\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7272",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Advanced Cooling Technologies and Applications",title:"Advanced Cooling Technologies and Applications",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Since conventional cooling techniques are increasing falling short of meeting the ever-growing cooling demands of high heat generating devices, thermal systems, and processes, advanced and innovative cooling technologies are of immense importance to deal with such high thermal management. Hence, this book covers a number of key topics related to advanced cooling approaches, their performance, and applications, including: Evaporative air cooling; Spray impingement cooling; Heat pump-based cooling; Modular cooling for photovoltaic plant; Nucleate pool boiling of refrigerants; Transient flashing spray cooling and application; Compressor cooling systems for industry. The book is aimed at a wide variety of people from graduate students and researchers to manufacturers who are involved or interested in the areas of thermal management systems, cooling technologies, and their applications.",isbn:"978-1-78984-839-7",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-838-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-802-9",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74636",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"advanced-cooling-technologies-and-applications",numberOfPages:152,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"540cb9c921dadbc8230afd4390eb8248",bookSignature:"S. M. Sohel Murshed",publishedDate:"January 30th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7272.jpg",numberOfDownloads:10386,numberOfWosCitations:11,numberOfCrossrefCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:17,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:3,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:32,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 19th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 15th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 11th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 30th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 28th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"24904",title:"Prof.",name:"S. M. Sohel",middleName:null,surname:"Murshed",slug:"s.-m.-sohel-murshed",fullName:"S. M. Sohel Murshed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24904/images/system/24904.jpg",biography:"Prof. S. M. Sohel Murshed was born in Bangladesh and obtained his Ph.D. in Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering from Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. He is currently a professor in the Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Lisbon, Portugal, and a visiting professor at Rochester Institute of Technology, New York. Previously he worked as a postdoctoral fellow and visiting professor and scientist at different universities in Singapore, the United States, the United Kingdom, and India. In 2020, he received the prestigious DUO-India Professorial Fellowship Award. Dr. Murshed has authored/co-authored 10 books, 30 book chapters, and more than 180 papers in leading international journals and conferences. His current Google scholar citation counts: 7560. He was recently named one of the World\\'s Top 2% Scientists by Stanford University.",institutionString:"Rochester Institute of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"University of Lisbon",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"773",title:"Thermal Engineering",slug:"engineering-energy-engineering-thermal-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"64385",title:"Introductory Chapter: A Brief Note on Advanced Cooling Technologies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82340",slug:"introductory-chapter-a-brief-note-on-advanced-cooling-technologies",totalDownloads:1269,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"S M Sohel Murshed",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64385",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64385",authors:[{id:"24904",title:"Prof.",name:"S. M. Sohel",surname:"Murshed",slug:"s.-m.-sohel-murshed",fullName:"S. M. Sohel Murshed"}],corrections:null},{id:"62339",title:"Energy Efficient Indirect Evaporative Air Cooling",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79223",slug:"energy-efficient-indirect-evaporative-air-cooling",totalDownloads:1324,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"An energy-saving and environmentally friendly air-conditioning method has been proposed. The key component is a novel indirect evaporative heat exchanger (IEHX) based on the M-cycle. In this design, the compact IEHX is able to produce sub-wet-bulb cooling and reduce the air temperature approaching dew-point temperature. This chapter aims to achieve a fundamental understanding of the novel IEHX. A numerical model has been developed and validated by comparing the simulated outlet air conditions against experimental data. The model showed a good agreement with the experimental findings. Employing the validated numerical model, we have theoretically investigated the heat and mass transfer behavior occurred in the IEHX. The detailed cooling process has been analyzed on the psychrometric chart. In addition, the effects of varying inlet conditions and airflow passage dimensions on the cooling efficiency have been studied. By analyzing the thermal performance of the IEHX, we have provided possible suggestions to improve the performance of the dew-point cooler and enable it to attain higher cooling effectiveness.",signatures:"Xin Cui, Xiaohu Yang, Yanjun Sun, Xiangzhao Meng and Liwen Jin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62339",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62339",authors:[{id:"254389",title:"Prof.",name:"Liwen",surname:"Jin",slug:"liwen-jin",fullName:"Liwen Jin"},{id:"258388",title:"Dr.",name:"Xin",surname:"Cui",slug:"xin-cui",fullName:"Xin Cui"},{id:"258508",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaohu",surname:"Yang",slug:"xiaohu-yang",fullName:"Xiaohu Yang"},{id:"258509",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanjun",surname:"Sun",slug:"yanjun-sun",fullName:"Yanjun Sun"},{id:"260877",title:"Prof.",name:"Xiangzhao",surname:"Meng",slug:"xiangzhao-meng",fullName:"Xiangzhao Meng"}],corrections:null},{id:"63091",title:"Spray Impingement Cooling: The State of the Art",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80256",slug:"spray-impingement-cooling-the-state-of-the-art",totalDownloads:1838,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:11,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The cooling of a surface can be achieved by the impingement of spray, which is a free surface flow of droplets ejected from a spray nozzle. Spray cooling can provide uniform cooling and handle high heat fluxes in both single phase and two phases. In this chapter, spray cooling is reviewed from two aspects: the entire spray (spray level) and droplets (droplet level). The discussion on the spray level is focused on the spray cooling performance as a function of fluid properties, flow conditions, surface conditions, and nozzle positioning. The advantages and barriers of using spray cooling for engineering applications are summarized. The discussion on the droplet level is focused on the impact of droplet flow on film flow, which is the key flow mechanism in spray cooling. Droplet flow involves single droplet, droplet train (continuously droplets broke up from jet flow), and droplet burst (droplet groups affecting at a constant frequency), and local cooling enhancement due to droplet flow is discussed in details. Future work and unresolved issues in spray cooling are proposed.",signatures:"Xuan Gao and Ri Li",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63091",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63091",authors:[{id:"245357",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ri",surname:"Li",slug:"ri-li",fullName:"Ri Li"},{id:"265709",title:"Dr.",name:"Xuan",surname:"Gao",slug:"xuan-gao",fullName:"Xuan Gao"}],corrections:null},{id:"63114",title:"Heat Pump-Based Novel Energy System for High-Power LED Lamp Cooling and Waste Heat Recovery",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78322",slug:"heat-pump-based-novel-energy-system-for-high-power-led-lamp-cooling-and-waste-heat-recovery",totalDownloads:1100,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Unlike incandescent light bulb, which radiates heat into the surroundings by infrared rays, light emitting diode (LED) traps heat inside the lamp. This fact increases the difficulty of cooling LED lamps, while it facilitates the recovery of the generated heat. We propose a novel energy system that merges high-power LED lamp cooling with the heat pump use; the heat pump can cool the LED lamp and at the same time recover the waste heat. In this way, a high percentage of the energy consumed by the LED lamp can be utilized. In this work, we developed a prototype of this energy system and conducted a series of experimental studies to determine the effect of several parameters, such as cooling water flow rate and LED power, on the LED leadframe temperature, compressor power consumption, and system performance. The experimental results clearly indicate that the energy system can lead to substantial energy savings.",signatures:"Jiwen Cen, Zhibin Li, Yiwei Wang, Fangming Jiang, Shaoxiong Liao\nand Fuwen Liang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63114",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63114",authors:[{id:"83629",title:"Dr.",name:"Fangming",surname:"Jiang",slug:"fangming-jiang",fullName:"Fangming Jiang"},{id:"255630",title:"Dr.",name:"Jiwen",surname:"Cen",slug:"jiwen-cen",fullName:"Jiwen Cen"},{id:"255631",title:"MSc.",name:"Zhibin",surname:"Li",slug:"zhibin-li",fullName:"Zhibin Li"},{id:"255632",title:"MSc.",name:"Yiwei",surname:"Wang",slug:"yiwei-wang",fullName:"Yiwei Wang"},{id:"255633",title:"Mr.",name:"Shaoxiong",surname:"Liao",slug:"shaoxiong-liao",fullName:"Shaoxiong Liao"},{id:"255634",title:"Mr.",name:"Fuwen",surname:"Liang",slug:"fuwen-liang",fullName:"Fuwen Liang"}],corrections:null},{id:"63125",title:"Development of Modular Cooling for Water-Cooled Photovoltaic Plant in Real Scale",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79101",slug:"development-of-modular-cooling-for-water-cooled-photovoltaic-plant-in-real-scale",totalDownloads:1099,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter evaluates module architectures and units of photovoltaic cooling systems, aiming to determine, select and design a modular system that can be applied in a real-scale photovoltaic power plant (PVPP) in order to enhance the yields of electricity production (entitled cooled photovoltaic plant). An analysis of the local climatic, geographic and solar conditions as well as construction, operational and maintenance aspects was carried out. Worldwide, there are three main types of cooled photovoltaic systems: PVT liquid and air collectors, PV ventilated with heat recovery and non-PVT systems. Based on the local weather conditions (tropical warm and dry) with both temperature and solar irradiation index being high, it results the PVT-liquid system to be more suitable in a scenario with available cooling fluid. We conclude that the best design and arrangement of the cooling system are of the type coil and multiple channel because they permit better rates of heat exchange between the cooling fluid and the PV module.",signatures:"Vinícius Oliveira da Silva, Miguel Edgar Morales Udaeta, André Luiz\nVeiga Gimenes, Antônio Celso de Abreu Junior, Angélica Luana\nLinhares and Pascoal Henrique da Costa Rigolin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63125",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63125",authors:[{id:"148244",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel Edgar Morales",surname:"Udaeta",slug:"miguel-edgar-morales-udaeta",fullName:"Miguel Edgar Morales Udaeta"},{id:"248583",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Vinicius",surname:"Silva",slug:"vinicius-silva",fullName:"Vinicius Silva"}],corrections:null},{id:"64222",title:"Nucleate Pool Boiling Heat Transfer of Refrigerants Using Coated Surfaces",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81864",slug:"nucleate-pool-boiling-heat-transfer-of-refrigerants-using-coated-surfaces",totalDownloads:1135,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This work presents the experimental study of nucleated pool boiling heat transfer of R-134a and R-410A on a horizontal coated heating surface. The heating surface dimensions are 25.4 mm outer diameter and 116 mm effective length. The coated surfaces were fabricated by flame spraying technique. The copper powder was used as a coating material applied to the outer surface of copper tube. The experiments were performed for heat flux range of 5–50 kWm−2 at saturation temperature of 10°C. The heat transfer coefficients of both refrigerants demonstrated the same trends with applied heat flux increase and their magnitudes increases with increasing the value of applied heat flux. The present study also includes the effects of heat flux and coating parameter on boiling characteristics. The boiling heat transfer coefficient is enhanced by 1.9 times that of plain surface. An empirical correlation was also developed to predict the heat transfer coefficient with a mean error of 13%.",signatures:"Ashok K. Dewangan, Anil Kumar and Ravi Kumar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64222",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64222",authors:[{id:"268121",title:"Dr.",name:"Ashok",surname:"Dewangan",slug:"ashok-dewangan",fullName:"Ashok