\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3635",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Polymer Thin Films",title:"Polymer Thin Films",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book provides a timely overview of a current state of knowledge of the use of polymer\r\nthin film for important technological applications. 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Researchers from various backgrounds and expertise can propose a remarkable collection of chapters to render this work an important piece of scientific and applied research. As watermarking research evolves, also new practical applications emerge and mature to enable essential services for modern society such as watermarking tamper detection, watermarking tracking control, watermarking copyright protection, watermarking authentication, watermarking copy control, watermarking forgery detection among other applications. Research on the topics of audio watermarking, video watermarking, text watermarking, speech watermarking has enabled many applications as well as provided a fundamental basis for the development of novel approaches of protecting, authenticating, validating, convey hidden information among other uses of watermarking technologies. Research on hardcopy watermarking focuses on conveying information through paper media, which subsequently is scanned to extract the information for one of the aforementioned applications. Novel approaches to communicate through the Print-Scan channel are required to be resilient to external distortions, including multiple copies while providing transparency according to the application.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-438-8",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-437-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-439-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"9843dc1d810407088ed9eef10768a64b",bookSignature:"Prof. Joceli Mayer",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11922.jpg",keywords:"Audio Watermarking, Video Watermarking, Text Watermarking, Speech Watermarking, Watermark Transparency, Watermarking Robustness, Print-Scan Channel, Multiple Copies Resilience, Intelectual Property Protection, Watermarking Copy Control, Watermarking Tamper Detection, Watermarking Authentication",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 1st 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 3rd 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 2nd 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 20th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 19th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"20 days",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Jocely Mayer received the Master's degree in computer engineering from the University of California at Santa Cruz and the Dr. Phil. degree in 1999 from UCSC. He has published over 100 articles, authored two books and one book chapter, has developed and supervised projects on super-resolution, speech compression, VOIP systems, image processing, digital watermarking, and others. His research has been supported by the industry and government agencies such as FINEP, CNPq, Hewlett Packard, and Intelbras.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"110638",title:"Prof.",name:"Joceli",middleName:null,surname:"Mayer",slug:"joceli-mayer",fullName:"Joceli Mayer",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110638/images/system/110638.png",biography:"Joceli Mayer graduated in electrical engineering from the Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina (UFSC), Brazil, in 1998, received the Master's degree in electrical engineering from UFSC in 1991, the Master's degree in computer engineering from the University of California at Santa Cruz (UCSC) in 1998, and the Dr. Phil. degree in 1999 from UCSC. Received the Best Student Paper Award by the IEEE International Conference on Image Processing and IBM, in 2006, and become an IEEE Senior Member in 2012. Currently he has been a Full Professor of Electrical Engineering at UFSC. He has published over 100 articles in conferences and periodicals, authored two books and one book chapter, advised undergraduate and graduate students on research projects. He has developed and supervised projects on super-resolution, speech compression, VOIP systems, image processing, digital watermarking, hardcopy document authentication, assistive technology applications for hearing, speech and mobility disabled people with internet of things and speech recognition technologies. His research has been supported by the industry and government agencies including the FINEP, CNPq, Hewlett Packard, Intelbras, among others.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"9",title:"Computer and Information Science",slug:"computer-and-information-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"453623",firstName:"Silvia",lastName:"Sabo",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/453623/images/20396_n.jpg",email:"silvia@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"71657",title:"Crystal Polymorph Control for High-Performance Organic Field-Effect Transistors",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91905",slug:"crystal-polymorph-control-for-high-performance-organic-field-effect-transistors",body:'\nAn organic field-effect transistor (OFET) is a transistor using an organic semiconducting thin film as the active layer in its channel [1, 2]. Charge carriers are transported in the OFET active layer under the electric field. Through the design of new materials and the improvement of fabrication processes, many impressive developments in the field of OFETs have been achieved [3, 4, 5, 6]. It has long been realized that the morphology of the active layer has a crucial impact on its charge transport properties. Tremendous efforts have been devoted to fabricate highly ordered crystalline films to achieve high device performance, including introduction of self-assembled monolayers [7, 8, 9], annealing [10, 11], off-center spin coating [4, 12, 13], and solution shearing [14, 15]. However, the lack of knowledge on the intrinsic properties of organic semiconductors remains the barrier for high-performance materials being efficiently developed.
\nPolymorphism of organic semiconductors has recently received much attention in the field of OFETs [16, 17, 18]. Different polymorphic crystals have the same molecular structure but a different molecular arrangement, which can be used as an ideal platform to correlate charge transport with respect to molecular arrangement. Through investigating OFETs with different polymorphs, the relationship between molecular packing and charge transport can be obtained. Recently, some ultra-high-mobility OFETs have been obtained by controlling the polymorphic structures of organic semiconductors, revealing that the crystal polymorph control has become an efficient strategy for the manufacture of high-performance OFETs [4, 17].
\nPolymorphism refers to the ability for the same compound to adopt multiple crystalline packing states. Organic molecules assemble into crystals by weak intermolecular interactions, typically via van der Waals and electrostatic interactions. Many thermodynamic and kinetics factors (such as temperature, solvent mixtures, speed of crystallization, seeding, and pH) can have significant impacts on crystal growth, leading to polymorphism prevalent among organic materials. For instance, a continuous investigation on polymorphism has indicated that approximately one-third of organic substances show polymorphism under normal pressure conditions [19, 20]. Different polymorphs often have distinct physical properties such as solubility, melting point, and electrical, optical, and mechanical properties [21]. The interest in polymorphism has increased significantly in recent years, particularly in the pharmaceutical and material science fields [17, 22].
\nThe charge transport property of organic semiconductors is sensitive to the molecular packing, where a slight change in molecular packing may result in huge difference in charge carrier mobility [23]. The side-chain engineering, which is efficient in tailoring the molecular packing, has been extensively applied to develop high-performance organic semiconductors [24, 25, 26, 27]. However, the introduction of side chains alters the molecular structure, which makes the investigation on relationship between molecular packing and charge transport very complex.
\nPolymorphism offers an opportunity to tailor the molecular packing of a material, without affecting its chemical components. For example, rubrene can crystallize into three crystalline polymorphs, including an orthorhombic, a triclinic, and a monoclinic phase (Figure 1a) [28, 29, 30]. Taking advantage of polymorphism, it is possible to fabricate OFETs from the same organic semiconductor but with different polymorphs, hence, with different properties (Figure 1b). Importantly, by measuring charge transport performance in OFETs from different polymorphs, a direct relationship between molecular packing and charge transport can be established. Thus, many investigations on charge transport in different polymorphs have been performed in thin-film transistors, including some benchmark organic semiconductors like pentacene derivatives [15, 31, 32], rubrene [28, 29, 30], sexithiophene (6T) [33, 34, 35, 36], and [1]benzothieno[3,2-b][1]benzothiophene (BTBT) derivatives [10, 37, 38]. However, the different factors affecting the device performance, including crystallinity, grain size, and grain boundaries, are difficult to be eliminated in thin-film transistors. Thus, tremendous efforts have been paid to manufacture OFETs from highly crystalline films even single crystals [39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44]. Especially, single-crystal OFETs from different polymorphs have attracted increasing attentions [45]. Compared to polycrystalline films, single crystals have the advantages of high molecular ordering and minimal grain boundaries, and its structure is much easier to determine.
\n(a) Molecular structure and the crystal phases of rubrene. (b) Schematic diagram for the fabrication of the OFETs from microcrystals of different polymorphs.
There is no doubt that high-performance OFETs can be obtained by tailoring molecular packing motifs in the active layer. Among the investigations on polymorphism of organic semiconductors, several high-mobility OFETs have been manufactured by polymorph control, such as the TIPS-pentacene [46], C8-BTBT [4], C6-DBTDT [47], and TiOPC [48]. Tailoring polymorphs has become an emerging design strategy for high-performance organic electronics.
\nThough polymorphism is observed on many organic semiconductors, the fabrication of each polymorph with high purity is very difficult. For instance, even for the extensively studied organic semiconductors like pentacene and BTBT derivatives, only part of their polymorphs have been useful to establish the correlation between the material molecular packing and its charge transport properties [17]. The difficulties for the investigations on polymorphism include the fabrication of pure polymorphs and the determination of their crystal structures, where the polymorph control is fundamental. Some of the polymorph control methods most commonly applied to organic semiconductors are discussed below.
\nSolution process is important for the fabrication of organic semiconductor devices, which has the advantages of low-cost and large-area fabrication. In solution processes, solvent-induced polymorphism has been frequently observed in organic semiconductors such as DB-TTF [49], DT-TTF [50], TIPS-pentacene [51], and so on. Consequently, the solvent of choice for solution-processed organic semiconductors has become a commonly practiced method for high-throughput polymorph screening. For example, the triethylsilylethynyl anthradithiophene (TES-ADT) films can crystallize into two polymorphs from different solvents [52, 53, 54]. The polymorph selectivity for solution processes mostly relates to the polarity of solvents, while the concentration can also induce polymorphism [47, 55]. For instance, the C6-DBTDT molecules can crystallize into the α-phase and β-phase crystals from high concentration and dilute chlorobenzene solutions, respectively [47]. At the molecular level, the specific interactions between semiconductor and solvent molecules in the solution can induce the nuclei formation in a particular polymorph and therefore result in polymorph selectivity as a function of the solvent or the concentration [56].
