical Biochemistry, Research Methodology and Laboratory Management.",institutionString:"Universiti Putra Malaysia",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"914",title:"Biotechnology",slug:"materials-science-biochemistry-biotechnology"}],chapters:[{id:"69537",title:"Serum Protein Electrophoresis and Its Clinical Applications",slug:"serum-protein-electrophoresis-and-its-clinical-applications",totalDownloads:1968,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"229011",title:"Dr.",name:"Satish",surname:"Ramanathan",slug:"satish-ramanathan",fullName:"Satish Ramanathan"}]},{id:"66237",title:"Urinary Iodine: Biomarker for Population Iodine Nutrition",slug:"urinary-iodine-biomarker-for-population-iodine-nutrition",totalDownloads:1114,totalCrossrefCites:2,authors:[{id:"219402",title:"Dr.",name:"Husniza",surname:"Hussain",slug:"husniza-hussain",fullName:"Husniza Hussain"},{id:"239718",title:"MSc.",name:"Rusidah",surname:"Selamat",slug:"rusidah-selamat",fullName:"Rusidah Selamat"},{id:"289785",title:"Dr.",name:"Fuziah",surname:"Md Zain",slug:"fuziah-md-zain",fullName:"Fuziah Md Zain"},{id:"289787",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Yazid",surname:"Jalaludin",slug:"muhammad-yazid-jalaludin",fullName:"Muhammad Yazid Jalaludin"},{id:"295170",title:"Dr.",name:"Lim Kuang",surname:"Kuay",slug:"lim-kuang-kuay",fullName:"Lim Kuang Kuay"}]},{id:"67668",title:"Advancement in Analytical and Bioanalytical Techniques as a Boon to Medical Sciences",slug:"advancement-in-analytical-and-bioanalytical-techniques-as-a-boon-to-medical-sciences",totalDownloads:954,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"256521",title:"Dr.",name:"Dr. Khushaboo",surname:"Pandey",slug:"dr.-khushaboo-pandey",fullName:"Dr. Khushaboo Pandey"},{id:"265530",title:"Prof.",name:"Om Prakash",surname:"Mishra",slug:"om-prakash-mishra",fullName:"Om Prakash Mishra"}]},{id:"63692",title:"Pre-Analytical Within-Laboratory Evacuated Blood-Collection Tube Quality Evaluation",slug:"pre-analytical-within-laboratory-evacuated-blood-collection-tube-quality-evaluation",totalDownloads:1067,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"171229",title:"Dr.",name:"Nataša",surname:"Gros",slug:"natasa-gros",fullName:"Nataša Gros"}]},{id:"71434",title:"In Silico Proteomics EVOO Therapy for Lipid Lowering in the Patients of Diabetes Mellitus",slug:"in-silico-proteomics-evoo-therapy-for-lipid-lowering-in-the-patients-of-diabetes-mellitus",totalDownloads:652,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"172958",title:"Dr.",name:"Samreen",surname:"Riaz",slug:"samreen-riaz",fullName:"Samreen Riaz"},{id:"259652",title:"Mr.",name:"Muhamamd",surname:"Sohail",slug:"muhamamd-sohail",fullName:"Muhamamd Sohail"}]},{id:"64585",title:"ZIKV Diagnostics: Current Scenario and Future Directions",slug:"zikv-diagnostics-current-scenario-and-future-directions",totalDownloads:833,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"268210",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zilton",surname:"Vasconcelos",slug:"zilton-vasconcelos",fullName:"Zilton Vasconcelos"},{id:"269903",title:"MSc.",name:"Daniela Prado",surname:"Cunha",slug:"daniela-prado-cunha",fullName:"Daniela Prado Cunha"},{id:"269904",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",surname:"Zin",slug:"andrea-zin",fullName:"Andrea Zin"},{id:"269905",title:"MSc.",name:"Luiza",surname:"Neves",slug:"luiza-neves",fullName:"Luiza Neves"},{id:"269907",title:"Dr.",name:"Renata Campos",surname:"Azevedo",slug:"renata-campos-azevedo",fullName:"Renata Campos Azevedo"}]},{id:"64152",title:"Semi-Solid Phase Assay for the Alternative Complement Pathway Activity Assessment (AP100)",slug:"semi-solid-phase-assay-for-the-alternative-complement-pathway-activity-assessment-ap-sub-100-sub-",totalDownloads:681,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"217341",title:"Dr.",name:"Kheir Eddine",surname:"Kerboua",slug:"kheir-eddine-kerboua",fullName:"Kheir Eddine Kerboua"}]},{id:"66048",title:"Amino Acids Profiling for the Diagnosis of Metabolic Disorders",slug:"amino-acids-profiling-for-the-diagnosis-of-metabolic-disorders",totalDownloads:3254,totalCrossrefCites:3,authors:[{id:"285558",title:"Dr.",name:"Yana",surname:"Sandlers",slug:"yana-sandlers",fullName:"Yana Sandlers"}]},{id:"67429",title:"Resource-Based View of Laboratory Management: Tissue Bank ATMP Production as a Model",slug:"resource-based-view-of-laboratory-management-tissue-bank-atmp-production-as-a-model",totalDownloads:1078,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"203598",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Diana",surname:"Kitala",slug:"diana-kitala",fullName:"Diana 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Really revolutionary nanotech items, materials and application for example nanorobotics, are years long in the future. But what qualifies as “Nanotechnology” today is fundamental innovation that is going on in research centers everywhere throughout the world. Products of Nanotech which are on business sector today are generally steadily improved products (utilizing evolutionary nanotechnology) where some types of Nano-empowered materials (for example, Carbon nanotubes, nanocomposite structure of nanoparticles of specific substance) or nanotech process (for example Nano-patterning or Quantum Dots for medicinal imaging) is utilized in the assembling procedure. In their progressing and ongoing journey to improve existing products by making smaller parts and better execution materials, all at a lower cost, the number of organization that will make “Nano products” will become extremely fast and soon make up the most of all organization across numerous businesses.
Nanomaterials (NMs) have picked up noticeable quality in technological progressions due to their tunable synthetic, physical and organic properties with improved execution over their bulk counter partners. They are arranged depending on their origin, size, shape and composition. The capacity to anticipate the remarkable properties of NMs expand the estimation of each classification. Nanomaterials speak to an active/functioning area of research and techno-economic parts in numerous application areas. NMs are depicted as a material with a length of 1–1000 nm in at least one dimension [1]. In any case, a single globally acknowledge definition for NMs does not exist. The diverse association has a distinction in assessment in defining NMs. As indicated by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), NMs can display remarkable properties unique than the equal chemical compound in a bigger dimension [2]. The US Food and Administration (USFDA) likewise alludes to NMs as “materials that have at least one dimension dependent phenomena” [2]. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has depicted NMs as a “Materials with any external nanoscale measurement or having internal nanoscale surface structure” [2]. As of late, the British Standard Institution proposed the following definition for the scientific terms that have been utilized:
The nanoparticles shows remarkable chemical, physical and natural properties at nanoscale contrasted with their respective particles at higher scales. This phenomenon is because of a moderately bigger surface region to the volume, expand reactivity or stability in a synthetic procedure, improved mechanical strength and so forth. These properties of nanoparticles have prompted its utilization of different applications [3]. Nanoparticles have been utilized in medication (drug delivery), in food industries, gene delivery and Cancer therapy and so on [3]. The nanoparticles are of various size, structure and shape. It well may be tubular, conical, spherical, hollow core, cylindrical, spiral, flat and so forth or sporadic and contrast from 1 to 100 nm in size. Nanomaterials/or nanoparticles are utilized in an expansive range of use. Today they contained in numerous products and utilized in different technologies. Most Nano items created on an industrial scale are nanoparticle, in spite of the fact that they likewise emerge as by-products in the manufacturing of other materials [4, 5]. Explicit synthesis is utilized to create the different nanoparticles, coating composite and dispersion. Characterized production and reaction condition is pivotal in acquiring such size-dependent molecule. Particle shape, crystallinity, chemical composition and size can be constrained by pH- value, synthetic arrangement (chemical), temperature, procedure control and surface modification [5].