Dewangan"},{id:"276493",title:"Prof.",name:"Anil",surname:"Kumar",slug:"anil-kumar",fullName:"Anil Kumar"},{id:"276494",title:"Prof.",name:"Ravi",surname:"Kumar",slug:"ravi-kumar",fullName:"Ravi Kumar"}],corrections:null},{id:"62409",title:"The Fundamental and Application of Transient Flashing Spray Cooling in Laser Dermatology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79462",slug:"the-fundamental-and-application-of-transient-flashing-spray-cooling-in-laser-dermatology",totalDownloads:1087,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cryogen spray cooling (CSC) has been successfully implemented in laser dermatology such as the treatment of port wine stain. It can protect epidermis from irreversible thermal injuries and increase laser energy, leading to the improvement in therapeutic outcomes. Different from traditional steady spray cooling, CSC is highly transient with short spurt duration (several tens of milliseconds). Besides, CSC can achieve flashing atomization and fine droplets with simple structure nozzles by rapid release of superheat. In this chapter, the mechanism of CSC flashing spray, spray and thermal characteristics of droplets, the measurement method of transient temperature and algorithms for heat flux estimation, and the dynamic surface heat transfer and its relation with spray characteristics are fully discussed. Finally, the heat transfer enhancement of CSC is introduced including alternative cryogens, new nozzles, and hypobaric pressure method to increase the cooling ability, which is essential to improve therapeutic outcome, especially for darkly pigmented human skin.",signatures:"Zhi-Fu Zhou and Bin Chen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62409",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62409",authors:[{id:"253840",title:"Prof.",name:"Bin",surname:"Chen",slug:"bin-chen",fullName:"Bin Chen"},{id:"260866",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhifu",surname:"Zhou",slug:"zhifu-zhou",fullName:"Zhifu Zhou"}],corrections:null},{id:"62663",title:"Water as a Refrigerant in Centrifugal Compressor Cooling Systems for Industrial Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79614",slug:"water-as-a-refrigerant-in-centrifugal-compressor-cooling-systems-for-industrial-applications",totalDownloads:1534,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"As a consequence of the F-gas regulation R404A is no longer a viable option for commercial refrigeration applications. Therefore, this paper focuses on natural refrigerants. There are a few alternatives like carbon dioxide, which has an efficiency loss with increasing environment temperatures. A promising option is the combination of a carbon dioxide process with a chiller using water as refrigerant. Two types of interconnection seem to make energy sense. On the one hand, the interconnection as a cascade, whereby the complete heat of condensation is given off to the water chiller, on the other hand the subcooling of transcritical CO2 after the gas cooler. Both types of interconnection result in optimized operating parameters for the CO2 process. These are examined more closely, and finally, the annual COP values are compared with the standard systems.",signatures:"Florian Hanslik and Juergen Suess",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62663",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62663",authors:[{id:"247935",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Juergen",surname:"Suess",slug:"juergen-suess",fullName:"Juergen Suess"},{id:"250686",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Florian",surname:"Hanslik",slug:"florian-hanslik",fullName:"Florian Hanslik"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5150",title:"Electronics Cooling",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b95856cfcc87ef3cb7d7c7c7bac4010d",slug:"electronics-cooling",bookSignature:"S M Sohel Murshed",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5150.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24904",title:"Prof.",name:"S. M. 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Kim",dateSubmitted:"February 17th 2020",dateReviewed:"April 16th 2020",datePrePublished:"June 15th 2020",datePublished:"April 14th 2021",book:{id:"7030",title:"Satellite Systems",subtitle:"Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",fullTitle:"Satellite Systems - Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",slug:"satellite-systems-design-modeling-simulation-and-analysis",publishedDate:"April 14th 2021",bookSignature:"Tien Nguyen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7030.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"210657",title:"Dr.",name:"Tien M.",middleName:"Manh",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"tien-m.-nguyen",fullName:"Tien M. Nguyen"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"316140",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuri",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",fullName:"Yuri Kim",slug:"yuri-kim",email:"yurikim@hotmail.ca",position:null,institution:{name:"Canadian Space Agency",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}]}},chapter:{id:"72485",slug:"satellite-control-system-part-i-architecture-and-main-components",signatures:"Yuri V. Kim",dateSubmitted:"February 17th 2020",dateReviewed:"April 16th 2020",datePrePublished:"June 15th 2020",datePublished:"April 14th 2021",book:{id:"7030",title:"Satellite Systems",subtitle:"Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",fullTitle:"Satellite Systems - Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",slug:"satellite-systems-design-modeling-simulation-and-analysis",publishedDate:"April 14th 2021",bookSignature:"Tien Nguyen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7030.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"210657",title:"Dr.",name:"Tien M.",middleName:"Manh",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"tien-m.-nguyen",fullName:"Tien M. 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Nguyen"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"2406",leadTitle:null,title:"Landscape Planning",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Landscape architecture is the design of outdoor and public spaces to achieve environmental, socio-behavioral, and/or aesthetic outcomes. It involves the systematic investigation of existing social, ecological, and geological conditions and processes in the landscape, and the design of interventions that will produce the desired outcome. The scope of the profession includes: urban design; site planning; town or urban planning; environmental restoration; parks and recreation planning; visual resource management; green infrastructure planning and provision; and private estate and residence landscape master planning and design - all at varying scales of design, planning and management. This book contains chapters on recent developments in studies of landscape architecture. For this reason I believe the book would be useful to the relevant professional disciplines.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0654-8",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5304-7",doi:"10.5772/2761",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"landscape-planning",numberOfPages:374,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"3c7b088d1bfbcf17d7f2fe6f47137af2",bookSignature:"Murat Ozyavuz",publishedDate:"June 13th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2406.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:67009,numberOfWosCitations:50,numberOfCrossrefCitations:19,numberOfDimensionsCitations:67,numberOfTotalCitations:136,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 25th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 18th 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 27th 2012",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 26th 2012",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 26th 2012",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"11 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"93073",title:"Dr.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Ozyavuz",slug:"murat-ozyavuz",fullName:"Murat Ozyavuz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93073/images/549_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Murat Ozyavuz was born in 1976 in Turkey and lived there until coming to Ankara (Turkey) in 1999. He studied Landscape Architecture at the Ankara University and obtained B.S. degree in 1999. He obtained his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees from the Landscape Architecture Department of Institute of Natural and Applied Sciences in 2003 and July 2008, respectively (M. S. Thesis, Arboretum Planning Principles and Thrace University Güllapoğlu Arboretum Landscape Planning Studies, Ph.D. thesis, Planning of İğneada – Demirköy Part of Yildiz Mountains as a Biosphere Reserve). During his Ph.D. studies, he mostly worked on Landscape Planning, Protected Areas, Geographic Information Systems and Remote Sensing. Now, Dr. Ozyavuz is an Associate Professor at the Department of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Fine Arts, Design and Architect, Namık Kemal University. He has many national and international publications and has worked on many research projects.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Namık Kemal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"849",title:"Landscape Ecology",slug:"landscape-ecology"}],chapters:[{id:"37552",title:"Protected Areas",slug:"protected-areas",totalDownloads:2227,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"93073",title:"Dr.",name:"Murat",surname:"Ozyavuz",slug:"murat-ozyavuz",fullName:"Murat Ozyavuz"}]},{id:"37553",title:"Land Use/Cover Classification Techniques Using Optical Remotely Sensed Data in Landscape 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"55992",title:"Hybrid Yarn Composites for Construction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69034",slug:"hybrid-yarn-composites-for-construction",body:'\nThe principal necessities of human are nutrition, clothing, and shelter. The clothing comes after nutrition and has got many selection factors such as social, economic, environmental, and physiological. The main material of clothing is textile. Textiles always have played an important role in protecting from different environmental conditions and making feel comfortable. Nowadays, the textile industry has to accelerate research on innovative and attractive products in many fields from agriculture to space. Recently, construction sector is one of the fields that used these innovative textile materials, and these textile materials are named “Buildtech.” Buildtech products are defined as membrane, lightweight and massive construction materials, etc. for engineering and industrial buildings [1].
\nConstruction is improving from the earliest times. At ancient times, people built kinds of buildings to shelter. To reduce cracking and to increase bearing capacity of buildings, they added hairs and vegetables in the mortar. Later with technology, construction materials changed. Different materials were used for each period. In the early period, mortar was used, but later various materials such as wood, stone, marble, and steel were used. Finally, with the discovery of concrete, its use in the construction industry has become widespread [2, 3].
\nSince 1800s, quick developments in construction materials technology have allowed civil engineers to achieve impressive gains in the safety, economy, and functionality of structures built to serve the common needs of the community [4]. Today, in the construction sector, steel-reinforced concrete is most important, and it is used widely for structural applications. For several decades, textile-reinforced concrete (TRC) has been innovative material for constructions. TRC can be used instead of conventional composite-building materials for many new applications [5]. TRC is a new composite material consisting of a fine-grained concrete matrix and corrosion-resistant high-performance multifilament yarns such as alkali-resistant glass, carbon, basalt, and polymer [6]. These raw materials are used to produce different textile forms for TRC. Those suited for the reinforcement of concrete matrix are yarns, warp knits (plain, circular or three-dimensional), multi-plies (plain or circular), and woven [7]. Thanks to these textile materials, production of TRC leads to thin structural elements with high strength, high durability, and corrosion resistance [8].
\nIn the present architectures and constructions, there is a specific trend toward innovative structures of high-quality materials such as carbon, glass fibers, basalt, and aramid that continuously increase the requirements placed on the construction materials and that demand a continuous development of their properties. Using nonmetallic high-performance fibers as concrete reinforcement allows for the production of thin and light-weight elements with high durability and the potential of economic savings. These advantages together with the high scope of design options given to the architects have made glass-fiber–reinforced concrete (GFRC) a widespread construction material around the world. A disadvantage of the reinforcement with chopped strands (for example, AR-glass or PP) is the partial unorientated distribution of the fibers over the total cross-section, reducing their effectiveness. In contrast to steel reinforcement, AR glass or carbon fibers in the textile can be positioned in almost any direction and afterward nearly perfectly adopted to the orientation of the applied load. It is thus possible to create an extremely effective reinforcement. The use of corrosion-resistant technical textiles reduces concrete covers significantly and thus allows for light weight and thin concrete structures [9, 10].