\nThe thermodynamic polymorphic selection is usually observed from deposition of organic semiconductors by physical vapor transport (PVT) processes [57]. In a study by Stevens et al., TMS-DBC crystals were synthesized in a crystallization tube by PVT method, where two polymorphs grew at different temperature regions [58]. The red low-temperature (LT) polymorph was obtained in regions with tube temperature about 25–65°C, while the yellow high-temperature (HT) polymorph grew in regions with temperature around 130–170°C. The two polymorphs were found extremely stable, which did not interconvert to the other crystal structure with subsequent solvent or thermal treatments. Temperature-induced polymorphism was also observed from TiOPC crystals fabricated by PVT technology [48]. Sheetlike
Crystallization through kinetics control is a powerful method for accessing metastable polymorphs, especially in thin-film geometry where kinetic trapping and thin-film confinement work in synergy. In a study by Wedl et al. [59], thin films of dihexylterthiophene (DH3T) were fabricated by spin coating, dip coating, drop casting, and physical vapor deposition, i.e., with very different crystallization speed. Three polymorphs of DH3T were discovered from the experiment, which was noted as the α-phase, β-phase, and the metastable thin-film phase. The crystallization speed was found to be a key parameter to control the respective polymorphs present in the films. The metastable thin-film phase was obtained from deposition techniques with fast crystallization speeds, such as physical vapor deposition, spin coating, drop casting with fast solvent evaporation, and dip coating with high withdrawal velocity. In contrast, a mixture of two stable polymorphs was observed in films fabricated by both drop casting and dip coating with slow evaporation of solvent. Crystallization kinetics control was also applied in a study by Giri et al. [14], wherein the solution shearing method with a function of shearing speed was utilized to fabricate thin films of TIPS-pentacene. Through fast solvent evaporation and quick crystallization, metastable states were kinetically trapped, which were relaxed to more stable states with toluene vapor annealing.
\nOrganic molecules are assembled by weak intermolecular interactions into their crystalline form, which can be affected by the molecule-surface interaction and the molecule-molecule interaction from additives. In other words, substrates and additives can act as templates to alter the crystal structure of organic semiconductors.
\nThe substrate can promote heterogeneous nucleation of a particular polymorph due to specific interface interactions. On the substrate-thin-film interface, substrate-induced polymorphs (SIPs) are usually observed in the first few molecular layers, whose molecular packing are different from that in the bulk of the film. For example, two SIPs were firstly observed in thin films of pentacene, including a thin-film phase with d-spacing of 15.4 Å and a single-layer phase with d-spacing of 16.1 Å [32, 60, 61]. In contrast, the single-crystal phase of pentacene exhibits the d-spacing of 14.1 Å [62, 63, 64]. SIPs were also observed in films of the 2,7-dioctyloxy-BTBT (C8O-BTBT-OC8) derivative [10]. The C8O-BTBT-OC8 molecules adopt a slipped π-π stacking in bulk crystal while exhibiting a herringbone packing motif in the thin-film phase. However, the SIP of C8O-BTBT-OC8 is a metastable form induced by the substrate, which is converted to the bulk form in 6 months or by chloroform vapor annealing. Although SIPs are commonly observed in thin films of organic semiconductors, studies on the formation of SIPs are limited [65].
\nPolymer additives have been demonstrated effective for polymorph control. In a study on polymorphism of TIPS-pentacene, conjugated polymer additives including poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) and region random TIPS-pentacene-bithiophene polymer (PnBT-RRa) were used to template the formation of a polymorph [66]. Two new polymorphs of TIPS-pentacene were obtained, including the phase II and phase III that were synthesized form TIPS-pentacene/PnBT-RRa blend and TIPS-pentacene/P3HT blend, respectively. Compared to the phase I obtained from pure TIPS-pentacene, the phase II exhibits very small changes in crystal structure, which is attributed to the structural similarity between TIPS-pentacene and PnBT-RRa as well as their strong intermolecular interactions. In contrast, the crystal structure of phase III exhibits a large difference compared to the phase I, due to the lack of structural similarity between TIPS-pentacene and P3HT. These results demonstrate the possibility of using polymer additives as templates for accessing various polymorph phases.
\nPostdeposition processing is a commonly used method to investigate phase transition, from which various polymorphs can be accessed. Solvent and thermal annealing is widely used for postdeposition treatments to increase crystallinity, to enlarge grain size, and in some cases to alter the molecular packing in films of organic semiconductors [67, 68, 69]. In a study by Hiszpanski et al. [70], three polymorphs of contorted hexabenzocoronene (c-HBC) have been obtained by the application of both thermal and solvent vapor annealing. The P21/c polymorph of c-HBC is obtained from the amorphous film by thermal annealing. In contrast, polymorph II is accessed from either the amorphous film or the P21/c polymorph by tetrahydrofuran vapor annealing. Subsequently, thermal annealing of polymorph II always yields polymorph II. From an investigation by Campione et al., α-tetrathiophene (α-4T)/LT single crystals were obtained by the floating-drop technique, and a crystal to crystal phase transition was observed at 191°C from α-4T/LT to α-4T/HT, obtaining large and thick α-4T/HT single crystals [71].
\nIn addition to the major methods summarized above, a variety of novel approaches have been developed to control polymorphs. A direct strategy to change the crystal phase is to apply pressure on crystals. For instance, pressure-induced phase transition was observed from rubrene and fullerene derivatives [72, 73, 74, 75, 76]. Ito et al. and Segara et al. reported mechanically induced phase transitions [77, 78]. The nucleation of a polymorph is often affected by many processing parameters. For example, Lee et al. successfully fabricated a metastable polymorph of quaterrylene diimide by flow-assisted crystallization [79]. He et al. synthesized a new polymorph of Cl2-NDI by vapor sublimation in air [18]. Even light can have effects on polymorph formation. As investigated by Pithan et al., two polymorphs of sexithiophene were obtained in dark and illumination environments [33].
\nPolymorphism is an important platform to study the charge transport mechanism in organic semiconductors because in polymorphs the crystal structure is the only variable, while the chemical structure remains identical [80]. By studying a polymorphic organic semiconductor, changes in charge transport can be directly associated with the differences in molecular packing. Many studies have attempted without success to reveal the relationship between charge transport and molecular packing, including experimental studies and quantum chemical calculations on different polymorphs.
\nCharge transport in inorganic semiconductors is well described by the band-like charge transport model. In contrast, to describe charge transport in organic semiconductors is much complex, where both electron–electron and electron–phonon interactions must be taken into account [81, 82]. A phonon is described as a particle-like quantized mode of vibrational energy, which arises from oscillating atoms within a crystal. In organic crystals, the molecule packing can be significantly disrupted by thermal functions due to the weak intermolecular interactions. Therefore, the charge transport behavior of organic semiconductors is temperature dependent [83]. It turns out that a charge-hopping model is commonly observed at near and above room temperatures [84], while a band-like transport model is typically observed in single crystals at lower temperatures [85].
\nThe OFET devices mostly work at near and above room temperatures and follow a hopping transport mechanism. The hopping mobility can be deduced from the Marcus theory through Eq. (1) [17, 86]:
\nwhere
Taking advantages of the quantum chemical calculations, the relationship between molecular packing and charge transport can be examined. For instance, Bredas et al. simulated the sexithiophene dimers to understand the effect of the molecular overlap on the transfer integral between adjacent molecules [88]. First, the HOMO and LUMO energy splittings were examined with a variation in the intermolecular distance between the conjugated planes. Next, by keeping the bottom molecule and the intermolecular distance between the sexithiophene (6T) dimers (4 Å) fixed, the effects of lateral molecular displacement along the conjugated plane on the energy splittings were examined by moving the top 6T molecule. The energy splitting is directly proportional to the charge transfer integral (
Organic thin-film transistors are easy to fabricate in large area by solution processing and therefore have been widely used in various electronic devices like electronic paper [89] and medical sensors [90, 91]. However, the semiconductor processing method and conditions can greatly affect the molecular packing motif and consequently can dramatically affect the device performance (see Section 2). To date, the knowledge on how the charge transport in semiconductor films depends on molecular packing motif is still very limited. In this section, the relationship between molecular packing and charge transport will be discussed, giving some recent investigations as examples.
\nPentacene is a benchmark organic semiconductor synthesized in 1912 [92], which exhibits excellent charge transport performance in thin-film transistor [93]. To date, there are five different polymorphs known for pentacene [9, 31, 32, 94]. As shown in Figure 2, the five polymorphs of pentacene are classified by their molecular layer thickness (d-spacing), where four thin-film forms exhibit d-spacing of 14.1, 14.4, 15.0, and 15.4 Å [31], and a monolayer form shows d-spacing of 16.1 Å [60]. However, among the five polymorphs, complete structural data have only been determined for the 14.1 and 14.4 Å polymorphs, where the 14.1 Å polymorph shares a similar packing as the single crystals. The single crystal of pentacene was reported with mobility around 5–40 cm2 V−1 s−1 [43, 95]. A recent study by Ji et al. reported that the polymorph with d-spacing of 16.2 Å has a mobility of up to 30.6 cm2 V−1 s−1 [93]. As for the other polymorphs, to stabilize and isolate a pure polymorph for transistor fabrication has been challenging. Thus, more investigation on the relationship between molecular packing and charge transport for pentacene remains a serious topic of research.