Two fundamental procedures are utilized to create nanoparticles: “Top-down” and “Bottom-up”. The expression “Top-down” alludes here to the mechanical squashing of source materials utilizing a milling procedure. In the “Bottom-up” strategy, structures are developed by the synthetic procedure. The determination of the individual procedure relies upon the compound organization and the desire features indicated for the nanoparticles [6] (Figure 1) (Table 1).
Methods of nanoparticles production: top-down and bottom-up (image: Laboratory for micro and nanotechnology, Paul Scherrer Institut).
Category | Method | Nanoparticles |
---|---|---|
Bottom-up | Pyrolysis | Carbon and metal oxide based |
Biosynthesis | Organic polymers and metal based | |
Spinning | Organic polymers | |
Sol-gel | Carbon metal and metal oxide based | |
Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) | Carbon and metal based | |
Top-down | Sputtering | Metal based |
Laser ablation | Carbon based and metal oxide based | |
Thermal decomposition | Carbon and metal oxide based | |
Nanolithography | Metal based | |
Mechanical milling | Metal, oxide and metal oxide based |
Categories of the nanoparticles synthesized from the various methods [1].
Strangely, the morphological parameters of NPs can be tweaked by shifting the chemical concentration and reaction condition for example pH and temperature. However, if these synthesized NMs are exposed to the real application, then they can experience the following impediment, which is stability in a threatening situation, absence of comprehension in fundamental mechanism and modeling factors, bioaccumulation or toxicity quality, extensive examination requirements recycle, reuse, regeneration. In true word, it is desirable that the properties, behavior and types of nanomaterials ought to be improved to meet the aforementioned points. Then again, these impediments are opening new and extraordinary opportunities in this developing field of research.
To counter those restrictions a new era of green synthesis methodologies is increasing incredible in recent research and innovative work on material science and technologies. Essentially green synthesis will straightforwardly help uplift the ecological friendliness as they are generated through clean up, regulation/guideline, control and remediation process additionally there are few parts like the decrease of derivatives, decrease of contamination, prevention and minimalization of waste and ultimately the utilization of more secure solvent during synthesis process as well as renewable stock. Green synthesis is required to stay away from the production of undesirable or unsafe products through the build-up of reliable, maintainable and eco-friendly methods. Green synthesis of metallic nanoparticles has been embraced to suit different organic material (for example, algae, bacteria, plant extract and fungi) (Figure 2)[7]. Among the accessible green methods of synthesis for metal and metal oxide NPs, usage of plant extract is a fairly straightforward and simple procedure to create nanoparticles at large scale with respect to fungi and bacteria mediated synthesis. Synthesis of metal and metal oxide NPs, plant biodiversity has been comprehensively considered to be because of the availability of effective phytochemicals in different plant extract, particular in leaves such as amide, flavones, phenols, terpenoids, ketones, ascorbic acid, aldehyde and carboxylic acids. These components are equipped of reducing metal salts into metal NPs [7, 8] (Tables 2 and 3).
Different methods for the synthesis of nanoparticles [
Sr. no. | Species | Nanoparticles | Size (nm) | Morphology | Application |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Silver | 20–50 | Spherical | Drug delivery, bio-labeling | |
2 | Gold | 20–50 | Spherical | Catalysis | |
3 | Cadmium | 2–5 | Fluorescent labels | Wurtzite structures | |
4 | Silver | 28–122 | Spherical | Optical receptor, antimicrobial | |
5 | Iron oxide | 40–50 | Octahedral prism | ||
6 | Silver | 25–75 | Spherical | Water-soluble metallic catalyst | |
7 | Silver | 23–105 | Crystalline spherical | Antimicrobial agent | |
8 | Silver | 60–80 | Spherical | Antimicrobial agent | |
9 | Gold, silver | 4–15 | Spherical | Catalysis | |
10 | Titanium dioxide | 12–15 | Spherical | Plant nutrient fertilizer |
Synthesis of metallic nanoparticles from various biological species (bacteria) [7].
Sr. no. | Species | Nanoparticles | Size (nm) | Morphology | Application |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Silver | 20 | Spherical | Antibacterial | |
2 | Gold | 200–500 | Spherical, triangular | Infrared-absorbing optical coating | |
3 | Gold | 5–100 | Irregular | Detection and destruction of cancer cells | |
4 | Silver | 5–30 | Spherical | Kill microbes | |
5 | Gold | 2–40 | Hexagonal, tetrahedral, icosahedral | Labeling in structural biology, paints | |
6 | Silver | 15–20 | Spherical | Antimicrobial activity | |
7 | Gold, silver | 10–30 | Spherical, triangular | Cancer hyperthermia, optical coating | |
8 | Gold | 6.75–57.91 | Spherical, triangular | Drug delivery, tumor imaging | |
9 | Gold, silver | 5–35 | Spherical, hexagonal | Remediation of toxic metal | |
10 | Gold | 10–35 | Spherical | Biomedical field |
Synthesis of metallic nanoparticles from various plant extract [7].
Dendrimers, micelles, liposomes and ferritin are usually known as natural nanoparticles or polymers. These nanoparticles are biodegradable, non-toxic and a few particles for example, micelles and liposomes have a hollow center otherwise known as nanocapsules [9].
Inorganic nanoparticles are not comprised of carbon. Metal and metal oxide based nanoparticles are commonly classified as inorganic nanoparticles.
The nanoparticles made totally of carbon are known as carbon-based [1, 9, 10]. They can be classified as:
Nano-technology has acquired an incredible revolution in the industrial division. Due to their exceptional physiochemical and electrical properties, Nano-sized materials have increased a great deal of fascination in the field of hardware, biotechnology and aeronautic design. It is additionally being utilized in the field of medicine NPs similar to the novel delivery system for drugs, DNA and so on. Human is exposed to different non-scale materials since the new developing field of nanotechnology has turned into another danger to human life [11, 12]. The proposed hypothesis is that the NPs of size under 10 nm act similar to gas and can enter human tissues effectively and may abrogate the cell typical biochemical condition [11, 13]. There have been studies on human and murine models that the NPs are exposed through orally they are circulated to the spleen, liver, heart and lungs also to the brain and gastrointestinal zone, some other exposure routes may incorporate skin, ingestion, inhalation and injection. Some designed NPs are being utilized in many products with direct exposure to people, for instance, ZnO NPs are added to numerous items including cotton texture, Food packaging and rubber for its freshening up and antibacterial attributes, TiO2 NPs are utilized in food coloring, makeup, skincare item and tattoo pigments, Fe2O3 NPs utilized in the final polish on metallic gems (jewelries) [12]. It has been seen that life expectancy of the nanoparticles in human is around 700 days in which it reliably has a risk to the body. Nanoparticles have an incredible risk to human’s wellbeing when contrasted with large-sized particles of the similar chemical compound and it is commonly said that toxicities are contrarily corresponding to the size of the nanoparticles [14, 15]. As the utilization of engineered nanoparticles keeps on developing exponentially, an unintended and intended exposure may happen, which will prompt a high level of human wellbeing hazard. End product users, occupationally exposed subjects and the overall population may be in danger of antagonistic impact (Figure 3).
The following figure represents usages of nanotechnology/nanoparticles in different field [
The physiochemical properties of NPs impact how they interact with cells and thus, their potential danger. Studies have demonstrated the different properties that make some nanoparticles more toxic than others. Hypothetically, molecules size is likely to add to cytotoxicity. Smaller NPs have a bigger specific surface area and thus in this way increasingly accessible surface area to interact with cell components for example, carbohydrates, protein, nucleic acids and fatty acids. Nanoparticles with small size are liable to enter the cells, causing cellular damage. Some nanoparticles lethality were seen as a function of both size and specific surface area. It has additionally been seen that size of NPs has seen to correspond with reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation when comparing the amount of ROS generation per surface area within certain size range [14, 15, 16]. Nanoparticles size between 10 nm or > 30 nm creates comparable level of ROS per surface area. In any case, there was a sensational increment in ROS production per unit surface in particle expanding from 10 to 30 nm. This information or data disclose to us the bits of knowledge with respect to the perplexing connection between NPs properties and Nano toxicity.