\nGlass fiber is widely used in construction since 1950s. The cementitious matrix has highly alkaline environment (pH-value > 12.5), and glass fiber has poor corrosion resistance in a highly alkaline environment. Despite the glass fiber being considered as a reinforcement of cementitious materials for several decades, because of poor alkaline resistance, the limitation of structural applications still remains. For this reason, the alkali-resistant glass fiber (ARG) was preferably designed to reinforce cementitious matrices. Enhanced mainly by a high percentage of zirconia (ZrO2 > 15% by weight) content, the alkali-resistant glass fiber (ARG) was designed to reinforce cementitious matrices that have been used in construction and civil engineering since the late 1960s. Despite ARG being more resistant to highly alkaline environment than normal glass fiber, many attempts have been made to modify either matrix or fiber by adding fillers or by surface coatings of polymer and carbon layers. In the composites sector, a coating is known as a widespread method of providing corrosion protection in order to improve the durability of engineering structures. For alkali-resistant glass fibers (ARGs), multifunctional sizings are required to provide the surface protection, abrasion resistance, and strength maintenance in the concrete. However, both durability in alkali environment and economic considerations have limited the commercial use of these materials. For enhancing the long-term resistance of glass-fiber–reinforced cement products, it is thus very important to develop an inexpensive and applicable coating to modify the ARG fiber surface and examine how the coatings interact with the surrounding cementitious matrix [11–13].
\nIn the production of TRC, the application of polymer coating to the textile materials improves the utilization of mechanical performance and handling properties as well. Generally, thermoset resin is used as a coating material. Coating process is very long term and tough, and also, cost of coating materials is very expensive. Hence, researchers have searched for alternative methods to provide the surface protection, abrasion resistance, and strength maintenance for textile materials in the concrete.
\nIn this study, hybrid yarn was used in the production of TRC as a reinforcement material. First of all, hybrid yarn was produced with braiding technology. In the hybrid yarn production, while alkali-resistant glass fibers (ARGs) were used as a reinforcement material, polypropylene filament (PP) is used as a matrix material. After production of hybrid yarn was heated in the oven, melted polymer covered alkali-resistant glass fibers (ARGs). Melted hybrid yarns were used in the production of TRC. All TRC samples were tested to see the effect of the hybrid yarn on the strength of the concrete. Information about hybrid yarn technology and braiding technology will be mentioned in the following sections.
\nFor many years, thermoset and thermoplastic composites are often used to produce advanced lightweight structures. Thermoset prepregs, which were previously a combination of resin and fiber, as preformed materials must be kept refrigerated to interrupt the ongoing curing reaction [14]. Generally, in many composite processing methods, the matrix is added to the fibers at the time of manufacture. By using additives and fillers, it improves the surface quality of the part, alleviates some processing problems and reduces the total cost [15, 16].
\nIn the thermoset composite materials, the curing process requires heat and pressure. To improve its usability, the prepreg is typically stored in a freezer and then cured at a high temperature. In the 1960s prepregs produced necessitated quite high cure temperatures and had very short out-lives; nowadays, it is possible for them to be stored in a freezer, have an out-life of possibly several months and a cure temperature of between 50 and 200°C. Prepregs tend to be epoxy resins reinforced with carbon, glass, or aramid fibers. High-temperature polymer composites are occasionally used as other matrix materials [16].
\nIn thermoplastic polymers, the organic molecular units are bonded together. They differ from thermoset polymers in this way. Thermoplastic composites are preferred for their ability to be formed by heat at low pressure. While thermosets are produced with manual production, the thermoplastic processing techniques are machine friendly and enable short processing cycles [14, 17].
\nThermoplastic polymers are divided into two groups of amorphous and semicrystalline polymers according to their molecular structure. While amorphous polymers have randomly oriented molecular chains, in semicrystalline polymers, the chains are symmetric enough to be fitted into an ordered crystalline state. Because of the large molecular chain length, complete crystallinity cannot be obtained, and both crystalline and amorphous regions coexist in the solid. When a polymer is cooled, there are some changes. From above, the melt temperature (
When a thermoplastic polymer is heated above the
Polymer direct melt extrusion or pultrusion that reinforce fibers are pulled through a resin;
Solvents or low viscosity precursors; and
Close contact between the fiber and the matrix [14].
Although there are novel thermoplastic composite manufacturing methods such as co-compression molding of textile preforms with a flowable core and overinjection molding of stamped preforms, close contact between the fiber and the matrix is widely used in textile composites [17].
\nHybrid yarns can be produced with many methods such as ring spinning, commingling, and braiding. These methods provide uniform distribution of matrix and reinforcement fibers as well as reduce the damage to reinforcing fibers [19]. The information on methods will be given following sections.
\nClassical ring spinning machines have a pair of rollers for the drafting, twisting, and winding mechanism and can use only one type of fiber to manufacture spun yarns. Present ring spinning machines need some modifications to manufacture hybrid yarns. Generally, core ring spinning on a modified ring frame needs with it special guiding devices and feeder rollers (Figure 1). With slight modifications and little investment, this technique can be used to produce hybrid yarns by the core spinning system, and these machines are most commonly used to produce core-spun yarns containing elastane as a core. While one type of fiber is used in classical ring spinning, staple fibers and filaments can be used in core ring spinning [19–21].
\nModified core spinning system [
As in ring spinning, rotor spinning needs some modifications to manufacture hybrid yarns. In the modified rotor spinning machine, hybrid yarns can be produced by combining staple fibers with filament yarns under varying filament overfeeds. Figure 2 shows the modified rotor and the diagram of spinning process. In this machine, the staple fiber and the continuous filament were fed into the rotor to produce hybrid yarn. This technology has a tendency to introduce filament misalignment in the core yarn, which is not desirable for composite application [19, 22].
\n(a) Diagram of spinning process (b) Modified rotor [
This spinning system can be used to manufacture core-spun hybrid yarns for thermoplastic composites. In classical DREF spinning, the completely opened fiber strand is brought into engagement with the rotating open end of the yarn by a perforated drum. Attachment and strengthening of the fibers are accomplished by continuously rotating the yarn in the converging region of the two drums. The spinning of the yarn takes place with the help of the rotational movement of the two cylinders, and the friction on the cylinder surface contributes to this [19].
\nThis system can be used to fabricate a hybrid yarn consisting of reinforcement filaments of high-performance fibers in the core and staple fibers of the thermoplastic matrix material such as polyester, poly-ether-etherketone or liquid crystal polymers in the sheath. Hasan et al. studied the application of carbon filament yarn (CFY)–based conductive hybrid yarn as the heating element in a textile-reinforced concrete structure. In order to manufacture this hybrid yarn, they used DREF-2000 spinning technique. Carbon fiber was used as a core, and a mixture of short glass and polypropylene fibers was used as a sheath. Figure 3 shows friction spinning machine and cross-section of hybrid yarn [19, 23].
\n(a) DREF-2000 friction spinning machine (Fehrer AG, Linz, Austria), (b) Sketch and (c) Microscopic image of the cross-section and (d) Longitudinal view of the FS hybrid yarn produced to be used as the heating element [
In this system, a roving or a sliver feedstock passes through a hollow spindle without receiving true twist. The continuous filament yarn, which is mounted on the hollow shaft, is passed through the hollow spindle as shown and is wound on the central component (Figure 4). Hence, this filament strand is wound around the twistless strand in the core. With some modifications, this system can manufacture hybrid yarn using filament for both core and wrapping. When thermoplastic filament is used as a wrap yarn, during the consolidation process, this component will melt and it becomes part of the matrix [19, 24].
\nFilament wrap spinning [
Air-jet texturing is completely a mechanical process, and reinforcing and matrix filaments are combined by air. In this process, the air nozzle is the heart of the air-jet texturing process. Supply yarn is overfed into the turbulent zone, and here, compressed air is guided mainly parallel to the yarn path. This compressed air flow opens up filament bundles and then builds mingling sections (Figure 5), as a result, mixed filament yarn is manufactured, but, while filaments mix, some loops occur [19, 25].
\nAir-jet yarn texturing [
Like air-jet texturing, in the commingling process, compressed air is used to generate entanglements in and among filaments. In this process, two or more yarns, such as carbon or glass, and a thermoplastic matrix yarn are converted to a single strand. Commingled yarn consists of blended two parts combination, reinforcing filament yarn and filament yarn spun from thermoplastic polymers. In the beginning, the multifilament yarns are scattered by compressed air, and then they are often mixed with each other in parallel. Unlike air-jet texturing, loops do not occur, and generally, filaments are parallel to each other (Figure 6). Thanks to the changes in main production parameters such as degree of overfeeding, production speed, and air pressure, it can be manufactured as a hybrid yarn in the desired filament distribution. It is possible to obtain a homogenous distribution of reinforcement and matrix, and this reduces the mass transfer distance of the matrix during processing. In this way, a fast and complete impregnation of the reinforcement filaments is possible [19, 25, 26].
\nHybrid yarn by commingling process [
In this simple process, the two components of the hybrid yarns are brought together side by side, as shown in Figure 7. Parallel winding is also called tape winding or the side-by-side technique. In this process, the continuous reinforcement filaments and the thermoplastic filaments are combined in the form of a band. Then, after the heating process, this tape is converted to a composite material [19, 24].
\nStructure of side-by-side hybrid yarn [
In this process, hybrid yarns consist of discontinuous thermoplastic fibers and filaments. They are brought together into a well-oriented coherent bundle by the insertion of a degree of twist. Thanks to this technology, a broken fiber feed on one or two tows of high-modulus filaments such as carbon or glass and also produces highly consistent yarns with minimal fiber damage. When heating is applied, the composite structure is formed by melting the thermoplastic structure [19, 24].
\nThis technology has been developed in Germany for geotextiles. In this technology, a type of circular knitting machine is used to manufacture hybrid yarn. In this machine, a parallel arrangement of matrix fibers is surrounded by parallel reinforcing filaments. In this hybrid yarn, while the core consists of matrix and reinforcing filaments, the knitted sheath consists of only matrix fibers [19, 24].
\nSchappe technology is same as stretch breaking. This technology is used to obtain more bulky and higher tenacity hybrid yarn from long fibers. These types of hybrid yarns are composed of a mixture of discontinuous reinforcing and matrix filaments surrounded by continuous matrix filaments. As this consists of transforming the continuous filaments put on top of long fibers, this technique removes the weak points of the fibers [19, 24].
\nBraiding has been used since 1800s to produce textile fabrics and is generally used for producing narrow rope-like materials. In this technology, three or more strands of filaments or yarns are interlaced diagonally like in a Maypole dance. The filament bundles forming the braid are combined in a manner similar to the formation of the ribbon to form the braided yarn. In this way, tubular woven structure occurs. Researchers have focused braiding technology to meet new demands in composite production [27, 28]. Details of braided yarn and its production are discussed in Section 3.
