H density as a function of storage method.
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IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
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\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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Novel, cost-effective strategies are needed to reverse the global epidemic of obesity which is driving the increased occurrence of type 2 diabetes and to less the burden of diabetic vascular complications. In the current volume, Topics in the Prevention, Treatment and Complications of Type 2 Diabetes, experts in biology and medicine from four different continents contribute important information and cutting-edge scientific knowledge on a variety of topics relevant to the management and prevention of diabetes and related illnesses.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-590-7",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6552-1",doi:"10.5772/1542",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"topics-in-the-prevention-treatment-and-complications-of-type-2-diabetes",numberOfPages:354,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"fedb4b227715729de998791e200ef56f",bookSignature:"Mark B. 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Dr. Zimering received his undergraduate training at Harvard College, MD and PhD degrees from the Albert Einstein College of Medicine, and completed an endocrinology fellowship at the NIH. His research has focused on roles for basic fibroblast growth factor (or autoantibodies which mimic or inhibit its effects) in diabetic vascular complications. He reported markedly increased plasma basic fibroblast growth in a subset of obese adult participants from the Veterans Affairs Diabetes Trial having increased coronary heart disease occurrence. His group reported low levels of plasma basic fibroblast growth factor in adult diabetes having a cluster of microvascular complications (macular edema, albuminuria, painful neuropathy) in association with endothelial cell inhibitory autoantibodies which activated the RhoA/Rho kinase signaling pathway in endothelial cells or caused global increases in intracellular calcium in endothelial cells, neurons or cardiomyocytes.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Department of Veterans Affairs",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1013",title:"Pediatric Endocrinology",slug:"pediatric-endocrinology"}],chapters:[{id:"22092",title:"Burden of Diabetes Type 2 Through Modelling and Simulation",doi:"10.5772/24443",slug:"burden-of-diabetes-type-2-through-modelling-and-simulation",totalDownloads:2179,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Maja Atanasijević-Kunc and Jože Drinovec",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/22092",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/22092",authors:[{id:"57424",title:"Prof.",name:"Maja",surname:"Atanasijević-Kunc",slug:"maja-atanasijevic-kunc",fullName:"Maja Atanasijević-Kunc"},{id:"57437",title:"Prof.",name:"Jože",surname:"Drinovec",slug:"joze-drinovec",fullName:"Jože Drinovec"}],corrections:null},{id:"22093",title:"Alzheimer’s Disease and Type 2 Diabetes: Different Pathologies and Same Features",doi:"10.5772/24390",slug:"alzheimer-s-disease-and-type-2-diabetes-different-pathologies-and-same-features",totalDownloads:2613,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Marta Di Carlo, Pasquale Picone, Rita Carrotta, Daniela Giacomazza and P.L. 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Dihydrogen appears as an attractive candidate because it represents the highest energy output relative to the molecular weight (120 MJ kg-1 against 50 MJ kg-1 for natural gas), and because its combustion delivers only water and heat. Whereas the main renewable sources of energy available in nature (solar, wind, geothermal…) need to be transformed, dihydrogen is able to transport and store energy. Dihydrogen can be produced from renewable energies, indirectly from photosynthesis
dihydrogen production and generation,
dihydrogen storage and transportation,
dihydrogen conversion to electrical energy.
As opposed to widespread opinions, natural dihydrogen sources exist alone on the earth’s surface. Local and continuous emanations of dihydrogen can be observed in cratonic zones, ophiolitic rocks or oceanic ridges [3]. Dihydrogen is effectively produced in the upper mantle of the earth through natural oxidation of iron (II)-rich minerals, like ferromagnesians, by water of the hydrosphere. The ferrous iron is oxidized in ferric iron and water is concurrently reduced in dihydrogen, as given by following equation: 2Fe2+ (mineral) + 2 H+ (water)
Combined with water and hydrocarbons dihydrogen is nevertheless the most abundant element on earth. Green means to ecologically convert H containers into dihydrogen still remain however challenging. The energetic volume density of dihydrogen is low (10.8 MJ m-3 against 40 MJ m-3 for natural gas) so that storage and transportation appear as bottlenecks for large scale development in transportation for example. Conversion of dihydrogen to electricity in fuel cells presents high electrical efficiency (more than 50% against less than 30% for gas engines), but requires the use of catalysts both for H2 oxidation and O2 reduction. These are mainly based on platinum catalysts, which are highly expensive, weakly available on earth, and non biodegradable. Extensive researches thus aim to decrease the amount of platinum catalysts in fuel cells. Following the discovery of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) [4, 5], their large scale availability opened a new avenue in these three domains. Due to their intrinsic properties, such as high stability, high electrical and thermal conductivities [6] and high developed surface areas, carbon nanotubes constitute attractive materials, able to enhance the credibility of an hydrogen economy.
\n\t\t\tBesides, platinum catalysts are inhibited by very low amount of CO and S (0.1% of CO is sufficient to decrease one hundred fold the catalytic activity of Pt in ten minutes!), thus requiring strong steps of H2 purification [7]. They are not specific to either O2 or H2 catalysis, thus requiring the use of a membrane to separate the anodic and cathodic compartments. Nafion® perfluoronated membrane is currently the only really performing polymer [8], increasing its cost. Replacement of platinum-based catalysts is thus highly needed. In that way, a new concept appeared less than five years ago, when looking at the pathways microorganisms use for the production of ATP, their own energetic source [9, 10]. As an example, the hyperthermophilic, microaerophilic bacterium
A) Energetic metabolism of the bacterium
For all these innovative concepts, one of the key points is the increase in power density, thus in the current density furnished by a redox couple displaying a large as possible potential difference. Apart from the improvement in enzyme stability, the increase in the current densities supposes an optimization of both the interfacial electron transfer rate and the amount of connected enzymes at the electrode. Carbon nanotubes which develop large surface areas and can be functionalized constitute an attractive platform for such enzyme immobilization. CNTs are described as graphene sheets rolled into tubes. They exist under various structural configurations (single-walled (SWCNTs), multi-walled (MWCNTs)) differing in electrical properties, thus tuning the platform properties for enzyme immobilization. The end of the tubes is capped by a fullerene-type hemisphere that yields selective functionalization of the CNTs [14].
\n\t\t\tWith the objective of dihydrogen as a future green energy vector, this review focuses on the last developments in the fuel -and more especially biofuel- cell field thanks to the advantageous use of carbon nanotubes. In a first part, carbon nanotubes for H2 storage enhancement are discussed. Then fuel cells in which carbon nanotubes help to decrease the amount of high cost noble metal catalysts are described. Green H2 economy is then emphasized considering the key role of hydrogenase, the enzyme responsible for dihydrogen conversion. This requires the functional immobilization of the biocatalysts onto electrodes. The use of carbon nanotubes in this immobilization step is underlined, including the modes of carbon nanotube functionalization and enzyme or microbes grafting. Then the advantages of developing biofuel cells in which chemical catalysts are replaced by enzymes or microbes are described. A short review of the sugar/O2 biofuel cells, the most widely investigated biofuel cell, is given with a particular attention on the devices based on carbon nanotube-modified bioelectrodes. The last developments based on carbon nanotube networks for hydrogenase immobilization, or mimicking synthetic complex immobilization, in view of efficient dihydrogen catalytic oxidation are finally described in order to allow the design of a future H2/O2 biofuel cell.
\n\t\tThe discovery of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) has induced breakthroughs in many scientific domains, including H2 economy, biosensors, bioelectrochemistry…This is due to their remarkable properties, such as good electronic, mechanical and thermal properties. Their nanometric size compares with that of proteins and enzymes, offering the possibility of electrical connection. Their large developed surface area allows the development of devices in smaller volumes. SWCNTs are sp2 hybridized carbon in a hexagonal honeycomb structure that is rolled into hollow tube morphology [15]. MWCNTs are multiple concentric tubes encircling each other [5]. Depending on the chirality, CNTs can be metallic or semiconducting. The distinction between metallic and semiconducting is very important for application, but the physical separation of allotropes is one of the most difficult challenges to overcome. In MWCNTs, a single metallic layer results in the entire nanotubes metallic behavior. Most often mixtures of these two forms are present in CNTs preparation. More information on the physical and electronic structures can be found in many published reviews [16]. CNTs are produced by various methods such as arc discharge, laser ablation, and chemical vapor deposition (CVD). Commercially CNTs are generally produced by CVD during the pyrolysis of hydrocarbon gases at high temperature. The control of synthesis parameters (reagent gas, T°, metal catalysts) allows for the control of CNT properties. Metal impurities may remain in the CNTs sample, thus requiring purification steps. CNTs may be treated to functionalize the surface.
\n\t\tThe use of H2 in fuel cells to generate electricity has been proved early in the middle of the nineteenth century. Surprisingly this discovery by C. Schönbein in 1839 of current generation by use of H2 and O2 in sulphuric acid was applied by NASA only late in 1960. Despite intensive studies over the last two decades, fuel cells still suffer from high cost and low durability. The first difficulty responsible for this slow large scale development lies on dihydrogen storage and transportation, both regarded as bottlenecks considering dihydrogen specific volumic density as a gas. For convenience the gas must be intensely pressurized to several hundred atmospheres and stored in a pressure vessel. The ways to store dihydrogen with minimum hazard are under liquid state under cryogenic temperatures (at a temperature of -253 °C), or more efficiently in a solid state. Storage of dihydrogen in hydride form uses an alloy that can absorb and hold large amounts of dihydrogen by bonding with hydrogen and forming hydrides. A dihydrogen storage alloy is capable of absorbing and releasing dihydrogen without compromising its own structure, according to the reaction: M + H2 ↔ MH2, where M represents the metal and H, hydrogen. Qualities that make these alloys useful include their ability to absorb and release large amounts of dihydrogen gas many times without deteriorating, and their selectivity toward dihydrogen only. In addition, their absorption and release rates can be controlled by adjusting temperature or pressure. The dihydrogen storage alloys in common use occurs in four different forms: AB5 (e.g., LaNi5), AB (e.g., FeTi), A2B (e.g., Mg2Ni) and AB2 (e.g., ZrV2). Metal hydrides, such as MgH2, Mg2NiH4 or LiBH4, constitute secure reserves of dihydrogen [17-19]. Dihydrogen is released from MH2 upon increase in temperature and/or decrease in pressure.