Silver nanoparticles are progressively utilized in different fields, including health care, medical, food, consumer and industrial purpose because of their novel physical and chemical properties. Because of their unconventional properties, they have been utilized for a few applications, as in medical device coating, drug delivery, health care products, and food industry, as anticancer agent and orthopedics and also as anti-bacterial agents. AgNPs by a long shot the most generally utilized in customers items, for example, in kitchen utensils, toothpaste, bedding, deodorants, nursing bottles, washing machines, nipples and humidifiers [17]. So as to satisfy the necessity of silver NPs different strategy have been utilized for synthesis, conventional technique like chemical and physical strategies have been utilized, yet they are by all accounts expensive and toxic/hazardous [18].
An organic methodology has been utilized in the synthesis of AgNPs utilizing microorganisms, fungi and plant extract prompting to reliable alterative to chemical and physical techniques in acquiring the nanoparticles in controlled particle size. It has been seen that green synthesis of AgNPs with various stabilizing agents, for example, polyethylene glycol, alcohol vinyl, dextran, cyclodextrins and utilizing “andeli” (rose extract) [19, 20, 21, 22]. This expands utilization of AgNPs in different materials has prompted a more straightforward and direct exposure in human and raised potential dangers to health issues. In an in vivo examination (Sprague-Dawley rodents) they were dealt with orally for 28 days with AgNPs in spite of the fact that there was no observable difference in clinical sign and neither in any difference in body or organ weight. The impacts on blood biochemistry have been seen to increase in cholesterol at high doses of AgNP which indicates that hepatotoxicity and increment in alkaline phosphatase. In another investigation, F344 rodents were fed AgNPs for a time period of 90 days and a decrease in body weight in males was seen following a month of exposure and a dose-dependent change was seen in cholesterolemia and alkaline phosphatases activity which proposed that 125 mg/kg body weight of AgNPs may cause liver harm (Figure 4).
Nanoparticles pathway and toxicological impact [
It is commonly realized that NPs can be absorbed by the digestive tract not just through the M-cells in the Peyer’s patch yet additionally by numerous organs as shown in Figure 5. Culture of human mesenchymal stem cells incubated with 0.1 μg ml−1 of normal human lungs fibroblast cells or albumin-capped silver nanoparticles or human glioblastoma cells starch incubated with capped silver nanoparticle (AgNPs) showed genotoxicity up to dosages of 50 μg ml−1. Albumin-capped AgNPs has been demonstrated to be more genotoxic than polysaccharide-capped AgNPs. Silver nanoparticles exposed to in vivo models like mice were seen to be more toxic than fish to capped AgNPs. However NPs toxicity/genotoxicity was seen as more when the concentration of albumin-capped NPs was increased to >100 μg ml−1 (Table 4).
Main target organ of silver nanoparticles.
Sr.no. | Classification | Cell | Size (nm) | Cytotoxicity | Genotoxicity |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Vertebrate/chordata/mammalian | IMR-90 Human lung fibroblast | 6–20 | 50 μg ml−1 | Comet assay 5 μm (50 comets were analyzed per concentration) (DNA damage at 50 μg ml−1) |
2 | Vertebrate/chordata/mammalian, human | A549 Human lung carc. | 78 | 12.5 μg ml−1 | In this it was indicated that silver NPs mediated ROS-induced genotoxicity |
3 | Vertebrate/chordata/mammalian | mES Mouse embryonic stem cells | 25 | 50 μg ml−1 | 50 μg ml−1 (this conc. upregulates the DNA damage repair proteins Rad51 and phosphorylated-H2AX expression and even upregulates cell cycle checkpoint protein p53) |
4 | Vertebrate/chordata/fish | OLHN12 Medaka fish | 20–30 | 1.3 μg ml−1 | 1.2 μg ml−1 aneuplidy 15.8% |
5 | Vertebrate/chordata/mammalian | BRL 3A Rat liver cells | 25 | 50 μg ml−1 | 10 μg ml−1 |
6 | Plantae/liliopsida | 5000 cells | 24–55 | ROS-induced up to 10 μg ml−1cell death and DNA damage doses 20 μg ml−1 | No genotoxicity |
7 | Vertebrate/chordata/fish | Primary trout hepatocytes N = 3, each treatement | 35 | Significant toxicity from 500–1000 μg ml−1 | Didn’t cause significant lactate dehydrogenase release |
8 | Vertebrate/chordata/mammalian | MEF Mouse embryonic fibroblasts | 25 | 50 μg ml−1 | 50 μg ml−1 this concentration upregulates the Rad51 and phosphorylates-H2AX expression and also upregulates p53 |
9 | Vertebrates/chordata/mammalian, human | Human lymphocytes | 25–45 | Till 400 μg ml−1 | Till 50 μg ml−1 no DNA damage |
10 | Vertebrate/chordata/mammalian, human | HepG2 Human hepatocytes 150 cell per group | 15–20 | 13 μg ml−1 (58% survival) | Here it was indicated that the AGNPs induces ROS-induced nontoxicity |
In vivo cytotoxicity and genotoxicity effects of AgNPs in different organisms [25].
In recent investigation, it has been seen that hepatotoxicity, pulmonary inflammation, genotoxicity, neurotoxicity, inflammatory effects and cytotoxicity have been related with various shape and size of silver nanoparticles. A large number of articles have been proposed that silver nanoparticles assume a noteworthy job in prompting Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) which in returns lead to cell cytotoxicity and genotoxicity. It has been seen that cytotoxicity has been closely identified to the generation of ROS. For example interaction of AgNPs with mitochondrial can be seen that: 95% of the cell’s energy is generated by mitochondria as it is the powerhouse of the cells. It’s a significant and essential piece of the cell. ROS generation is possible because of the superoxide spillage through the membrane. The interaction of AgNPs with mitochondria which prompts generation of ROS can be clarified in a manner when Ag+ and silver nanoparticles have a high affinity (−SH) thiol group in cysteine residues. AgNPs disrupts the membrane proteins integrity of the mitochondria, also hampers the membrane permeability of the membrane and abrogate the mitochondrial functions (Figure 6).
This figure represents the endogenous ROS production, which are involved in oxidative stress. Interaction between mitochondrial and AgNP generate ROS from mitochondria which leads to cell death [
A great deal of studies has demonstrated a connection in ROS generation by silver nanoparticles, oxidative stress and cytotoxicity. Numerous toxicological changes have been reported in embryos when they are exposed to nanoparticles, for example, changes in oxidative stress markers such as apoptosis, changes in expression of genes and lipid oxidation, etc. It has been seen that massive production of free radicals lead to the generation of pro-inflammatory cytokines and furthermore initiation of NOX/NADPH oxidase family. It must be noticed that other than inflammatory effects of oxygen radicals, oxidants helps the release of inflammatory mediators by activating transcription factor including AP-1, hypoxia inducing factor and NF-kB and which prompts to oxidative stress and inflammation. Oxidative stress might have a double role, first as “effector” (by oxidant discharge and induced toxicity) and secondly as “modulator” (managing transcription factor) of chronic micro-inflammation process. This interaction among inflammation and oxidative stress in an amplified manner may prompt to the deleterious impacts brought by silver nanoparticles and which can prompt to DNA damage and cell demise by apoptosis (Figure 7).