\nThe type of hybrid yarn production technique is very important on the fiber distribution in the hybrid yarn. The homogeneity of component fiber distribution within the matrix is strongly dependent on the hybrid yarn structure. Fiber distribution is influential in the quality of the composites, as it will affect the flow distance of thermoplastic polymer when heat is applied. When they are ranked according to the flow distance, the flow distance increased in the order of Schappe yarn, commingled yarn, Kemafil yarn, side-by-side yarn, and lastly, friction spun yarn. This means that the best degree of mixing of reinforcing and matrix are Schappe and commingled hybrid yarns fibers. Hybrid yarn structures are shown in Table 1 [19].
\n\nIn composites manufacturing, the molten thermoplastic must flow through the capillaries between the reinforcement filaments. Theoretically, this can be achieved with a commingling method. In our previous studies, this method was tried, and some results were realized. It produced hybrid yarns approximately 1100 tex from 640 tex AR-glass roving and 400 tex polypropylene (PP) filament. In textile reinforcement concrete, generally 2400 tex or more linear density is used as a reinforcement material. In our study with approximately 1100 tex, it could not get a good homogeneity of fiber distribution. A further development of higher linear density with homogeneous fiber content is necessary. Therefore, the braiding yarn was used in this study as a new approach in order to obtain hybrid yarn for TRC production. Also, braiding technology offers minimum or no damage to the reinforcement fiber bundles, when compared to using commingled yarns.
\nBraiding has been used for 200 years to produce textile fabrics. In this process, three or more threads are interlaced diagonally to the product axis [28, 29].
\nAs the threads pass diagonally, they make an angle between 1 and 89° with the product axis of the yarns, usually within the range of 30–80° (Figure 8). This angle is called the braiding angle and is the most important geometric parameter of braided structures [29].
\nStructure of braided yarn [
It is possible to produce a thicker, wider, or stronger product or cover some profiles in braiding technology. These products can be linear products (ropes), curved or plane shell, or solid structures (one, two, or three-dimensional (3D) fabrics) with constant or variable cross-section and of closed or open appearance. Researchers have focused braiding technology to meet new demands in composite production [28, 29].
\nThere are several different classifications of the braided processes, machines, and products. Generally, braided products of maypole braiding machines are divided into two main groups: Braids with constant cross-section and variable cross-section form. While there is flat braiding, tubular braiding, and form braiding for braids with constant cross-section, there are only 3D Braids for variable cross-section form. Each group has normal or biaxial braiding and triaxial braiding types. The classical and mainly used braiding machines are known as maypole braiding machines. This name will always be used where these machines have to be distinguished from the other (spiral, lace) braiding machines. Details of these classification are mentioned in the following sections. In the future, it is expected that with the increasing speed of electromechanical drives, maypole braiding machines with switches (3D braiding) will be able to work continuously [29].
\nBraiding has been used for many years in different application areas such as braiding of yarns, flowers, and hair. The application areas for braided products are widespread such as medical items, electric cables, ropes, laces, the huge ropes, and tubes used in the marine oilfield sector. Also, use of braids is growing in the production of fiber-reinforced composites. All the products are manufactured in the same way, i.e., by the interlacing of yarns at an angle of about 40–60° to the main product axis. Figure 9 shows the principle of hand braiding for a simple braid of three yarns. Initial structure (Figure 9(a)) is transformed to the interlacement in two steps:\n
In the left two yarns, the outer left yarn goes over the next one (Figure 9(b));
In the right two yarns, the right yarn goes over the left next nearest yarn (Figure 9(c)), and it repeats in the same way [29].
Principle of hand braiding with three yarns [
Flat braiding structures can be obtained when basic braiding is applied to more yarns, e.g. 5, 7. Flat braiding principle is seen in Figure 10(a,b). In this case, at the first step, all left pairs interlace so that the left goes over the right, and in the second step, all right pairs interlace so that the right yarn goes over the left [29].
\nHand braiding of odd (here seven) yarns (a,b) and of even (here six) yarns(c,d) [
Flat braiding is possible for both odd and even numbers of yarns. Figure 10(c,d) shows the sequence in the case of six yarns: at every second step, yarns from both the left and right sides stay and wait, while when using an odd number of yarns, only one yarn per cycle stays unused during the interlacement [29].
\nIn this system, even number of yarns arranged around a circle interlace for production of tubular braids or ropes (Figure 11). The sequence of steps in this case is the same as for the flat yarn. In order to produce a regular structure, all yarns have to be kept under constant tension during the braiding process [29].
\nTubular braids (rope). (a) Geometrical model and (b) Single (upper part) and Tripple (over-) braided part [
The interlacing sequence in the case of tubular braiding is same in flat braiding, but unlike flat braiding, all the yarn ends are located around a circle (Figure 12). The process can be described as follows:\n
Interlacement of the left yarn over the right yarn in each pair (the yarn at position 1 goes over the yarn at position 2 and the yarn from position 2 goes to position 1, but interlacing under the first yarn; the pairs are 1–2; 3–4; 5–6; 7–8).
After shifting the positions (the pairs become 8–1; 2–3; 4–5; 6–7), the right yarn goes over the left yarn in each pair [29].
Sequence for tubular braiding [
In tubular braiding, the beam is slowly covered from the top down. In braiding terminology, the beam is called the core (if it had a regular form) or the mandrel (if it had a more complex geometry), and this braiding system is used today for overbraiding of profiles with carbon or glass fiber composites for aerospace, cables, high pressure ropes, etc., for automotive and other applications [29].
\nInlay yarns can be put in between the core and the yarns. These are named differently in each every different application areas, e.g., middle ends, inlays, and triaxial braids (Figure 13) [29].
\n(a) Normal (biaxial) braids and (b) Braids with inlay yarns (triaxial) [
Inlay yarns can be inserted into all kinds of braided structures; however, the core or the mandrel requires a hollow structure and is mainly used in tubular braids (Figure 14) [29].
\nTubular braid with core and inlay yarns (triaxial) [
In industrial braiding, the machine dancer element is called a carrier, and the path of the carrier is called the track. If the motion of the dancers/carriers is analyzed carefully, it can be seen that all dancers/carriers in one direction are following the same track, while the dancers/carriers in the opposite direction follow the opposite track. Hence, for tubular braiding, there are two tracks and two systems of carriers [29].
\nThe path of the motion is determined by the track, but the carriers are moved forward by the horn gears (Figure 15). At the beginning of the process, all outer ends of the yarns are connected together at the braiding point. When the carriers start their motions, the yarns interlace together. With this move, the next piece of braid is built at the braiding point. Finally, the braid produced is finally pulled out with the help of a take-off system [29].
\nPrincipal construction of maypole braiding machine [
For different applications, such as thicker braided products of square or other cross-sectional type is required. For example, gaskets or fiber-reinforced composites can be manufactured with these products. In this case, the braiding process is called packing braiding, or 2.5D braiding (2.5D means more than the two dimensions of length and width, but less than three dimensions), or alternatively, 3D braiding (due to the braided product having thickness in all three directions). However, according to some classifications, they may also be named 3D, 4D, etc., braiding, but D means “diagonal” here. In the new generation of braiding machines, they are controlled by a computer, and the track is not constant. The carrier can change its motion and can travel along a set of connected curves, and the selection of the next curve can change dynamically during the braiding process. Thanks to diversity, the braids do not have a constant cross-section, they are called 3D braids, and the process itself is 3D braiding [3, 29].
\nThe application of braids is various from medical items to electric cable. Also, use of braids is growing in the production of fiber-reinforced composites [3, 29].
\nIf we summarize, we can classify the application fields as follows:\n
Clothing: women’s and men’s wear, outwear, underwear, shoes (laces).
Sports: aerial sports (starting rope for glider pilots), sailing (anchor ropes, sailcloth), mountain climbing (ropes), camping (tent ropes), fishing, tennis.
Home textiles: curtains (laces, cords), decoration threads.
Medical: surgery (blood veins, sewing threads, catheter), prostheses, tapes for orthopedics.
Machine engineering: fiber-reinforced materials, package seals.
Civil engineering: fiber-reinforced concrete.
Traffic: fiber-reinforced materials for aircraft and car construction, track vehicles, and shipping.
Electrical terotechnology: cables, insulation.
Household: packaging, clothesline, do-it-yourself requirements [3, 29, 30].
Replacements of mechanical controls of braiding machines by electronic controls will reduce setup times.
In future decades, even if braiding machine by electronic control will be used, mechanical carriers will surely continue to be used in a large number of applications.
Braiding machines for the production of 3-D braids to obtain larger and more complex cross sections will be developed, and they can be used for nearly every application.
Mathematical models between machine controls and the position of threads in the braid will be defined [3].
Experimental study is focused on use of braiding yarn for textile-reinforced concrete. Hybrid yarn was produced with using braiding method. Hybrid yarn to be used as reinforcement has a unique combination of reinforcement and matrix component that was produced using a tubular braiding machine consisting of 16 spindles (Figure 16). Hybrid yarn can be thought of as a single yarn, although it is composed of two components. Continuous AR-Glass roving was used as the straight inserted axial fibers, and matrix fibers (PP fibers) were braided around the reinforcing AR-Glass roving.
\nBraiding machine.
AR-Glass fiber roving (Cem-FIL® 5325 from OCV Reinforcements) and polypropylene (PP) filament yarn (Aker Textile Yarn) were used to produce hybrid yarn with braiding method. The linear density of AR-Glass is 2400 tex, and the linear density of PP filament is 666.6 dtex. To produce hybrid yarn with braiding method, 1-filament AR-Glass and 16-filament PP were used. Yarn linear density was measured according to ISO 2060. The linear density of hybrid yarn, its components, and other reinforcing components are given in Table 2.
\nYarn | \nLinear density (tex) | \n
---|---|
AR-Glass roving | \n2400 | \n
AR-Glass roving (coated with epoxy resin) | \n3840 | \n
Polypropylene (PP) filament | \n66.66 | \n
Hybrid yarn | \n3430 | \n
Carbon | \n1600 | \n
Carbon (coated with epoxy resin) | \n2560 | \n
Linear density of hybrid yarn and its component.
After the production of hybrid yarn, a hot compression molder was used to fabricate continuous fiber-reinforced thermoplastic composites. Matrix fibers were melted by heating at appropriate molding temperatures and become the matrices for the fiber-reinforced composites that easily wet out the reinforcing AR-glass roving. Figure 17 shows the view of hybrid yarn before and after heating.
\n(a) Hybrid yarn before heating (b) Hybrid yarn after heating.
Before and after heating, the cross-section of hybrid yarn was investigated on a microscope with 40× (Figure 18). It was observed that while structure of hybrid yarn was a bit loose before heating (a, b), it turned into compact structure after heating (c, d).