\n\t\t\tH-atom per cm3 (x1022) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.99 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t6.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t5.9 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t6.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t5.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
H density as a function of storage method.
Much progress has been made during the last years in that domain, including the highlight of the advantages offered by using CNTs. An efficient approach appears to be the formulation of new carbon/transition metal catalyst composites of specific composition and molecular structure, which can greatly stimulate and improve the chemical reactions involving dihydrogen relocation in alkali-metal aluminium materials. Absorption kinetics and dihydrogen storage capacity were shown to be enhanced by mixing MH2 with SWCNTs as a result of an increase in interfacial area, decrease in MH2 particle agglomeration and nano-platform for efficient H2 diffusion [20, 21]. The hydriding and dehydriding kinetics of SWCNT/catalyzed sodium aluminium composite were found to be much better than those of the material ground without carbon additives. Temperature of H2 desorption was lowered [22]. The presence of carbon creates new dihydrogen transition sites and the high dihydrogen diffusivity of the nanotubes facilitates hydrogen atom transition. Faster thermal energy transfer through the nanotubes may also help reduce hydriding and dehydriding times.
\n\t\t\tDihydrogen can be stored through physisorption on CNTs, based on Van der Waals interaction. Based on the surface area of a single graphene sheet, the maximum value for the storage of dihydrogen capacity is around 3 wt%. Dihydrogen can also be stored through chemisorption in CNTs matrix. If the π-bonding between carbon atoms were fully utilized, every carbon atom could be a site for chemisorption of one hydrogen atom. Dillon et al. first reported in 1997 dihydrogen storage in SWCNT networks [23]. Both SWCNTs and MWCNTs store dihydrogen in microscopic pores on the tubes [24, 25]. Similar to metal hydrides in their mechanism for storing and releasing dihydrogen, the carbon nanotubes hold the potential to store a significant volume of dihydrogen. The storage capacity is dependent on many parameters of the CNTs, including their structure, structure defects, pretreatment, purification, geometry (surface area, tube diameter, length), arrangement of tubes in bundles, storage pressure, temperature,…Dihydrogen uptake varies linearly with tube diameter, because the uptake is proportional to the surface area,
Among the different types of fuel cells, PEM fuel cell operates at low temperatures around 100°C. For small portable application requiring less than 10 kW, they are more suitable than higher powering solid oxide fuel cells (functioning at 700°C) due to the possible use of usual materials for electronic connectors (mainly based on carbon) and membrane. However the necessary use of platinum-based catalysts on electronic connectors to accelerate the rate of dihydrogen oxidation and oxygen reduction is a real brake towards the fuel cell development. Platinum is scarce enough on earth to be a limiting factor in case of large scale development of fuel cells. Consequently platinum currently accounts for 25% in the total cost of a fuel cell. Over the past five years, the price of platinum has ranged from just below $800 to more than $2,200 an ounce. Carbon black particles offer a high surface area support, able to decrease the amount of platinum particles. But they suffer from mass transfer limitations and strong carbon corrosion.
\n\t\t\tAmong the low-cost alternatives to platinum, carbon appears to be the most promising. Due to their nano-structure and unique chemical and physical properties, CNTs have appeared as ideal supporting materials to improve both catalytic activity and electrode stability. The enhancement of fuel cell performances by using CNT/Pt or Pt-alloy catalysts may arise from:
\n\t\t\thigher dispersion of Pt nanoparticles,
increased electron transfer rates,
porous structure of CNT layers.
Various CNT-Pt composites were used to reduce the platinum amount while preserving high catalytic activity in PEM fuel cells. Platinum nanodots sputter-deposited on a CNT-grown carbon paper [27], or deposited on functionalized MWCNTs [28] exhibited great improvement in cell performance compared to platinum on carbon black. This was primarily attributed to high porosity and high surface area developed by the CNT layer. Compared to a commercial Pt/carbon black catalyst, Pt/SWCNT films cast on a rotating disk electrode was shown to exhibit a lower onset potential and a higher electron-transfer rate constant for oxygen reduction. Improved stability of the SWCNT support was also confirmed from the minimal change in the oxygen reduction current during repeated cycling over a period of 36 h [29]. Platinum particles deposited on MWCNT encapsulated in micellar surfactant were also explored as efficient catalysts for fuel cells [30, 31]. An in situ synthetic method was reported for preparing and decorating metal nanoparticles at sidewalls of sodium dodecyl sulfate micelle functionalized SWCNTs/MWCNTs. Accelerated durability evaluation was carried out by conducting 1500 potential cycles between 0.1 and 1.2 V at 80°C. These nanocomposites were demonstrated to yield a high fuel cell performance with enhanced durability. The membrane electrode assembly with Pt/MWCNTs showed superior performance stability with a power density degradation of only 30% compared to commercial Pt/C (70%) after potential cycles. Identically electrocatalytically active platinum nanoparticles on CNTs with enhanced nucleation and stability have been demonstrated through introduction of electron-conducting polyaniline (PANI) [32]. A bridge between the Pt nanoparticles and MWCNTs walls was demonstrated with the presence of platinum nitride bonding and π-π bonding. The synthesized PANI was found to wrap around the CNT as a result of π-π bonding, and highly dispersed Pt nanoparticles were loaded onto the CNT with narrowly distributed particle sizes ranging from 2.0 to 4.0 nm. The Pt-PANI/CNT catalysts were electroactive and exhibited excellent electrochemical stability, therefore constitute promising potential applications in proton exchange membrane fuel cells. Strong evidence thus emerges that CNTs/Pt composites are efficient as catalysts for fuel cells. Although platinum content has been dramatically decreased, industrials consider that further optimization is mandatory for a large scale fuel cell production. In addition Nafion® membrane between the cathodic and anodic compartment delays the large scale application of fuel cells, due to cost and problem of mass transfer. Breakthrough research towards these two bottlenecks could surely enforce a hydrogen economy.
\n\t\tReplacement of chemical catalysts is thus nowadays highly needed in view of the development of a green energy economy. Microorganisms contain many biocatalysts, namely enzymes, which are highly efficient and specific towards various substrate conversions. Given they are produced in large enough quantities, these enzymes could be used as catalysts in biotechnological devices. A mandatory condition to develop heterogeneous catalysis is to succeed in the functional immobilization and in the stabilization of the enzymes on solid supports. The redox active site of enzymes is indeed buried inside the protein moiety so that the enzymatic property can be maintained under environmental stresses. Specific channels are often involved to allow the substrate to reach the active site. Complex but highly organized electron transfer chains occur for energetic metabolism. Electron transfer between two physiological partners associated with transformation of the substrate involves specific recognition site. The game for a bioelectrochemist that aims to get the highest electron transfer rate for heterogeneous catalysis is to reproduce at the electrode interface the physiological electron transfer recognition process. Given the usual size of an enzyme (5-10 nm), electron transfer cannot occur
Interfacial electron transfer between an enzyme and an electrode can be achieved by direct (left) or mediated (right) electron transfer process.
Direct electron transfer process is preferred to mediated one, because it is not limited by the affinity between the enzyme and the redox mediator, and because it avoids the co-immobilization of enzyme and mediator. It is furthermore expected to yield the highest power density because enzymes, as biocatalysts, transform their substrate into products with very low overvoltages. However it requires the knowledge of the protein structure and the construction of a tuned electrochemical interface that fits the electron transfer site.
\n\t\t\tThere are many strategies for efficient enzyme immobilization onto electrochemical interfaces, including simple physical adsorption, covalent attachment, cross-linking or entrapment in polymers. The objectives are to optimize the immobilization procedure so that the efficiency of the enzyme and its stability are preserved. Moreover, due to the size of enzymes compared to chemical catalysts, large surface area interfaces baring many anchorage sites are required to obtain high catalytic currents.
\n\t\t\tTo reach these goals, 3D structures are preferred, and CNT-based electrodes are very popular, both SWCNTs and MWCNTs. CNTs can be directly grown onto electrode surface, or adsorbed on it, or imbedded in polymer coating. In most cases, higher activity was reported for enzymes physically adsorbed onto CNTs [34]. Hydrophobic interactions between the enzyme and the CNT walls and π-π interactions between side walls of CNTs and aromatic rings of the enzyme are thought to be the driving force for direct adsorption of enzymes on CNTs [35]. Electrostatic interaction between the defect sites of CNTs and protonated amino residues of the enzyme plays also a role in the adsorption process [35]. CNTs are quite easily functionalized, allowing covalent, thus stable specific attachment of enzymes. The oxidation in strong acidic solutions at high temperature was demonstrated to remove the end caps and shorten the lengths of the CNTs. The length of the CNTs was shown to be a function of the oxidation duration [36]. Acid treatment also adds oxide groups, primarily carboxylic acids, to the tube ends and defect sites [37]. The control of reactants and/or oxidation conditions may control the locations and density of the functional groups on the CNTs, which can be used to control the location and density of the attached enzymes [37]. Covalent immobilization is induced by carbodiimide reaction between the free amine groups on the enzyme surface and carboxylic groups generated by side wall oxidation of CNTs.
\n\t\t\tFurther chemical reactions can be performed at the oxide groups generated on the oxidized CNTs to functionalize with groups such as amides, thiols, etc…From an electrochemical point of view, the side walls of CNTs were suggested to behave as basal plane of pyrolytic graphite, while their open ends resemble the edge planes [38, 39]. But recent work has demonstrated that the side wall may be responsible for electrochemical activity [40]. It has been furthermore suggested that the uncovered surface of CNTs promotes the accessibility of the substrate to the enzyme [41]. It is also interesting to note that the open spaces between CNTs are accessible to large species such as entire bacteria [42], opening the way for the development of fuel cells using whole microorganisms instead of purified enzymes. The cost and complexity of CNT manufacturing seem to be still clogging issues in that field.