Pictorial representation of activation of cellular mechanisms of inflammatory signal when exposed to AgNP generated from ROS and by strengthening of NADPH oxidase activity. By MAP kinases pathway, activation of oxidative IKK-B which is induced by stress leads to NF-kB translocation and expression of marker and potential mediators of inflammation increases, mitochondrial damage and membrane damage which can cause toxicity in cell and leads to death by apoptosis [
In brief, the ingenious and extensive demand of nanoparticles has led to their extensive production. After use modalities path their way towards exposure to environment as well as to the human health moreover the product which are being used are also in direct contact with the human tissue. Prolong accumulation of the nanoparticle particularly talking about silver nanoparticles.
High speed laser scanners (to 2 million points per second) in automatic mode measure horizontal and vertical angles and distances to any visible point of the tank in non-reflective (non-contact) mode. According to the measurement results, the coordinates
Measurements can be performed at a wide range of temperatures and in strong winds with modern scanning devices, and with some types of instruments, even in the rain.
The scanner scans everything that is around within its line of sight except for a small “dead” zone under the device, and when working “upside down”, above the device.
One of the ways to increase accuracy of volume and mass measurement of liquids stored in vertical and horizontal cylindrical, and spherical tanks and ships’ tanks is a laser scanning of their surface in the process of their calibration. This significantly increases the productivity of the measurement process. Without special software it is impossible to fulfill rather complicated calculations for accurate estimation of the interval capacities of tank and their uncertainties. Correct use of the scanners for coordinate measuring, preparation of tank’s 3D model, development and use of special software for tank capacity calculation and its uncertainty calculation is impossible without clear definition of those processes and algorithms. The crude errors and unproven methodic of laser scanning cause crude errors in measurement of a tanks’ capacity up to 1–5%. The nonconformity of laser scanners to set requirements causes errors in measurement of the tank’s capacity up to 0,5–2%.
The main goal of these research are the development of the laser scanners measurement methods and calculations of the tank’s interval capacities methods, which provide an increase in the accuracy of measuring the capacity of tanks in relation to the requirements of OIML R71 [1].
Simultaneously, the task of shortening the measurement time using laser scanners and shortening the processing time and creation of a tank capacity table based on laser scanning data using special software is being solved.
The internal capacities of the tank are entered into the capacity table. It sets up a correspondence between absolute height of the level of liquid in the tank and its capacity. So, the interval capacity is the value of the tank capacity on the pointed out in the capacity table absolute height of the liquid level.
Many methodical details concerning correct use of the laser scanners for tanks calibration exist. These details, as a rule, are absent in the valid standards that provide application electro-optic method for measurement at tanks’ calibration [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]. The standards [11, 12, 13] can be considered the most complete but they are dated and need to be revised taking into account the latest calibration experience.
This publication is aimed to present clear formulation of important technical requirements concerning the correct usage of scanners in order to ensure fulfillment of the main goal. According to the existing data crude errors and unproven methodic of laser scanning cause crude errors in measurement of tanks capacity up to 1–5%.
Not all types of the laser scanners are appropriate for measurements in the process of tanks’ calibration or they have certain constraints for calibration of particular tanks types. Ensuring fulfillment of the main goal should include clear metrological and technical requirements to the laser scanners. Laboratory experience proves that nonconformity of the laser scanners to set requirements causes errors in the measurement of the tank’s capacity up to 0,5–2%.
Shortening of the measurement time, i.e., fulfillment of the task of shortening the measurement time is provided almost by any scanner, but its use is appropriate only in case, if it conforms to the set requirements and is used correctly for appropriate tank types.
Previous processing of number of points, which coordinates are measured by laser scanner on the surface of the tank walls (files with approximate size from 50 to 200 MB) has a great importance for fulfillment of the main goal and tasks. The result of such previous processing is a 3D tank model, applicable for further calculation of its interval capacities and their uncertainties. This procedure and requirements to it should also be clearly formulated.
Methods, formulae and algorithms for calculation interval capacities of tanks are very complicated. Fulfillment of the main goal depends on accuracy of methods, formulae and algorithms for calculation of interval capacities of tank. Moreover, they should provide calculation for tanks scanned internally and externally, for all complicated cases of spatial position, for example, huge tank axis tilt, big deformations of tank walls and structural features of tank, etc. To fulfill the main goal and of the task of shortening the processing time and creation of a tank capacity table, it is necessary that they should be clearly and definitely formulated in the new standards. This will help to develop special software and test it for fulfillment of the main goal and decision the tasks.
For final fulfillment of the task of shortening the processing time and creation of a tank capacity table, it is necessary that special software automatically formulate calibration certificate including tank capacity table with interval capacity uncertainties and other important data. Form of the measurement report and certificate should be clearly formulated.
To fulfill the task of shortening the processing time and creation of a tank capacity table, it is necessary to develop special software. Calibrating laboratories have no economical or technical possibilities to develop the mentioned software. There are examples of software development for processing calibration results of tanks by laser scanners manufacturers. Thus, having no experience in calibration of tanks and clear requirements, these attempts cannot be called successful [14].
Fulfillment of the main goal will allow to provide:
accurate bills calculations for shipped liquids in the process of commercial and tax operations, including fraud protection;
accuracy increase of internal accounting of liquids quantity on the enterprises and organizations, which should shorten nonproductive loses of liquids and improve internal financial reporting indices;
accuracy increase of liquids batching in the process of technological operations of mixing or preparing solutions, etc.
Fulfillment of the task of shortening the measurement time will allow to:
save by enterprises and organizations owing to substantial shortening of nonproductive using of tanks and connected to it technical equipment. For example, calibration of 4–5 tanks on the filling station by laser scanning method taking 40–60 minutes, while using volumetric method according to ISO 4269:2001 [15] takes from 1 to 3 days.
Fulfillment of the task of shortening the processing time and creation of a tank capacity table will allow:
organizations concerned to develop software for processing calibration results more applicable for fulfillment of the main goal;
calibration laboratories to get software, which will shorten processing of measurement results time and will form calibration certificate of tanks and their capacities tables;
accuracy increase of liquid volume measurement in the process of commercial, tax and technical operations, also internal accounting of liquids circulation, for example, oil and gas.
complete cancelation of calibration of tanks using ISO 4269: This will help to save on large volume of dirty water filtering, which was used for tank calibration. Besides, accuracy of capacity measurement will remain the same or increase.
clear recommendations will allow to shorten substantially crude and systematic errors quantity in the process of tanks calibration and calculation of their capacity by calibrating laboratories.
One of the obstacles to achieve goal set in the Section 1 is dated standards [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13]. Standards GOST Р 8.994 [7] and GOST Р 8.996 [8] are new and they provide usage of total stations and scanners but schemas, measurement methods and capacity calculation methods as in [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10] do not meet the above set goal.
OIML R 71 [1] does not contain requirements to field measurement methods, tank capacity calculations and software. In the tank calibration it refers to the international standards [2, 3, 4, 5].
In the standards [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10] the tank is not considered as single spatially closed surface of a geometrically regular or free form where spatial coordinates of each point are known in a single spatial coordinate system.
According to the standards [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10] the radius of the cylindrical tank is calculated from coordinates approximation in separate unconnected plane sections. As a result, part of the significant information about shape and size of the tank is not used. It causes latent (almost impossible to estimate) increase in the uncertainty of the interval capacities calculation. Determination of the axis tilt of a vertical tank to a plumb line or of a horizontal tank to horizon in these standards is performed by some separate measurements. Tilt definition is not associated with mentioned sections. The axis tilt uncertainty is unsatisfactory. In [12, 13, 16] the axis tilt and its uncertainty are estimated strictly by the least square method (LSM) for all points of the 3D model.
To achieve the goal spatial coordinates must be used to calculate parameters and capacities of the tanks. This is implemented in the standards [11, 12, 13], as well as [16, 17]. Though these standards also require substantial revision taking into account the experience received in recent years.
All listed standards do not contain sufficient information as to requirements to optical-electronic devices for tanks’ calibration. A minimum of metrological characteristics and parameters of devices is listed.