\nCross-section of hybrid yarn before heating (a, b), Cross-section of hybrid yarn after heating (c, d).
After hybrid yarns were prepared, coated AR-glass fibers were prepared to compare with hybrid yarn and uncoated AR-glass fibers. Epoxy resin (SR 8500/ SD 8605 from Sicomin) was applied to AR-glass fibers with roller coater. After coating, all samples were preheated and fixed at appropriate temperature and time. Figure 19 shows the view of AR-glass fibers before and after coating.
\n(a) Uncoated AR-Glass fibers (b) Coated AR-Glass fibers.
Prepared textile materials were placed in the mold for flexural test. For each sample, five yarns were placed in the mold along the long edge, and the distance between each yarn was set to 1 cm. The yarns were placed at a distance of 3 mm from bottom of the sample (Figure 20).
\nYarn position in the TRC sample.
After all the textile components were prepared, second component for TRC which is concrete was prepared as shown in the mix proportions in Table 3.
\nMix proportions | \n|
---|---|
Cement CEM I 42.5 R (c) | \n480 kg/m3 | \n
Fly ash (f) | \n240 kg/m3 | \n
Water (w) | \n284 kg/m3 | \n
w/b* | \n0.39 | \n
Superplasticizer | \n1.5% b. m. of binder | \n
Siliceous fines (0–0.3 mm) | \n642 kg/m3 | \n
Siliceous sand (0.2–0.5 mm) | \n503 kg/m3 | \n
Mix proportions of fine grained concrete.
*w/b = w/(c + f)
The mixtures were batched in the vertical axis concrete mixer (Figure 21). The cement and fly ash were dry mixed for 1 min. This was followed by the addition of fine-grained aggregate, water, and the superplasticiser, with a mixing time of 5 min. After pouring the mix into oiled molds, a vibrator was used to decrease the amount of air bubbles. The specimens were demolded after 1 day and then placed in a curing room in the special pool which its water temperature is 20°C for 27 days of curing according to TS EN 12390-2 standard. For 12 h prior to the tests, the specimens were allowed to air dry in the laboratory.
\nConcrete mixer.
For the prepared mixture, eight specimens (three 150 × 150 × 150 mm cubes for compression test and five 325 × 50 × 20 mm beams for three-point loading flexural test) were prepared. The compression tests were carried out in the UTEST compression test machine (Type UTC-5750) (Figure 22(a)) at a loading rate of 4 kN/s on the 150 × 150 × 150 mm cubes according to the requirements of TS EN 12390-3 standard. The three-point loading flexural tests were carried out in ELE flexural test machine (Model 37-6330; Figure 22(b)) at a loading rate of 0.4 kN/s on the 325 × 50 × 20 mm beams according to the requirements of TS EN 12390-5 standard. The mean values of the test results were shown in table at next section.
\n(a) Compression test machine (b) Flexural strenght test machine.
The mechanical properties of the concrete were measured with a compression test to see the strength of concrete used in the TRC production. The average compressive strength (28 days) of a cube specimen (150 × 150 × 150 mm) was taken as 52.3 MPa. This result is good for conventional concrete. This concrete mix was used in the production of all TRC samples, and different materials were used as a reinforcing component.
\nIn this study, only AR-glass roving was used to manufacture hybrid yarn with braiding technology. There is only AR-glass roving inside the braided yarn, and it is covered with PP filaments. To see the effectiveness of coating, carbon fiber (1600 tex from DOWAKSA) was used to produce TRC. The results of 3-point loading flexural test can be seen in Table 4.
\nTRC samples | \nF (MPa) | \n
---|---|
Pure concrete | \n10.05 | \n
Reinforced with uncoated AR-Glass roving | \n14.19 | \n
Reinforced with coated AR-Glass roving | \n25.32 | \n
Reinforced with heated hybrid yarn | \n15.85 | \n
Reinforced with uncoated carbon fiber | \n24.78 | \n
Reinforced with coated carbon fiber | \n40.81 | \n
Results of 3-point loading flexural test.
As seen in Table 4, each reinforcement material contributes to the flexural strength of the concrete. Commonly used AR-glass roving and carbon filaments in concrete reinforcement have contributed to flexural strength, 41.19 and 146.57%, respectively, according to without reinforcement. As expected, the epoxy resin coating also has contributed to flexural strength according to reinforcement with AR-glass roving and carbon filament, respectively, 78.44 and 64.69%. Heat-treated hybrid yarn reinforcement has contributed to a flexural strength of 57.71% according to without reinforcement. While reinforcement with epoxy resin coating has contributed to the flexural strength of 78.44%, reinforcement with heated hybrid yarn has contributed to flexural strength of 11.70% according to reinforced with AR-Glass roving. In this study, as it is known, it was seen that the epoxy resin coating provides a significant contribution. It is possible to evaluate the use of heated hybrid yarns produced by braiding technology in the production of TRC though it has contributed less than epoxy resin, since the epoxy resin cost is high and epoxy resin coating process is long and difficult.
\nIn the experimental part of this study, the braiding method for using of TRC was investigated. Tubular braiding technique was applied to produce hybrid yarns using AR-glass roving as the core reinforcement fibers and PP fibers as the matrices around AR-glass roving. At the next step, these hybrid yarns were heated, and they were used for TRC production. All prepared samples used flexural strength test. When all test results were examined:\n
Reinforcing materials such as AR-glass roving, carbon filament, and heated hybrid yarn have been found to increase the flexural strength.
Carbon filament is better than AR-glass roving to reinforce the concrete for higher flexural strength.
As expected, the epoxy resin coating also has contributed to high flexural strength according to reinforcement without coating.
Also, the application of epoxy resin coating to the textile yarn improves the utilization of mechanical performance and handling properties as well.
Although the contribution of the heated hybrid yarn is limited, it is expected that the desired results will be obtained by changes in braiding yarn production and yarn composition ratios.
This research is supported by “Scientific Research Projects Governing Unit of Çukurova University” with project number FDK-2016-6682. We would also like to thank KORD Industrial Rope and Yarn Industry and Trade Inc.—for hybrid yarn production; ÇİMSA Cement Industry and Trade Inc.—for their materials and laboratory; and Çukurova University Civil Engineering Department—for their laboratory.
\nLegumes are a cheap and healthy source of nutrition because of their high protein content and complete constituent components, such as fats, essential amino acids, complex carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals or dietary fibre. This high protein content plays an essential role in producing functional compounds such as bioactive peptides (BPs) that benefit the health and treatment of chronic diseases. For example, BP from legumes is used as an antioxidant compound to prevent degenerative diseases such as atherosclerosis, coronary heart disease, diabetes mellitus, and cancer [1, 2]. The number of deaths due to NCDs (non-communicable diseases), especially cardiovascular disease, cancer, chronic respiratory diseases, and diabetes, increases globally, both in low-income and rich countries. As a result, NCDs are still the cause of most global deaths each year [3]. One way to reduce the risk of NCD is controlling hypertension, regulating diet and obesity.
Protease enzymes have an essential role in producing BP as a result of protein hydrolysis. Food processing, microbial fermentation, germination, or other process involving protease enzymes are examples of proteolytic processes. The involvement of protease enzymes in producing BP is significant because BP is mainly composed of 2–20 amino acids [4]. Some countries have healthy food products from legumes. Examples of fermented foods such as natto [5], douchi [6], tempe [7], and others, have antihypertensive activity. Fermented foods represent, on average, one-third of total food consumption [8]. Fermented food has a delicious taste, easy to digest, nutritious and has beneficial properties. Such as antidiabetic, hypocholesterolemic, and anti-inflammatory activities [8, 9].
Many researchers have proven (both in vitro and in vivo using experimental animals) that BP from legumes has functional properties as a healthy food. However, this functional effect depends on the stability of BP to withstand the action of digestive enzymes while in the digestive tract on its way to reach the target organs [10]. In this target organ, BP will act to provide health effects for the body. One of the determining factors to be bioavailable is the number of amino acids, hydrophobic amino acid content, and resistance to digestive enzyme activity [11]. This chapter aims to describe the quality of various legumes, the BP of legumes and their effects on health. Also, an explanation of the factors that affect the stability, absorption, bio-availability and bio-activity of BP and food technology to develop functional food.
One of the excellent sources of essential amino acids and protein is legumes. As a source of bioactive peptides (BPs), an ingredient must have a high enough protein content. In addition, legumes also contain many components needed for body health, such as antioxidant compounds, resistant starch, dietary fibre and others [12]. However, it is a fact that the nutritional content and phytochemical composition among legumes vary widely, as shown in Table 1. The differences in their genetics, varieties, geographical location and climatic conditions may cause the nutritional content variation [18].
No | Legumes sources | Protein | Amino acid hydrophobic | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
(db, % w/w) | Reference | (% w/w protein) | Reference | ||
1 | Soybean, | 35.35–39.80 | [13] | 37.70 | [14] |
2 | Jack bean, white, | 22.80–35.30 | [14] | 8.60–43.50 | [14] |
3 | Sword bean, red, | 32.4–35.0 | [15] | 26.62–29.47 | [15] |
4 | Cowpea, | 20.90–24.70 | [16] | 8.46 | [16] |
5 | Bambara groundnut, | 17.00–17.30 | [16] | 6.45 | [16] |
6 | Velvet bean, White, | 28.82 ± 0.14 | [17] | 34.14 | [17] |
7 | Velvet bean, Black, | 26.26 ± 0.07 | [17] | 32.79 | [17] |
8 | Kidney beans, | 21.80–29.20 | [18] | 7.96 | [16] |
9 | Lima beans, brown, Phaseolus luna tus | 28.06 | [7] | 4.68 | [7] |
10 | Mung bean, Phaseolus radiata | 26.80 | [19] | 39.75 | [20] |
11 | Chick pea, Cicer Arieti num | 19.68–22.75 | [16] | 35.3 | [21] |
Protein and hydrophobic amino acid content of several legumes.
The level of hydrophobic amino acids is the sum of the data available in the reference sources used.
In general, the protein content of legumes ranged from 17.0 to 39.8% (w/w). Soybean is the legumes that have the highest protein content. Soybean is also the most studied legume regarding its function on health. According to FAO [22] world soybean production in 2019 was 333,671,692 tonnes (the highest among the types of legumes produced), of which Brazil produced 34.25% as the world’s No. 1 producer country. Apart from soybean, some legumes also have a high protein content as a source of BPs, such as jack beans, velvet beans, lima beans, mung beans, and kidney beans (Table 1).