\n\t\t\tAbundant literature exists on the ways CNTs are architectured for efficient enzyme immobilization, including those specific for development of enzymatic fuel cells. Enzymes and proteins as various as glucose oxidase and dehydrogenase, tyrosinase, laccase and bilirubin oxidase, peroxidase, haemoglobin and myoglobin,
Mixing CNTs with surfactant [69-71] was claimed to assist in the dispersion of CNTs while avoiding oxidative functionalization which may disrupt their π-network. Polymer modified CNTs [72, 73] and sol-gel-CNT nanocomposite films [74] were proved to behave as friendly platforms for enzyme encapsulation.
\n\t\t\tSchematic drawing of the build-up of enzyme on SWCNTs
Many enzymes however cannot be electrically connected to the electrode interface and require redox mediator to electrochemically follow substrate conversion. In that case, electrode kinetics is mainly dependant on mediator kinetics, so that the choice of the redox mediator mainly impedes the power density. Another issue is that the mediator can be co-immobilized with the enzyme at the electrode, while still being capable of efficient interaction with the enzyme. CNTs have also been used for building networks enabling co-immobilization of enzymes and redox mediators. In that way, one of the most popular redox entities is osmium polymer which forms hydrogels with enzymes allowing both charge transfer reaction between enzyme and mediators and diffusion of substrate and product [75]. Composite CNT/osmium films were used To immobilize bacteria [76], or enzymes [77]. By optimizing the CNT and polymer amounts, enhanced current responses were obtained linked to a promotion of the electron transfer within the composite. Various phenothiazine derivatives were also used to form nanohybrids with CNTs acting as efficient redox mediator platforms [78-80]. Phenothiazine derivatives strongly adsorb onto CNTs leading to great enhancement of redox dye loading onto the electrode, but also to improved electrochemical sensing devices. Another strategy involves the use of a redox polymer as redox mediator platform. Electropolymerization of the redox conducting polymer onto CNTs enhances the amount of redox units and the electrical conductivity of the coating [81]. An interesting construction has also been obtained by immobilization of physiological cofactor onto CNT layers
Apart from replacement of noble metal catalysts in fuel cells, a new green technology for production of dihydrogen is required. It currently relies on steam reforming of hydrocarbons under high temperature and pressure conditions, which starts from fossil fuels, thus producing greenhouse gases. Dihydrogen production
In order to use these biocatalysts for green dihydrogen production, two main research domains are currently concerned: the understanding of the catalytic mechanisms of H2 production, and the optimization of enzyme immobilization. Adsorption onto graphite electrodes [85, 86] was largely used to study the mechanisms by which hydrogenases produce H2. Grafting of hydrogenase onto gold electrode modified by thiolated Self-Assembled-Monolayer [87] allowed efficient proton reduction into dihydrogen in aqueous buffer solutions. Hydrogenase is also considered as a promising biocatalyst for photobiological production of dihydrogen when coupled to a photocatalyst [88]. Hybrid complexes of hydrogenases with TiO2 nanoparticles [89, 90] were studied for H2 production. The optimized system was shown to produce H2 at a turnover frequency of approximately 50 (mol H2) s−1 (mol total hydrogenase)−1 at pH 7 and 25 °C, even under the typical solar irradiation of a northern European sky. Cd-based nanorods [91, 92] were recently studied. The CdS nanorod/hydrogenase complexes photocatalyzed reduction of protons to H2 at a hydrogenase turnover frequency of 380-900 s-1 and photon conversion efficiencies of up to 20% under illumination at 405 nm. Cd-based complexes allowed photoproduction of dihydrogen for a couple of hours, but still suffer from quick inhibition of hydrogenase.
\n\t\t\tStructure of an oxygen-tolerant [NiFe] hydrogenase.
Although a very attractive way, little work has been done towards enhancement of green hydrogen production using CNTs. Three studies from the same group reported however catalytically active hydrogenase-SWCNT biohybrids [93, 94]. Surfactant-suspended SWCNTs were shown to spontaneously self-assemble with hydrogenase. Photoluminescence excitation and Raman spectroscopy showed that SWCNTs act as molecular wires to make electrical contact with at least one of the FeS electron relay. Hydrogenase was demonstrated to be strongly attached to the SWCNTs and to mediate electron injection into nanotubes. The displacement of the surfactant by hydrogenase to gain access to the SWCNTs was strongly suggested by photoluminescence studies. Furthermore, Raman studies of charge transfer complexes between hydrogenase and either metallic (m) or semiconducting (s) SWCNTs revealed a difference in oxygen deactivation of hydrogenase according to the SWCNT species. m-SWCNTs most probably interact with hydrogenase to produce a more oxygen-tolerant species. The study further suggested that purified m-SWCNTs or s-SWCNTs, rather than mixed preparation, would be more suitable for hydrogenase-SWCNTs biohybrids. The formation of these catalytically active biohybrids in addition with the intrinsic properties developed by CNT networks on electrodes certainly accounts for the improved dihydrogen production observed in the following studies. Kihara
One alternative for green hydrogen production is to synthesize metal complexes that mimic the active site of enzymes. Huge work has been done in that field in order to obtain bioinspired models that could produce H2 as efficiently as hydrogenase, while being much more stable [99]. The most performing complex involves mononuclear nickel diphosphine complex. This complex is inspired from the active sites of both [NiFe] and [FeFe] hydrogenases and displays remarkable catalytic proton reduction in organic solvent [100]. Le Goff
Beside researches towards decrease in chemical catalyst amount and discovery of less expensive catalysts (as alloys for example), a new concept emerged early in 1964 by Yahiro
Schematic representation of an enzymatic biofuel cell.
The advantages of enzymatic biofuel cells over fuel cells are multiple. Biocatalysts are widespread, then
The most common redox couple that has been used in biofuel cells is sugar/O2, essentially because of sugar and O2 abundance in nature and their essential role in living metabolism. In particular, glucose is an important metabolite and a source of energy for many living organisms. In that field, CNTs have been widely used, both at the anode and cathode. Glucose/O2 biofuel cell is thus a very pertinent investigation field to investigate the role of CNTs. A view of some typical results is presented in Table 2.
\n\t\t\tGox / Laccase | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tFerrocene / - | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t15 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t[111] | \n\t\t\t\t\t
GDH / BOD | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tPQQ / - | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t23 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t[82] | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Gox / Pt | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tFerrocenecarboxaldehyde / - | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t51 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t[112] | \n\t\t\t\t\t
GDH/ BOD | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tPoly(brilliant cresyl blue) / - | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t54 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t[113] | \n\t\t\t\t\t
GDH / laccase | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tAzine dies / - | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t58 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t[114] | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Gox / Pt | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tBenzoquinone / - | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t77 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t[52] | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Gox / Laccase | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tFerrocene / ABTS | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t100 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t[115] | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Gox / BOD | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tFerrocene methanol / ABTS | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t120 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t[116] | \n\t\t\t\t\t
GDH / Laccase | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t- / - | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t131 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t[117] | \n\t\t\t\t\t
CDH / Pt | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tOs complex / - | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t157 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t[118] | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Gox / Laccase | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t- / - | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1300 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t[119] | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Performances of glucose/O2 fuel cells.
Gox: Glucose oxidase; GDH: Glucose dehydrogenase; BOD: Bilirubin oxidase; ABTS: 2, 2’-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonate) diammonium; CDH: cellobiose dehydrogenase. \n\t\t\t\t
Data highlight that kinetics of bioelectrochemical reactions, thus power density, largely depends on the experimental conditions,
We already described above hydrogenases, the enzymes that convert with high specificity and efficiency protons into dihydrogen. Most of these biocatalysts are also efficient in the oxidation of dihydrogen into protons. Consequently this allows to imagine biofuel cells in which the fuel would be dihydrogen, exactly as in PEM fuel cells. As hydrogenases are able to oxidize dihydrogen with very low overvoltage, the open circuit voltage for the biofuel cell using oxygen at the cathode, is expected to be not far from the thermodynamic one,
Carbon nanotube networks constituted technological breakthroughs in that way. All the recent developments using immobilization of hydrogenases onto carbon nanotubes point out improved catalytic currents essentially related to an increase in the active area of the electrode. The respective role of metallic-SWCNTs against semiconducting one was explored for dihydrogen oxidation by immobilized hydrogenase [124]. A higher oxidation process was revealed when the nanotube mixture was enriched in metallic SWCNT. The study furthermore suggested no need of oxygenated SWCNTs for efficient anchoring of hydrogenases. The catalytic current enhancement was claimed to be due to an increase in active electrode surface area and an improved electronic coupling between hydrogenase redox active sites and the electrode surface. In most cases, however, CNTs are used as a mixture of metallic and semi-conducting tubes. Oxidation of the mixture yields the defects and functionalities described above in this review. Advantage is gained due to these chemical functions quite easily generated on the surface of the carbon nanotubes. Electrodes modified by carbon nanotubes are thus expected to offer numerous anchoring sites for stable hydrogenase immobilization. The literature provides a few examples of efficient immobilization of hydrogenase on carbon nanotubes coatings bearing various functionalities. Both SWCNTs and MWCNTs are used. Notably, more and more articles are devoted nowadays to this domain in hydrogenase research. A bionanocomposite made of the hydrogenase, MWCNTs and a thiopyridine derivative was proved to form stable monolayers when transferred by Langmuir-Blodgett method on indium tin oxide electrode surfaces [125]. A greater amount of electroactive hydrogenase towards dihydrogen oxidation was demonstrated to be adsorbed on the Langmuir-Blodgett films. De Lacey and co-workers grew MWCNTs on electrode by chemical vapor deposition of acetylene [65]. A high density of vertically aligned carbon nanotubes was obtained, which were functionalized by electroreduction of a diazonium salt for covalent binding of hydrogenase. High coverage of electroactive enzyme was measured, suggesting that almost all the functionalized CNT surface was accessible to hydrogenase. Great stabilization of the catalytic current for H2 oxidation was obtained, with no decrease in current density after one month. Another work by Heering and co-workers studied a gold electrode pre-treated by polymyxin then a multilayer of carbon nanotubes [126]. Polymyxin was shown to help in the stable attachment of hydrogenase on the gold electrode. Using adsorption of hydrogenase on a nanotube layer pretreated with polymyxin the current density for H2 oxidation was an order of magnitude higher than at the gold electrode only modified by polymixin. This result was supposed to origin from greater surface area even though only the top of the nanotube layer was supposed to be accessible to the enzyme. The catalytic current was stable with time, at least for two hours under continuous cycling, and several days upon storage under ambient conditions. AFM visualization of hydrogenase immobilized onto polymyxin-treated SWCNT layer on SiO2 revealed that hydrogenase was structurally intact and preferentially adsorbed on the sidewalls of the CNTs rather than on SiO2 [126].