So called verification of total stations, described in ISO 7507-4 [3] and ISO 12917-2 [5], is incorrect and harmful procedure for determination suitability of the devices for tank calibration. It is necessary to calibrate scanners with setting specific metrological characteristics and parameters that affect the uncertainty of capacity calculation by point coordinates on the tank walls surface.
For many years, researches have been carried out on metrological and other technical characteristics and parameters of scanners. However, the research of their influence on uncertainty in calculating tank’ interval capacities has not been carried out. Therefore, references on multiple sources regarding scanners research are not provided.
In the standards ISO 12917-2 [5], GOST Р 8.994 [7] and GOST 8.659 [13] it is proposed to use total stations for calibration horizontal cylindrical tanks. Many years of experience show that the use of the total stations has no prospect for the calibration of such tanks. Most of them are small in size. The diameter ranges from 1 to 3,5 m. The total stations have range in measurement distances in non-reflective mode 1,2–1,5 m what makes their usage very difficult in tight working space inside the tank. Labor productivity at calibration of such tanks by total station according to ISO 12917-2 [5], GOST Р 8.994 [7] and GOST 8.659 [13] does not stand up to criticism. It can last 3–8 hours versus 10–15 minutes required for scanning the tank from inside and 15–30 minutes from outside. Using a total station during 3–8 hours the number of points on the tank wall surface is not enough to calculate interval capacities with uncertainty better than 0,5–1%.
Attempts to apply method of capacity calculation by areas of separate horizontal sections to spherical tanks [18] have no prospects at all. Only in GOST 8.655 [11, 17] mathematically strict approach is used when an approximation by spatial geometrical figure is applied to coordinates of all point on the surface. Then, the capacity of the spatial figure segment is calculated below the specified horizontal plane. A correction for the relief of the real surface is added relative to the approximated one with the using all points of the segment. In this case uncertainty is estimated mathematically strict. A similar approach is used in GOST 8.656 [12], GOST 8.659 [13, 16].
A special place among scanners is occupied by highly specialized scanning systems [19, 20]. Their clear advantage is in explosion-proof design. It is very attractive for tank owners that no cleaning and degassing of the tank is required. Scanning is carried out through a relatively small hole in the tank hatch. Duration of scanning is 2 hours [20]. But apart from small horizontal tanks from the inside, they cannot scan anything else. There are big doubts about the declared accuracy [20] (the declared accuracy is absent in [19]). The reasons for these doubts will be stated below. Scanner calibration certificates and any materials of comparative tests of the described technology stated in [19, 20] are not accompanied.
Let us briefly recall some important geometrical conditions that must be met for any scanner or total station used for tank calibration.
Rotation axis of the device must be vertical. It is often called the vertical rotation axis, although it is never exactly vertical. The device must measure tilt of the rotation axis of the device and transform the measurement results and calculated coordinates so that axis
Rotation axis of the scanner mirror or the telescope of the total station must be perpendicular to rotation axis of the device. It is often called horizontal rotation axis although it is only approximately horizontal. The point of intersection of the rotation axes of the device and the mirror or tube can be called the reference point of the device, since the zero of the system of measured spatial coordinates is placed exactly in it.
The laser beam axis of the scanner distance meter, which is directed to the tank for measuring the distance, must be perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the mirror or tube. The distance to the tank wall should be measured from the reference point of the device. In reality, it is measured from some other point located on the laser beam axis. The distance from this point to the reference point of the device is called the additive constant of the distance meter of the device [21, 22].
All devices measure cylindrical coordinates – horizontal and vertical angles and slope distance
If calibration laboratory has scanners with the metrological characteristics and parameters that are recommended in Table 1 it does not guarantee the achievement of the set tasks for reducing the uncertainty of interval capacities. However, the lack of scanners with such metrological characteristics and parameters makes achievement of the main goal very difficult.
The name of the metrological characteristic or parameter of the scanner | Nominal capacity of the tanks, m3 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Up to 50 | From 50 to 1000 | From 1000 to 5000 | Above 5000 | ||
1 | Approximate range of measured slope distances to the tank wall, m | 0,6–6 | 1–10 | 2–20 | 3–50 |
2 | Standard deviation of the coordinates’ measurement in the range of the measured distances (random component of the measurement), mm, not more | 1,5 | 2,2 | 3 | 4 |
3 | Additive constant of the scanner distance meter in the range of measurement, mm, not more | 5 | 10 | 15 | 20 |
4 | Expanded measurement uncertainty of the additive constant of the scanner distance meter at its calibration, mm, not more | 0,5 | 1,0 | 1,5 | 2 |
5 | Measuring range of the tilt of the scanner rotation axis when working in the inverted state, …°, not less | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 |
6 | Expanded uncertainty of measuring the tilt of its rotation axis by the scanner, …′, not more | 1 | 1 | 1,5 | 2 |
7 | Index error (zenith point), …′, not more | 1 | 1 | 1,5 | 2 |
8 | Collimation error – deviation from the perpendicularity of the laser beam axis and mirror rotation, …′, not more | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 |
9 | Deviation from the perpendicularity of mirror rotation axis and the laser scanner rotation axis, …′, not more | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 |
10 | Expanded uncertainty of measuring the absolute height of the scanner reference point relative to the tank reference point, mm, not more | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
Recommended metrological characteristics and parameters of scanners depending on capacities of the calibrated tanks.
The expansion coefficient is equal to 2 for the expanded uncertainty in Table 1 at a confidence level of 0.95 and a normal distribution law.
Some comments to items of Table 1.
In the first line of Table 1 it is given the most probable range of distances in which the scanner has to work at calibrating a tank of the specified capacity. It should be noted that not all types of scanners provide the minimum measurement range.
If you scan a smooth surface, at the scan it will not look smooth, but will have some roughness. It is characterized by a standard deviation.
The additive constant of the scanner distance meter should be zero, but this is never the case. It is recommended that it does not exceed the values given in Table 1. Unfortunately, it can have slightly different values at different sub-ranges of the measured distances. This should also be investigated and taken into account when introducing amendments.
Special attention should be paid to the measurement of the additive constant of the distance meter, as it should be used to introduce corrections to each point coordinate on the surface of the tank walls. Its uncertainty directly affects the uncertainty in determining the size of the tank, and, consequently, the uncertainty in determining its capacity. For example, it is highly desirable that for horizontal tanks with a nominal capacity of 5 to 50 m3, the expanded uncertainty of the mean radius does not exceed 0,2–0,5 mm, and the average length does not exceed 1–2 mm.
It is difficult to position quickly and accurately the rotation axis of the scanner in a vertical position when it is upside down. Therefore, it is very important to have a wide measurement range of the tilt of the scanner’s rotation axis in an inverted state (Figure 1). If the scanner is used only in a normal vertical position, then the measurement range of the rotation axis tilt can be ± (5′ – 15 ′). In this case, the rotation axis tilt of the scanner inside vertical tanks can be significantly affected by the instability of its bottom.
Uncertainty in measuring the tilt of the scanner rotation axis is a very important characteristic, since the random and systematic components of the tilt measurement are directly contributed into the uncertainty of the axis tilt of the cylindrical tank.
Theoretically, the zero of the devices for measuring vertical angles should coincide with the rotation axis of the device, but this is not always the case. The angle between the rotation axis, which must be vertical and the zero of the devices, is called the index error.
Collimation error – deviation from the perpendicularity of the laser beam axis and tube rotation for total station should not exceed 0,5′.
Deviation from the perpendicularity of tube rotation axis and the total stations rotation axis is should not exceed 0,5′.
This item refers to the use of the scanner at tank calibration. The absolute height of the scanner reference point relative to the tank reference point should be determined before and/or immediately after scanning the tank with the recommended uncertainty.
Scanning of the horizontal cylindrical underground tank through its hatch.
Based on the above information, the scanners described in [19, 20] should be subjected to rigorous metrological testing. For them, the requirements of items 2, 4, 6–10 must be met. Otherwise, it is impossible to talk about the achievement of the set goal regarding the uncertainty of interval capacities less than 0,2%. It should be noted that some requirements for such a design of scanners should be formulated somewhat differently.
