Pointing stability results: \n
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10387",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Mass Spectrometry in Life Sciences and Clinical Laboratory",title:"Mass Spectrometry in Life Sciences and Clinical Laboratory",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Mass spectrometry is a state-of-the-art tool for basic biological research and applied clinical diagnostics. This book covers sample preparation for mass spectrometric analysis for proteomics, clinical studies, and food analysis. In addition, it explores possible directions for further developing the technology and its potential applications.",isbn:"978-1-83881-862-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-861-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-863-0",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91573",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"mass-spectrometry-in-life-sciences-and-clinical-laboratory",numberOfPages:154,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"5f2fa81e1939bbe34ac689fb983ca4c1",bookSignature:"Goran Mitulović",publishedDate:"June 2nd 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10387.jpg",numberOfDownloads:2858,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:2,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:2,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 29th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 16th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 15th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 3rd 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 4th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"212804",title:"Dr.",name:"Goran",middleName:null,surname:"Mitulović",slug:"goran-mitulovic",fullName:"Goran Mitulović",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212804/images/system/212804.png",biography:"Dr. Goran Mitulović (ORCID 0000-0003-1964-3965) is the head of the Proteomics Core Facility, Medical University of Vienna. He has more than twenty years of experience developing hardware and analytical methods for multidimensional nano HPLC-MS separation and detection methods for proteins and peptides. He conducted his research with LC Packings/Dionex in Amsterdam; IMP and IMBA in Vienna; and the Medical University of Vienna. \nHis research interests include mechanistic chromatographic separation of peptides and proteins on different stationary phases (polar, ion-exchange, hydrophobic, and hydrophilic phases), improvement of mass spectrometric response based on the optimized composition of the chromatographic mobile phase, and development of clinical proteomics methods and approaches for use in diagnostics.",institutionString:"Medical University of Vienna",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Medical University of Vienna",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Austria"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"485",title:"Spectrometry",slug:"spectrometry"}],chapters:[{id:"76584",title:"Introductory Chapter: A Tool for Aided Advanced Diagnostics and Deep View into Biological Sample",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97617",slug:"introductory-chapter-a-tool-for-aided-advanced-diagnostics-and-deep-view-into-biological-sample",totalDownloads:206,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Goran Mitulović",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76584",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76584",authors:[{id:"212804",title:"Dr.",name:"Goran",surname:"Mitulović",slug:"goran-mitulovic",fullName:"Goran Mitulović"}],corrections:null},{id:"75004",title:"Trends in Sample Preparation for Proteome Analysis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95962",slug:"trends-in-sample-preparation-for-proteome-analysis",totalDownloads:483,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Sample preparation is a key step in proteomics, however there is no consensus in the community about the standard method for preparation of proteins from clinical samples like tissues or biofluids. In this chapter, we will discuss some important steps in sample preparation used for bottom-up proteome profiling with mass spectrometry (MS). Specifically, tissues, which are an important source of biological information, are of interest because of their availability. Tissues are most often stored as fresh frozen (FF) or formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE). While FF tissues are more readily available, paraffin embedding has historically been routinely used for tissue preservation. However, formaldehyde induced crosslinks during FFPE tissue preservation present a challenge to the protocols used for protein retrieval. Moreover, in our view, an important aspect to consider is also the amount of material available at the start of a protocol since this is directly related to the choice of protocol in order to minimize sample loss and maximize detection of peptides by MS. This “MS sensitivity” is of special importance when working with patient samples that are unique and often available in limited amounts making optimization of methods to analyze the proteins therein important given that their molecular information can be used in a patients’ diagnosis and treatment.",signatures:"Jakub Faktor, David R. Goodlett and Irena Dapic",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75004",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75004",authors:[{id:"330188",title:"Dr.",name:"Irena",surname:"Dapic",slug:"irena-dapic",fullName:"Irena Dapic"},{id:"330470",title:"Dr.",name:"Jakub",surname:"Faktor",slug:"jakub-faktor",fullName:"Jakub Faktor"},{id:"343933",title:"Prof.",name:"David R.",surname:"Goodlett",slug:"david-r.-goodlett",fullName:"David R. Goodlett"}],corrections:null},{id:"74510",title:"Identification of Peptides and Proteins in Illegally Distributed Products by MALDI-TOF-MS",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95335",slug:"identification-of-peptides-and-proteins-in-illegally-distributed-products-by-maldi-tof-ms",totalDownloads:426,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"An analytical strategy based on matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) time-of-flight (TOF) mass spectrometry (MS) for identification of peptides and proteins in illegally distributed products is presented. The identified compounds include human growth hormone (hGH), human somatoliberin, anti-obesity drug (AOD), growth hormone releasing peptides (GHRP-2 and GHRP-6), Glycine-GHRP-2 and Glycine-GHRP-6, ipamorelin, insulin aspart and porcine, delta sleep-inducing peptide (DSIP), thymosin β4, insulin like growth factor (IGF), mechano growth factor (MGF), human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), melanotan II, bremelanotide, dermorphin and body protecting compound (BPC 157). The identification of proteins was mainly based on peptide mass fingerprinting, i.e., bottom up approach, while the smaller peptides were identified through de-novo sequencing. In cases when a reference standard was available, complementary identification was performed by capillary electrophoresis in double-injection mode (DICE), where a suspicious product was compared with the reference standard through two consecutive injections within the same electrophoretic run.",signatures:"Ahmad Amini, Torgny Rundlöf, Henrik Lodén, Johan A. Carlsson, Martin Lavén, Ezra Mulugeta, Karin Björk, Torbjörn Arvidsson, Iréne Agerkvist and Anette Perolari",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74510",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74510",authors:[{id:"333124",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ahmad",surname:"Amini",slug:"ahmad-amini",fullName:"Ahmad Amini"},{id:"333126",title:"Dr.",name:"Torgny",surname:"Rundlöf",slug:"torgny-rundlof",fullName:"Torgny Rundlöf"},{id:"333127",title:"Dr.",name:"Henrik",surname:"Lodén",slug:"henrik-loden",fullName:"Henrik Lodén"},{id:"333128",title:"Dr.",name:"Martin",surname:"Laven",slug:"martin-laven",fullName:"Martin Laven"},{id:"333129",title:"Dr.",name:"Johan",surname:"Carlsson",slug:"johan-carlsson",fullName:"Johan Carlsson"},{id:"333130",title:"Dr.",name:"Karin",surname:"Björk",slug:"karin-bjork",fullName:"Karin Björk"},{id:"333132",title:"Dr.",name:"Torbjörn",surname:"Arvidsson",slug:"torbjorn-arvidsson",fullName:"Torbjörn Arvidsson"},{id:"336680",title:"Dr.",name:"Ezra",surname:"Mulugeta",slug:"ezra-mulugeta",fullName:"Ezra Mulugeta"},{id:"336681",title:"Dr.",name:"Iréne",surname:"Agerkvist",slug:"irene-agerkvist",fullName:"Iréne Agerkvist"},{id:"336682",title:"Dr.",name:"Anette",surname:"Perolari",slug:"anette-perolari",fullName:"Anette Perolari"}],corrections:null},{id:"74409",title:"Protoporphyrin IX Analysis from Blood and Serum in the Context of Neurosurgery of Glioblastoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95042",slug:"protoporphyrin-ix-analysis-from-blood-and-serum-in-the-context-of-neurosurgery-of-glioblastoma",totalDownloads:453,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Protoporphyrin IX (PPIX) is formed from δ-aminolevulinic acid (ALA) during heme biosynthesis. Due to its cyclic tetrapyrrole core structure, it absorbs in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum and is thus colored. Both ALA and PPIX have become of great interest to neurosurgery, because in high-grade glioma, ALA diffuses into the tumor and is converted to PPIX. Fluorescence-guided resection (FGR) takes advantage of both the enrichment of PPIX in the tumor and its fluorescent properties, which enable visualization of tumor tissue. ALA-mediated FGR thus maximizes the extent of resection with better prognosis for patients. Tumor cells are able to produce porphyrins naturally or after administration of ALA, which is also reflected in elevated plasma fluorescence of cancer patients. PPIX might thus serve as a biomarker for monitoring of the tumor burden. A liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS)-based method is presented to quantify PPIX in blood and serum in the context of current fluorescence-based diagnostics. The method is able to distinguish between zinc PPIX, a component of red blood cells of importance in the detection of lead poisoning and iron deficiency anemia, and metal-free PPIX. In a proof-of-principle study, it was used to follow a time course of a glioblastoma patient undergoing surgery and confirmed elevated PPIX blood levels before ALA administration. During surgery, these blood levels increased about four-fold. The here developed 10 min reversed-phase LC-target MS method now allows patient screening with high specificity and throughput.",signatures:"Anna Walke, Eric Suero Molina, Walter Stummer and Simone König",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74409",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74409",authors:[{id:"329541",title:"Prof.",name:"Simone",surname:"König",slug:"simone-konig",fullName:"Simone König"},{id:"339314",title:"Ms.",name:"Anna",surname:"Walke",slug:"anna-walke",fullName:"Anna Walke"},{id:"339315",title:"Dr.",name:"Eric",surname:"Suero-Molina",slug:"eric-suero-molina",fullName:"Eric Suero-Molina"},{id:"339317",title:"Prof.",name:"Walter",surname:"Stummer",slug:"walter-stummer",fullName:"Walter Stummer"}],corrections:null},{id:"76164",title:"Mass Spectrometry in Clinical Laboratories",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96745",slug:"mass-spectrometry-in-clinical-laboratories",totalDownloads:316,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The analyses performed in clinical laboratories require a high level of precision, selectivity, and sensitivity. The rising number of therapeutic agents from both the field of small and large molecules and the increasing use of modern screening approaches have brought mass spectrometry into almost every clinical laboratory. The need to screen the patients and to follow the therapy’s success can often be fulfilled only by the highly selective and sensitive targeted approach with mass spectrometry. With improving instrument design and miniaturization of the separation technologies, mass spectrometry is no longer an exotic analytical approach. The use of mass spectrometry is now not restricted to the use in a clinical laboratory, but it is used in operating rooms for instant and on-site helping the surgeons with defining the margin of the tissue to be extracted. In this manuscript, we describe the use of mass spectrometry for selected clinical applications and show the possible way of future applications.",signatures:"Jadranka Miletić Vukajlović and Tanja Panić-Janković",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76164",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76164",authors:[{id:"256238",title:"Dr.",name:"Tanja",surname:"Panić-Janković",slug:"tanja-panic-jankovic",fullName:"Tanja Panić-Janković"},{id:"323067",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jadranka",surname:"Miletić Vukajlović",slug:"jadranka-miletic-vukajlovic",fullName:"Jadranka Miletić Vukajlović"}],corrections:null},{id:"73803",title:"Mass Spectrometry Imaging of Neurotransmitters",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93835",slug:"mass-spectrometry-imaging-of-neurotransmitters",totalDownloads:617,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Mass spectrometry imaging (MSI) is a powerful analytical method for the simultaneous analysis of hundreds of compounds within a biological sample. Despite the broad applicability of this technique, there is a critical need for advancements in methods for small molecule detection. Some molecular classes of small molecules are more difficult than others to ionize, e.g., neurotransmitters (NTs). The chemical structure of NTs (i.e., primary, secondary, and tertiary amines) affects ionization and has been a noted difficulty in the literature. In order to achieve detection of NTs using MSI, strategies must focus on either changing the chemistry of target molecules to aid in detection or focus on new methods of ionization. Additionally, even with new strategies, the issues of delocalization, chemical background noise, and ability to achieve high throughput (HTP) must be considered. This chapter will explore previous and up-and-coming techniques for maximizing the detection of NTs.",signatures:"Katherine A. Stumpo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73803",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73803",authors:[{id:"322757",title:"Dr.",name:"Katherine A.",surname:"Stumpo",slug:"katherine-a.-stumpo",fullName:"Katherine A. Stumpo"}],corrections:null},{id:"74410",title:"Intact Cell Mass Spectrometry for Embryonic Stem Cell Biotyping",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95074",slug:"intact-cell-mass-spectrometry-for-embryonic-stem-cell-biotyping",totalDownloads:358,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Stem cells represent a unique cell type that is capable of self-renewal and differentiation into somatic cell types. Since the derivation of human embryonic stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells, enormous potential has been recognized for disease modeling, drug development and regenerative medicine. Both embryonic stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells possess the ability to differentiate into all three germ layers, hence they are naturally prone to respond to various differentiation stimuli. These inherent cellular fluctuations, which can result in risky phenotypic instability, must be addressed prior to introduction of these cells to human medicine, since they represent one of the major biosafety obstacles in the development of bio-industrial or clinical-grade stem cell cultures. Therefore, there is an ongoing need for novel robust, feasible and sensitive methods for determination and confirmation of the otherwise identical cells status, as well as for the detection of hidden divergences from their optimal state. A method of choice can be the intact cell mass spectrometry. Here we show how it can be applied in routine quality control of embryonic stem cell cultures.",signatures:"Petr Vaňhara, Lukáš Moráň, Lukáš Pečinka, Volodymyr Porokh, Tiziana Pivetta, Sebastiano Masuri, Eladia Maria Peña-Méndez, José Elías Conde González, Aleš Hampl and Josef Havel",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74410",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74410",authors:[{id:"142755",title:"Prof.",name:"Josef",surname:"Havel",slug:"josef-havel",fullName:"Josef Havel"},{id:"329909",title:"Dr.",name:"Petr",surname:"Vaňhara",slug:"petr-vanhara",fullName:"Petr Vaňhara"},{id:"329918",title:"Prof.",name:"Aleš",surname:"Hampl",slug:"ales-hampl",fullName:"Aleš Hampl"},{id:"329920",title:"MSc.",name:"Lukáš",surname:"Moráň",slug:"lukas-moran",fullName:"Lukáš Moráň"},{id:"329921",title:"MSc.",name:"Lukáš",surname:"Pečinka",slug:"lukas-pecinka",fullName:"Lukáš Pečinka"},{id:"338490",title:"Prof.",name:"Tiziana",surname:"Pivetta",slug:"tiziana-pivetta",fullName:"Tiziana Pivetta"},{id:"338491",title:"Prof.",name:"Eladia",surname:"Peña-Mendez",slug:"eladia-pena-mendez",fullName:"Eladia Peña-Mendez"},{id:"338492",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose Elias",surname:"Conde",slug:"jose-elias-conde",fullName:"Jose Elias Conde"},{id:"338912",title:"MSc.",name:"Sebastiano",surname:"Masuri",slug:"sebastiano-masuri",fullName:"Sebastiano Masuri"},{id:"339321",title:"Dr.",name:"Volodymyr",surname:"Porokh",slug:"volodymyr-porokh",fullName:"Volodymyr Porokh"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"818",title:"Tandem Mass Spectrometry",subtitle:"Applications and Principles",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"be4591159fcd2c760d795950f92af48a",slug:"tandem-mass-spectrometry-applications-and-principles",bookSignature:"Jeevan K. 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In detail, a space system requires a subsystem that can autonomously handle and control the attitude dynamics. This subsystem has the main purpose of controlling the orientation of the spacecraft with respect to an inertial reference frame. This subsystem includes sensors and actuators to measure the orientation and to apply the torques needed to change the orientation.