\n(a) Schematic drawing of the crystal structures of the pentacene polymorphs [
In 2001, Anthony et al. introduced triisopropylsilylethynyl (TIPS) group to the pentacene core, obtaining a very soluble pentacene derivative, i.e. TIPS-pentacene [46]. Different from the herringbone-stacked pentacene molecules, the TIPS-pentacene molecules adopt a brick-wall stacking in solid state. Several recent investigations have revealed that TIPS-pentacene exhibits polymorphism. For instance, Diao et al. fabricated five different polymorphs of TIPS-pentacene by using the solution shearing technology [15]. The five polymorphs have been categorized into three families: I and Ib, II and IIb, and III. Within each family, there is only a slight change in one or two unit cell parameters between the polymorphs. Among different family (polymorphs I, II, and III), the main structural differences are changes in the π-π stacking distance and the extent of overlap between adjacent molecules (Figure 3). Form I has larger π-π stacking distance than that of forms II and III, where pair I in form III exhibits a record low-stacking distance of less than 3 Å. As a result, form I exhibits ambipolar charge transport property, with hole and electron mobility of 3.8 and 6.81 cm2 V−1 s−1, respectively. Form II shows the highest mobility up to 11 cm2 V−1 s−1. In sharp contrast, form III possesses the lowest mobility around 0.09 cm2 V−1 s−1. The quantum chemical calculations indicate a much smaller hole transfer integral for form III compared to form I and form II. Form II with moderate π-π stacking distance has the largest hole transfer integral and therefore exhibits the highest mobility. This result shows that small π-π stacking distance does not always help to improve charge transport properties.
\nComparison of the three major polymorphs of TIPS-pentacene in their π-π stacking (A) and molecular offset along the conjugated backbone (B, C) as obtained from the crystallographic refinement calculations [
2,7-Dioctyl[1]benzothieno[3,2-b][1]benzothiophene (C8-BTBT) is an extensive studied air-stable organic semiconductor, which often shows very high hole mobility in OFET devices [4, 96, 97]. In a recent study by Yuan et al., ultra-high mobility up to 43 cm2 V−1 s−1 was obtained from thin-film transistors based on a metastable polymorph of C8-BTBT film [4]. The metastable polymorph was fabricated by introducing polystyrene additive and using an off-center spin-coating method. After thermal annealing, the metastable polymorph was relaxed to the equilibrium polymorph, along with a sharp decrease of carrier mobility. However, the correlation between molecular packing and charge transport for the C8-BTBT films is difficult to establish. The authors stated that the beam damage during grazing incidence X-ray diffraction (GIXD) measurements made it impossible to obtain the precise crystal packing structure for the metastable polymorph. Moreover, the crystal alignment was also disrupted after thermal annealing, making it difficult to attribute the mobility drop entirely to crystal structure change.
\n5,11-Bis(triethylsilylethynyl)anthradithiophene (TES-ADT) is a high-performance organic semiconductor with good solubility [53]. In a study by Yu and colleagues, four polymorphs of TES-ADT was obtained in thin films, including three thin-film forms (
Single-crystal transistors are preferred for fundamental studies on structure-charge transport relationships owning to their high molecular ordering and no grain boundaries. However, structure-property investigations have been successfully performed for only a small number of organic semiconductors by means of single-crystal transistors. Compared to thin-film transistors, the manufacture of single-crystal OFETs is more complicated, which generally requires the use of high-precision deposition or micromanipulation techniques. Moreover, the preparation of single crystals with different polymorphs is very difficult. In this section, some examples of single-crystal OFETs are introduced.
\nRubrene is an excellent organic semiconductor with single-crystal mobility up to 20 cm2 V−1 s−1 [99]. Four polymorphs of rubrene, including a monoclinic, a triclinic, and two orthorhombic forms, have been known for a long time [30], but the structure-charge transport relationship has only been discussed recently. In an investigation by Matsukawa et al., an orthorhombic single crystal exhibited high carrier mobility up to 1.6 cm2 V−1 s−1, while that of the triclinic form was only 0.1 cm2 V−1 s−1 [29, 100].
\nThe two polymorphs share similar π-π stacking distances, while the density of the π-stacking column in the (001) plane of orthorhombic crystal structure (Figure 4a) is much higher than that of the (0−11) plane of the triclinic crystal structure (Figure 4b). In other words, the π-π overlap along the carrier conduction direction in orthorhombic crystal is significantly larger than that in the triclinic crystal. Consequently, the orthorhombic crystal exhibits higher carrier mobility than the triclinic crystal.
\nCrystallographic structures of (a) the orthorhombic crystal (CCDC, 1025043) as viewed as the (001) plane and (b) the triclinic crystal (CCDC, 991020) as viewed as the (0−11) plane.
Two polymorphs of tetrathiafulvalene (TTF), including a monoclinic orange crystal and a triclinic yellow crystals, were found many years ago [101]. The single-crystal transistors of the two polymorphs were fabricated by Jiang and colleagues recently [102]. Based on single-crystal transistors, the charge transport performance associated with molecular packing was discussed. The monoclinic
Crystal packing of (a) α-TTF and (b) β-TTF with S⋯S interaction [
Brillante et al. investigated the polymorphism of dibenzotetrathiafulvalene (DB-TTF), and four polymorphs were found [49]. The pure
The molecular packing of (a) the
In the
Dithiophene-tetrathiafulvalene (DT-TTF) is a promising high-performance organic semiconductor, whose single-crystal OFETs were reported with high hole mobility up to 3.6 cm2 V−1 s−1 [104]. Long plated crystals of DT-TTF can be easily prepared from a variety of solutions [104, 105, 106], which were named as the
Stevens et al. found two polymorphs of 7,14-bis((trimethylsilyl)ethynyl)-dibenzo[b,def]-chrysene (TMS-DBC) using the physical vapor transport technology [58]. The first polymorph was obtained as red needles at low temperature, which was named as LT-phase (Figure 7a). The second polymorph was formed at high temperature as yellow plates and named HT-phase (Figure 7b). Further investigations found that the LT-phase can also be fabricated from solution and could not be converted into HT-phase by thermal annealing. Single-crystal OFETs of the two polymorphs were fabricated. The results revealed that the hole mobility of the HT-phase is up to 2.1 cm2 V−1 s−1, while that of the LT-phase is only 0.028 cm2 V−1 s−1.
\n(a) and (d) Crystal color, size, and shape of the LT red and HT yellow polymorphs of TMS-DBC. (b) and (c) Side and top views of the crystal packing in the red LT polymorph. (e) and (f) Side and top views of the crystal packing in the yellow HT polymorph. The directions corresponding to the largest calculated electronic couplings are indicated with arrows [
As shown in Figure 7, the LT-phase adopts one-dimensional (1D) slipped stacking, while the HT-phase exhibits two-dimensional (2D) brick-wall stacking. Quantum chemical calculations revealed that the LT-phase possesses 1D charge transport channel along the π-stacking direction with a transfer integral of −86.8 × 10−3 eV (Figure 7b). In contrast, the HT-phase possesses exhibits 2D charge transfer channels with transfer integrals of −77.3 × 10−3 and − 41 × 10−3 eV along the t1 and t2 directions, respectively (Figure 7e). Though the HT-phase exhibits slightly smaller transfer integral (absolute value) than that of the LT-phase, its 2D charge transport channels benefit charge transfer, which allows charge carriers to take alternative pathways around defects or trap states. As a result, the HT-phase facilitates higher mobility than the LT-phase.