To demonstrate the influence of systematic measurement errors and deviations of the device’s parameters from the nominal values on the calculated interval capacities, a simulation was performed when the coordinates of points on the tank surface were deliberately distorted by errors and deviations.
A horizontal cylindrical tank with flat bottoms with a nominal capacity of 29 m3 was chosen as a model (Figure 2). Its length is approximately 4,78 m, and its diameter is 2,78 m. The prepared 3D model consists of 50 thousand coordinates of points.
Visualization of a prepared 3D model of a horizontal tank RHS-25.
The following formulas were applied to distort the 3D model. Along with the formulas, the values of errors and deviations that were used to distort the 3D model are also given.
Measurement error
Measurement error
Index error (of a zenith point)
Deviation from the perpendicularity of the laser beam axis from the rotation axis of the mirror or tube (collimation error)
Deviation from the perpendicularity of the rotation axis of the mirror or tube from rotation axis of the laser scanner
Measurement error of the absolute height of the reference point of the scanner relative to the reference point of the tank
In formulas (1)–(6) the
The interval capacities obtained for the distorted model were compared with the original-initial, undistorted model. The results of this comparison are shown in Figure 3. in a graphical form.
Errors of the interval capacities caused by distortions of coordinates of the 3D model.
Deviations from perpendicularity in accordance with clauses 4 and 5 did not have any effect on the change in interval capacities, therefore they are absent in Figure 3. However, if the tank was scanned from the outside and measurements were taken from several stations, then their influence can be significant.
Particular attention should be paid to the cleanliness of the optical surfaces of the scanner before tanks calibration and scanning. According to our research, even a small amount of dust or liquid’s condensate on optical surfaces can cause a significant change in the additive constant of the distance meter.
If the tank has been hydro-tested or washed with water, then the wet walls of the tank are not an obstacle to high-quality scanning. If high humidity is inside the tank, condensation of water vapor on the optical surfaces of the scanner is not allowed. The presence of water in the bottom or in the lower part of the tank is not desirable. Water can interfere with measurements or give a large number of false points that will interfere with the preparation of a good 3D model of the tank. Measurements through the water, if they succeed, significantly distort the coordinates.
The presence of even a small amount of diesel fuel on the walls of the tank has an extremely negative effect on the results of scanning. The standard deviation of coordinate measurements (point 2, Table 1) can increase in 10, 20 or more times. Especially if the beam falls on the contaminated surface at an acute angle. It is very difficult or impossible to distinguish exactly where the actual surface of the tank wall is, and where is the noise from distortions by the diesel fuel slick on the tank wall.
Measurements with fuel vapors in the tank are not only hazardous to life and health. They do not provide an opportunity to make qualitative measurements. When fuel and air vapors are mixed, strong turbulence arises that is almost opaque to the laser beam. If the measurements could be carried out, then the coordinate errors can reach tens of millimeters. Such measurements must be prohibited. For these reasons, the authors of this publication are extremely skeptical about tanks scanning in accordance with [19, 20], without cleaning and degassing them. It is impossible to confirm or deny this before comprehensive comparative tests are carried out.
Definitely it is necessary to use the current additive constant to correct the coordinates on the tank wall, which is recommended to be determined independently at least once every 1–3 months.
The scanner must be calibrated at least once a year. In this case, it is recommended to determine all the characteristics and parameters of the scanner, given in Table 1. At least once every two – three years, it is necessary to carry out maintenance of the scanner and adjust all its parameters in the manufacturer’s service center. Only the manufacturer has the opportunity to investigate in his laboratory all the characteristics and parameters of each scanner, make the necessary adjustments and settings.
The scanning methods for different types, sizes and purposes of tanks has a lot in common, but there are some features. Taking into account these features depend on whether the goal set in Section 2 will be achieved or not. These features include:
location – aboveground or underground location of the tank;
operation capability – the tank is calibrated from inside at the plant right after its production, the new one at the place of exploitations, decommissioned. The tank is calibrated from inside in case of its exploitation;
scope – the tank is used for storage oil, oil product, liquefied gas or another liquid, for example, ammonia;
type – a horizontal or vertical cylindrical, spherical, arbitrary geometrical.
At scanning an important condition to achieve goal set in the Section 2 is to fulfill simple but very significant rules connected with described above features.
The measurement made inside the tank from a tripod is more preferable from the point of view of measurement accuracy than upside down through the hatch, as shown in Figure 1. On a tripod the scanner is placed almost in the center of the tank, and asymmetrically when measuring through the hatch. But to place the scanner in the center of the tank, you need to get in it, and these are additional risks to life and health. Moreover, it is extra spent time. If the characteristics and parameters of the scanner meet the recommendations given in Table 1, in our experience, scanning through the hatch does not lead to a significant loss of accuracy of capacity measurement. This is confirmed by the above simulations described in 4.2.
If the tank has many internal structures and equipment than many “shadows” appear on its surface (Figure 4). To significantly reduce their number, it is recommended to make two scans, displacing the scanner inside the hatch as much as possible. The “stitching” of two scans with the complete software for the scanner by characteristic points gives a good result.
Visualization of an unprepared 3D model of the horizontal tank RHS-25.
It is impossible to measure the volume and to estimate the measurement uncertainty of the liquid volume in a tank correctly, if we do not consider the pair of measuring devices “level gauge – tank” as a whole. The level gauge must be set up so that it measures the absolute height of the liquid level in the tank relative to the reference point. In other words, so that the zero of its readings coincides with the zero of the tank calibration table.
During measurements, the zero of the scanner coordinate system coincides with its reference point – the point of intersection of its horizontal and vertical axes (Section 4). During processing, it is necessary to transform the coordinates measured in the scanner coordinate system into the tank coordinate system. That is, the horizontal plane of the new coordinate system must pass through the tank reference point. It is very easy to do this with modern software if the measurements are made from the inside and the reference point is marked and clearly visible on the 3D model.
To achieve the high accuracy of measurements of the tank capacity, it is necessary that the standard uncertainty of such a link does not exceed the values given in clause 10 of Table 1.
Figure 5 shows a panoramic photo of the tank made by the scanner from the measuring point. Due to the fact that the scanner was installed upside down, similar to Figure 1, the bottom is at the top of the figure, and the roof is at the bottom. In the center of the tank, it is clearly seen the central square pipe, which supports the roof (in the photo – on the left). To the right of the pipe is a thin dark line with a dark rectangle at the end. This is a dip-tape hanging through a dip-hatch. The dip-weight of the tape touches the bottom at the dipping reference point. A horizontal plane
Recognition of the reference point of the tank on its unprepared 3D model.
After the first filling of the tank the absolute height of the level is measured by dip-tape or another material measure. This value is entered into the level gauge. Direct procedure of linking the values of the automatic level gauge to capacity table is completed. According to OIML R 85 [23], the difference between the absolute height of the level measured by the material measure and the readings of the automatic level gauge must be within ±4 mm over the entire range of level measurement for any type of tank. This value includes not only the deformation of the bottom, roof and walls of the tank, but also the uncertainty of the binding. In our opinion, this indicator for horizontal cylindrical tanks should be within ±2 mm.
During the repair of horizontal cylindrical tanks, remove the lid with a pipe (Figure 1, left), which directs the material measure to the reference point. On the inner wall of the tank, this point is almost always unmarked and it is not known exactly where it is. Without precise localization of this point, it is impossible to bind to it with the uncertainty given in item 10 of Table 1.
To solve this problem, it was proposed method of binding by laser level and tape. A photo of the binding procedure is shown in Figure 1.
The scanner is mounted on one side of the rod and the laser level (crossline) on the other. The distance from the reference point of the scanner to the end of the rod is known from metrological measurement. After tank scanning the laser beam is counted on the tape.