\nThis research will focus on small satellites, i.e., object with mass lower than \n
Due to the presence of uncertainties and dynamical constraints, the main objective of this research is to design and compare different
Both of the proposed methods have advantages and drawbacks, briefly described in the following. As explained in [15], a model predictive control approach is able to effectively handle constraints on torque magnitude and attitude angles and can be more effective than other classical methods. However, a high computational effort is required to solve online the optimization problem. Focusing on robust approach, in this chapter, a tube-based robust MPC (TRMPC) is proposed, which focuses on two main goals: (i) the robustness to additive disturbances and (ii) the computational efficiency of a classical MPC, due to an offline evaluation of the constraints. Thanks to this control strategy, the uncertain future trajectories lie in sequence of sets, known as
The second proposed methodology is based on variable structure strategy [13], in which the control law is a function of the system state and changes among the possible structures according to some suitably defined rules. In particular, in sliding mode controller (SMC) systems, a switching function is designed, which implicitly defines a sliding surface corresponding to the points in the state space in which the switching function is zero. At any time, the structure applied by the control law depends on the position of the state with respect to the sliding surface. When a sliding motion is established, the closed-loop system is in sliding mode, and its trajectories are constrained on the sliding surface. Sliding mode methods provide controllers which can counteract uncertainties and disturbances, if the perturbations affecting the system are matched and bounded (first-order SMC) [17] or smooth matched disturbances with bounded gradient (second-order SMC) [14, 18]. One of the main drawbacks of SMC methods is the chattering phenomenon, which excites the high-frequency unmodeled dynamics in practical applications. Moreover, the performance of the control system is affected by the quality of the measurements and of the computation frequency of the system [19]. For this reason, our idea is to design a Continuous Twisting Sliding Mode Controller (CTSMC) with adaptive gains [20, 21]. The peculiarities of this controller are (i) adaptation of the gains, (ii) continuous control inputs, and (iii) the external disturbances which are included in the definition of the control gains.
\nFor both the proposed controllers onboard, hardware limitations are included in the design and implementation. As clearly explained in [22], limited computational resources and reduced sampling time can be a problem in the design of robust controller. Moreover, the sample frequency reduction in the SMC design implies a residual chattering, which can be reduced with the introduction of a hyperbolic tangent [23]. A comparison with a Proportional Integrative Derivative (PD) controller, in which the gains are defined from loop shaping theory [24], is also proposed.
\nThe chapter is structured as follows. In Section 2 mathematical models of the spacecraft are described, with an emphasis on the external disturbance definition. Section 3 is focused on the definition of mathematics and implementation of the two proposed control laws: (i) TRMPC and (ii) CTSMC. In this section the real-time implementability of both controllers is included. Simulation results are detailed in Section 4, in which a
Section 2 introduces in detail all the mathematical models, designed and implemented for the design of an orbital simulator. Attitude dynamics and quaternion kinematics are introduced to identify the system. Moreover, a detailed description of all the external disturbances is provided, with a focus on LEO maneuvers. Finally, a complete description of the different actuation configurations is included, starting from NASA configuration to tetrahedral.
\nIn the present section, the mathematical model of the rigid body attitude dynamics is described. The rigid body attitude dynamics are described by Euler’s equation:
\nwhere \n
The attitude of the spacecraft is expressed in
A quaternion is basically a vector of four elements:
\nwhere the vectorial part, \n
A quaternion of the form
\nis the
The quaternion kinematics is described by
\nwhere \n
The quaternion inverse is defined as the normalization of the conjugate quaternion, i.e.,
\nIn the low Earth orbit (LEO) environment, four main sources of orbital disturbances which affect the attitude and orbit dynamics of a spacecraft can be found: residual atmospheric drag, gravitational disturbances, solar radiation, and electromagnetic disturbances. The last two sources of disturbances present a lower magnitude with respect to the other sources, so they are described but not detailed in the following. A brief summary of LEO disturbances is presented in [26].
\nThe drag disturbance is due to the residual atmospheric gases which impact on the surface of the spacecraft. At high altitude, above 100 km, the residual atmosphere cannot be considered a continuum medium anymore, and a discrete medium model must be considered: the free molecular flow model. Indeed, the residual atmospheric drag is computed by considering the momentum exchange between the gas particles and the spacecraft. When hitting the surface of the spacecraft, some particles may be completely or partially reflected, depending on the number of factors, such as surface and incident flow temperature, molecular weight of particles, speed of the spacecraft, and more. To consider such effects, the accommodation coefficient has been introduced in order to compute the spacecraft drag coefficient by Cook [27]. The analysis of Cook shows that in some cases it may be useful to accurately compute the drag coefficient of a spacecraft; however, there are other uncertainties in the atmospheric models (determination of the exact temperature, density, magnetic flux, and more) such that the computation of the total drag force is affected by uncertainties higher than uncertainties which affect the computation of the drag coefficient. The work of Koppenwallner [28] analyze the real data of three spacecraft (CHAMP, GRACE, and GOCE) in order to derive a method to determine the drag coefficient of slender spacecraft. In this method, the effect of the accommodation coefficient is evaluated and compared with the results of CFD analysis. This method allows an easy computation of the drag coefficient depending on the ratio between the frontal and side areas. As already mentioned, this method can be applied only to spacecraft with simple shape. The work of Huges [29] proposes the computation of the drag force and torque integrating the incident flow on the surface of the spacecraft, without computing the drag coefficient. In this case, the accommodation coefficient is always required to compute the normal and tangential drag force applied to the surface. To compute the drag torque, the computation of the center of pressure is required. For simple shape, e.g., a plate with constant mass density, the center of pressure is located in the center of the plate area. For complex shapes, the total center of pressure can be computed by summing the contribution of the number of plates used to discretize the whole spacecraft surface.
\nFor the purpose of this work, the computation of the residual drag force is carried out using the easiest method:
\nwhere \n
The drag torque is eventually computed:
\nwhere \n
Gravitational torque is due to the differential gravitational force which acts on the spacecraft. As shown in Figure 1, two equal masses \n
Simple gravity gradient torque example.
where \n
Extending this behavior to the whole body of a spacecraft, the following result is obtained:
\nwhere \n
Equation (12) has been obtained applying Eq. (10) to the infinitesimal mass element \n
As mentioned at the beginning of Section 2.2, there are other sources of torque disturbances which affect the attitude dynamics of a spacecraft. The first is a magnetic torque due to the residual magnetic dipole that can affect the spacecraft. This torque is due to the interaction between the residual magnetic dipole \n
An additional disturbance torque is due to solar radiation. This torque is produced by photons emitted by the Sun which exchange momentum with the surface of the spacecraft. Clearly, this disturbance is present only if the orbit of the spacecraft is in the sunlight. When the orbit of the spacecraft is shadowed by the eclipse of the Earth, this disturbance is not present. The magnitude of this torque depends on the activity of the Sun, which presents seasonal variations according to the Sun’s cycles. For spacecraft with a compact shape and without long appendages, the magnitude of this torque is usually lower than the effect of drag and gravity; hence, this disturbance may be neglected.
\nOther disturbances are due to internal torques, due to fuel sloshing, and/or due to flexible modes which are present for spacecraft with flexible solar arrays or appendages [30]. In particular, the attitude control of a flexible spacecraft must be properly designed, since a bad-designed closed-loop attitude control may excite flexible modes of the spacecraft instead of damping them, causing a catastrophic failure of the mission.
\nTo control and stabilize the attitude of a spacecraft, it is necessary to apply torques to the spacecraft structure in order to reorient it and/or to maintain the desired attitude counteracting external disturbances. There exist a number of actuators which are able to accomplish this task, with different working principles and application scope:
Reaction control thrusters (RCT)
Magnetic torquers (MGT)
Control moment gyroscopes (CGM)
Reaction wheels (RWS) and/or momentum wheels
RCTs may be used for two different purposes. The main use is to desaturate reaction wheels and/or control moment gyros: they are activated in order to provide the external torque which contrasts the torque due to the wheel deceleration or gyros reorientation. An additional method is that they are used combined with a different main actuator system (RWS or CGM) when the required torque is too high to be provided by the main system. RCT are also used to generate the force required to accomplish the orbit control task (execution of orbital maneuvers or station-keeping).
\nTo fully control the three-axis attitude, there are necessarily three reaction wheels, but for redundancy issues, there are usually installed four reaction wheels: in this way, if a wheel failure occurs, a three-axis attitude control is always ensured, even though pointing accuracy may be degraded. The reaction wheel system configuration can be installed using a number of different wheel accommodation, mostly depending on the specific mission since a main control axis may be required. The mostly used configurations are:
NASA 3 + 1: three wheels are aligned with the spacecraft main inertia axis, while the fourth wheel is inclined by 45 deg. with respect to all planes. During nominal operations, only the wheels aligned with the body axis are used, while the fourth wheel is used only during wheel failure.