In addition to the protein content, it is also necessary to pay attention to the amino acid composition in choosing ingredients. Peptides with hydrophobic amino acids (Tyr, Phe, Trp, Ala, Ile, Val, and Met), positively charged amino acids (Arg and Lys), or contain Pro at the C end will have higher biological activity. For example, inhibition of ACE enzymes [23], Diabetes mellitus type 2 (T2DM) inhibitory activity [24], or other biological functions. Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitor (ACEI), is a BP that affects lowering blood pressure. Meanwhile, DPP-IV inhibitors are compounds that can inhibit dipeptidyl peptidase-IV, an enzyme associated with T2DM disease [25]. So the presence of hydrophobic amino acids in short-chain peptides (between 2 and 20 amino acids in length) [4] is related to biological activities beneficial to health. Soybean, jack bean, velvet bean and mung bean are legumes that have high hydrophobic amino acid content (Table 1). Enzymatic breakdown through food processing produces short-chain peptides. For example, fermentation (to produce tempeh, soy sauce, natto, miso, douche, or other legume fermented products), germination (mung bean sprouts, soybean sprouts, or other sprouts), or other processes can break the polypeptide chain.
Apart from these benefits, legumes contain substances that are considered anti-nutritional compounds [26]. Despite having a high protein content, some toxic anti-nutritional substances limit the use of legumes. Food processing, such as soaking (hydration), cooking, autoclaving, germination, and combination, could reduce or eliminate anti-nutritional compounds [27, 28]; these processes can increase the digestibility value of protein ingredients. Table 2 shows some of the anti-nutritional compounds present in some legumes. Kalpanadevi and Mohan [26] said that the soaking process and continued germination was less effective in removing anti-nutrients. However, the process would be effective if the germination process was extended (96 hours) or continued with the heating process (or autoclaving process). With this combination process, the effect of anti-nutritional compounds can be eliminated, such as phenolics, tannins, hydrogen cyanide, phytic acid, trypsin inhibitors, oligosaccharides and Phyto-hemagglutination activity.
No | Legume sources | Antinutritional compound | References | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Phenol (%) | Tannin (%) | L-DOPA (%) | Phytic acid (%) | Trypsin inhibitor (TIU/mg protein) | HCN (ppm) | Oxalate (%) | Total oligosaccharide (%) | |||
1 | Cowpea, | 1.21 | 0.38 | 2.46 | 0.4 | 26.48 | 2.2 | NA | NA | [26] |
2 | Velvet bean, Black, | 2.84 | 0.26 | 3.64 | 0.45 | 43.1 | 3.1 | NA | NA | [17] |
3 | Velvet bean, White, | 3.13 | 0.34 | 3.24 | 0.42 | 43.5 | 2.1 | NA | 4.49–6.08 | [17, 29] |
4 | Sword Bean, red, Canavalia gladiate jacq DC. | 1.21–1.41 | 0.16–0.20 | 2.32–2.64 | NA | 30.43–34.34 | NA | NA | NA | [16] |
5 | Kidney bean, | NA | 0.54–2.88 | NA | 1.68–2.41 | 3.65 | NA | NA | 12.51 | [19, 30] |
6 | Chick pea, | NA | 0.01–0.05 | NA | NA | NA | 13.5–40.5 | 0.18–0.45 | NA | [17] |
7 | Jack Bean, white, | 3, 83 | 0.083 | 1.7 | 0.90 | NA | 59.95 | NA | 8.17 | [28, 31] |
8 | Soybean, | 1.40–3.62 | 1.11–1.88 | NA | 0.51–2.45 | 23.67 | NA | NA | 8.30–10.11 | [27, 32] |
Anti-nutritional compounds in legumes.
NA, data not available in the references used.
Data is prepared and recalculated so that it has the same units.
Other researchers stated that the fermentation process is also very effective for reducing/removing anti-nutritional compounds because the fermentation process is a combination of several processes, including soaking, heating, and proteolytic hydrolysis by starter microbes [31]. For example, the process of fermenting koro bean tempe (
Bioactive peptides (BPs) are tiny fragments of dietary protein, consisting of 2–20 amino acids, have a molecular weight of less than three kDa, and promote health benefits. After entering the body, BPs can be absorbed in the intestine, carry out various metabolic pathways, and perform various physiological functions [4, 35, 36]. Several researchers have reported that legumes have various biological activities good for body health (Table 3).
Legumes | Amino acid sequence | Reference | |
---|---|---|---|
Kidney bean, | INEGSLLLPH | [9] | |
Soybean, germinated | NNDDRDS, LSSTEAQQS, NAENNQRN, QQQQQGGSQSQ, EEPQQPQQ, IKSQSES | [37] | |
Cowpea, | TTAGLLE | [38] | |
Black bean, | AKSPLF, ATNPLF, FEELN, LSVSVL | [39] | |
Kidney bean, | FVVAEQAGNEEGFE | [9] | |
Mung Bean, | KDYRL, VTPALR, KLPAGTLF | [40] | |
Soybean, | VLIVP, LAIPVNKP, LPHF, NVVGPLV, YLAGNQ, IPPGVPYWT, DQTPRVF, ASYDTKF, DTKF, PNNKPFQ, RPSYT | [41, 42, 43, 44, 45] | |
Soybean protein, | IVF, LLF, LNF, LSW, LEF | [46] | |
Soybean germinated | RNLQGENEEEDSGA | [37] | |
Fermented soybean, natto | VAHINVGK, YVWK | [5] | |
Fermented soybean, soy sauce | GY, SY | [47] | |
Garden pea, | LRW | [48] | |
Pigeon pea, in silico | VVSLSIPR | [49] | |
Kidney bean, | SGGGGGGVAGAATASR | [9] | |
Soybean, | LPYP, IAVPGEVA, IAVPTGVA, YVVNPDNDEN, YVVNPDNNEN, LPYPR | [50, 51, 52] | |
Soybean protein, | SFGYVAE | [53] | |
Black bean and cowpea, in silico | YAAAT | [54] | |
Soybean, | LLPHHADADY, LLPHH, LVNPH, DHQN, TTYY, LQSGDALRVPSGTTYY | [42] | |
Soybean, | RPSYT | [43] | |
Soybean, | IIVVQGKGAIGF, ASRGIRVNGVAPGPVWTPIQPA, IIIAQGKGALGV, | [42] | |
Soybean, | IKAFKEATKVDKVVVLWTA, PGTAVFK | [55] | |
Black bean ( | IAISISGLL, CNKY, YETN, QAEEEF, MSAMSNAAA, DLPYSCR, ATL, NLG, EDAY, GYDHPMGGL, PVNF, EEAK, LGAL, DLK, LVVL, VPTK, TGVI, TTW, MEL, FNL, GFTPL, KYGDKSVY, IPVL, KTCENL, GGSSDKR | [56] | |
Soybean (Glycine mox) | Lunasin | [57] | |
Soybean ( | Lunasin | [58] | |
Common beans ( | ANEIYFSFQRFNETNLILQR | [59] | |
Chickpea (Cicer anetinum) | ARQSHFANAQP | [60] |
The amino acid sequence of several bioactive peptides from legumes.
The hydrolysis of legumes protein can produce these BPs. The enzymatic hydrolysis process occurs in the food processing process, for example, in the fruit ripening process, the fermentation process (producing soy sauce, tempe, natto, and other fermented products), or the germination process (producing soybean sprouts, green bean sprouts, and sprouts products others). In addition, the protein breakdown process can also be carried out by in vitro enzymatic hydrolysis, for example, using the alcalase in legume protein. Some examples of enzymatic hydrolysis are soybean hydrolysis (
BPs can perform their activities and roles based on their structural properties, composition and amino acid sequence [62]. Biologically, the active peptides have similar structural properties, including the length of the amino acids, containing hydrophobic amino acids, and resistance to proteolysis [11]. For example, BPs with antioxidant activity have a length of 5–16 amino acids [63]. The structure of ACE inhibiting BPs contains arginine or lysine residues at the C-terminal will affect their activity [11]. Therefore, selecting the protease enzyme to form BPs is essential to produce biologically active peptides. For example, the Carlsberg enzyme subtilysin will hydrolyse peptide bonds with broad specificity to produce peptides with C terminal in the form of hydrophobic amino acids such as Phe, Tyr, Trp, Leu, Ile, Val and Met [64]. In addition, because of their relatively small size and high specificity, BPs can inhibit protein–protein interactions [65]. Some examples of the functional properties possessed by BPs are anti-hypertensive [66], antioxidants [67], hypo-cholesterolemia [68], antimicrobials [69], anti-inflammatory [70, 71], anti-cancer [59], and other functional properties. One type of BPs can have more than one functional property [9, 65]. To date, researchers are still developing comprehensive studies and reviews to confirm the therapeutic effect of BPs. This chapter will discuss the BPs of legumes and their functions.
Increased blood sugar levels are signs of diabetes caused by decreased insulin secretion, impaired insulin function, or both. In patients with T2DM, the body does not respond adequately to insulin action and the blood glucose level increases, a condition known as hyperglycemia [72]. Changing diet is one way of treating diabetes, besides losing weight, exercising, or taking drugs to increase glucose homeostasis [25]. Side effects from synthetic antidiabetic drugs are gastrointestinal disorders [73]. Other side effects are hypoglycemia and weight gain [74].
Meanwhile, some patients are intolerant of the drug [75]. Therefore, research to find BPs from food as a safe antidiabetic has recently increased to overcome these side effects [76]. Measuring the inhibitory activity of DPP-IV is one way to determine whether BPs have an antidiabetic activity or not. The role of the DPP-IV enzyme is to inactivate incretins, especially GLP-1 and GIP. GLP-1 is a glucagon-like peptide, while GIP is a glucose-dependent autotrophic insulin peptide. Incretin is a hormone that vitalising insulin secretion. So the mechanism commonly used to control T2DM is to measure how much DPP-IV inhibition is [77].
Several low molecular weight BPs can induce insulin stimulation in blood intake, for example, the peptides present in fermented soybeans [78] or fermented kidney beans [9]. Some BPs that are isolated from black bean (
Controlling hypertension is essential to reduce the risk of cardiovascular complications such as coronary heart disease (which causes heart disease) and stroke, congestive heart failure, irregular heart rhythm, and renal failure [3, 79]. A healthy diet is a way to control hypertension. Eating foods high in BPs is very healthy. Several studies have shown that food ingredients derived from legumes have an anti-hypertensive function. The preparation of BPs uses three ways: fermentation of materials into fermented products, germination, and enzymatic hydrolysis. Table 3 shows some of the research results.