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tIn our laboratory, we immobilized the [NiFe] hydrogenase from a mesophilic anaerobic bacterium (the sulfate reducing bacterium
Because non-turnover signals were not detected for hydrogenase in these conditions, the increase in surface area was evaluated using a redox protein as a probe. It was shown that SWCNTs induced one order larger surface area. The same hydrogenase was entrapped in methylviologen functionalized polypyrrole films coated onto SWCNTs and MWCNTs [127]. Although no direct electrical hydrogenase connection was observed, an efficient dihydrogen oxidation through a mediated process occurred. It was concluded that the entrapment of hydrogenase into the redox polymer coated onto CNTs combined the electron carrier properties of redox probes, the flexibility of polypyrroles, and the high electroactive area developed by CNTs. The reason why no direct connection could be observed is however not clearly understood yet. In our group we handled immobilization of hydrogenase on a film obtained by electropolymerization of a phenothiazine dye on a SWCNT coating [81]. The phenothiazine dye was shown to be able to mediate dihydrogen oxidation but also to serve as an anchor for the enzyme when adsorbed or when electropolymerized. Higher current density than in the absence of SWCNT was observed. In addition, a wider potential window for dihydrogen oxidation was reached as well as very stable electrochemical signals with time. We postulated that the conductive polymer which was electropolymerized onto CNTs could play a multiple role: enhancement of the electroactive surface area, enhancement of redox mediator units due to phenothiazine monomers entrapped in the polymer matrix, enhancement of hydrogenase anchorage sites. We have already mentioned in this review the advantages of a direct electron transfer over a mediated one for H2 oxidation, including gain in over-potential values, less interferences due to enzyme specificity, absence of redox mediators that could be difficult to co-immobilize with the enzyme… Functionalized carbon nanotube films were evaluated in our group as platforms for various hydrogenases, that present a very different environment of FeS cluster electron relay. Dihydrogen oxidation was studied at gold electrodes modified with functionalized self-assembled-monolayers [128]. As expected, dihydrogen oxidation process was demonstrated to be driven by electrostatic or hydrophobic interactions according to the specific environment of the surface electron relay. Interestingly, at CNT coatings, although CNTs were negatively charged, direct electrical connection of hydrogenases that present a negatively charged patch around the FeS surface electron relay was observed [44, 123]. In other words, despite unfavourable electrostatic interactions, direct electron transfer process for dihydrogen oxidation was achieved. One important conclusion was that on such CNT films, the nanometric size of the CNTs allows a population of hydrogenases to be directly connected to a neighbouring nanotube, hence allowing direct electron transfer for H2 oxidation, whatever the orientation of the enzyme.
\n\t\t\tComparative evolution of the catalytic current for dihydrogen oxidation with the amount of SWCNTs deposited at a graphite electrode in the case of hydrogenases from
However, the extreme oxygen sensitivity of hydrogenases used in the former studies yielded an intensive research towards more resistant enzymes. During the last years, four [NiFe] membrane-bound hydrogenases have been discovered from aerobic or extremophilic organisms [128, 129-132]. They have been demonstrated to oxidize H2 in the presence of oxygen and CO. The crystallographic structure of three of them has been resolved, showing that an uncommon [4Fe-3S] cluster proximal to the active site prevents deleterious oxygen attack. Of course, the sensitivity to oxygen, and also to CO, of most hydrogenases known before was a strong limitation for their potential use in biotechnological devices. Therefore these resistant biocatalysts open new avenues towards a biohydrogen economy. No doubt that these researches will increase in the next future. To date, two main studies report the immobilization of resistant hydrogenase on CNT-modified electrodes. Krishnan
H2/O2 biofuel cells did not get much attention before O2 and CO resistant hydrogenases were proved to be efficient for H2 oxidation when immobilized onto electrode surfaces. Even though more and more efficient hydrogenase immobilization procedures are nowadays reported, few H2/O2 biofuel cells are described. An early study by Armstrong’s group in 2006 [134] demonstrated that simple adsorption on graphite electrode of hydrogenase at the anode and laccase (a copper protein for O2 reduction) at the cathode, allowed a wristwatch to run for 24h. Power density of around 5 µW cm-2 at 500 mV was delivered with no membrane between the two compartments providing hydrogenase was extracted from
Due to the understanding of how hydrogenases could be efficiently connected at CNT-coated electrodes, a huge step jumped over very recently. First, using covalent attachment of both O2 resistant hydrogenase and BOD on pyrene derivative functionalized MWCNTs, a membrane-less biofuel cell was designed fed with a non-explosive 80/20 dihydrogen/air mixture [133]. This biofuel cell displayed quite a good stability with time and a much higher power density than reported before. Indeed, an average power density of 119 µW cm-2 was measured. Low solubility of oxygen and weak affinity of BOD for oxygen was shown to limit the cathodic current. Secondly in our group, a more performant H2/O2 mediatorless biofuel cell was constructed based on one step covalent attachment directly on SWCNTs of an hyperthermophilic O2 resistant hydrogenase at the anode and BOD at the cathode [136] (Figure 7).
\n\t\t\t(A) Schematic representation of H2/O2 biofuel cell with O2 resistant hydrogenase at the anode and bilirubin oxidase (BOD) at the cathode. Each half cell, separated by a Nafion® membrane, is independently thermoregulated with waterbaths. (B) Performance of the H2/O2 biofuel cell.
Taking advantage of temperature, the biofuel cell delivered power densities up to 300 µW cm-2 at 0.6V with an OCV of 1.1V, which is the highest performance ever reported. Furthermore, promising stability of the biofuel cell during 24h of continuous use lets us consider this device as an alternative power supply for small portable applications. The analysis of the fuel cell parameters during polarization, allows us to define the potential window in which the fuel cell fully operates. Interestingly, in Armstrong’s group [135] and in our group, different approaches on the settings of biofuel cell working conditions, led to similar observations of an unexpected increasing anodic potential. This high oxidizing potential generates an inactive state of hydrogenase active site. It is worth noticing that this hydrogenase inactivation occurred under anaerobic conditions in our group while it was under aerobic conditions in Armstrong’s group. Consequently, dramatic loss in power densities was observed. By applying negative potential to the anode, and thus providing electrons to the active site, we were unable to reactivate hydrogenase. Another protocol used by Armstrong, consisted to add a second hydrogenase coated anode, unconnected to the system but present in the anodic half-cell which was consequently unaffected by the oxidizing potential but still in presence of O2. This second anode, under H2 oxidation was used as an electron supplier and connected to the first electrode. This procedure reactivated hydrogenase and allowed full recovery of OCV. It is of relevant interest to overcome hydrogenase inactivation in H2/O2 biofuel cell.
\n\t\tAs reviewed in this chapter, many of the CNTs based technologies are promising for the development of a green hydrogen economy. Not only abiotic dihydrogen storage, but also microbial dihydrogen production and use of this green dihydrogen in biofuel cells can take advantages of the outstanding properties of CNTs. In all these applications, CNTs appear to play multiple roles including increase in surface area, increase in electron transfer rate, increase in directly connected enzymes. Possible protection against oxygen damage of enzymes has even been strongly suggested. Use of CNTs thus allows to architecture three-dimensional nanostructured interfaces which can be an alternative to strictly orientated proteins or enzymes for high direct electron transfer interfacial processes. The ease in obtaining tuned surface functionalizations is one of the very attracting points in view of the development of efficient bioelectrodes.
\n\t\t\tThis is in particular the case for biofuel cells using dihydrogen as a fuel. During the last years, tremendous research on hydrogenase, the key enzyme for dihydrogen conversion, has led to the discovery, then control of some hydrogenases presenting properties that allow their use in biotechnological devices. During this year, based on these new resistant enzymes and on improved knowledge of how CNTs can enhance direct current densities, two H2/O2 biofuel cells have been reported. Although these biofuel cells constitute the first device using hydrogenases, they already deliver sufficient power density for small portable applications. No doubt that this research field will gain more and more interest in a next future.
\n\t\t\tHowever, various directions might be followed to further improve the biological system in such a way it could be commercially available. One is the enhancement of long-term stability of the device, which is obviously the critical point shared by (bio)fuel cells, yet. Search for more stable enzymes in the biodiversity or enzyme engineering has to be explored. Protection of enzymes by various encapsulation procedures could be another solution given efficient interfacial electron transfer can be reached. The use of whole microorganisms with controlled and driven metabolism, or at least immobilization of naturally encapsulated enzymes will be a next step. As an example, reconstitution of proteoliposomes with a membrane-bound hydrogenase was proved to enhance the stability of the enzyme [137]. This could be a novel route for preserving enzymes in their physiological environment, hence enhancing their stability. New enzymes, with outstanding properties (T°, pH, inhibitors, substrate affinity…) have to be discovered and studied. Notably, two very recent publications report on a new thermostable bilirubin oxidase and a tyrosinase which present outstanding resistances to serum constituents [138, 139]. These two new enzymes appear to be able to efficiently replace the currently used BOD for implantable applications of biofuel cells.