Further, the hatch is closed and a gage pipe is installed, which directs the material measure to the reference point. The reference height of the tank as the distance from the dipping reference point to the top of the gage pipe is measure by a material measure. A level is installed on the gage pipe (Figure 1, right) and the counting is carried out using a laser beam on a tape.
The absolute height of the scanner reference point in relation to the tank reference point is calculated by formula:
where
The signs
The value
Before start-up a horizontal cylindrical tank with a capacity of up to 50 m3 after its calibration, it is recommended to check the correctness of measuring the absolute height of the scanner’s reference point relative to the tank’s reference point. To do this, it is necessary to pour a known volume of fuel into an empty tank through a standard batch meter or fuel dispenser in accordance with ISO 4269 [15], for example, for a horizontal tank, 100 or 200 liters, and measure the level of fuel in the tank using a material measure. The measured level must correspond to one in the capacity table within limits pointed out in the item 10 of Table 1. In justified cases, it is recommended to shift the table so that the measured level in it coincides with the poured controlled volume of the liquid.
An indirect procedure is used to calibrate tanks for liquefied gas that are operated under pressure and for some other tanks that are operated at atmospheric pressure. Link to the reference point is fulfilled by the tank edge where the automatic level gauge is mounted. As a rule, for such tanks measurements by the material measure are not provided even if the tank is not out of service. The zero of the level gauges reading during calibration must align with the stock on the level gauge that connects it to the stock on the tank, taking into account the thickness of the gasket. Before scanning, the stock must be marked with the brand recommended by the scanner manufacturer.
In GOST 8.655 [11, 17] for spherical tanks it was proposed to take the lowest point of the approximating sphere as the reference point of the tank. The absolute height of the stock above the reference point is the sum of the radius of the tank and the distance from the stock to the center of the tank, which are calculated from the results of the approximation (Section 7). This makes it possible to indirectly link the capacity table to the readings of the level gauge with the uncertainty given in the clause 10 of Table 1.
In general, the operations of preparation to calculate the capacity of different types of tanks coincide, but may differ somewhat depending on the features given in subsection 5.1.
If the tank was scanned from one point (station), then this is an unprepared 3D model of the tank (Figure 4). If the tank was scanned from several points (stations), then several scans are combined into a single unprepared 3D model of the tank by the software bundled with the scanner. It is impossible to use such a model to calculate interval capacities. It must be properly prepared.
A prepared 3D model of the tank (Figure 2) is a file of spatial coordinates of points on its surface available for visualization and editing with special software, as well as other calculations, for example, approximation, triangulation, calculation of capacity.
To create a prepared for calculation 3D model the following procedures should be carried out:
Separate scans should be combined into one unprepared 3D model (Figure 4). The empty spaces that are closed for measurement by internal constructions of the tank are visible on such model. The constructions that do not belong to the tank walls are also visible;
The point coordinates should be corrected by amendment that takes in account the additive constant of the scanner distance meter;
During internal measurements the 3D model should be turned over if scanning was performed “head down” by the scanner (Figure 1). During external measurement this option is absent;
Align the horizontal plane
Change over the axеs
To measure geometrical sizes and the absolute height
Delete from a 3D model all points that do not belong to tank walls including internal constructions and equipment;
Using the special function of the software reduce the number of points on the tank wall so that remained from 40 to 100 thousand, but they should evenly cover the walls;
To open 3D model so as necessary for calculation a tank capacity, for example, at approximation of the horizontal tanks the axis
If it is supposed to use triangulation method for capacity calculation (Section 7), then special software generates points where they are absent (Figure 2). For LSM approximation method (Section 7) it is useless.
The internal constructions and equipment are presented as simple geometrical shapes – parallelepiped or cylindrical. For each shape directly on the 3D model it is measured:
geometrical sizes – length, width and height or length and diameter;
axis tilt of the parallelepiped or cylinder to the plumb line;
the absolute height of the lowest and the highest point;
for the vertical tanks it is measured the absolute height of the courses;
for the vertical tanks by the floating roof or pontoon it is measured their geometrical sizes and the absolute height of their lowest part.
These data are sufficient to compose a capacity table for each such geometric shape from the minimum to the maximum absolute height, as described in [11, 12, 13]. These local capacity tables of constructions and equipment are added as corrections to the main tank capacity table.
For tanks with a floating roof or pontoon the correction is calculated from the absolute height at the moment the liquid touches them to the absolute height of their emersion.
A tank should be considered as a single spatial surface where a spatial coordinates of each point of the prepared 3D model are known with a required uncertainty in a single spatial coordinate system. Methods of calculation of the interval capacity can be considered as strict if they mathematically correct use all the points of the prepared 3D model. In the standards [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10] it is applied non-strict models where separate sections are used to measure tank radius. As a result, some of the valuable information about the shape and size of the tank is not used. This leads to a latent (it is almost impossible to estimate) increase in the calculation in the interval capacities uncertainty.
In our opinion, at the moment, two strict methods have been developed to calculate the interval capacities of tanks by the coordinates of points obtained by the laser scanning method. One is based on the approximation of a spatial surface of a regular geometric shape, and the other is on the triangulation of the surface. Each of them consists of two stages.
At the second stage, the volume of the segments of such an approximating surface is calculated below the specified horizontal planes. This capacity comprises correction for relief based on the calculated radial deviations. The evaluation of the uncertainty of interval capacities should be based on the fundamental documents JCGM 100 [24] and JCGM 102 [25]. The process of evaluation the interval capacities and their uncertainties by this method is described in [11, 12, 13, 16, 17] and improved in subsection 7.2.
At the second stage, the area of a closed polygon is calculated, which lies at the intersection of the horizontal plane and the plane of the triangles that it crossed. At the intersection of the sides of each triangle and the horizontal plane, the coordinates of the points are calculated. As a result, these coordinates are used to calculate the area of a closed polygon. The complexity of this algorithm is that the program must subtract from the area of this polygon (conditionally “sea”) the area of all “islands”. But add the area of all the “lakes” on the “islands”. Then, subtract the areas of all the “islands” on the “lakes”, etc.
The interval capacity is calculated from the areas of two polygons and the increment in height between the areas.
Both of these two strict methods have their own advantages and disadvantages. So, for the approximation method the uniform coverage of the entire surface by points is useless, simply they must be quite enough. Part of the surface may not be covered by points at all. Even a small number of points (for example 3 000) evenly spaced on the cylindrical surface of the vertical tank give an acceptable capacity uncertainty. However, this method is not applicable to arbitrary geometrical shape tanks, for example ships’ tanks.
The triangulation method allows to calculate tank capacity of any arbitrary shape, however, point on the tank surface should be many (not less than 30–50 thousand). They must be placed evenly otherwise the program will not connect them in triangles.
It is impossible to calculate the interval capacities of the tank reliably if part of its surface is not covered by triangles (Figure 4). It is necessary to generate on these sections the additional points by the special program (Figure 2). This increases the uncertainty of a capacity calculation. The triangles should be not elongated and/or large as they will not follow the real shape of the surface. It is good if the program adds on the points on the bending lines, for example, on the line, where the flat bottom is linked up the cylindrical part. If this is not done, then the real sharp bend line will be smoothed out. It negatively affects on the uncertainty of the interval capacities.
The advantages and disadvantages of these methods are not limited to those mentioned above, however, they have clear advantages over non-strict methods. Theoretically, the capacity of the same tank for which the same 3D model is used, processed by different programs based on strict methods, should coincide. However, in practice this is not the case.
Preliminary results of comparisons of tanks capacity calculated by different software are described in [14].