The anti-hypertensive activity was measured by measuring the inhibitory activity of the ACE (Angiotensin I-converting Enzyme). The ACE will cut angiotensin I to produce angiotensin II (vasoactive peptide). This angiotensin II compound will bind to receptors on the walls of blood vessels causing contraction of blood vessels so that blood pressure rises [80]. The presence of BPs will bind to the ACE enzyme, thus inhibiting the action of ACE, and as a result, blood pressure can drop. Some legumes that are recognised to contain BPs that lower blood pressure include garden beans (
Research on anti-hypertensive BPs from food is still being studied [65]. Anti-hypertensive BPs (isolated from food) have a higher tissue binding affinity than synthetic drugs, resulting in slower tissue loss [83]. For vigorous anti-hypertensive activity, the position of specific amino acid residues is critical. For example, valine and isoleucine are essential for ACE inhibition [84]. Increased ACE inhibitory activity occurs when the C-terminal is Proline [84]. Therefore, the strategy to produce peptides with high anti-hypertensive activity is to hydrolyse protein to produce proline containing peptides.
Many researchers have studied and reviewed the ability of BPs as cholesterol-lowering agents [65]. The human body needs healthy cholesterol levels to produce vitamin D and steroid hormones, and bile acids. However, arteriosclerosis can occur when cholesterol in the blood forms plaque in the arteries. As a result, it can reduce oxygen supply to the heart, which leads to cardiovascular disease. While chemicals that lower blood cholesterol can cause liver damage or failure, myopathy [85] and diabetes [86, 87], or some people are sensitive to statins (cholesterol-lowering drugs) [88]. Therefore, the research for BPs that can lower cholesterol has increased over the years [65]. Table 3 shows BPs in legumes (such as red beans and soybeans with 4–16 amino acids) with hypocholesterolemic activity.
Cholesterol reduction by peptides can occur due to inhibition of cholesterol micelle formation, inhibition of lipase activity and strong bile acid-binding [89]. Peptides from fermented soy milk show the ability to bind bile acids [90]. The solubility of cholesterol in lipid micelles will be reduced due to BPs [91], resulting in inhibition of cholesterol absorption in Caco-2 cells with one layer. For example, peptides from cowpeas can inhibit HMGCoA reductase and reduce the dissolution of cholesterol micelles in vitro [92]. A 36% reduction in plasma cholesterol levels could occur in the livers of rats consuming the a’-subunit. The tight binding of BPs with taurocholate, deoxytaurocholate, and glycodeoxycholate can also lead to decreased cholesterol absorption in the intestine [93]. Soybean peptides (LPYP, IAVPGEVA and IAVPTGVA) can activate the LDLR-SREBP 2 pathway to increase LDL uptake effectively. For moderate hypercholesterolemia, 30 g/ml lupine protein consumption effectively reduced the Proprotein Convertase Subtilisin/Kexin type 9 enzyme (PCSK9). Inhibiting HMGCoA reductase activity on HepG2 cells may explain the hypocholesterolemic effect of lupine protein hydrolysate [94]. In addition, peptides cause the regulation of lipoprotein b-VLDL cholesterol receptors to increase in rat liver [95].
The antioxidant properties of peptides have more to do with their composition, structure, and hydrophobicity [62]. The amino acid sequence of these peptides can determine different biological activities. Amino acids Tyr, Trp, Met, Lys, Cys, and His are examples of amino acids that cause antioxidant activity [96]. BPs from some legumes have antioxidant properties, for example, soy peptides with 4–16 amino acids [42, 43] (Table 3). This table also shows that BP of Leu-Leu-Pro-His-His from soybean β-conglycinin hydrolysate has antioxidant properties. The amino acid leucine or proline at the N-end can increase its antioxidative activity [35]. Amino acids with aromatic residues can donate protons to electron-deficient radicals. This property enhances the radical scavenging character of amino acid residues. Amino acids in the C-terminal region can increase the antioxidant activity higher than in the N-terminal region. This increase in antioxidative activity relates to the nature of the electronic, hydrophobic, steric, and hydrogen bonding amino acids in the area [39]. Soy milk has significant antimutagenic and antioxidant activity. So fermented soy milk probably can prevent mutagenic and oxidative damage [97]. Consumption of douchi (fermented soy food) extract will increase the activity of SOD (Superoxide dismutase) in the liver and kidneys of mice. This consumption also reduces the serum TBARS (Thio Barbituric Acid Reactive Substance), which will increase catalase activity (CAT). These results may indicate the involvement of BPs and free amino acid components from douchi extract as antioxidants [98].
The ability of BPs as antimicrobial peptides (AMP) has also been widely researched and studied [65]. For example, Pina-Pérez and Ferrús-Pérez [55] studied AMP from several legumes against bacterial pathogens that cause foodborne diseases. AMP is generally active against a broad spectrum of microorganisms, including bacteria (Gram+ and Gram-), fungi, and viruses [99]. Some AMPs also show additional activity, such as antioxidant activity [100], immunomodulation [101] and wound healing activity [102]. Therefore, this AMP may be a better choice of antibiotics for pathogenic bacteria resistant to conventional antibiotics.
AMP has various characteristics, including amino acid length (between 12 and 50), amino acid composition, charge and position of disulfide bonds [103]. AMP isolated from soybeans showed that long-chain peptides had higher AMP activity than short peptides [55]. AMP interacts with microbes due to positive charges or hydrophilic and hydrophobic (amphipathic) terminal amino acids, recognised as a prominent structural motif. The charge, hydrophobicity and length of cationic AMP are directly related to their potential as antimicrobials [103]. AMP will cause changes in permeability and osmotic disturbances in bacterial cell membranes [104]. AMP can directly kill bacteria by creating pores through the bacterial cell membrane [101] or interacting with macromolecules in microbial cells [105]. The structure and sequence of peptide amino acids are the main factors for whether or not it is effective as an antimicrobial [104]. Some AMPs are rich in positively charged amino acids (arginine and lysine). Such AMP can enter microbial cells by inducing energy-dependent endocytic pathways such as micropinocytosis [106]. Table 3 shows some of the AMP amino acid sequences from soybeans.
Inflammation is a natural immune system reaction to fight disease. Inflammation is generally associated with cancer because it involves the interaction of various immune cells that can lead to signals of proliferation, growth and invasion of tumour cells [107, 108]. There are two pathways of inflammatory-cancer interaction, namely the extrinsic pathway (inflammation facilitates cancer development) and the intrinsic pathway (genetic changes causing cancer to stimulate the inflammatory process to support tumour development) [109]. Bastiaannet and co-workers [110] and Crawford [111] reported that anti-inflammatory therapy could reduce or prevent cancer risk. This report shows the interaction between inflammatory-cancer. So far, lunasin, VPY and -glutamyl peptides have anti-inflammatory activity [70]. Lunasin exerts an anti-inflammatory effect by inhibiting the Akt-mediated NF-kB pathway [57]. BPs from legumes, particularly soybeans, can regulate several inflammatory markers, which include prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), nitric oxide (NO), induced nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase 2 (COX2), cytokines, and chemokines [70]. BPs from
Many researchers are experimenting with cancer therapy using BPs from various legumes. The results are more promising, cheaper, and safer than cancer treatment using surgery, chemotherapy, or radiotherapy, which have adverse side effects due to the emergence of drug resistance and radio-resistance [113]. Extensive exploration has shown that a high intake of legumes can significantly reduce the risk of colorectal adenoma [114, 115] BPs with anti-cancer activity have a relatively low molecular weight (Table 3), as isolated from black soybean by-products have the sequence Leu/Ile-Val-Pro-Lys [116]. In comparison, lunasin from soybeans contains 43 amino acids [58]. The hallmark of lunasin is the Arg-Gly-Asp sequence which functions for adhesion to the extracellular matrix, and the 8 Asp sequence to bind chromatin [117]. Kim and co-workers [118] said that hydrophobic BPs isolated from soybeans could act as anti-cancer. Some legumes also have higher hydrophobic amino acids that are similar in levels to soybeans, such as mung bean, chickpea, and velvet bean (Table 1), thus potentially producing anti-cancer peptides.
The mechanism of inhibition of tumour growth by BPs varies depending on the variety of legume sources, namely by induction of extrinsic apoptosis [119], induction of chromatin condensation [59] or inhibition of inflammatory processes [120]. BP isolated from chickpea (
Bioaccessibility, stability, and bioavailability are the main concerns in utilising bioactive peptides (BPs) from food ingredients to remain active in maintaining a healthy body. Bioaccessibility is the first step in the digestive system so that nutrients/BPs out of the food tissue and transported across the intestinal epithelial barrier into the blood circulation system. BP transport processes may involve passive transport (paracellular or passive diffusion) or active routes [126]. During the nutrient transport process, the stability of the material must be kept high, so the bioavailability of nutrients is maintained to be utilised by target cells or tissues. In the digestive tract, nutrients are released from the food matrix and converted into chemical forms that can bind to and enter intestinal cells or pass between them. Dietary factors can also affect the bioavailability of the BPs contained. Interactions between peptides and components of the food matrix can modulate their digestibility and alter the absorption route of the peptide [10]. The release of nutrients in the small intestine starts from chewing, which involves digestive enzymes in the mouth and then in the stomach mixed with acids and enzymes in gastric juices. This whole process is a process for making nutrients biologically accessible [127].
Although the number of active components in the food consumed is abundant, it cannot necessarily prevent disease because it depends on the amount available to function in target organs or tissues [128]. Bioavailability is the number of bioactive compounds that organisms can use effectively [129]. For example, when food contact with the mouth or gastrointestinal tract, various interactions can affect the bioavailability of food nutrients (e.g., the presence of fat can increase the bioavailability of quercetin in food) [130]. In studying the role of bioactive compounds in human health, several factors can inhibit the bioavailability of the active components for use in target organs or tissues [131]. For example, fruit antioxidants mixed with macromolecules form a food matrix such as carbohydrates, fats, and proteins [132].
From a nutritional point of view, bioavailability refers to several nutrient fractions or bioactive compounds that are ingested and can reach the systemic circulation and can finally be utilised [133]. Besides that, bioavailability is the fraction of a nutrient stored or available for a particular physiological function [134]. Another definition, bioavailability, is the amount of active metabolite from the oral dose fraction reaching systemic circulation [135]. The bioavailability of oral BPs is limited because their release from the plant matrix is affected by: solubility in GI fluids, permeability in intestinal epithelial cells, enzymatic and chemical reactions in the GI tract [136]. Four essential steps are required to absorb bioactive compounds effectively: (a) release from the food matrix; (b) incorporation into bile salt micelles; (c) absorption by epithelial cells; and finally; (d) incorporation into the cyclomicron secretion into the lymphatic system.