\n\t\t\tMore sophisticated materials interfaces, constituted of mixtures of CNTs with other conducting materials could bring a hierarchical porosity necessary for both enzyme immobilization and substrate diffusion. Carbon fibers, mesoporous carbon templates could be used to build very interesting new electrochemical interfaces. This diversity in potential carbon materials for efficient enzyme immobilization would be a key step to go through the difficulties linked to CNTs,
We gratefully acknowledge the contribution of Marielle Bauzan (Fermentation Plant Unit, IMM, CNRS, Marseille, France) for growing the bacteria, Dr Marianne Guiral, Dr Marianne Ilbert and Pascale Infossi for fruitful discussions. This work was supported by research grants from CNRS, Région PACA and ANR.
\n\t\tHydroponic techniques have been developed to facilitate cultivation under diverse environments and to improve farming practices using soilless methods. In this novel world, hydroponic farming makes efficient use of fertilizers and water, increases productivity, and provides better crop quality; Table 1 shows the difference in productivity between soil and soilless culture for different crops. Also, due to the risks of soil and water contamination in metropolitan areas, this technique has a potential alternative to agricultural production in cities. Hydroponic systems irrespective of their scale reduce dependence on the soil as a substrate and instead derive nutrition directly from the hydroponic solution comprising of water and nutrients [2]. Because hydroponics provides better control of plant growth, it is possible to achieve high quality and productivity through careful management of—nutrient composition, dissolved O2 concentration, temperature, pH, and electrical conductivity (EC) of the nutrient solution. Nutrient supply in hydroponics can significantly influence the nutrition, taste, texture, color, and other characteristics of fruit and vegetable crops [3]. In hydroponics, essential nutrient elements are dissolved in appropriate concentrations and relative ratios to achieve the normal growth of plants [4]. It is well known that the productivity and quality of crops grown in hydroponic systems are markedly dependent on the extent of the plant nutrients acquisition from the growing medium [5]. Due to this, nutrient solution and its management are the cornerstone for a successful hydroponics system and are the most important determining factors of crop yield and quality.
Crop | Hydroponic system production (Kg/ha) | Open-field production (Kg/ha) |
---|---|---|
Rice | 13,456.56 | 841.03–1009.25 |
Maize | 8971.0 | 1682.07 |
Peas | 15,699.32 | 2242.76 |
Tomato | 403,335.81 | 11,203.75–22,407.47 |
Potato | 156,852.29 | 17,925.98 |
Cabbage | 20,184.84 | 14,577.94 |
Cucumber | 31,398.64 | 7849.66 |
Lettuce | 23,548.98 | 10.092.42 |
Yield comparisons for different crops between hydroponic and open field cultivation.
Source: Singh and Singh [1].
Plant nutrients used in hydroponics are dissolved in water and are mostly in inorganic and ionic forms. All the essential elements for plant growth are supplied using different chemical combinations and establishing a nutrient solution that provides a favorable ratio of ions for plant growth and development is considered an important step in cultivating crops in hydroponic systems [6]. Plant uptake of nutrients can only proceed when they are present in an available form for absorption, and in most situations, nutrients are absorbed in an ionic form. Ions are electrically charged forms of each nutrient, some are cations (positively charged) and others are anions (negatively charged). For example, nitrogen is absorbed as ammonium (NH4+, a cation) or nitrate (NO3−, an anion); Table 2 shows the available form of each nutrient and different nutrient solution formulas which have been established by many scientists. There are various standard nutrient solutions, such as the Hoagland and Snyder [13], Hoagland and Arnon [11], Steiner [14] Bollard [15], and others. These standard solutions are good as a general guideline but are not adapted to specific growing conditions. The function of a hydroponics nutrient solution is to supply the plant roots with water, oxygen, and essential mineral elements in soluble form. A nutrient solution usually contains inorganic ions from soluble salts of essential elements required by the plant. However, some organic compounds such as iron chelates may be present [16]. A total of 17 elements are considered essential for most plants, these are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulfur, iron, copper, zinc, manganese, molybdenum, boron, chlorine, and nickel [17]. An essential element has a clear physiological role, and its absence prevents the complete plant life cycle [18]. Among the minerals, N, P, and K are the most decisive elements in plants [6]. Some other elements such as sodium, silicon, vanadium, can stimulate growth, or can compensate for the toxic effects of other elements, or may replace essential nutrients in a less specific role. Tahereh et al. [19] reported that the plants grown in the absence of silica would be weak and show abnormal growth, and proper application of this nutrient can increase consistency and disease resistance, reduce the outbreak of nutrient deficiencies, improve product quality and increase crop yield. In hydroponics, all the nutrients are in a balanced ratio which is directly supplied to the plants, and composition must reflect the uptake ratio of individual elements by the crop, as the demand between species differs, and must be specific for each crop [20]. It is very important to keep ionic balance in the nutrient solution since plant growth and productivity can be negatively affected by the improper relationship between the essential nutrients, that is, the ratio of anions: NO3−, H2PO4− and SO42−, and the cations K+, Ca2+, Mg2+ [21], and a change in the concentration of one ion must be accompanied by either a corresponding change for an ion of the opposite charge, a complementary change for other ions of the same charge, or both [12]. However, for most common crop plants, critical levels for most nutrients have been determined [22].
Element | Form taken up by plants | Hoagland & Arnon | Hewitt | Cooper | Steiner |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
mg L−1 | |||||
Nitrogen | NH4+, NO3− | 210 | 168 | 200–236 | 168 |
Phosphorus | HPO4−2, H2PO4− | 31 | 41 | 60 | 31 |
Potassium | K+ | 234 | 156 | 300 | 273 |
Calcium | Ca2+ | 160 | 160 | 170–185 | 180 |
Magnesium | Mg2+ | 34 | 36 | 50 | 48 |
sulfur | SO42− | 64 | 48 | 68 | 336 |
Iron | Fe2+, Fe3+ | 2.5 | 2.8 | 12 | 2–4 |
Copper | Cu2+ | 0.02 | 0.064 | 0.1 | 0.02 |
Zinc | Zn2+ | 0.05 | 0.065 | 0.1 | 0.11 |
Manganese | Mn2+, Mn4+ | 0.5 | 0.54 | 2 | 0.62 |
Boron | H3BO3, BO3−, B4O72− | 0.5 | 0.54 | 0.3 | 0.14 |
Molybdenum | MoO42− | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.2 | Not considered |
Nutrients in the nutrient solution have great interactions that may gain either positive or negative effects on crop production, depending on crop growth stages, amounts, combinations, and balance [23]. Inadequate or excessive concentrations of minerals or an imbalanced ion composition in the nutrient solution may inhibit plant development, resulting in toxicity or nutrient-induced deficiencies [24]. In crop plants, the nutrient interactions are generally measured in terms of growth response and change in concentration of nutrients. Nutrient interactions may be positive or negative and also possible to have no interactions. Interaction between nutrients occurs when the supply of one nutrient affects the absorption and utilization of other nutrients. This type of interaction is most common when one nutrient is in excess concentration in the growth medium. Upon the addition of two nutrients, an increase in crop yield that is more than adding only one, the interaction is positive (synergistic). Similarly, if adding the two nutrients together produced less yield as compared to individual ones, the interactions are negative (antagonistic). When there is no change, there is no interaction. However, most interactions are complex and better understanding of nutrient interactions may be useful in understanding the importance of a balanced supply of nutrients and consequently improvement in plant growth or yields [25]. According to Marschner [26], at the level of the nutrient acquisition mechanisms, competitive or antagonistic phenomena among elements can occur, for example, the interaction between NH4+ and K+, and this could be crucial for NH4+ fed plants when exposed to a suboptimal/unbalanced availability of K+ because the competition could induce/exacerbate K+ deficiency [27], and it is more relevant when the additional application of NH4+ is of pivotal role to achieve specific qualitative objectives of the edible fruits [28]. The interactions between K+/Na+ and Cl−/NO3− could represent a limiting factor for soilless cultivation of crop plants, especially in a semiarid environment characterized by saline water. NaCl interferes with the uptake processes of both K+ and NO3−, since K+ is sensitive to Na+ in the external environment, while the uptake of NO3− is inhibited by Cl− [29]. This phenomenon could be even more pronounced in hydroponic solutions particularly when used in a closed system, where monitoring the ratio between Ca2+, Mg2+, and K+ in the solutions is very important to avoid K+/Ca2+ induced Mg2+ deficiency. Calcium, magnesium, and potassium compete with each other and the addition of any one of them will reduce the uptake rate of the other two [26]. Unbalanced fertilization practice, with a high level of K+ and Ca2+, can induce Mg2+ deficiency in crop plants, Schimansky [30] suggested that the excessive availability of K+ and Ca2+ could inhibit Mg2+ uptake by roots. Similarly, very high rates of Mg2+ fertilizers will depress K+ absorption by plants, but this antagonism is not nearly as strong as the inverse relation of K+ on Mg2+ [31]. Also, the uptake of nitrogen, sulfur, and iron is not exclusively dependent on its availability in the hydroponic solution but also on the presence of other elements. The uptake of NO3− was hampered by the shortages of iron and sulfur, and the effect on the assimilation process seems to play a dominant role in determining the NO3− accumulation at the leaf level. In the case of nitrogen and sulfur, the lacking one represses the assimilation of the other and induces physiological changes aiming at re-balancing the contents in the plant [32]. One of the greatest issues concerning hydroponic productions is sulfur starvation due to a consistent accumulation of NO3− in plant leaves [33]. The anion which is taken up relatively slowly can also reduce the uptake speed of its counter-ion, as observed for SO42− on K+ uptake [26].