\nWürthner et al. manufactured single-crystal transistors based on
In the
In an investigation by He et al., dihexyl-dibenzo[d, d’]thieno[3, 2-b; 4,5-b’]dithiophene (C6-DBTDT) was synthesized efficiently [47]; two polymorphs of C6-DBTDT were obtained by drop casting of solutions with different concentration in chlorobenzene or toluene. The platelet-like
It is generally believed that only the HOMO level contributes to hole charge carrier transport from one molecule to another adjacent molecule. The electronic couplings of adjacent molecules in the
In a recent investigation by Fan et al., a new molecule, indeno[1,2-b]fluorene-6,12-dione derivative, i.e., BMA-IFD, was designed and synthesized [55]. Two polymorphs of BMA-IFD were easily obtained by crystallization from solution. The ribbon-shaped
SAED and TEM images of (a) the α-phase and (b) the β-phase crystals (the scale bar is 5 μm). The transfer integrals of (c) the α-phase and (d) the β-phase crystals along the (001) directions. The molecules in panels e and f are colored differently only for clarity purposes [
The α-phase and the
Titanyl phthalocyanine (TiOPC) is a well-known organic semiconductor and photoconductor; however, it exhibits poor solubility in common solvents. In a recent study by Zhang et al., TiOPC crystals were synthesized by physical vapor transport (PVT) technique through a two-zone horizontal tube furnace [6]. Some sheet crystals were obtained at the temperature zone of about 210°C, while some ribbon crystals were grown at the temperature zone of about 180°C. The sheet and ribbon crystals belong to the
The crystal structures of the two polymorphs were determined, where the
Herein, the polymorphism in organic semiconductors is introduced, including the common strategies for polymorph control and investigations on OFETs from different polymorphs. Polymorphism is proved to be an excellent platform to directly correlate the molecular packing with charge transport for organic semiconductors; such investigations are very limited so far. A main challenge is to precisely tailor thermodynamic and kinetic factors of crystal nucleation and growth for large-area thin films or high-quality single crystals. Among the investigations on polymorphism, several polymorphs with outstanding charge transport performance have been obtained, demonstrating that altering the crystal polymorph structure of organic semiconductors is an efficient strategy to access high-performance OFETs. However, the majority of the high-mobility polymorphs are metastable. Consequently, getting insight into the relationship between molecular structure and crystal polymorph remains an important issue, which is essential for the rational design of molecular structures to further develop the desired crystal polymorphs with outstanding electrical characteristics.
\nThis work is supported by the National Key R&D Program of China (2017YFA0204903), National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC. 51733004, 51525303, 221702085, 21673106, 21602093, 21572086, 1522203), 111 Project, and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities. The authors thank beam line BL14B1 (Shanghai Synchrotron Radiation Facility) for providing the beam time.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
One of the most striking characteristics of human beings is the diversities. Different ways of being, thinking and existing, different needs, world views, ethical positions mark the relationships between people. In this sense, interpersonal conflicts are understood as tension that involves different interests or positions, are inherent to human relationships, and are present in various social organizations, among them, the school.
The school as microcosms of society brings together different views of the world, different ways of being, thinking, and living, thus becoming a space for representing social differences and being a place where different conflicts occur daily. Dealing with this situation type requires learning and that is why teachers need training in conflict management so that they can correctly manage the classroom conflicts and educate also your students for conflict management.
Recognizing that the school is an organization that brings together social diversity and adopting as an assumption that interpersonal conflicts are inherent to human relationships, we define the school conflicts as this chapter theme. In this sense, this chapter addresses school conflicts with a focus on classroom conflicts in the teacher-student relationship. In the first part, a brief reference is made to the conflict. This is followed by a review of the bibliography on school/classroom conflict causes.
Due to its intrinsic characteristics, school is a favorable medium for conflict situations development. So, the conflict in the education system can be seen from the dialectic between the macrostructure of the education system, the general policies oriented towards it, and the management processes that prevail in each school [1].
The conflict presents formative possibilities, since the perception of the differences existing between people/or groups and their needs, values, ideas, and different ways of living are essential to a democratic society [2]. In this sense, it is important to enhance positive conflict characteristics and reduce the negative ones. So, the difficulty in resolving conflicts is largely due to the difficulties existing between those involved in the conflict to be able to communicate effectively. Therefore, the constructive and educational potential of conflicts depends largely on the skills of those involved. Thus, knowing how to communicate, and respecting the rights of others and existing differences are essential for conflicts to revert to social and human development benefits.
The concern with improving coexistence in schools, centred on the conflict variable, is addressed in different studies, whose objectives mark both understanding the school conflict [3, 4, 5, 6], as well as preventing its occurrence [7]. Since it is impossible to eliminate school conflicts, it is essential and urgent to reduce their intensity, duration, and severity, so that the teaching and learning process is not harmed. In this sense, this chapter addresses also the strategies used to manage classroom conflict, and some examples of programs that work these skills on teachers and students.
The conflict is defined and classified from different perspectives, and its definition can differ, in context, process, intervention, and study areas [1, 8]. Conflict is a phenomenon of incompatibility between individuals or groups with irreconcilable ends and/or values between them, considering it a social process [1]. For this author, four elements are present and must be addressed in all conflicts: the causes that give rise to it; the conflict protagonists; the process and the way the protagonists face the conflict; and the context in which it occurs. In turn, Chrispino [9] understands conflict as to any divergent opinion or a different way of seeing or interpreting an event, that is, the conflict originates in the difference of interests, desires, aspirations, or positions between individuals. He adds that conflicts can arise from difficulties in communication and assertiveness.
In this way, we can say that there is a conflict when two or more people interact with each other and perceive incompatible differences, or threats to their resources, needs, or values and when they respond according to what was perceived, then the ideal conditions for conflict are created. The conflict intensity, duration, or severity can then increase or decrease depending on the strategies used to resolve it. Regardless of the different conflict definitions, there is no conflict if the individuals involved are not aware of its existence. This conclusion is consensual to the majority of the definition proposals and to the attempts to conceptualize the conflict found in the specialized literature.
In addition to different conflict definitions, there are also different proposals for classifying it. Concerning the different conflict classification [8, 10, 11] the emphasis is placed on the theoretical proposals of [8, 11]. Conflicts can be classified into five different types: structural, value, relationship, interest, and data [11]. In structural conflicts, causes are associated with unequal control situations, possession or resource distribution, unequal power, and authority, geographical, physical, or environmental factors that prevent cooperation and time pressures. In value conflicts, it highlights situations of opposing ideas or behaviors, different ways of life, ideology, or religion. Relationship conflicts are caused by strong emotions, misperceptions or stereotypes, inadequate or deficient communication, and negative and/or repetitive behaviors. The causes of interest conflicts are perceived or real competition over fundamental interests (content), procedural interests, and psychological interests. Finally, about data conflicts, [11] highlights the lack of information or wrong information, different points of view on what is important, different data interpretations, and different assessment procedures.
In turn, Torrego [8] presents a typology that seems to reflect the type of school conflicts: relationship-communication conflicts; interest/needs conflicts; and preferences, values, and beliefs conflicts. As for the relationship-communication conflicts, it cannot be said that there is a concrete cause that justifies their appearance, however, it appears as a result of the relationship deterioration itself. As such, aggressions, struggles, offenses, defamations, rumors, humiliations, misunderstandings are part of this type of conflict, but also perception conflicts, because, despite the conflict reality being only one, this fact does not invalidate that those involved have their view of it. Interest or needs conflicts usually occur when one party considers that it will only be able to satisfy its needs/interests if the other gives in to theirs. This conflict type can include those that stem from disagreement about how to perform jobs or tasks and those that result from the need felt by one of the parties to own or be coerced into giving in: objects, time, space, or any type of appeal. Finally, preferences, values, and beliefs conflicts result when these systems are discordant or viewed as such by those involved in the conflict. However, this conflict type can be resolved if the parties identify higher values common to both.
It is important to say that the conflict constructive paradigm indicates that the conflict has positive and negative aspects, advantages, and disadvantages. This new model is opposed to the classic model and indicates that moderate levels of conflict are perceived as positive [12]. The conflict effects are positive, when they are well managed, to establish more cooperative relations and seek to reach an integrated solution, for the benefit of those involved in the conflict [10]. In any organization, the existence of low levels of conflict leaves the organization vulnerable to stagnation, to making impoverished decisions, even to the lack of effectiveness; on the other hand, having too much conflict leads the organization directly into chaos.
Given the above, we can say that conflicts are inherent to human relationships since human beings are characterized by diversity. The school, by bringing together people from different social groups with different values and worldviews, becomes a locus for conflicts.
The school is a society microsystem, in which are reflected constant changes. Thus, one of the most important school functions is to prepare students, teachers, and parents to live and overcome the difficulties of a world full of rapid changes and interpersonal conflicts, contributing to the development process of each individual. For being a society microsystem and bringing together different ways of life, thinking, feeling, relationship, constitutes a space conducive to interpersonal conflicts.
School conflict is defined as the disagreement between individuals or groups regarding ideas, interests, principles, and values within the school community, perceiving the parties their interests as excluded, although they may not be [13], being that the most frequent school conflicts occur in the relations between student–student and between student-teacher [14].
Conflicts in the school can be classified according to their causes and those involved. For Martinez [15], the conflicts between teachers are mainly caused by lack of communication, personal interests, previous conflicts, issues of power, or political and ideological differences. This author indicates that conflicts between students and teachers, as they happen due to the lack of understanding of the teacher’s explanation, due to arbitrary grades and divergence in the evaluation criteria, lack of didactic material, discrimination, disinterest in the study material, and because the students are ears. In turn, conflicts between students can arise due to misunderstandings, fights, the rivalry between groups, discrimination, bullying, use of spaces and assets, dating, sexual harassment, loss or damage of school assets, diverse elections, travel, and parties. Conflicts between parents, teachers, and administrators can arise due to aggressions that occurred between students and between teachers, due to the loss of work material, problems in the school canteen or similar, lack of teachers, lack of pedagogical assistance by teachers, evaluation, approval and disapproval criteria, failure to meet bureaucratic and administrative requirements of management [15].