Pyramidal: the wheels’ spin axes are pointing toward the faces of a pyramid with square base. This means that wheels are inclined with a fixed angle with respect to the base of the pyramid, generating torque along the height of the pyramid, and the projections of the wheel momentum lie in the pyramid base, generating torque along the last two directions.
Tetrahedral: as for the pyramid, in this configuration the spin axes of the wheels are pointing to the faces of a tetrahedron. Hence, a wheel generates torque only along the height of the tetrahedron, while the other three wheels generate torque both in the tetrahedron base and along the height.
Note that, except for the NASA configuration, it is necessary to allocate the three-axis control torque to the four wheel assembly. To do this, it is common to use the Moore-Penrose pseudo-inverse matrix, \n
Reaction wheel configurations. (a) NASA 3+1. (b) Pyramidal. (c) Tetrahedral.
In the following of this chapter, reaction wheels are considered as the main actuation system for attitude control accommodated according to the pyramidal configuration.
\nThe objective of Section 3 is related to mathematics and design of two
Tube-based model predictive control (TRMPC) is a class of robust controllers, i.e., controllers which are able to cope external disturbances and uncertainties which affect the system. The concept of \n
where \n
Let us assume that the system is required to satisfy hard constraints on both state and input:
\nwhere \n
As already introduced before, the TRMPC approach is based on the concept of
where \n
Outer-bounding tube representation at the k-th time step over a prediction horizon of N.
Two features of this controller are (i) the TRMPC which allows to steer the uncertain trajectories to the nominal one via a classical MPC approach and (ii) the robustness which ensured tightening the constraints with respect to the initial ones in Eq. (14), as detailed in [12]. Then, the following time-varying feedback control law related to the \n
in which \n
Moreover, to stabilize the system with respect to parametric uncertainty \n
In the next paragraph, the definition of the feedback gain matrix (summarized in Algorithm 1 is analyzed in detail. First, the terminal state constraint set \n
\n\n
in which the following edge-uncertain system matrices are defined: \n
1:
2:
3: \n
4:
5: Solve \n
6: Get
7: Get \n
8:
Since bounded disturbance \n
As anticipated before, tightened constraint sets shall be considered for the nominal system, properly designed starting from an outer approximation of the minimal robust positively invariant (mRPI) set [36] for (20):
\nin compliance with the guidelines provided in [12]. The set is mRPI for (20) because
Hence, if the time-invariant control law (16) is employed and the nominal system (15) satisfies the tightened constraint sets,
\nthe initial constraints \n
Since \n
with \n
represents a suitable constraint set for the nominal state \n
is the solution of a linear programming problem. Hence, it is possible to obtain an upper bound of \n
In a similar way, the constraint set on the control input \n
starting from the initial control input constraint set \n
Then, the finite horizon optimal quadratic cost can be defined for the nominal dynamics in terms of nominal state \n
where \n
with \n
1:
2:
3:
4: At current time \n
5:
6: Solve Eq. (29) (30)
\n7:
8: Get \n
9: Evaluate \n
10: Evaluate \n
11:
Summarizing, the TRMPC control scheme consists in a classical MPC controller applied to the nominal unperturbed dynamics z subjected to the tightened constraints \n
For the implementation of the TRMPC controller on a real hardware, it is necessary to linearize the equation of motion in order to obtain a linear time-invariant system in the classical form:
\nIn the case of attitude control of a spacecraft, the state and control vectors are assumed to be \n
with
\nwith \n
where \n
where \n
in which
\nwhere \n
The online optimization problem is solved with the
Sliding mode control (SMC) found its origin as discontinuous nonlinear controller for nonlinear variable structure systems (VSS). The basic principle of SMC is to steer the system state to lie on a
The gain \n
Since the classical SMC stabilize a dynamic system by applying a high-frequency—theoretically infinite—discontinuous control, such type of controller cannot be used with actuators that must be controlled with a continuous signal, such as reaction wheels. To adapt SMC to continuous actuators, some smoothing techniques can be introduced in order to compute a continuous signal: for example, the “\n
which represents a linearized attitude dynamics. \n
According to this control design, it results in \n
Such gains ensure robustness against Lipschitz disturbances \n
The controller of Eq. (36) can be redesigned by substituting gains \n
where \n
A brief discussion about finite-time controllers is provided. In general, SMC controllers, if properly designed, ensure the convergence \n
Both control algorithms, described in Section 3, have been applied in an Earth observation mission scenario. The considered spacecraft has a total mass of \n
Desired inertial quaternion and angular velocity.
The pointing errors for the three proposed controllers (PID, CTSMC, and TRMPC controllers) are depicted in Figures 5, 6, 7. From these figures, the maximum angular error obtained with the CTSMC (Figure 7) is more than one order of magnitude lower than the maximum error obtained with the other two controllers. In a similar way, the angular error obtained during the pointing phase (zoomed figures) is close to \n
Attitude tracking in terms of Euler angles with PID controller. (a) Euler Angle error. (b) Zoom of Euler Angle error.
Attitude tracking in terms of Euler angles with TRMPC controller. (a) Euler Angle error. (b) Zoom of Euler Angle error.
Attitude tracking in terms of Euler angles with CTSMC controller. (a) Euler Angle error. (b) Zoom of Euler Angle error.
In Figure 8 the computed inputs are depicted, in terms of reaction wheel torque and momentum for each control law. For the TRMPC, the computed input (i.e., torque in body frame) has been derived as \n
Computed torque, reaction wheel torque, and momentum. (a) PID torque. (b) PID momentum.(c) TRMPC torque. (d) TRMPC momentum.(e) CTSMC torque. (f) CTSMC momentum.
In Figure 9, the chattering effect, observed in the sliding mode controller, is highlighted. Even if some chattering mitigation strategy is proposed [23], the chattering can be observed due to the low controller update frequency (\n
Chattering effects of CTSMC control system.
Eventually, the pointing stability performance index has been evaluated for all the three proposed control algorithms. Pointing stability is defined as
where \n
Controller | \nRoll [deg] | \nPitch [deg] | \nYaw [deg] | \n
---|---|---|---|
PID | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
TRMPC | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
CTSMC | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
Pointing stability results: \n
In the proposed research, small spacecraft attitude tracking with two advanced robust control laws has been developed: (i) a tube-based robust model predictive control and (ii) a continuous twisting sliding mode controller. A detailed mathematical model, with an emphasis on the external disturbances and the actuation systems, is included. Quaternion-based kinematics is proposed, even if Euler angle kinematics is also described, as more intuitive. Mathematics and some implementation details are also described, including the real-time implementability of both controllers. The performance of both controllers are compared with a PID controller. The advantages of using SMC have been presented, highlighting the lower pointing error over the whole considered mission. Moreover, chattering effects of using SMC have been observed, even though they are strongly reduced with respect to classical SMC. It has been also observed that the use of an optimal and robust control, TRMPC, causes an increment in the pointing performance as well, including the advantage of computing directly the optimal control torque for a complex reaction wheel configuration, instead of allocating the reaction wheel torque with the classical pseudo-inverse allocation.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
\nAphasia that acquired central disorder of language, which alters the patient’s capacity of understanding and/or producing spoken and written language, occurs in about one-third of the patients with acute stroke (ischemic or hemorrhagic). The language disturbances are frequently combined into aphasic syndromes, contained in different vascular syndromes. Still, aphasia subtype is changeable and may undergo variations over time: in the acute stage of the recovery, the most common type of aphasia is the global one; during the first year after stroke, anomic aphasia seems to be the most common aphasia subtype. In fact, anomia denotes the most important aphasia manifestation and long-term vascular aphasia consequence [1].