In hydroponic solutions, interactions among solutes cannot be neglected and therefore ion activity should be used in calculations instead of concentrations [34]. The high ionic concentrations can disrupt membrane integrity and function, as well as internal solute balance and nutrient absorption, resulting in nutritional deficiency symptoms similar to those observed when nutrient concentrations are below the required levels [24]. In addition, the root physiological process is not only affected by the availability levels of the nutrients, but also by the nutrient sources and/or by the interactions among the different nutrients [35]. The chemical forms of a nutrient are also very important, for example, plants can use a wide variety of nitrogen forms, ranging from the inorganic, namely NH4+ and NO3−, to the organic ones, like urea and amino acids [36]. Ammonium is an attractive nitrogen form for root uptake due to its permanent availability and the reduced state of the nitrogen; nevertheless, when both nitrogen forms are supplied to the nutrient solution, plant roots may absorb preferentially one of them, depending on the heredity of each specie [37]. Pure NH4+ nutrition caused the development of toxicity symptoms in many herbaceous plants, as well as inhibited NO3− uptake [38]. Therefore, a balanced nitrogen diet is clearly beneficial for several plant species as compared to that based exclusively on NO3− [39]. Tomato root growth was optimal when NO3− and NH4+ were supplied in a 3:1 ratio; on the contrary, when NH4+ concentration was too high, a strong inhibition in the root development was observed [40]. However, the form of nitrogen suitable for obtaining the maximum production for each species and its cultivation conditions has not yet been defined [37]. Also, the plant species and environmental conditions are two critical factors that affect the optimum NO3−/NH4+ ratio, which can affect not only root development and morphology but also the overall root biomass. According to [41], the chemical quality of nutrient solutions can affect plant yield and bioactive compounds.
Several physical-chemical phenomena can alter the nutrient availability for plants, the most important of which are—precipitation, co-precipitation, and complexation. Precipitation reactions may occur when cations and anions in an aqueous solution combine to form a precipitate. It is known that phosphate availability can be reduced at pH above 7 mostly due to precipitation with calcium and different calcium-phosphate minerals can potentially form above this pH [42], and precipitation of phosphates must be avoided in hydroponic solutions because it is not only depleting phosphorus from the nutrient solution, but it may also reduce the solubility of other nutrients, such as calcium, magnesium, iron, and manganese. Also, sulfur availability can be limited by precipitation with calcium, as calcium-sulfate minerals [43]. Co-precipitation also may strongly reduce the solubility of nutrients added at trace concentrations, such as copper, zinc, manganese, and nickel, when insoluble compounds, such as iron hydroxides, calcium carbonates, or calcium phosphates, are formed [44]. In hydroponic solutions, a complex chemical compound is formed when a metal nutrient is bound by one or more neutral molecules or anions, either of organic or inorganic nature. The resulting complex can be a neutral compound, a cation, or an anion, depending on whether positive or negative charges prevail. These reactions diminish the concentration of the free ions in the nutrient solution, changing elemental bioavailability. The addition, organic ligands, such as: ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), Diethylenetriamine Penta acetic Acid (DTPA), Ethylenediamine (O-Hydroxyphenyl acetic) Acid (EDDHA), and citrate, can increase the stability of certain elements in solution, especially iron, copper, and zinc [45].
The pH value of the nutrient solution greatly affects plants’ growth. This is because the nutrients added to the nutrient solution are available for the uptake by the plant are soluble in water only at particular pH levels, as shown in Figure 1. According to Mayavan et al. [47], the plants require a range of pH values to be maintained to ensure the availability of all the nutrients for uptake by the plants. Nutrient solution pH is typically managed between 5.5 and 6.5, and it seems to be a range where almost all hydroponically grown crops exhibit normal growth and nutrient uptake, and the optimum pH range for different crops grown hydroponically are shown in Table 3. However, species-specific pH responses of leafy greens grown in liquid culture hydroponic systems are largely unexplored [49]. However, the optimum pH for maximum growth differs not only between species, but also between cultivar, climatic conditions, and soil, substrate, or nutrient solution conditions [50]. Frick and Mitchell [51] indicated that the pH of a hydroponic nutrient solution fluctuates because of the unbalanced anion and cation exchange reaction with roots and there is no buffering capacity in hydroponics. The changes in the pH of a nutrient solution depend on the difference in the magnitude of nutrient uptake by plants, in terms of the balance of anions over cations. When the anions are up taken in higher concentrations than cations, for example, nitrate, the plant excretes OH− or HCO3− anions, to balance the electrical charges inside, which produces increasing in the pH value and this process is called physiological alkalinity [52]. Nutrient disorders and thereby growth reduction occur when pH is outside the optimum range, and several studies suggested that the direct effect of pH seems to be detrimental only at the extreme ends of acidity and alkalinity, and growth reductions and nutrient disorders outside of the conventional pH ranges can typically be attributed to pH-dependent factors [49, 53]. The growth response to pH is species-specific and further studies to investigate responses to pH of commercially important cultivars and species grown hydroponically need to be done [49]. In general, the pH of the plant root environment is affecting nutrient uptake, nutrient availability, ion antagonism, ionic species present, and solubility of fertilizer salts [50, 54]. Due to this, it is important to measure and maintain the pH value to the required level because a little drift in the pH value can make a lot of nutrients unavailable for the plants [47].
The availability of different nutrients at the different pH bands is indicated by the width of the white bar: The wider the bar, the more available is the nutrient. Source: Truog [
Crop | Optimum pH range |
---|---|
Tomato | 6.0–6.5 |
Pepper | 5.5–6.0 |
Egg plant | 6.0 |
Cucumber | 5.0–5.5 |
Strawberry | 6.0 |
Courgettes | 6.0 |
Banana | 5.5–6.5 |
Ficus | 5.5–6.0 |
Spinach | 6.0–7.0 |
Lettuce | 6.0–7.0 |
Cabbage | 6.5–7.0 |
Broccoli | 6.0–6.8 |
Asparagus | 6.0–8.0 |
Bean | 6.0 |
Basil | 5.5–6.0 |
Sage | 5.5–6.5 |
The optimum range of pH values for different crops grown hydroponically.
Source: Sharma et al. [48].
Precipitation/dissolution phenomena are often promoted by pH changes and, therefore, pH must be continuously controlled or buffered. Cations may form insoluble hydroxides at alkaline pH or other insoluble precipitates by reacting with other anionic nutrients. PH values above 7 may cause the precipitation of iron, zinc, copper, nickel, and manganese as insoluble hydroxides [55]. Also, at high pH values and high dissolved CO2 concentrations, macronutrients like calcium and magnesium can precipitate as carbonates. As the pH increases above 7, most of the dissolved phosphorus reacts with calcium forming calcium phosphates. Gradually, reactions occur in which the dissolved free phosphate species form insoluble compounds that cause phosphate to become unavailable [56]. According to Resh [57], slightly acidic pH is optimum for hydroponic production because iron, manganese, calcium, and magnesium may form precipitates and become unavailable at pH above 7. Bugbee [58] also reported that availability of potassium and phosphorus is slightly reduced in a nutrient solution with high pH. The reason for the reduction in phosphorus uptake at a high pH level is explained by the reduction in the concentration of H2PO4−, which is the substrate of the proton-coupled phosphate symporter in the plasma membrane, in the pH range of 5.6–8.5; conversely, a decrease in pH can increase the activity of proton-coupled solute transporters and enhance anion uptake [59]. Because pH affects nutrient availability and nutrient uptake across the plasma membrane, it is difficult to determine whether growth inhibition and nutrient disorders observed at low pH of the nutrient solution are a result of the direct effect of excessive hydronium ion concentration or pH-dependent factors affecting nutrient availability and uptake. At acidic pH, for example, in uncontrolled hydroponic systems under anoxic conditions, some elements might also precipitate as insoluble sulfides. Also, it is very important to note that, the addition of nutrients in the form of salts to hydroponic solutions may lead to hydrolysis reactions, which may result in the acidification or alkalinization of the medium. For example, nitrogen supply may alter solution pH, if nitrogen is added only in the form of NO3− (alkalinization) or NH4+ (acidification) [60].
In general, stabilizing the pH of a nutrient solution is necessary for optimum crop productivity in hydroponics [51], and maintaining an adequate nutrient solution and pH level are often cited as major obstacles to hydroponic production [61]. Despite the fact that the optimal pH in the root zone of most crops grown hydroponically ranges from 5.5 to 6.5, although values as low as 4.0 have been proposed for preventing the incidence of infections from Pythium and Phytophthora spp. [13, 49]. Low pH in the rhizosphere poses abiotic stress, resulting directly (i.e., high H+ injury of roots) or/and indirectly (i.e., limited availability of phosphorus) in restricted plant growth and crop yield. The value of pH changes as the plant absorbs nutrients from the solution, the plants give hydrogen ions into the nutrients in exchange for the ions of elements they require, and they do this to be electrically neutral. The hydrogen ions that the plants get are a result of photosynthesis. These hydrogen ions combine with water to produce hydronium ions which increases the pH of the water. This has to be counteracted by adding acids like phosphoric acid into the nutrient solution to ensure the solubility of all the elements in the nutrients [47]. Various acids or bases used to adjust pH may also provide some interacting factors on the plants. For example, potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, phosphoric acid, and acetic acid are commonly used to maintain the pH of the nutrient solution. The presence of these acids or bases may have had small impacts through the addition of minerals such as potassium, phosphorus, and/or sodium and the increased concentration of acetates. Other nonmineral nutrients containing acids (carbonic, formic, citric, acetylsalicylic, etc.) could be used for pH adjustment, but their potential toxicity and interactions with the nutrient solutions would need careful consideration and study. Overall, it would be ideal to have a solution where pH could be maintained easily within a small pH range without the addition of mineral nutrients [62]. Wang et al. [63] found that a mixture of three (HNO3, H3PO4, and H2SO4) acids was much more effective than only single acid for maintaining an optimal solution pH of 5.5–6.5. The management of nutrient solution pH is an important challenge in soilless systems, since not only it may determine plant growth but also it influences dry matter production, root rhizosphere, and apoplastic pH [13]. However, in soilless culture, when maintaining marginal values of the optimum pH range, the risk of exceeding or dropping below them for some time increases due to the limited volume of nutrient solution per plant that is available in the root zone, and most plants, when exposed to external pH levels >7 or < 5, show growth restrictions. When soilless substrates are used instead of liquid-based hydroponics, pH in the nutrient solution interacts with substrates [64], and micronutrient toxicity occurs rather than deficiency. Therefore, the evaluation of the plant’s pH response must consider the growing systems employed.