From the literature review, it is possible to infer and highlight the different causes pointed to the school conflict. Participating teachers in the Göksoy and Argon [16] study indicate as causes for school conflict: the communication failures, personal, political/ideological, and organizational causes.
With a very similar rating, Jares [1] indicates four main causes: ideological-scientific, related to different pedagogical, ideological, and organizational options, and the type of school culture or cultures that coexist; power causes, related to organization control, professional promotion, access to resources and decision making; causes of structure, related to the ambiguity of objectives and functions, organizational fragility, organizational and variable contexts; and personal and interpersonal causes, related to self-esteem, security, professional dissatisfaction, and communication. Also, Burguet [17] points out as possible causes for the school conflict in the school’s organizational structure.
In this sequence, and given the increase in school conflicts, Ibarra [18] recognizes as school conflict causes: the increase in compulsory schooling, the increase in the number of students per class, teachers perceive a progressive decline in their authority about students, and students are less likely to comply with certain rules and limits, which results in conflict situations. Regarding the increase in compulsory education, this leads to a greater number of unmotivated and undisciplined students, which implies an increase in school conflict. Likewise, the increase in the number of students per class, without increasing the facilities or associated conditions, increases the conflict occurrence, because of their negative changes in the physical and psychological environment, in overcrowded classrooms, with a lack of space for practical and collaborative activities.
In addressing interpersonal relationships in schools cannot neglect family background. When dealing with interpersonal relationships in the school context, it is necessary to take into account the family reality of each student, since the family interpersonal relationships have a strong connection with the school conflict [19]. Distinguished authors indicate that school conflict situations often have their genesis at the family level [17, 20] since they are the most deprived families, where alcoholism, domestic violence, and unemployment problems occur, being that all these violence and incivilities manifestations that arise in the students’ lives are transported to school. Burguet [17] points the dismissal of families as educational agents. This author highlights the overprotection with a sense of guilt for not dedicating more time to children, the experience of fatherhood as a “burden” of those who educate in aggressiveness, and the criticisms of parents, and society itself, to teachers, instigates conflicts. In other words, the role of the family often does not seem to offer a good foundation in the education of young people, which is reflected in their behavior in the processes of interaction at school. As Berkowitz [20] indicates, many of the interaction problems originate in the family, and the student reproduces the behaviors he learns with his parents.
It should be noted that the context experienced by the Covid-19 pandemic has a greater impact on students from poorer families. The situation of these most vulnerable students was a problem whose dimension grew with online classes, as they encountered immense barriers and lack of support for quality education during confinement. Thus, students who before the pandemic were unmotivated and presented conflicting behaviors at school should be the target of more support during this pandemic phase, to minimize the conflicting behaviors. It should also be noted that although family-school relationships are extremely important for students’ learning and development, family participation in school is not always satisfactory.
So, the family and the school must go together to contribute to the conflict becoming part of a process of growth, acceptance of the other, and accountability. Learning to deal with school conflicts positively is essential for the development of healthy relationships.
Another cause of school conflicts is pointed to society and the values it conveys, Burguet [17] points to the example of social communication, which encourages violence through violent programs, broadcasting news with prejudiced and conflicting messages. All of these situations enhance the conflicting attitudes of children and young people, which are reflected in school behaviors.
The school builds a social interface favorable to involvement, where conflicts proliferate in the educational process complexity, being common and daily in classes. Thus, in the classroom different types of conflict occur, being a challenge for most teachers to know how to face, manage, and resolve these conflicts [7].
Teachers often perceive conflicts as indiscipline, violence, disrespect, and like all situations threatening his authority, and inexperienced and experienced teachers emphasize the teacher-student conflict as a frequent situation in difficult classes [21]. In this context, Silva and Flores [19] refer to the negative effect that these situations have on attainment and student motivation, so it is urgent to find solutions to avoid or mitigate such effects.
The classroom coexistence problems are mainly related to social and pedagogical changes [22]. In this sequence, there are several conflict situations that teachers can face during classes. Some of those indicated by the teachers are, namely: the student’s presence that did not focus on activities; students with serious learning and communication difficulties; students groups who do classroom not work and maintain an aggressive and provocative attitude; students with destructive attitudes towards school material, theirs and/or colleagues, as well as aggressive and violent attitudes towards colleagues and teachers; apathetic students, who do not show classes enthusiasm; and in extreme situations, students who take and display instruments in the class that can be used as weapons, in an attitude of defiance to the teacher [23].
Given the increase in the classroom conflicts, multiple causes, which include a combination of external and internal factors in the school environment, are indicated, such as the increase in compulsory education, the increase in students per class, the progressive decline in the teacher’s authority about students, and students are less likely to comply with rules and limits, which results in conflict [18]. The increase in the year of schooling also leads to greater difficulties in living and learning in the classroom, and older age student’s groups consider themselves inserted in an educational system that sometimes does not respond to their needs and some of them consider not be essential to your life. So, the increase in compulsory education leads to a greater number of dissatisfied, unmotivated, and undisciplined students. Likewise, the increase in students per class, without increasing the facilities or associated conditions, negatively affects the psychological environment in overcrowded classrooms, with a lack of space for practical and collaborative activities. In turn, the progressive decline in teacher authority in relation to students and students are less likely to comply with certain rules and limits, results in conflicts in the classroom.
Conflicts in the teacher-student relationship are recurrent in the classroom, and [17] indicates as causes generating conflict, not only concerning the expectations of the teacher-student but also the student towards the teacher. In this sequence, the authors highlight the following problems that cause conflict: discipline problems, adaptation to individual differences problems, and evaluation problems.
As for discipline problems, these are the result of provocation and contempt of the student towards the teacher, or the teacher towards the student, to exercise their authority. In turn, problems of adaptation to individual differences are related to heterogeneous behaviors and diminished personal relationships. As for the problems related to the evaluation, result mainly from the personal rhythms of each student and teacher.
Students’ undisciplined classroom behavior can lead to conflicts that divert the teacher’s attention to issues that blur him from his teaching function [19]. In this context, Pérez-de-Guzmán et al. [7] indicate disinterest, mainly academic, as the main source of classroom conflict, also mentioning that one of the conflicts that persist and continues to be common is the lack of study habits and the carrying out work, leading to a negative attitude during class. Also, the mandatory stay in the classroom, away from the interests and expectations of some students, is recurrent as a conflict cause.
There are many and diverse classroom conflict situations that disturb the class dynamics. And in situations where the conflict remains latent, the result of the diversity of class interests, if the teacher does not create a good environment, acting positively about communication, the use of legitimate authority, and the conflict management, he will see conflicts increase exponentially within the classes [24]. Thus, regardless of the classroom conflicts type, if they are not managed, they accumulate, which makes them more cohesive and complicated, triggering negative feelings in those involved, and negatively affecting the educational quality [24].
The causes of the aforementioned conflicts are linked to personal issues and interpersonal relationships. And, most of these conflicts reveal an undisciplined character and increase daily in the class context. In this way, the teacher in the absence of solid guidelines can develop discontent, insecurity, and dissatisfaction that are reflected in his conflict face performance. Another aspect to be highlighted is that related to the power or lack of it that, increasingly, the teacher presents, and that reveals itself in discontent. In short, there is a gap in society, between the values it promotes and demands the school and the lack of credibility that is given to the teacher, questioned before the disapproval of parents and society itself, which instigates an even greater student’s conflict, in classes.
Conflict can inspire innovations and creative strategies in addressing challenging issues, as well as improving work, results, and encouraging organizations to achieve higher levels of quality and achievement. In this context, Göksoy and Argon [16] argue that school conflicts have positive and negative impacts on psychological, social, and organizational results.
Negative psychological impacts include discomfort, insecurity, insignificance feelings, sadness, resentment, frustration, and stress. In turn, at the social level, results of hostility, intolerance, and violence are present [16]. As for the negative results within the institutions, the author highlights the existence of a tense environment, weakened cooperation, communication failures, poor performance, and an undisciplined environment. Inevitably, in this way, there is a decrease in education quality.
The conflicts traditional and negative view has implications for the training of students, as the current discourse in many schools is about how to avoid conflicts since their educational potential is sometimes not perceived by the school community. This discourse conceives the conflict by the violent consequences that result from its non-management.
Conflict is recognized as an engine of social development and its effects are positive when the conflict is managed well. Thus, about the positive impacts arising from the school conflict, these have various levels of benefits [16]. At a personal level, the conflict allows learning to be related to the perception of errors, and to develop new ideas. On the other hand, at the social level, it enables the reinforcement of communication, respect for others, and enhances commitment. Regarding the benefits at the organizational level, it makes it possible to understand problems, seek and develop new solutions, and develop a democratic and enriching environment in the school. Thus, conflicts can contribute to the construction of broader visions of certain situations and, at the same time, guarantee rights and opportunities for all, regardless of interpersonal differences.