Broca’s aphasia (after Goodglass-Kaplan classification), known also as “motor cortical aphasia” (Lichtheim), “efferent or kinetic motor aphasia” (Luria), “expressive aphasia” (Déjerine, Albert, Pick, Weissenburg, McBride), “phonematic aphasia” (Hécaen), “Broca aphasia—the common form” (Lecours & Lhermitte), “verbal aphasia” (Head), “syntactic aphasia” (Wepman & Jones) is a non-fluent aphasia, comprising the widest range of symptoms: articulatory disturbances, paraphasias, agrammatism, evocation disorders, and discrete comprehension disorders of spoken and written language. It is a type of aphasia whose primary, trademark feature is considered to be the disability of spelling words (word evocation disorder), leading thus to impaired fluency and agrammatism (deficit in formulating and processing syntax) [2, 3]. Several studies concluded that in acute first-ever stroke, the frequency of Broca’s aphasia is from 10 to 15%, being the third most frequent type of aphasia after global aphasia (almost 30%) and Wernicke’s aphasia (almost 16%) [2, 4, 5, 6].
The different levels of the language (phonetic, phonemic, morphemic, morpho-syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic) can be differentially affected in the various types of language disturbances. For instance, Broca’s aphasia is significantly associated with grammatical defects (so-called agrammatism in Broca’s aphasia), whereas the semantics of nouns is impaired in posterior fluent aphasias [3].
The different aphasia subtypes are characterized by specific language disturbances. In the evaluation of each patient who presents with aphasic language disorders, the following aspects must be followed: the assessment of oral output/spontaneous speech, the assessment of repetition, the assessment of comprehension, and last but not least, the assessment of reading (lexia) and writing (graphia).
In the absence of aphasic mutism or when mutism has regressed, the patient presents a non-fluent, unwieldy verbal output, characterized by difficulties to initiate spontaneous speech, effortful, with hesitations and slow output (10–15 words/min), and interrupted by frequent word-finding pauses. Sometimes, he presents dysprosody, remarking a monotonously oral expression, with the absence of melodic modulation [2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11].
Sound/arthric level (incorrect articulation of a sound)—dysarthria.
Phonemic level (omission, addition, substitution, inversion of a phoneme)—phonemic paraphasias.
Verbal level (naming):
Semantic (verbal) paraphasias;
Word-finding difficulty (anomia), especially in spontaneous speech;
Deficits in action naming being more severe than deficits in object naming.
Syntactic level:
Agrammatism (frequently more obvious afterward the acute phase): oversight of functional/grammatical words (conjunctions, articles, prepositions, auxiliary verbs/e.g., “the,” “an,” and inflections), while conceptual words (verbs, adverbs, and nouns) are used more frequently, resulting in the so-called “telegraphic speech.” From time to time, the oral output can be limited to a few stereotypical terms (e.g., “tan tan”) [2, 8, 11, 12, 13].
In patients with Broca’s aphasia, the humble repetition is characteristic. The repetition of operational words and flexional endings is difficult, resulting in phonemic and verbal paraphasias (e.g., “My mother reads a book”/“mother-read-book”). Repetition and naming are impaired, although this is less marked than spontaneous speech.
Automatic speech consisting of numbering from 1 to 10, enumerating the days of the week, the months of the year, repeating a poem, can spectacularly ameliorate the verbal fluence [11, 14, 15].
Comprehension is preserved in most Broca aphasic patients. Good oral comprehension (the patient easily manages to perform the examiner’s tasks/commands) allows the complete evaluation of language components. In some cases, syntactic comprehension can be more difficult, especially when the examiner requests for understanding more complex sentences or to perform multiple commands [6]:
Distinguishing between different operational words (“in,” “on,” “under,” “over”) is almost impossible.
Comprehension of passive reversible sentences can be affected [12, 16].
Examples:
(Q): “The girl was kissed by the boy. Who kissed whom?
(A): Girl kiss boy.”
(Q): “The chicken was eaten by the dog. Who ate whom?
(A): Chicken eat dog.”
Reading and writing are furthermore compromised [14]. Receptive lexia is more affected than oral comprehension. Frontal alexia—literal alexia, was first described by Benson [8] and represents the incapacity in recognizing and naming individual letters, though full words are well recognized. In some cases, a deep central alexia is noticed, with incapacity of reading nonexistent words [17]. Lexia of abstract words or operational words is more difficult than that of concrete or conceptual words [17].
Regarding the graphia, it is also impaired in patients with Broca’s aphasia. It is not only the result of right hemiplegia, as long as it is also present in patients without motor deficit. Graphia shows changes similar to those of the oral expression, but with different intensity. There are troubles of writing spontaneous or dictated texts, while the copied graphia is relatively well conserved. Agraphy has central (linguistic) and peripheral elements [11]. Discaligraphy, literal and/or grapheme paragraphs are observed; there is a tendency toward agrammatism of variable intensity (thus operational words and inflectional endings are omitted) [18]. After a while, dissociation between a reduced oral language, with agrammatism, and jargon-agraphia phenomena occurs, causing a succession of incomprehensible paragraphias [19].
In conclusion, there are three determinant characteristics representing the essence of Broca’s aphasia: preserved comprehension, agrammatism, and dysarthria [2, 5, 6, 7, 8].
Lesions that cause Broca’s aphasia also interrupt adjacent cortical motor fibers and deep fiber tracts, this type of aphasia being usually associated with a motor defect in the right hemi body. The hemiparesis [20]:
affects especially the hand and the face, the leg being less affected;
moreover, it is more distal than proximal (affecting the hand muscles more than the shoulder ones);
being caused by a lesion situated at the level of the upper motor neuron, in most cases, the hemiparesis is characterized by an increased muscle tone (spastic hemiparesis);
its severity is variable, depending on the extension of the cerebral lesion;
may have impact over the articulatory organs (lips, tongue, cheeks), usually leading to a spastic dysarthria (upper motor neuron injury). This type of dysarthria is characterized by imprecise consonants, monotonous tone, reduced stress, rough voice, mono loudness, and a sluggish speech rate.
Apraxia of speech represents a deficiency in planning and programming the sequences of movements necessary in speech production. Along with agrammatism, it is considered as another essential clinical element in the diagnosis of Broca’s aphasia.
It is characterized by abnormalities in phoneme production (phonetic deviations), omissions, and substitutions of speech sounds, leading to decreased speech rate (non-fluent speech, evoked with difficulty). Automatic language (counting from 1 to 10, counting the days of the week, the months of the year) is preserved; instead, repetition is clumsy [20]:
It can be associated with bucco-facial apraxia (difficulties in planning and performing facial and mouth movements on request: to open the mouth, to blow air, to move the tongue) and/or dysarthria.
The patient is aware of his problem, unsuccessfully trying to correct his disturbance by effort. Instead, he presents difficulty in initiating statements, awkwardness articulatory movements. The patient is presenting articulatory variation, repeating attempts of the same expression.
Patients with prefrontal injuries frequently develop calculation difficulties that are not easily detected. Patients with damage in the prefrontal areas of the brain may display serious difficulties in mental operations, successive operations (particularly backward operations; e.g., 100–7), and solving multistep numerical problems. Written arithmetic operations are notoriously easier than mental operations. Difficulties in calculation tasks in these patients correspond to different types [20]:
Attention difficulties
are reflected in the patient’s difficulty in maintaining concentration on the issue;
result in defects in maintaining the conditions of the tasks and impulsiveness in answers;
Perseveration
is observed in the tendency to continue presenting the very same response to different conditions;
can be found in extrasylvian (transcortical) motor (dysexecutive) aphasia;
Deficiency of complex mathematical concepts.
The patient with Broca’s aphasia is aware of his oral expression disorder, developing feelings of helplessness and frustration, with a slightly irascible frame of mind, eventually leading to anxiety and depression [5, 6, 7], adding much more struggle in the recovery process of language.
Broca’s aphasias are generally the consequence of infarcts (usually embolic) in the anterior superficial sylvian territory of the dominant hemisphere for language. Other causes are cranio-cerebral trauma, cerebral hemorrhage, and less frequently, multiple brain metastases or infiltrative multiform glioblastomas. In the last two conditions, the spontaneous evolution is toward global aphasia.
Lesions or dysfunctions usually involve the left side of the brain in right-handed individuals [21], precisely the following structures:
Broca’s area:
the posterior part of the third frontal gyrus (F3)—Brodmann areas 44 and 45.
lesions in this area determine transitory apraxia of speech.
larger lesions, involving besides Broca’s area the subjacent white matter, produce transient mutism, quickly followed by an improving syndrome with noticeable arthric distortions and difficulties in action naming rather than in object naming.