The biological effects of a BP depend on its capacity to survive until it reaches the target organ. Thus, the main requirement of a BP is its stability or resistance to gastrointestinal enzyme hydrolysis, brush border and serum peptidase. Experimental evidence shows that the length of the peptide chain determines the ability of BPs to pass through the intestinal epithelium in humans by different mechanisms. For small peptides, it is possible to transport through active basolateral, while for large peptides through a transport mechanism mediated by exocytotic-vesicles [137].
However, many peptides are biologically active but are unlikely to be absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract via local effects or receptors that release hormones and cell signalling in the gut. Such BPs affect gastric emptying, gastrointestinal transport, nutrient absorption (amino acids, glucose, lipids) and composition of the colon microflora. They may also regulate food intake [138].
In addition to the presence of specific residues, charge, and molecular weight, hydrogen bonding potential and amino acid hydrophobic tend to affect the bioavailability resistance of BPs to proteases and enzyme hydrolysing peptides [11, 139, 140]. Lunasin, a BP isolated from soybeans and cereal (wheat, barley and rice), has 43 amino acids (MW 5.4 kDa), displays a helical structure and contains nine aspartic acid residues in the C-terminal region. Lunasin is highly bioavailable, heat-stable (100°C, 10 min), and anti-cancer against carcinogenic chemicals. In vivo digestibility of lunasin-fortified soy protein was studied in mice fed for four weeks [141].
During transit in the central digestive tract, the structural properties of the peptide will influence the stability of BPs, including molecular weight, charge, amino acid sequence, and hydrophobicity [126]. Tests using Sprague Dawley rats showed that the highest absorption of ACE inhibitor BPs was in the jejunum [7]. The results showed that BPs with 2–6 amino acids were easy to absorb than proteins and free amino acids [142]. Small (di- and tripeptide) and large (10–51 amino acids) peptides can pass through the intestinal barrier and exhibit their biological function at the target tissue level. However, as the molecular weight of BPs increases, their chances of passing through the intestinal barrier decrease further [143]. The presence of proline and proline hydroxyl will result in resistance of BPs to digestive enzymes, especially a tripeptide with Pro-Pro at the C-terminal [144]. In another study, the number of peptides in human plasma increased depending on the dose of the BP administered. Thus, it concluded that the saturation of BP transporters could affect the number of peptides that can enter the peripheral blood [145].
Encryption of BPs in their natural protein structure may protect these BPs from gastric digestion. Another way to protect BPs is to modify structural proteins such as phosphorylation of serine, threonine, or tyrosine can prevent hydrolysis by digestive proteases. As a result, protein or peptides have a greater chance of being absorbed in target organs or tissues [146]. Stability also depends on the degree of hydrophobicity/hydrophilicity. The more hydrophobic the structure, the more difficult it is to attack by proteases [147].
Therefore, it explained that the difference in bioavailability of BPs between in vitro and in vivo tests (after oral consumption), which may be smaller or larger, occurs due to an increase or decrease in BPs after being catalysed by gastrointestinal proteases. A simulation test of the gastrointestinal digestion process of several tempe legumes (
Finally, the use of BPs in nutraceutical and pharmacology for human health is still limited. For that, it is necessary to evaluate: (1) degradation of BPs by proteases in the digestive tract, which can affect bioaccessibility, stability, and bioavailability; (2) the existence of technology that allows modification of the structure of BPs such as (a) phosphorylation of amino acids in BPs to make them more resistant to hydrolysis by digestive enzymes; or (b) increase the amino acid hydrophobic at the N-terminal or C-terminal [150].
In general, protein-rich foods that undergo processing involving protease enzymes will produce peptides. However, not all peptides resulting from protein hydrolysis of foodstuffs will become bioactive peptides (BPs) beneficial to body health. The structural properties of BPs (composition, amino acid sequence, hydrophobic amino acid content, and resistance to digestive enzymes) will determine their beneficial functional properties [126], such as, example anti-diabetic, anti-hypertensive, cholesterol-lowering, antioxidant, and other functional properties.
Food processing processes related to conventional BPs production include cooking, ripening, fermentation and germination. In principle, the processing involves protease enzymes, e.g., chymotrypsin, trypsin, papain, thermolysin, and others) [151], either in the form of free or immobilised enzymes. For food processing by fermentation, protease enzymes derived from microbes are used in the process, while for germination, the enzymes are from growing seeds. Production of BPs increased by regulating the types of enzymes, microbes used, and germination time. Combining these processes (enzymatic process followed by fermentation, or vice versa) will increase the production of BPs so that it is more optimal [152]. The conventional production of the BPs product was a low amount and purity, making it less effective for the industrial scale [153]. So this conventional method for producing BPs does not necessarily involve a separation and purification process, but the production of functional foods containing healthy BPs in the form of fermented food products [153].
The process technology used to produce functional or nutraceutical food will affect the functional, nutritional and biological properties of the protein in the food. Therefore, several things to pay attention to, namely: (1) the effect of using a thermal (or non-thermal) process on the components of the food produced, including its effect on its functional properties and preservation capabilities; (2) available extraction processes and formulations and their optimization; (3) innovative and sustainable applications that can be developed [127]. In addition, consideration of the choice of processing technology must also be based on the desired nutritional function and appearance and sensory properties (such as colour, texture, and taste in the mouth) to be attractive to consumers [154]. Thermal processes can encourage non-enzymatic Maillard reactions between amino groups and reducing sugars [155]. This process will produce colour, sensory properties that affect consumer acceptance and reduce the activity of BPs [155, 156]. The use of thermal processes (e.g. boiling, cooking, blanching, frying, and sterilising) for softening cell walls and inactivate microorganisms and enzymes to make the shelf life longer [127]. The development of non-thermal processes has several weaknesses; for example, the use of nanofiltration membranes requires energy [157]. Freeze-drying, encapsulation, and solvent extraction techniques are costly. To overcome this limitation, food technology experts must develop new alternative technologies (technology that can maintain bio-accessibility, stability, bio-availability and bio-activity of active components). Including BPs, processed food ingredients and the form of pure isolates (capsules or nanocapsules).
The production of BPs has become more accessible, faster, and more effective with the development of science and technology. Production of BPs on an industrial scale usually uses an enzyme hydrolysis process. So the BPs production process uses computer equipment and database search algorithms to predict target peptides and their properties. By selecting the correct protease enzyme through the database, it is possible to select the protein-enzyme combination, in-silico hydrolysis, and the nature of the peptide to be produced [152, 153, 158]. This in-silico hydrolysis method is a functional and widely practised approach for producing legume BPs (Table 3).
The legume or various food peptides resulting from enzymatic hydrolysis was then fractionated and purified using a combination of various chromatographic techniques [158, 159, 160]. Isoelectric focusing and ultrafiltration are separate macromolecular compounds (such as protein and pectin). Meanwhile, extraction techniques use solvents or supercritical solutions to isolate small molecule bioactive compounds such as antioxidants [157, 161, 162]. This extraction technique, combined with thermal technology (e.g. pasteurisation or spray drying), has been applied to functional foods. This conventional food processing technology is well documented and well established, but its application for the isolation of BPs still needs development and improvement.
The weakness of current technology is that there is still a need for studies on product safety for health. For example, advanced technologies such as cold plasma, nanotechnology, ultrasound, and others, are thought to affect advanced lipid oxidation processes and cause cell tissue damage. For this reason, the effect of this advanced technology on the safety and health of the food components produced needs to be studied to obtain a complete understanding. In this case, it is necessary to adapt the product and technology to the desired functional properties of the active ingredient. For example, modification or interaction with other macronutrients (e.g. dietary fibre) can increase the bio-availability of bioactive compounds [163].
On the other hand, encapsulation technology using legume protein ingredients as a material is also a technique for providing chemical compounds found naturally in plants and other nutraceutical compounds (such as vitamins, minerals, BPs, or others). Thus this encapsulation allowing these compounds (including BPs) to enter the body and undergo release and degradation by enzymes digestion [164]. Other technologies used to protect the active ingredients or nutraceuticals (such as BPs and others) are encapsulation, edible films and coatings, and vacuum impregnation. One may be promising is nutrigenomics, where the active ingredients are given to individuals on a Taylor-made basis according to the genetic characteristics of each individual [165].
Although several researchers have evaluated and characterised BPs that BPs isolated from food have potential bioactive activity and therapeutic functions, and have high bio-availability (bio-accessibility) (due to the support of excellent and modern processing technology), however, all of them can only have a positive impact on human health when combined with healthy living habits [4].
Legumes have various biological activities that are good for body health, such as antihypertensive, anti-diabetic, anti-cancer, antioxidant, and others, but legumes also contain anti-nutritional compounds. Food processing is an effective process to remove anti-nutritional compounds and, at the same time, can produce BP compounds that are healthy for the body. Although the number of active components in food is abundant, it is not necessarily able to prevent disease because it is very dependent on the amount available to function in target organs or tissues. One of the contributing factors is the BPs enzyme in holding the action while in the digestive tract. Some legumes showed that hydrolysis by these enzymes increased their bio-accessibility and bio-availability in the digestive tract of rats (in antihypertensive testing). Due to the diverse nature of BP, it is necessary to develop technology that is following the desired functional properties of BP, for example, to protect it so that it is stable while passing through the digestive tract using microencapsulation, edible film and coating technology. Further research still needs to be developed related to the study of safety separation technology for the products produced. From the excellent stability and bioavailability of BPs from legumes, it is likely to be more promising to develop alternative healthy functional food products containing BPs and sensory properties that attract consumers.
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He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. 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Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment"},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology"},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",keywords:"Novel Viruses, Virus Transmission, Virus Evolution, Molecular Virology, Control and Prevention, Virus-host Interaction"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"11672",title:"Chemokines Updates",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c00855833476a514d37abf7c846e16e9",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Murat Şentürk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",editedByType:null,submissionDeadline:"May 6th 2022",editors:[{id:"14794",title:"Prof.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Şentürk",slug:"murat-senturk",fullName:"Murat Şentürk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14794/images/system/14794.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Murat Şentürk obtained a baccalaureate degree in Chemistry in 2002, a master’s degree in Biochemistry in 2006, and a doctorate degree in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. Dr. Şentürk currently works as an professor of Biochemistry in the Department of Basic Pharmacy Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ağri Ibrahim Cecen University, Turkey. \nDr. Şentürk published over 120 scientific papers, reviews, and book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists. \nHis research interests span enzyme inhibitor or activator, protein expression, purification and characterization, drug design and synthesis, toxicology, and pharmacology. \nHis research work has focused on neurodegenerative diseases and cancer treatment. Dr. Şentürk serves as the editorial board member of several international journals.",institutionString:"Ağrı İbrahim Çeçen University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Ağrı İbrahim Çeçen University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}],selectedSeries:{title:"Infectious Diseases",id:"6"},selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/24880",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"24880"},fullPath:"/profiles/24880",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()