The problem is that at approximation it is necessary to determine spatial position and orientation of the tank surface toward horizontal plane
The measurement models binding points coordinates on the surfaces and their geometrical parameters are given by Eq. (8):
For spherical surface the measurement model (8) is:
For vertical and horizontal cylindrical surface the measurement model (8) are:
where:
where
For surfaces the absolute height is the vertical distance from any horizontal flatness to the point with number
Due to surface roughness and coordinate measurement uncertainties, Eq. (8), (9), (10) and (11) is not fulfilled. That is why, to evaluate the determined geometrical parameters of the spherical, cylindrical and other surfaces, it is necessary to establish equations of corrections, which we obtain by the partial derivation of the measurement model (8) by the measured coordinates and defined parameters:
where:
In the matrix, the parametric equation of the corrections system (13) gives:
where:
Then, Eq. (13) for spherical surfaces are given by:
where:
where:
Eq. (13) for vertical cylindrical surfaces are given by:
The dual weight of the radial deviation
where:
Taking into account that the parametric equations of corrections (13) (for spherical surfaces (15), for vertical cylindrical surfaces (18)) are much greater than the determined geometrical parameters, one may build a normal equation system, which in the matrix, taking into account that
Corrections to the initial values of the geometrical parameters determined in the matrix are obtained by solving the system of linear Eq. (23) by the formula:
where:
The evaluation by the least square method using the covariance matrix point coordinates at the surface is fulfilled under the following conditions:
where
The standard radial deviation
The adjusted (defined) parameters, their covariance matrix and the standard uncertainties (standard deviation) of the main defined surface geometrical parameter – mid internal radius and center coordinates – are:
where:
The standard radial deviation
The adjusted spherical, cylindrical or other surfaces’ interval capacity below absolute height
where
The measurement model of the total and interval capacities of the spherical surface is:
and of the vertical cylindrical surface is:
where:
Taking into account a large number of points whose coordinates are determined by the method of laser scanning on the surface, it is proposed to calculate the terrain corrections
where for the spherical surface
for the vertical cylindrical surface
where:
The evaluation of the standard deviation (A-type standard uncertainty) unimproved by the spherical surface interval capacity below height
where for the spherical surface:
is the partial derivatives vector from function (31) by the spherical surface’s geometrical parameters
For the cylindrical surface:
is the partial derivatives vector from function (32) by the cylindrical surface’s geometrical parameters
Formula (36) excludes correlation for spherical surface gives:
Formula (36) excludes correlation for vertical cylindrical surface gives:
The evaluation of the standard deviation (A-type standard uncertainty) of the spherical and vertical cylindrical surfaces’ area below height
where for the spherical surface:
is the partial derivatives vector from function (31) by the spherical surface’s geometrical parameters
For the cylindrical surface:
is the partial derivatives vector from function (32) by the vertical cylindrical surface’s geometrical parameters
Formula (41) excluding correlation for spherical surface gives:
Formula (41) excluding correlation for cylindrical surface gives:
The standard deviation of the mid radial deviation of the surface’s wall below height
The standard deviation (A-type uncertainty) of the terrain correction
The A-type uncertainty of the adjusted surface interval capacity below height
Thus, it has been developed a method for evaluation the geometrical parameters and interval capacities of spherical, vertical and horizontal cylindrical tanks, as well as evaluation of their uncertainty. It provides adequate comparable results regardless of the size and shape of the surface, deformation of its surface, measurement accuracy, as well as the location and number of points which coordinates were determined on the surface.
For accurate measurement of the liquid level during commercial and tax operations, the internal accounting and inventory it is very important to insert corrections to the tank capacity properly. These are small values, but they are systematic and can significantly contribute to the uncertainty of a liquid volume measurement.
Corrections are inserted for all types of tanks:
for bringing the interval capacity of the tank to a temperature 15°С;
for presence the internal constructions and equipment.
If the tank was calibrated from outside then corrections are inserted for tank wall and paint thickness.
For tanks that are operated under an atmospheric pressure, corrections are inserted for:
hydrostatic pressure of the liquid in the tank during calibration;
hydrostatic pressure of the liquid on walls of the tank at its operation;
For sealed tanks that are operated under excess pressure, instead of corrections for hydrostatic pressure it is inserted the corrections for:
the excess pressure that was in the tank at its calibration;
the excess pressure that will be in the tank at its operation.
For example, liquefied gas tanks are operated under pressure. Therefore, the radius of the tank must be corrected for the pressure inside the tank at calibration and the average pressure in the tank at its operation.
Tanks are used not only for commercial operations but also for internal account and inventory. For such operations, it is important to know as accurately as possible the entire volume of liquid in the tank. Therefore, for vertical cylindrical tanks it is inserted corrections for:
volume of liquid replaced by the floating roof or pontoon;
“deadwood” volume in the lower part of the tank.
For each tank, the absolute height of the liquid level must be established, below which the commercial operations are not recommended, since the uncertainty of the capacity there is greater than the standardized one. For example, the capacity of a vertical cylindrical tank below a drain pipe or below the height of a floating roof or pontoon.
Mentioned above corrections should not be inserted manually. Their introduction should be carried out by carefully tested software for calculation the interval capacities.
The best way to prepare a laboratory for an accreditation according to ISO/IEC 17025 [27] is to test qualification of the laboratory in accordance with ISO/IEC 17043 [28] and EA-2/14 [29]. Processing of the test results to fulfill taking into account the requirements of ISO 13528 [30]. This will help to solve the problem of identifying sources of errors made by laboratories.
Taking into account many sources of generation the internal capacities’ uncertainty and difficulties in organization such kind of work it is proposed to fulfill it in four stages – from simple to complex:
The participants calculate the interval capacities of the prepared by the provider 3D model of the tank without inserting any corrections;
The participants calculate the interval capacities of the prepared by the provider 3D model of the tank with inserting corrections in accordance with the provider’s protocol;
The participants prepare 3D model of the tank that was scanned by the provider with the subsequent calculation of the interval capacities according to (a) and/or (b);
Scanning of the tank prepared by the provider with its own scanner with the subsequent calculation of the interval capacities according to (a), (b) and (c).
Organization of the first three stages will not be too difficult and expensive to the provider and the laboratories. Only after formation of group of laboratories that have successfully pass the first three stages, it will be reasonably to carry out the fourth stage that is relatively expansive.
The laser scanning and special software, in the practice of calibration of the different types of the tanks, allow to achieve the main goal – to reduce uncertainty in definition of the tanks’ interval capacities:\t\t
vertical cylindrical – to 0,05–0,1% (OIML R71 [1] requirement – 0,2% and 0,3% for tilted tanks);
horizontal cylindrical – to 0,1–0,2% (OIML R71 [1] requirement – 0,3%);
spherical – to 0,07–0,15% (OIML R71 [1] requirement – 0,5%);
irregular geometrical shape – to 0,1–0,3% (OIML R71 [1] requirement – 0,5%).
Significantly shortening of measurement time using laser scanning of tanks:
vertical and horizontal cylindrical and spherical is up to 10–40 minutes for internal and external measurements correspondingly;
irregular geometrical shape is up to 30–120 minutes for internal measurements.
Significantly shortening the time of processing and creating of calibrating table of tank based on laser scanning data using special software:
vertical and horizontal cylindrical and spherical is up to 20–60 minutes for internal and external measurements correspondingly;
irregular geometrical shape is up to 60–180 minutes for the internal measurements.
To achieve the target goal the calibration laboratory must:
have a device that conform to the target goals and keep it in a good technical condition;
strictly follow the measurement procedure during the tanks’ scanning;
have special software based on the rigorous mathematical methods. It must pass the comprehensive tests against the target goal;
strictly obey the procedure of processing the scanning results and calculation of the interval capacities and evaluation of their uncertainty;
take part in the interlaboratory comparisons of the results of the capacity calculation of the same 3D model of the tanks.
The proposed comparisons are needed to the laboratories in order to identify not only errors included in the mathematical model of calculations and/or made at programming, but also to test the ability to prepare a 3D model for calculations correctly and to calculate the capacity of the existing program correctly. Participation of the laboratories in comparisons can be considered as a process of validation of calculation methods and software.
There is a need to create new international standards that describe the entire calibration process for all types of tanks based on the principles described in this publication
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