Rolandic operculum:
inferior part of the motor area: Fa.
Lesions can extend or individually affect:
the insular cortex and subjacent white matter;
centrum semiovale;
capsulostriatum (head of caudate nucleus and putamen);
periventricular areas.
Ischemic lesions comprising together these structures and Broca’s area can produce the complete syndrome of Broca’s aphasia. Broca’s aphasia is produced by infarcts/severe hypoperfusion of the superior division of the left middle cerebral artery (MCA) (Figures 1 and 2) [2, 5, 6, 22, 23, 24].
Example of native brain CT scan of a Broca aphasic patient, showing a hypodense area of 3.5/3 cm arranged in the left frontal region, affecting the frontal operculum (
Example of native brain CT scan of a Broca’s aphasic patient, revealing a hypodense area of 5/4 cm with left frontal location [
During the last two decades, there were conducted different studies that were meant to study the hypothesis that during the acute period of the stroke, the lesion’s location is the main conclusive factor in establishing the type of aphasia. Kreisler et al. pointed out in their study that imaging supported the classical anatomic localization (for example: lesions situated in the left inferior frontal gyrus might lead to Broca’s aphasia and lesion situated in the left superior temporal gyrus might lead to Wernicke’s aphasia). Furthermore, their study concluded that non-fluent aphasia was correlated with lesions of postero-inferior frontal gyrus, the putamen, centrum semiovale, and the inferior parietal lobule; repetition disorders were associated with injuries of external capsule and posterior internal capsule, and difficulty in finding words was related with injuries of anterior and posterior language areas or with the subcortical structures [25]. There are other studies conducted by Godefroy et al. and Z.-H. Yang et al., which also pointed out that the most significant factor in establishing the aphasia type was the lesion’s site [26, 27].
On the other hand, there are some studies that found out that a great number of aphasia types were not concordant with the classical neuroanatomical site of expression and comprehension [28, 29].
Concluding, there are two hypotheses [30]:
One that sustains that the language center is the liable core for language (though, the brain mechanism of language functions is not restricted to that limited area of the cerebral cortex);
Another one that sustains that wide-ranging areas related to language are the connection of the language functions and that coordination and close interconnection between these two components have made it possible for people to carry out complex and various language activities, so necessary for human communication.
Language system of the brain is a wide, complex network, and this topic requires further investigation.
Different imaging techniques have been used to precisely specify the site of the brain lesion responsible for aphasic syndromes: diffusion MRI (diffusion tensorimaging—DTI: tractography—used in detecting the course of a specific nerve fiber bundles), MRI diffusion-weighted imaging (especially helpful in detecting the areas of acute infarction, soon after the clinical stroke onset—within 15–20 min), functional MRI (fMRI—quantifies hemodynamic changes associated with active metabolism during ongoing neuronal activity; as the linguistic areas are activated, more oxygen is consumed in those areas, resulting in release of greater amounts of deoxyhemoglobin), positron emission CT (PET—detects radioisotopes injected into the bloodstream and reaching to specific areas of the brain). However, there are still needed complex studies to establish this multifaceted language process [31].
Primarily, the patient is unable to release any sound (mutism), with a tremendously impaired comprehension (global aphasia) or, in opposition, almost normal. In evolution, stereotypes can sometimes be installed, which consist of the involuntary repetition of a syllable, a word, or even a phrase, in the absence of any other expression [6, 8, 18, 19, 32, 33, 34].
In rare situations, the regression of language disturbances stops at the level of monotonous permanent stereotypes (without prosody) and without semantic significance. In some old Broca aphasias, stereotypes with semantic significance, with hyperprosody and, possibly, with rich gestures can be observed. In most cases, however, the evolution is favorable, the patient developing the typical clinical picture of Broca aphasia [18, 32]. Subsequently, there is a partial restoration of verbal fluency (hereinafter, slow fluency), with decreased articulation disorders and those of evocation of conceptual words (lexical enrichment) [2]. Voluntary-automatic dissociation occurs and the language begins to convert into propositional [2]. Sometimes, the evolution is toward agrammatism, other times toward motor transcortical aphasia or motor amnestic aphasia [19].
Studies have reported better recovery in Broca’s and conduction aphasia, lower rates of recovery in global and anomic aphasia [4, 35, 36]. A study completed by Mazzoni et al. supported the idea that comprehension has a better recovery than expression [37], whereas Basso et al. reported that transcortical sensory aphasia had a worse prognosis than Broca’s or transcortical motor aphasia [38]. El Hachioui et al. related that different levels of the language improve at different times, as phonology recovers earlier than semantic or syntactic language, and comprehensive language recovers earlier than expressive language [39].
At the moment, in acute ischemic stroke, the rapid reestablishment of cortical perfusion (i.v. thrombolysis/endovascular therapy—thrombectomy) during the first 4.5 h (thrombolysis), and 6–12 h (thrombectomy) from the clinical onset, represents the most efficient acute treatment approach. Several large randomized clinical trials have shown significant value in outcome with intravenous thrombolysis [40] or endovascular therapy [41]. Although all these studies were not designed to specifically assess the language’s evolution, a secondary investigation of a large randomized clinical trial of endovascular therapy (Multicenter Randomized Clinical Trial of Endovascular Treatment for Acute Ischemic Stroke in the Netherlands; MR CLEAN) [42] has proven that the language score on NIHS Scale gained points (0–2 points) in the intervention group, compared with the control group. Hillis et al. conducted a small randomized clinical trial, which demonstrated that temporary rise of blood flow early after left hemisphere stroke due to large vessel occlusion or severe stenosis was related to language improvement [43].
In chronic post-stroke Broca’s aphasia, no other pharmaceutical intervention has proven its efficacy, since no randomized study has been able to demonstrate their efficiency [44]. Nevertheless, there are some trials that showed that there are some medications that have improved the results of speech therapy. The main idea of these studies is that recovery of language depends on neuroplasticity, which might be stimulated by administrating medications that modulate neurotransmitters [45]. Studies have proven that behavioral interventions can lead to neural reorganization. Even more, this process is facilitated by some neurotransmitters such as: acetylcholine, dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin [46, 47]. In conclusion, medications that increase the availability of these neurotransmitters may strengthen the process of neuroplasticity. The main studied medications are donepezil (cholinesterase inhibitors), memantine (noncompetitive antagonist of the Nmethyl-D-aspartate receptor), and piracetam. Preliminary positive results were found using piracetam in nonfluent aphasias (Broca’s aphasia), but it has not been proven to be effective in long-term use [48].
Consequently, a series of drugs targeting improving language deficits have been studied during the last years. Until now, the conclusion is that some agents may be mainly suitable for treating speech output deficits and picture naming with poor influence over comprehension, particularly in severe cases [49]. There are some theories that support the idea that selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) might be useful for persons with non-fluent aphasia (e.g., Broca’s aphasia), which are also associating depression and frustration, but probably they are less suitable for persons with fluent aphasia (coursing with excitement and reduced awareness) [44].
Another promising therapeutic strategy is represented by using biotechnologically prepared peptides that stimulate neurotrophic regulation in the central nervous system (with neurotrophic and neuroprotective activities). Between 2005 and 2009, a large Romanian study has been conducted in four departments of neurology, analyzing 2212 consecutive Broca’s aphasics following a first acute ischemic stroke. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of Cerebrolysin administration (30 ml Cerebrolysin mixed with 70 ml of normal saline/day/iv infusion, for 21 days) in Broca’s aphasics with acute ischemic stroke (n = 156: 52 in cerebrolysin and 104 in placebo) [50]. The conclusion of this study was that spontaneous (voluntary and automatically) speech, repetition, and naming in acute Broca’s aphasia have been positive influenced [44, 50]. Our study clearly demonstrated that intravenous adjuvant treatment with cerebrolysin results in statistically significant and clinically important improvements of language function in patients with Broca’s aphasia with a first acute ischemic stroke [50]. Further larger studies are crucial for sustaining this pertinent hypothesis.