Teachers’ perceptions of conflict indicate that they focus mainly on the conflicts’ negative aspects [6, 25]. It is noteworthy that the methods most used at school, face of students conflicting behaviors, include warning, disapproval, summoning guardians, and in some cases, student suspension. Methodologies that provoke negative feelings and, later, originate new undesirable behaviors, being applied without taking into account the needs, personal conflicts, problems, and students expectations [26]. As indicated by Torrecilla et al. [22] if the teacher is not an effective conflict manager, he will project this lack of skill, resulting in negative learning for students.
As noted earlier, classroom conflict is an unavoidable reality. Thus, being inevitable, adequate strategies are needed to resolve it so that the conflict potential advantages are taken advantage of and its harmful effects are minimized or canceled out. Conflict management strategies are understood as the behavior types that are adopted in the conflict context, that is, they are basic strategies to manage a situation in which the parties consider their interests to be incompatible.
It is important to note that the choice between different conflict management strategies depends on the conflict level and the various situations that must be managed effectively [27], that is, to manage conflict functionally, it is important to recognize that one strategy may be more appropriate than another, depending on the conflict situation, being considered appropriate if its use leads to the effective formulation or resolution of the conflict [27]. So, strategies refer to specific patterns of behavior that are adopted in conflict situations. Following this approach, Rahim and Bonoma [28] established five conflict management strategies using two dimensions “self-concern” and “others concern”. They are different strategies for conflict management and correspond to the attitudes to confront and conflict resolutions.
These five strategies for conflict management are [27]: (a) Avoiding: when conflicted parties show low levels of concern for others’ interests and a low level of concern for oneself. Strategy characterized by a low degree of assertiveness and a low degree of cooperation, where neither its interests nor those of its opponents are satisfied; (b) Dominating: reflecting the attempt to satisfy one’s interests without consideration of the interests of the other. Characterized by a high assertiveness and lack of cooperation, in which the acquisition of objectives is viewed with supremacy over the interests of the other party. Furthermore, it is often considered an aggressive strategy; (c) Obliging: tends to be adopted by those individuals who attempt to play down the differences and emphasizes commonalities to satisfy the concerns of the other party. Represents a conflict management strategy where the cooperation is high, and assertiveness is low; (d) Integrating: individuals who use this strategy manage conflicts directly and cooperatively, seeking to solve in collaboration with the other, is a strategy connected with problem-solving. The use of this involves openness, exchanging information, looking for alternatives, and examination of differences to reach an effective solution for everyone involved in the conflict. Is a strategy useful for effectively dealing with complex problems; and (e) Compromising: represents the attempt to satisfy, moderately and partially, the interests of all those involved in the conflict, and shares commonalities with all of the other four strategies. Is a strategy that requires compromise and assignment. Compromising is an intermediate strategy on assertiveness and cooperation, which implies a compromise in the search for an acceptable intermediate position for everyone involved in the conflict.
Among the variables that influence the choice of different conflict management strategies, the teachers’ emotional intelligence stands out. Valente and Lourenço [24] conclude that teachers who tend to have higher levels of emotional intelligence use more integration and commitment strategies, for conflict management in the classroom, and fewer strategies of consent, avoidance, and domination. Too, the findings of Aliasgari and Farzadnia [29] indicate that teachers prefer the integrating strategy over the other conflict management strategy. So, in the presence of classroom conflict, the teacher proposes alternatives, applies open lines of communication, makes concessions, accepts responsibility, maximizes similarities, and minimizes existing differences between self and student [24]. Therefore, the integrating strategy is connected with classroom problem-solving, the use of this strategy involves openness and exchanging information, being the ideal strategy in dealing with complex classroom problems [24]. When applying a commitment strategy, the teacher’s objective is an intermediate solution for conflict management, for this, he knows how to reduce differences with the student suggests an exchange of proposals with the student, and provides a quick solution to conflicts in the classroom [24]. This is an intermediate strategy on assertiveness and cooperation, which implies a compromise in the search for an acceptable intermediate position for everyone involved in the conflict [27]. In this way, teachers’ emotional intelligence allows for better conflict management, which supports the development of interpersonal relationships in the classroom and enables a favorable environment for teaching and learning.
So, conflicts involve, in addition to interpersonal skills such as availability for dialog, emotional intelligence skills, which require the perception and recognition of the affective dimension, and the feelings of those involved. In this sense, we can say that the evolution of interpersonal relationships has not kept pace with scientific and technological developments. We were not educated to know how to interpret the language of emotions, just as we did not learn to solve conflict situations. We do not learn to perceive and manage emotions. Thus, the emotions that emerge from conflicts must be the target of attention and discussion, so that teachers and students are aware of their emotions and know how to deal with them.
The concern with improving coexistence in schools, namely about conflict, is mentioned in several studies, whose objectives refer to the understanding of school conflicts, as well as preventing their occurrence through programs aimed at teachers and students [4, 5]. Thus, the school community must develop effective skills for conflict management, increasing self-awareness, and understanding of conflict through formal education sessions.
The manage conflict ability is not innate, so it must be learned through educational interventions. There are different programs that work these skills in the educational context, of which they stand: Recognizing, Understanding, Labeling, Expressing, Regulating (RULER), Social and Emotional Learning (SEL), and the Collaborative for Academic, Social and Emotional Learning (CASEL).
RULER program was created based on the emotional intelligence Mayer-Salovey’s model [30]. This training program focuses on emotional intelligence development and involving the students, parents, teachers, and the entire educational community [31]. RULER focuses on learning skills that deal with issues of interpersonal conflict and teach strategies for emotional regulation. Empirical evidence regarding the effectiveness of RULER programs indicates that they enhance students’ academic performance, improve the quality of learning environments, improve teacher-student relationships and reduce student behavior problems, being a success in reducing violence and abusive classroom behavior [32].
The SEL was developed with the aim of preventing school violence and includes five areas of interconnected skills (self-knowledge, social awareness, self-management and organization, responsible problem solving, and relationship management). Teaching these skills is vital to deal with behavioral, academic, disciplinary, and safety problems, promoting self-awareness, managing emotions, and acquiring skills such as empathy, the ability to perceive different perspectives and points of view, respect for diversity, and the ability to make the right decisions [33]. SEL programs refer to processes of developing socio-emotional competencies, which depend on the individual’s ability to recognize, understand, and manage emotions. These skills are the main building blocks for other outcomes that SEL programs include, such as the ability to persist in the face of challenges, stress management, the ability to develop healthy relationships, build trust in others, and to thrive both in the academic context, as in personal and social life. In a study carried out on more than 213 SEL programs, it was concluded that a school that successfully applies a quality curriculum of the SEL program can achieve behavioral improvements and a positive increase in the results of assessments [34].
CASEL program was created with the aim of establishing social and emotional education in a school context and making it a reality in today’s education. Its purpose is to apply high-quality, evidence-based SEL programs, from pre-school to secondary education [35]. The results of this program reveal significant changes in the socio-emotional capacities, social interactions, and academic results of the students who attended these programs. Among the results, it should be noted that students show greater communication skills, are more collaborative in teamwork, and more resistant to challenges and difficulties [36].
The school is a space for socialization par excellence and, precisely, due to the variety of styles, cultures, and values, it becomes an environment rich in conflicts. Conflict, commonly seen as something negative, destructive, and generating violence, is, in fact, extremely necessary for individual evolution. It should be noted that the conflict itself does not generate violence; this comes when there is a lack of peaceful solutions to conflict resolution, when there is no conflict constructive management.
Among the conflict management methodologies used in the school, the following stand out: arbitration, conciliation, negotiation, and mediation. School arbitration is a dialog process that takes place between the involved in the conflict with the presence of a third party that determines the conflict resolution based on the benefits of the parties with their authority and knowledge [37]. The school conciliation is a dialog process carried out between the involved in the conflict, with the support of a conciliator, who helps them decide, based on their interests and needs. This may present proposals for solutions that the parties can accept or not. The decision-making power belongs to the parties, even if the solution comes from the conciliator [37]. In turn, the school negotiation is a dialog process focused on conflict resolution between the involved in the conflict, which either meet face to face to work together unassisted to conflict resolution. Negotiation is one of the most used conflict management mechanisms in the classroom. The school mediation, this is a dialog process carried out between the parties in conflict, assisted by a third party, the mediator, who should not influence the conflict resolution, acting as a communication facilitator. Inserted in a socio-constructivist paradigm, it is considered not only as of the most current and flexible instrument for peaceful conflict resolution at the educational level, and promote a new culture for conflict management. Arising not only to solve school problems, but equally as a feasible way for creative conflict modification [38].
A more detailed approach to school negotiation is presented as it is considered the most appropriate method for resolving classroom conflicts, in teacher-student relationships. Negotiation includes a set of behavioral skills that teachers must master. It is essentially a well-structured process and based on some tacit behavior, being understood as a process of communicative interaction in which two parties seek to resolve a conflict of interest, use dialog, and progress gradually through mutual concessions. The negotiation process implies several skills, which stand out, effective communication, considered the main tool of the negotiation process.
Effective communication is essential to the school conflicts negotiation, as it enhances: the fear decrease of being rejected, the anxiety reduction produced in the struggle for acceptance and recognition, a greater predisposition to listen to the other and recognize their positive aspects, a strengthening of self-esteem, an increase in the degree of security, and a decrease in defensive-offensive behavior [39].