In soilless culture, the total salt concentration of a nutrient solution must be considered, and the nutrient solution EC is an index of salt concentration and an indicator of electrolyte concentration of the solution and is related to the number of ions available to plants in the root zone. The EC is a measure of the total salts dissolved in the hydroponic nutrient solution. It is used for monitoring applications of fertilizers. However, EC reading does not provide information regarding the exact mineral content of the nutrient solution. It is an important factor that reflects the total content of macro- and micro-elements available to plants [6], and it is an easy and accurate method of measuring total salt concentration. Inadequate management of the nutrient solution, such as the use of a too high or a too low concentration of the nutrient solution, or an imbalanced ion composition could inhibit plant growth due to either toxicity or nutrient-induced deficiency [65]. In hydroponic production systems, EC management is one of the most important and manageable cultural practices that affects the visual, nutritional, and phytochemical quality of leafy vegetables [4]. However, managing the EC in moderately high levels—either by using low-quality water that contains residual ions, such as Cl−, Na+ and SO4−, or by adding major nutrients through stock solutions—is a cultivation management technique that provides great potential to achieve high dietary and organoleptic quality in fresh vegetables [24]. Each plant species has a proper uptake rate of the nutrient solution; excessively high or low levels of the nutrient solution have a negative effect on plants. For many leafy vegetables, there are already specific formulations used on a commercial scale for hydroponics, and the optimum EC levels for different crops grown hydroponically are shown in Table 4. Although the plants were supplied with suitable ion ratios, plants can easily suffer from nutrient deficiency or excess if the nutrient solution concentration is low or high. Therefore, it is crucial to determine the suitable EC level of nutrient solutions with favorable ion ratios for growing plants [6]. The optimal EC is crop specific and depends on environmental conditions [66]. Thus, the determination of the most favorable nutrient ratio for each species under diverse climatic conditions is of major importance.
Crop | EC (dSm−1) |
---|---|
Tomato | 2.0–4.0 |
Pepper | 0.8–1.8 |
Egg plant | 2.5–3.5 |
Cucumber | 1.7–2.0 |
Strawberry | 1.8–2.2 |
Courgettes | 1.8–2.4 |
Banana | 1.8–2.2 |
Ficus | 1.6–2.4 |
Spinach | 1.8–2.3 |
Lettuce | 1.2–1.8 |
Cabbage | 2.5–3.0 |
Broccoli | 2.8–3.5 |
Asparagus | 1.4–1.8 |
Bean | 2.0–4.0 |
Basil | 1.0–1.6 |
Sage | 1.0–1.6 |
Optimum range of EC values for different crops grown hydroponically.
Source: Sharma et al. [48].
Many studies have reported that EC levels of nutrient solutions affect the growth of various crops. The optimal EC level range should be from 1.5 to 3.5 dS m−1 for most hydroponic crops, but this value varies between crop species and phenological stages [6]. However, the upper levels of EC in nutrient solutions must be considered for each species, since excessive EC values may decrease the osmotic potential of the nutrient solution and consequently result in delays in water transport from roots to fruits, with negative effects on fruit expansion and yield [24]. The EC levels showed a considerable influence on the ratio of ions as well as the uptake content of individual minerals. Too low and too high EC would reduce yields, visual quality, phytochemical compounds and lead to a less attractive color and taste to consumers, and enhance the negative health effects due to nitrate accumulation [4]. Increasing conductivity in nutrient solution may reduce water absorption by plants and decrease photosynthesis [67]. Also, higher EC means plants are exposed to salinity stress and high levels of nutrients, which hinders nutrient uptake and induces osmotic stress, ion toxicity, nutrient imbalance, wastes nutrients, and increases the discharge of more nutrients into the environment, resulting in environmental pollution. At the extreme EC level, plants are not able to take up any more water, and water will move backward out of the nutrient solution, which makes plants withered. The elevated EC may have negative effects on yield but can also positively affect the quality of the fresh produce, thus compromising any yield losses through the production of products with a high added value [24]. As an example, the yield of tomatoes under the hydroponic system increased as EC of the nutrient solution increased from 0 to 3 dS m−1 and decreased as the EC increased from 3 to 5 dS m−1 due to an increase in water stress [68]. Lower EC values mean the supply of some nutrients to the crop may be inadequate are mostly accompanied by nutrient deficiencies and decreasing yield [69]. So, appropriate management of EC in hydroponics technique can give an effective tool for improving vegetable yield and quality [48].
EC is modified by plants as they absorb nutrients and water from the nutrient solution. When a nutrient solution is applied continuously, plants can uptake ions at very low concentrations, and a high proportion of the nutrients are not used by plants. However, in particular situations, too low concentrations do not cover the minimum demand for certain nutrients. On the other hand, high concentrated nutrient solutions lead to excessive nutrient uptake and therefore toxic effects may be expected. Therefore, a decrease in the concentration of some ions and an increase in the concentration of others is observed simultaneously, both in close and open systems. It was observed, in a closed hydroponic system with a rose crop, that the concentration of iron decreased very fast, while that of Ca2+, Mg2+, and Cl− increased; moreover, concentrations of K+, Ca2+, and SO42− did not reach critical levels [70]. Providing the most suitable nutrient solution and EC level for growing vegetables and crops in hydroponic systems helps to avoid the waste of nutrient solution, which contributes to saving production costs for growing crops in plant factories and preventing environmental pollution, and the value of EC is required to be controlled to ensure nutritional elements needed by plants is fulfilled.
Nutrient solution temperature is considered as one of the most important determining factors of crop yield and quality in hydroponic production systems [71]. The temperature of the nutrient solution affects the physiological process in the root, such as the absorption of water and nutrients, and the thermal regulation of hydroponic solution can contribute to improving and optimizing plant physiological processes [72]. Nutrient uptake for plants grown in glasshouses may be positively and adversely affected by manipulating the hydroponic solution temperature to the optimum level [73]. It is also possible that the increased temperature facilitated solubility of minerals and increase uptake since the rate of dissolving of solutes increases with increase in temperature [74], and the nutrient solution temperature tends to determine the concentration of nutrients absorbed by the plant, as more nutrients are dissolved at higher temperatures and less at lower temperatures, consequently influencing the efficiency of the photosynthetic apparatus [75]. Calatayud et al. [76] revealed that, in most plant species, nutrient uptake by roots decreased at low temperatures. Increasing nutrient temperatures increased nutrient uptake in cucumber and enhanced plant growth leading to a significant increase in yield [77]. The uptake rate of N, P, K, Na, Fe, Mn, and Zn in Jojoba was significantly reduced at low temperatures [78]. While, in cucumber, uptake of N, P, K, Ca, and Mg was increased when the temperature was raised in a closed hydroponic system from 12 to 20°C [77]. It has been reported that commercial growers experience a lower level of ornamental plant production in winter than in summer due to the low temperature of the solution [79, 80]. Also, the production of various plant metabolites is influenced by the temperature of the root zone in many plants, including leafy vegetables [67].
The chemical equilibrium of the solution is affected by nutrient temperature, and this is particularly crucial for areas where the over warming of the nutrient solution often occurs, impacting also all the physiological processes in the plant [81]. Generally, the cold solution increased NO3− uptake and thin-white roots production but decreased water uptake and it also influenced the photosynthetic apparatus. The temperature of the nutrient solution also has a direct relation to the amount of oxygen consumed by plants, and an inverse relation to the oxygen dissolved. It is of paramount importance to regulate hydroponic solution temperatures in situations whereby, plants are grown in a controlled environment during winter months. Optimizing solution temperature can be achieved by warming the nutrient solution and this showed success in a variety of crops [82, 83]. High temperature in the root zone is one of the most significant limiting factors for lettuce cultivation in tropical hydroponics. Instead of cooling the entire greenhouse air, the root zone cooling system could be an energy-efficient cooling system for a greenhouse for tropical hydroponics. Therefore, it is very important to study the optimum nutrient temperature requirements for different crops grown in climates with adverse winter conditions.
Maintaining enough dissolved O2 in a nutrient solution in a hydroponic system is crucial for plant health. Oxygen availability to roots grown in soilless culture can become limiting in case O2 demand exceeds O2 supply, inducing a reduction in root growth rate, ion, and water uptake, eventually reducing plant production [84]. Plants grown in hydroponic systems can quickly deplete the dissolved O2 in the nutrient solution resulting in poor root aeration, especially when greenhouse temperatures are high, Table 5 shows O2 solubility in pure water at different temperatures. Jong et al. [86] noticed that cucumber growth was significantly affected by root-zone aeration. Roosta et al. [87] found improve eggplant growth with rising O2 levels in the nutrient solution in floating hydroponic cultures and higher O2 levels seemed to alleviate signs of ammonium toxicity among the tested plants. Root respiration also decreases when O2 supply in the root environment falls below a critical O2 concentration [88]. The sensitivity of roots to low O2 concentration depends on its effect on mitochondrial respiration because it supplies most of the energy required for root function. Reduction in O2 levels in the nutrient solution could lead to poor roots, an increase in the incidence of diseases and pests, and a reduction in plant growth. Oxygen around a plant’s roots affects the beneficial microorganisms that provide protection from pathogens and improve nutrient uptake. Tomato plant roots would be much more susceptible to Pythium infection if root zone O2 dropped below 2.8 mg/L [89]. Dissolved O2 concentration, is strongly dependent on solution temperature and flow rate near the root zone, as well as on the growth rate of the crop, and may be influenced by the bacterial community present in the solution. The temperature has a direct relationship to the amount of oxygen consumed by the plant and a reverse relationship with dissolved oxygen from the nutrient solution. The consumption of O2 increases when the temperature of the nutrient solution increases. Consequently, it produces an increase in the relative concentration of CO2 in the root environment if the root aeration is not adequate [90]. For overcoming the limited oxygen exchange between the atmosphere and the nutrient solution in static deep water culture hydroponics, the nutrient solution is aerated by an air bubbler connecting with the pump to provide adequate root oxygenation [6]. Roots of loose-leaf lettuce grown in a floating raft hydroponic system were found to have a better condition with oxygen enrichment done in nutrient solution up to aeration pressure of 0.012 mPa and concentration of 600 ppm, with indicators of increasing length and total root surface area [68]. So, it is important to make sure the nutrient solution is properly aerated to maintain enough oxygen for the plant cells found in the root mass since this is crucial to the function of the plant’s cells and the microbial world.