While pharmacological approach produces unreliable results, with small/moderate language improvements, speech therapy is nowadays considered the gold standard in recovery of aphasias. Brady et al. analyzed 57 randomized controlled trials, comparing patient group with speech therapy and other without it and demonstrated that speech therapy led to clinically significance improvements in patients’ ability of communicating. The intensity and duration of speech therapy are very important, the longer the duration of therapy, the more effective the recovery [51]. In patients with chronic aphasia secondary to stroke, intensive speech and language therapy has proven superiority over delayed or even the absence of treatment [52]. Breitenstein et al. concluded that 3 weeks of intensive speech and language therapy of 10 or more hours per week can be considered an evidence-based intervention for patients with chronic aphasia after stroke (aged 70 years or younger) [52].
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a noninvasive method of brain stimulation that relies on electromagnetic induction using an insulated coil placed over the scalp, focused on the specific, desired area of the cortex, which offers a promising alternative approach in amplifying neuroplasticity processes involved in language recovery after stroke. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) modulates neural activity using two mechanisms: by decreasing the cortical excitability with low-frequency rTMS (⩽1 Hz) applied on nondominant hemisphere or by releasing the inhibition of the dominant hemisphere with high-frequency rTMS (⩾5 Hz).
Most trials of low-frequency or high-frequency rTMS in subacute stroke have reported significantly greater language improvement in the rTMS than in the sham group or condition [53].
Regarding rTMS in rehabilitation of Broca’s aphasic patients, few studies have been conducted targeted on recovering one single type of aphasia. The meta-analysis conducted by J. Zhang and his collaborators indicated that rTMS groups had a superior language recovery than sham rTMS groups and conventional rehabilitation groups. Low-frequency rTMS brought greater improvement in language recovery (excepting comprehension) than the sham rTMS. Conversely, high-frequency rTMS did not improve the evolution of rTMS groups compared with sham rTMS and conventional rehabilitation groups (speech therapy) [54].
The entire neuroscience community is still studying different methods of stimulating the reestablishment of network connections that could finally improve language disturbances, using transcranial magnetic stimulation.
Broca’a aphasia is the third most common form of aphasia due to acute stroke. Given the severe disability suffered by aphasic patients and the complexity of language recovery (taking into consideration all forms of aphasia), studies are still insufficient to elucidate clear treatment strategies for aphasias at this time. Regarding the current clinical and imaging diagnosis, the anatomical correlations with different forms of aphasia still remain poorly understood. Several studies have demonstrated that it is possible to draw a neuroanatomical map of aphasic syndromes, which are superimposable on a significant percentage of cases reported in the literature. This concludes to the idea that the main determining factor of aphasic disorders is the neuroanatomical location of the lesion. This does not mean that the injury of one restricted area with certain language or speech functions is going to determine the same aphasic syndrome in different individuals. Examining language disturbances should focus more on aphasic symptoms rather than on aphasic syndromes.
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Research studies in New Zealand have shown airborne magnetic surveys can indicate the regions of high reservoir permeability and thermal up-flow of active geothermal systems. However, the method has not been extensively used in the geothermal investigations, probably because the interpretation of airborne magnetic data has so far been seen as difficult and requires a complex quantitative 3D modelling of subsurface magnetisation.",book:{id:"5084",slug:"advances-in-geothermal-energy",title:"Advances in Geothermal Energy",fullTitle:"Advances in Geothermal Energy"},signatures:"Supri Soengkono",authors:[{id:"176580",title:"Dr.",name:"Supri",middleName:null,surname:"Soengkono",slug:"supri-soengkono",fullName:"Supri Soengkono"}]},{id:"64812",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81157",title:"Geothermal Explorations on the Slate Formation of Taiwan",slug:"geothermal-explorations-on-the-slate-formation-of-taiwan",totalDownloads:1318,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Currently, over 90% operated geothermal power plants are distributed in the volcanic- or magmatic intrusion-related geological systems. Only a few cases are done in metamorphic terranes, especially on the slate formation. Taiwan is located at the ring of fire and is famous for the young orogenic belt, which has wide distributions of rapid uplifting terranes with few active volcanoes. The metamorphic rocks, for example, schist and slate formations with high geothermal gradients, are occurring in the major mountain range. This chapter introduces the techniques or methods we used for geothermal exploration in the slate formation of the Chingshui geothermal field of Taiwan, where a 3-MW pilot geothermal power plant had been installed in 1983 and operated for 12 years.",book:{id:"7504",slug:"renewable-geothermal-energy-explorations",title:"Renewable Geothermal Energy Explorations",fullTitle:"Renewable Geothermal Energy Explorations"},signatures:"Sheng-Rong Song and Yi-Chia Lu",authors:[{id:"253615",title:"Prof.",name:"Sheng-Rong",middleName:null,surname:"Song",slug:"sheng-rong-song",fullName:"Sheng-Rong Song"},{id:"253623",title:"Dr.",name:"Yi-Chia",middleName:null,surname:"Lu",slug:"yi-chia-lu",fullName:"Yi-Chia Lu"}]},{id:"63548",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81062",title:"Geothermal Potential of the Global Oil Industry",slug:"geothermal-potential-of-the-global-oil-industry",totalDownloads:1212,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"There are around 40 new geothermal power projects commissioned in each of the last few years. Growth of the market is around 5% annually and current installed capacity is about 13,300 MW with about the same in development in 24 countries. These figures are impressive, but they do not bear comparison with any of the fossil fuels. However, few will realise that the global oil industry has a cryptic geothermal power potential that is equal to the entire current output of the geothermal industry. The oil industry is ageing. Many areas still produce copious quantities of oil, but the oil comes with an unwanted by-product, water. The volume of water produced is typically is 10–20 times that of the oil; and the water is hot—in some places very hot (>100°C). In a recent study we showed that the power depleted oil production platforms of the North Sea’s North Viking Graben produce sufficient hot water to deliver around 60% of the power requirement for each field. A review of global oil and hence water production has enabled us to calculate that power production alone from waste water from producing oilfields could be at least 15,000 MW.",book:{id:"7504",slug:"renewable-geothermal-energy-explorations",title:"Renewable Geothermal Energy Explorations",fullTitle:"Renewable Geothermal Energy Explorations"},signatures:"Jon Gluyas, Alison Auld, Charlotte Adams, Catherine Hirst, Simon Hogg\nand Jonathan Craig",authors:[{id:"258666",title:"Dr.",name:"Jon",middleName:null,surname:"Gluyas",slug:"jon-gluyas",fullName:"Jon Gluyas"},{id:"262369",title:"Dr.",name:"Alison",middleName:null,surname:"Auld",slug:"alison-auld",fullName:"Alison Auld"},{id:"262370",title:"Dr.",name:"Charlotte",middleName:null,surname:"Adams",slug:"charlotte-adams",fullName:"Charlotte Adams"},{id:"262371",title:"Dr.",name:"Catherine",middleName:null,surname:"Hirst",slug:"catherine-hirst",fullName:"Catherine Hirst"},{id:"262372",title:"Prof.",name:"Simon",middleName:null,surname:"Hogg",slug:"simon-hogg",fullName:"Simon Hogg"},{id:"262373",title:"Prof.",name:"Jonthan",middleName:null,surname:"Craig",slug:"jonthan-craig",fullName:"Jonthan Craig"}]},{id:"64027",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81017",title:"Stages of a Integrated Geothermal Project",slug:"stages-of-a-integrated-geothermal-project",totalDownloads:4230,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"A geothermal project constitutes two big stages: the exploration and the exploitation. Each one has a single task whose results allow defining the feasibility of a geothermal project, until achieving the construction and operation stage of the power generation plant. The first stage contains the area recognition, its limitation to the target, and elimination of external factors until defining a geothermal zone with characteristics to be commercially exploited. The main studies and analysis that can be applied during the exploration stage are listed, and the major indicator to continue with the project or suspend is the prefeasibility report. The major risks in the exploration stage are due to studies that are carried out on the surface; at this stage, the costs can be