Concerning the negotiation phases, although there is no consensus on the definition of the negotiation stages, there are at least three that are classically identified [40]: definition of the content and limits of the negotiation (exploratory stage), with the manifestation of antagonism, facing individuals the “dilemma of trust” and the “dilemma of honesty”; negotiation dynamics (dynamic and tactical stage), with manifestations of concession flexibility, systematically assisting proposals and counter-proposals, constituting the central moment of the negotiation process; and, the resolution and agreements stage, this more integrative, brief, and intense phase, almost always implies tension and uncertainty.
These phases testify to the transformation that the negotiations must undergo and must respond to the three negotiation objectives, namely: identification of differences between the parties, making joint decisions, and building a commitment to resolve the conflict.
It should be noted that during a conflict negotiation, it is also important to highlight the importance of [39]:
Empathy: the pillar of good communication and the connection between teacher and student, which allows one to understand each other’s feelings and motivations;
Assertiveness: being able to expose your point of view, emotions, or opinions without provoking a defensive attitude, through a self-affirmative phrase that tells students what to think without blaming you, not putting you as an opponent. Being assertive requires understanding limitations to do another. The teacher when negotiating a conflict must establish his position and build self-confidence thus limiting abuse situations without attacking students;
Active listening: a tool is useful to obtain more information, corroborating data so that the student knows that he was heard. When we listen actively, we are asking, paraphrasing, asking for clarification, defining, and contextualizing. Some ways of they appear can be by echo, repetition of what the other said, reformulation, expressing in words what was understood, resolving points or questions, summarizing and ordering information or reflection of the feeling, an expression of what we perceive of the other; and
Feedback: the teacher must support and encourage positive behavior, correcting the inappropriate ones. To put feedback into practice, it is necessary to let the student know what the teacher feels and what he thinks.
That way, thinking of the joint construction of solutions to the conflict, through the correct use of empathy, assertiveness, active listening, and feedback can make those involved in the conflict evaluate their actions and rethink their attitudes, discovering ways to solve the problems, trying to maintain respect and balance. Knowing how to listen, evaluate, rethink with everyone involved in the conflict, creating the habit of dialog. Because when those involved in the conflict participate in the construction of possible actions for solutions, relationships can be restored, and the conflict constructively resolved. Therefore, classroom conflicts when managed constructively contribute to the preservation of interpersonal bonds and promote the socio-emotional skills of involved, since it makes possible to develop skills to know how to see reality from the perspective of the other, knowing how to cooperate, and also learn that conflict is an opportunity for growth and maturation.
As seen, although conflicts have negative impacts in general, the constructive and destructive consequences of conflict depend on the management skills of the individuals who experience it [25]. Effective conflict management strategies minimize the conflict negative impacts and enhance the positive ones, helping to improve interpersonal relationships and job satisfaction at school.
In general, teachers and the school ignore the importance of conflicts in the integral development of the student and training as autonomous citizens. In this way, most schools do not conceive of conflict resolution as an integral part of the curriculum, emphasizing only the contents of the curricular subjects. They leave aside interpersonal relationships, homogenizing the training of students without promoting the development of problem and conflict management skills. Thus, for the educational potential of the conflict to be truly used in the school context, it is necessary that the community, and especially teachers and management bodies, recognize the conflict possibilities. Constructive management of school conflicts is important and necessary for new generations to learn to live with social differences.
In this sequence, educational action is required, intentionally aimed at conflict management as an element inherent to the human condition and indispensable to democratic societies. Therefore, the formative potential of the conflict depends on the strategies used to resolve the conflict and the management that takes place. The way to conflict management, in turn, depends on how those involved experience the conflict. Therefore, the negative view of the conflict and the lack of perception of its educational potential can prevent those involved from developing essential skills such as respect for diversity, respect for the rights of others, and availability for dialog.
Pérez-de-Guzmán et al. [7] indicate that training in conflict management, generates very positive results in all members of the educational community, verifying a reduction in the interpersonal conflict between teacher-student. Also, Massabni [41] defends the urgency to prepare teachers to face professional conflicts; otherwise, we will have a generation of teachers able to succumb to the pressure that the profession is going through, to accept the reduction of their action, their status, and to share their commitments with other professionals, who take away the property of regulating their work. It is necessary to support teachers and provide them with tools to develop their ways of managing conflicts.
By making conflicts the subject of reflection and explaining the professional context in which teachers work is, in the opinion of [41], the commitment of the different higher education institutions that form them. It is important to work not only on the training of future teachers but also on training in the active teachers in conflict management, small or large, which inevitably emerge in the teacher-student relationship, throughout their professional life. Also, the Freire et al. [42] results support the importance of professional development opportunities with a focus on facilitating the relationship of teachers with students with perceived challenging behavior.
The school is an institution that reproduces a microcosm of society, bringing together diverse identities. This context with diverse personalities, rules, and values is full of conflicts, problems, and differences between the different actors that make up the school (students, teachers, staff, and parents). Thus, the school system, in addition to involving a range of people, with different characteristics, includes a significant number of continuous and complex interactions, depending on the stages of development of each one. So, school is a place where individuals with different characteristics, backgrounds, experiences, and personalities live together daily. Among so many differences, naturally, divergences of the most diverse species arise. It is essential, then, the proper management of conflicts that may arise so that harmony and respect are present in the school of the main causes presented for the school conflict, we highlight family problems. Being the family the main student emotional support, it becomes the life model of this. In this way, unstable and weakened family relationships directly affect the behavior of your children, behaviors that these after reproduced in the school social relationships. The families of the most deprived students are considered less functional. They do not contribute to the growth of positive feelings, they do not carry out good communication between family members, nor do they assist in healthily making decisions that are, based on the exchange of ideas together instead of imposition. In this sequence, students from more dysfunctional families need school increased support to learn and develop interpersonal skills. Thus, family and school must go together to contribute to the conflict becoming part of a process of growth, acceptance of the other, and accountability. Learning to deal with conflicts positively is essential for the development of healthy relationships.
The school, by bringing together people from different social groups with different values and worldviews, becomes a locus for conflicts. Thus, the conflict must be understood as a reality inherent to the educational context, and the school, as responsible for the education of values and skills for living together must be differently prepared to deal with the conflicts that occur in it.
Conflicts of various types have always been present in the classroom, and the causes that originate them are of great importance, as they allow a better conflict understanding and, consequently, a more correct intervention to its management. It should be noted that personal harmony and the development of attitudes that promote understanding, dialog, and tolerance are indispensable for negotiating conflicts in the teacher-student relationship. The way to intervene in classroom conflicts is essential in education, not only in terms of content, but also as a series of vital procedures in interpersonal relationships. As Lapponi [39] points out, for conflicts correct negotiation with the student, it is necessary to communicate effectively, cooperate, decide responsibly, and so teach to resolve conflicts.
Ending school conflict is impossible, since they are intrinsic to the human being, being an integral part of their development and the interpersonal relationships they experience daily. Learning to live with school conflict requires creating attitudes of openness, interest in differences, and respect for diversity, teaching how to recognize injustice, taking measures to overcome it, resolving differences constructively, and moving from conflict situations to reconciliations. So, it is essential that the initial and continuous training of teachers encompasses conflict management, providing them with tools so that they can resolve the conflicts they experience in the classroom.
In summary, it is important to conflict face and resolve it with skills to manage it properly and constructively, establishing cooperative relationships, and producing integrative solutions. Harmony and appreciation should coexist in a classroom environment and conflict should not interfere, negatively, in the teaching and learning process.