considered low. The main results of the exploration are the selection of sites to drill three or four initial wells. Each well provides a direct overview of the reservoir: depth, production thicknesses, thermodynamic parameters, and production characteristics. The drilling of three to four exploratory wells is recommended, as far as there is certainty of the feasibility of the project, and the development of the field begins with drilling of sufficient wells to feed the plant. In this stage, the cost increases, but the risks decrease.",book:{id:"7504",slug:"renewable-geothermal-energy-explorations",title:"Renewable Geothermal Energy Explorations",fullTitle:"Renewable Geothermal Energy Explorations"},signatures:"Alfonso Aragón-Aguilar, Georgina Izquierdo-Montalvo,\nDaniel Octavio Aragón-Gaspar and Denise N. Barreto-Rivera",authors:[{id:"258358",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Aragón-Aguilar",slug:"alfonso-aragon-aguilar",fullName:"Alfonso Aragón-Aguilar"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"64027",title:"Stages of a Integrated Geothermal Project",slug:"stages-of-a-integrated-geothermal-project",totalDownloads:4236,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"A geothermal project constitutes two big stages: the exploration and the exploitation. Each one has a single task whose results allow defining the feasibility of a geothermal project, until achieving the construction and operation stage of the power generation plant. The first stage contains the area recognition, its limitation to the target, and elimination of external factors until defining a geothermal zone with characteristics to be commercially exploited. The main studies and analysis that can be applied during the exploration stage are listed, and the major indicator to continue with the project or suspend is the prefeasibility report. The major risks in the exploration stage are due to studies that are carried out on the surface; at this stage, the costs can be considered low. The main results of the exploration are the selection of sites to drill three or four initial wells. Each well provides a direct overview of the reservoir: depth, production thicknesses, thermodynamic parameters, and production characteristics. The drilling of three to four exploratory wells is recommended, as far as there is certainty of the feasibility of the project, and the development of the field begins with drilling of sufficient wells to feed the plant. In this stage, the cost increases, but the risks decrease.",book:{id:"7504",slug:"renewable-geothermal-energy-explorations",title:"Renewable Geothermal Energy Explorations",fullTitle:"Renewable Geothermal Energy Explorations"},signatures:"Alfonso Aragón-Aguilar, Georgina Izquierdo-Montalvo,\nDaniel Octavio Aragón-Gaspar and Denise N. Barreto-Rivera",authors:[{id:"258358",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Aragón-Aguilar",slug:"alfonso-aragon-aguilar",fullName:"Alfonso Aragón-Aguilar"}]},{id:"64812",title:"Geothermal Explorations on the Slate Formation of Taiwan",slug:"geothermal-explorations-on-the-slate-formation-of-taiwan",totalDownloads:1320,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Currently, over 90% operated geothermal power plants are distributed in the volcanic- or magmatic intrusion-related geological systems. Only a few cases are done in metamorphic terranes, especially on the slate formation. Taiwan is located at the ring of fire and is famous for the young orogenic belt, which has wide distributions of rapid uplifting terranes with few active volcanoes. The metamorphic rocks, for example, schist and slate formations with high geothermal gradients, are occurring in the major mountain range. This chapter introduces the techniques or methods we used for geothermal exploration in the slate formation of the Chingshui geothermal field of Taiwan, where a 3-MW pilot geothermal power plant had been installed in 1983 and operated for 12 years.",book:{id:"7504",slug:"renewable-geothermal-energy-explorations",title:"Renewable Geothermal Energy Explorations",fullTitle:"Renewable Geothermal Energy Explorations"},signatures:"Sheng-Rong Song and Yi-Chia Lu",authors:[{id:"253615",title:"Prof.",name:"Sheng-Rong",middleName:null,surname:"Song",slug:"sheng-rong-song",fullName:"Sheng-Rong Song"},{id:"253623",title:"Dr.",name:"Yi-Chia",middleName:null,surname:"Lu",slug:"yi-chia-lu",fullName:"Yi-Chia Lu"}]},{id:"49252",title:"Using Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems for Heating/Cooling of Buildings",slug:"using-ground-source-heat-pump-systems-for-heating-cooling-of-buildings",totalDownloads:3857,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"This chapter mainly presents a detailed theoretical study and experimental investigations of ground-source heat pump (GSHP) technology, concentrating on the ground-coupled heat pump (GCHP) systems. A general introduction on the GSHPs and its development, and a description of the surface water (SWHP), ground-water (GWHP), and ground-coupled heat pumps are briefly performed. The most typical simulation and ground thermal response test models for the vertical ground heat exchangers (GHEs) currently available are summarized. Also, a new GWHP using a heat exchanger with special construction, tested in laboratory, is well presented. The second objective of the chapter is to compare the main performance parameters (energy efficiency and CO2 emissions) of radiator and radiant floor heating systems connected to a GCHP. These performances were obtained with site measurements in an office room. Furthermore, the thermal comfort for these systems is compared using the ASHRAE Thermal Comfort program. Additionally, two numerical simulation models of useful thermal energy and the system coefficient of performance (COPsys) in heating mode are developed using the TRNSYS (Transient Systems Simulation) software. Finally, the simulations obtained in TRNSYS program are analysed and compared to experimental measurements.",book:{id:"5084",slug:"advances-in-geothermal-energy",title:"Advances in Geothermal Energy",fullTitle:"Advances in Geothermal Energy"},signatures:"Ioan Sarbu and Calin Sebarchievici",authors:[{id:"173440",title:"Prof.",name:"Ioan",middleName:null,surname:"Sarbu",slug:"ioan-sarbu",fullName:"Ioan Sarbu"},{id:"176508",title:"Dr.",name:"Calin",middleName:null,surname:"Sebarchievici",slug:"calin-sebarchievici",fullName:"Calin Sebarchievici"}]},{id:"49620",title:"Radiogenic Heat Generation in Western Australia — Implications for Geothermal Energy",slug:"radiogenic-heat-generation-in-western-australia-implications-for-geothermal-energy",totalDownloads:2044,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The chapter reviews heat generation in crystalline rocks and influences on overlying sedimentary basins in Western Australia (WA). Regions of elevated thorium and uranium will cause elevated heat generation, which in turn can cause elevated heat flow. Western Australia hosts several large sedimentary basins with the potential for hot sedimentary aquifers (HSAs). These include the Perth, Carnarvon, and Canning basins. Parts of these basins are underlain by crystalline rocks that contain high levels of heat-generating elements, such as uranium, thorium, and potassium. Also, the Pilbara Craton, which contains both sedimentary and crystalline rocks, that entertains a number of active mines, which may benefit from geothermal energy, is investigated. Further, the southern part of the Perth Basin (Vasse Shelf), which is underlain by crystalline rocks with elevated concentrations of thorium and uranium, is shown to possess higher than usual temperatures. From observations, and geothermal modeling, it is concluded that the Perth Basin has a high potential for medium- to low-temperature geothermal energy developments. In other parts of Western Australia, the Carnarvon Basin has elevated temperatures in artesian groundwater. Heat flow in the Canning Basin is briefly reviewed; this basin has some geothermal potential, but it is far from the major population centers.",book:{id:"5084",slug:"advances-in-geothermal-energy",title:"Advances in Geothermal Energy",fullTitle:"Advances in Geothermal Energy"},signatures:"Mike F. Middleton",authors:[{id:"176416",title:"Dr.",name:"Mike",middleName:null,surname:"Middleton",slug:"mike-middleton",fullName:"Mike Middleton"}]},{id:"66034",title:"Introductory Chapter: Power Generation Using Geothermal Low-Enthalpy Resources and ORC Technology",slug:"introductory-chapter-power-generation-using-geothermal-low-enthalpy-resources-and-orc-technology",totalDownloads:1377,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"7504",slug:"renewable-geothermal-energy-explorations",title:"Renewable Geothermal Energy Explorations",fullTitle:"Renewable Geothermal Energy Explorations"},signatures:"Basel I. Ismail",authors:[{id:"62122",title:"Dr.",name:"Basel I.",middleName:"I.",surname:"Ismail",slug:"basel-i.-ismail",fullName:"Basel I. Ismail"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"649",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:99,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:289,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 26th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,editor:null,editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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