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The HWBI contains eight domains representing social, economic and environmental well-being. These domains include 25 indicators comprised of 80 metrics and 22 social, economic and environmental services. The application of the HWBI has been made for the nation as a whole at the county level and two alternative applications have been made to represent key populations within the overall US population—Native Americans and children. A number of advances have been made to estimate the values of metrics for counties where no data is available and one such estimator—MERLIN—is discussed. Finally, efforts to make the index into an interactive web site are described.",book:{id:"5761",slug:"quality-of-life-and-quality-of-working-life",title:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life",fullTitle:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life"},signatures:"J. Kevin Summers, Lisa M. Smith, Linda C. Harwell and Kyle D. Buck",authors:[{id:"197485",title:"Dr.",name:"J. 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Emotional charge also presents a moderate positive correlation with work-related stress, as well as physical charge and psychological distress. Work-life balance is negatively correlated with physical charge, emotional charge, work-related stress, psychological distress, and burnout. We observed also that 43.6% of the professors reported high levels of work-related stress in their everyday work. The precariousness of university teaching is associated with three main elements, which we defined as the tripod of the precarization of university teaching work. It consists of academic productivism, excess of administrative work and bureaucratic activities, and inadequate working conditions. The operating dynamics of this tripod effect professors’ well-being, their QWL, and even the quality of the work they develop in public universities.",book:{id:"5761",slug:"quality-of-life-and-quality-of-working-life",title:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life",fullTitle:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life"},signatures:"Alessandro Vinicius de Paula and Ana Alice Vilas Boas",authors:[{id:"175373",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Alice",middleName:null,surname:"Vilas Boas",slug:"ana-alice-vilas-boas",fullName:"Ana Alice Vilas Boas"},{id:"196534",title:"Dr.",name:"Alessandro Vinicius",middleName:null,surname:"De Paula",slug:"alessandro-vinicius-de-paula",fullName:"Alessandro Vinicius De Paula"}]},{id:"55530",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69151",title:"Quality of Life and Physical Activity: Their Relationship with Physical and Psychological Well-Being",slug:"quality-of-life-and-physical-activity-their-relationship-with-physical-and-psychological-well-being",totalDownloads:1946,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Many studies have been focused on the analysis of different factors that relate to the quality of life. And those studies have found a clear relationship between the quality of life, psychological well-being, and health. It is important to know those relationships and to know factors that can improve these three aspects simultaneously. And one of the most important factors is the realization of physical activity on a regular basis. This study analyzes the effect of physical activity on improving the quality of life (physical health and well-being) and its relationship with psychological well-being through two studies. One was a randomized clinical trial involving 98 low-risk incident cases of acute coronary syndrome, who were randomly assigned to an unsupervised walking program or a cycle ergometer exercise program. The other study is an expost-facto investigation with a total of 841 healthy subjects. 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The index we create is a unique and data‐driven approach to calculating quality of life. In the chapter, we explain the process that leads us to selecting our five indicators: public safety, health, economic development, infrastructure, and education. Each indicator breaks apart into subindicators. This chapter theoretically and statistically verifies our chosen indicators. First, we develop theoretical arguments explaining the connections between quality of life and our indicators. Then, we perform confirmatory factor analyses on our index to empirically verify our theoretical arguments for why each component should be included in the index. Further, we finally verify our theory and index using survey results. We use only publicly available data to facilitate replication by others. The results of our confirmatory factor analysis provide statistical evidence for our choice of indicators in measuring quality of life. Our findings indicate that those measuring quality of life must account for the roles of: public safety, health, economic development, infrastructure, and education. Most importantly, our results indicate that our index is a valid measure of quality of life.",book:{id:"5761",slug:"quality-of-life-and-quality-of-working-life",title:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life",fullTitle:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life"},signatures:"Ryan M. Yonk, Josh T. Smith and Arthur R. 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Another aspect emphasizes on the saliency of the psychological process of optimization, which is central to our understanding of person’s optimal functioning in a subject matter. Achieving an exceptional level of best practice (e.g. achieving excellent grades in mathematics) does not exist in isolation, but rather depends on the potent impact of optimization. This chapter, theoretical in nature, focuses on an in‐depth examination of the expansion of the Framework of Achievement Bests. Our discussion of the Framework of Achievement Bests, reflecting a methodical conceptualization, is benchmarked against another notable theory for understanding, namely: Martin Seligman’s PERMA theory. For example, for consideration, one aspect that we examine entails the extent to which the Framework of Achievement Bests could explain the optimization of each of the five components of PERMA (e.g. how does the Framework of Achievement Bests explain the optimization of engagement?).",book:{id:"5761",slug:"quality-of-life-and-quality-of-working-life",title:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life",fullTitle:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life"},signatures:"Huy P. Phan and Bing H. Ngu",authors:[{id:"196435",title:"Prof.",name:"Huy",middleName:"P",surname:"Phan",slug:"huy-phan",fullName:"Huy Phan"}]},{id:"54577",title:"Building a Quality of Life Index",slug:"building-a-quality-of-life-index",totalDownloads:1735,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"This chapter outlines how an index measuring quality of life should be developed and then applies that work at the county level in the United States. The index we create is a unique and data‐driven approach to calculating quality of life. In the chapter, we explain the process that leads us to selecting our five indicators: public safety, health, economic development, infrastructure, and education. Each indicator breaks apart into subindicators. This chapter theoretically and statistically verifies our chosen indicators. First, we develop theoretical arguments explaining the connections between quality of life and our indicators. Then, we perform confirmatory factor analyses on our index to empirically verify our theoretical arguments for why each component should be included in the index. Further, we finally verify our theory and index using survey results. We use only publicly available data to facilitate replication by others. The results of our confirmatory factor analysis provide statistical evidence for our choice of indicators in measuring quality of life. Our findings indicate that those measuring quality of life must account for the roles of: public safety, health, economic development, infrastructure, and education. Most importantly, our results indicate that our index is a valid measure of quality of life.",book:{id:"5761",slug:"quality-of-life-and-quality-of-working-life",title:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life",fullTitle:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life"},signatures:"Ryan M. Yonk, Josh T. Smith and Arthur R. Wardle",authors:[{id:"196259",title:"Dr.",name:"Ryan Merlin",middleName:null,surname:"Yonk",slug:"ryan-merlin-yonk",fullName:"Ryan Merlin Yonk"},{id:"197814",title:"Mr.",name:"Joshua",middleName:null,surname:"Smith",slug:"joshua-smith",fullName:"Joshua Smith"}]},{id:"54549",title:"Physical and Psychical Well-Being and Stress: The Perspectives of Leaders and Employees",slug:"physical-and-psychical-well-being-and-stress-the-perspectives-of-leaders-and-employees",totalDownloads:1458,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Stress among employees is a significant issue in each organization and society because of its costs on individual, organizational, and society levels. Addressing and reducing stress is thus an important goal, which leads humans to well-being. The main role of managing stress at work belongs to leaders. Their leadership can have effects on the level of stress of employees as well as for themselves. They also decide about their systemic approaches for overcoming stress within organizations. We therefore conducted a stress (qualitative and quantitative) research of employees and leaders within organizations with the main goal to find out the differences between their stresses. The main purpose of this article was to research stress among leaders and employees and to compare their perceived physical and psychical well-being (and stress). For this purpose, we used descriptive statistics and Mann-Whitney U-test. We confirmed that (1) leaders report a higher frequency of some kinds of the daily work stress than employees, (2) on average, leaders were more frequently under pressure than employees, (3) on average, leaders had more frequently satisfying sleep than employees, and (4) on average, employees could use their strong points at work less frequently than leaders.",book:{id:"5761",slug:"quality-of-life-and-quality-of-working-life",title:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life",fullTitle:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life"},signatures:"Simona Šarotar Žižek and Vesna Čančer",authors:[{id:"192730",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Šarotar Žižek",slug:"simona-sarotar-zizek",fullName:"Simona Šarotar Žižek"},{id:"197783",title:"Dr.",name:"Vesna",middleName:null,surname:"Čančer",slug:"vesna-cancer",fullName:"Vesna Čančer"}]},{id:"55015",title:"The Mammoth Task of Realising the Right to Life: A South African Perspective",slug:"the-mammoth-task-of-realising-the-right-to-life-a-south-african-perspective",totalDownloads:1543,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Concentrating on South Africa, this chapter critically scrutinises the realisation of everyone's right to life as guaranteed in section 11 of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa. Although the right to life is explored within the ambit of an international legal framework, realising the right to life in South Africa, with its history of demeaning the value of the life of the majority of its inhabitants in the past, forms the main pivot of discussion. It is argued that, despite the 1996 Constitution's promise to heal these past divisions and improve the quality of life of all citizens and free each person's potential, the State has been ambivalent about realising everyone's right to life. As part of post‐apartheid transformation, the State has, on the one hand, made substantial progresses in creating a supporting and legal environment for the attainment of a better life for some of its inhabitants. On the other hand, reality still reflects poignantly flaws in freeing everyone's potential, thus highlighting the mammoth task that lies ahead.",book:{id:"5761",slug:"quality-of-life-and-quality-of-working-life",title:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life",fullTitle:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life"},signatures:"Erika M. Serfontein",authors:[{id:"196203",title:"Prof.",name:"Erika",middleName:null,surname:"Serfontein",slug:"erika-serfontein",fullName:"Erika Serfontein"}]},{id:"54570",title:"Exploring the Antecedents of Happiness: Reconceptualization of Human Needs with Glasser's Choice Theory",slug:"exploring-the-antecedents-of-happiness-reconceptualization-of-human-needs-with-glasser-s-choice-theo",totalDownloads:1597,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"This chapter aims to present a review about the antecedents of happiness by using human needs perspective. The chapter briefly includes the definition of happiness as a scientific matter, definition of the need theories approach for explaining the antecedents of happiness, definitions and discussions about the major need theories and reconceptualization of human needs with Glasser’s Choice Theory, and also empirical studies that investigate the relationship between basic needs satisfaction and happiness. It is also thought that the conclusion obtained from this chapter will encourage researchers to investigate the antecedents of happiness with Glasser’s conceptual framework and also invite researchers to study in a new research area with a new conceptual perspective.",book:{id:"5761",slug:"quality-of-life-and-quality-of-working-life",title:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life",fullTitle:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life"},signatures:"Turgut Turkdogan",authors:[{id:"197018",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Turgut",middleName:null,surname:"Turkdogan",slug:"turgut-turkdogan",fullName:"Turgut Turkdogan"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1338",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. 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\r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.