Temperature (oC) | Oxygen solubility (mg L−1) |
---|---|
10 | 11.29 |
15 | 10.08 |
20 | 9.09 |
25 | 8.26 |
30 | 7.56 |
35 | 6.95 |
40 | 6.41 |
45 | 5.93 |
Solubility of oxygen in pure water at various temperatures.
Source: Trejo-Téllez et al. [85].
An optimized and well-balanced supply of nutrients is a prerequisite for efficient use of the resources by hydroponically grown vegetables, not only to ensure a high yield but also to guarantee the quality of the edible tissues. In hydroponics, because of the limited nutrient-buffering capacity of the system and the ability to make rapid changes, careful monitoring of the system is necessary. The frequency and volume of the nutrient solution applied depends on the type of substrate, the crop and growth stage, the size of the container, the irrigation systems used, and the prevailing climatic conditions. Depending on the stage of plant development, some elements in the nutrient solution will be depleted more quickly than others and as water evaporates from the nutrient solution, the fertilizer becomes more concentrated and can burn plant roots. In hydroponics, nutrient management is very important and must be done as highly efficient as possible to improve productivity without harming the environment. Nutrient management included- application the right fertilizers source (e.g., ammonium or nitrate as nitrogen source), balanced nutrient solution according to plants needs and according to plant growth stages and climatic conditions. The main principle of crop nutrient management is to prevent overapplication of nutrients, which prevents loss due to low yield from toxicities of some nutrients resulting from the unnecessary use of fertilizers. It was reported that the strong difference between the ion ratios presented in the nutrient solution and those absorbed by plants led to the accumulation of certain ions in the nutrient solution, which caused an imbalance of mineral elements in the nutrient solution and created more energy to absorb the suitable ions [6]. Recycling exhausted solutions may also represent an efficient strategy to prevent groundwater and environmental pollution. However, the main problem with the reuse of exhausted nutrient solutions is the shortage of some key macro and micronutrients [91] and their increased salinity [92] causing, in turn, problems for crops [93, 94]. Thus, it is very important to develop management practices/tools that reduce salinity in recycled solutions and/or minimize the physiological impact of salinity on plants. The salinity increase could be contrasted by treating the recycled water with appropriate osmotic systems, including forward and reverse osmosis.
In closed hydroponic systems, accumulation of potentially toxic organic compounds released by the roots of cultivated plants may occur and to overcome this issue, several treatment techniques have been proposed for root exudates degradation or removal. However, for the treatment to be effective, it should be able to remove root exudates without interfering with the inorganic mineral nutrients in the solution. As above-mentioned, the regulation of the solution flow rate in hydroponic production affects plant growth, which in turn affects crop yield and quality. The influence of nutrient solution flow rate on plant growth is related to the plants’ physical environment. The flow of nutrient solution not only promotes nutrient ion diffusion but also increases the kinetic energy available to plant roots Therefore, adjusting the flow rate can improve plant yield and a reasonable flow pattern must be carefully selected. Because increasing the flow means increasing electricity consumption, it increases the cost of operation. Therefore, it is important to balance plant yield, nutrient management, and energy utilization. According to Baiyin et al. [95], determining the ideal flow rate for hydroponic production may help to increase yield. However, such a determination requires a specific analysis of each crop and growing environment. The hydroponic nutrient solution is the sole source of nutrients to the plant; therefore, it is imperative that a balanced solution, containing all the right plant nutrients, is applied.
Hydroponic cultivation is revolutionizing agricultural crop production techniques all over the world owing to its minimal environmental footprint, enhanced pest control, and provide high crop yield. It allows more accurate control of environmental conditions that offer possibilities for increasing production and improving the quality of crops. The rapid development of computers and controllers has enabled the opportunity to apply the controller in hydroponics. The microcontroller could be used to control these nutrient solution parameters by using relevant sensors. It monitors the conductivity and pH throughout 24 h during the whole cycle of production. Also, it helps in monitoring temperature, nutrient atomization, EC, and pH fluctuations and level of nutrient solution in the nutrient reservoir. However, although the comprehension of the multi-level interactions among the various mineral elements is considered crucial to understanding the different sensing and signaling pathways induced by a single or multiple shortage/s, the impact of these nutrients’ interactions on crop performance is largely unknown [32].
Some hydroponic growers use more than the required amounts of nutrients for crop growth to minimize the chances of nutrient deficiency. But one of the most important factors for a successful hydroponics system is the use of the appropriate nutrient solution, and it is important to control the amount of nutrients to allow or deny plants the nutrient accumulation. While hydroponic systems are considered to represent a sustainable method for growing plants, the nutrient solution used in hydroponic systems is based on chemical fertilizers which are mined from scarce and non-renewable resources. Recently, there has been an increased interest in organic hydroponics, as the market for organic food continues to grow and some studies have reported the possibility of growing vegetables using an organic nutrient solution. For optimizing the utilization of organic waste for hydroponic plant growth, a solubilization step is required to break down organic matter and mobilize nutrients [96]. For example, the direct use of organic fertilizers in hydroponic systems may inhibit plant growth due to the high biological oxygen demand in the root zone caused by the presence of dissolved organic carbon compounds. Additionally, most of the nutrients in organic sources, such as waste material from the agricultural and aquacultural industry, are not in ionic forms and, hence, are not directly available for plants. Also, the last decade has seen increasing interest in using wastewater as a source of hydroponic nutrition. This aims at a dual benefit of optimizing water reuse as well as a practical end point for wastewater management. Untreated domestic rinse water obtained from washing machine second-cycle rinse can effectively be used for indoor hydroponic cultivation of plants without the need for any additional fertilizer. It also entails the benefits of significant savings in water use, sewage disposal, ecosystem protection, and the possibility to produce economically viable food crops [97]. Nowadays, hydroponic farming technology is extensively used in producing ornamental plants and flowers. Controllable application of fertilizers, the ability to change nutrients in different weather conditions and different plant growth stages, reduction of fertilizer leaching from the root zone, reduction of contamination, environmental protection, and enhancement of the quality and quantity of products are becoming some of the advantages of this technology.
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Data are collected from Turkish CPAs’ survey responses, which are based on a seven-point Likert scale, and analyzed using explanatory factor analysis. 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The objective is to explore how these theories are used in corporate social responsibility (CSR) disclosure. Through this analysis, it is provided a better theoretical understanding of these theories, which support and promote research on accounting and sustainability reporting. This chapter analyzes each theory and the relationship between them. We conclude that, although the legitimacy theory is the dominant theory used in accounting and sustainability reporting studies, it is related to the other theories. The selection and application will depend on the study focus.",book:{id:"6660",slug:"accounting-from-a-cross-cultural-perspective",title:"Accounting from a Cross-Cultural Perspective",fullTitle:"Accounting from a Cross-Cultural Perspective"},signatures:"Maria da Conceição da Costa Tavares and Alcina Portugal Dias",authors:[{id:"230817",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Da Conceição",middleName:null,surname:"Da Costa Tavares",slug:"maria-da-conceicao-da-costa-tavares",fullName:"Maria Da Conceição Da Costa Tavares"},{id:"241948",title:"Prof.",name:"Alcina",middleName:null,surname:"Portugal Dias",slug:"alcina-portugal-dias",fullName:"Alcina Portugal Dias"}]},{id:"62119",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76775",title:"Financial Instruments: Islamic Versus Conventional",slug:"financial-instruments-islamic-versus-conventional",totalDownloads:1316,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The financial system of any economy is made up of its financial institution, financial instruments and financial regulators. However, the nature of the instruments, institutions and regulations depend on the economic system and philosophy prevailing in that economy. This chapter presents a simple and precise narrations on the meaning of financial instruments, their forms and characteristics, fundamental principles of Islamic finance as well as the similarities and differences between convention and Islamic financial instruments. A case study reflecting the core merits and pitfalls of financial instruments is presented to further press home the understanding of the topic. This piece is intended to provide readers with the basic understanding of issues raised.",book:{id:"6660",slug:"accounting-from-a-cross-cultural-perspective",title:"Accounting from a Cross-Cultural Perspective",fullTitle:"Accounting from a Cross-Cultural Perspective"},signatures:"Sani Kabiru Saidu, Abubakar Sambo Junaidu and Rabiu Saminu\nJibril",authors:[{id:"240358",title:"Dr.",name:"Sani",middleName:"Kabiru",surname:"Saidu",slug:"sani-saidu",fullName:"Sani Saidu"},{id:"248786",title:"Dr.",name:"Abubakar",middleName:null,surname:"Sambo Junaidu",slug:"abubakar-sambo-junaidu",fullName:"Abubakar Sambo Junaidu"},{id:"248789",title:"Mr.",name:"Rabiu",middleName:null,surname:"Saminu Jibril",slug:"rabiu-saminu-jibril",fullName:"Rabiu Saminu Jibril"}]},{id:"60781",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76265",title:"An Inequality for Reinsurance Contract Annual Loss Standard Deviation and Its Application",slug:"an-inequality-for-reinsurance-contract-annual-loss-standard-deviation-and-its-application",totalDownloads:793,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"For reinsurance contract simulated annual losses, an inequality relating their standard deviation and mean is found, \n\n\nσ\nf\n\n≥\n\nm\nf\n\n\n\n\nμ\n\n\nA\nC\n\n\n\n\nμ\n\nA\n\n\n\n\n\n, where the coefficient in the inequality is the square root of the ratio of numbers of zero losses years to numbers of non-zero losses years. The largest such coefficient is also proved to be the universal upper bound. As direct application of this inequality, bounds for other risk measures of reinsurance contract, the TVaR (average of the annual losses that are larger than a given loss), the probability of attaching (greater than a given attachment loss), and the probability of exceeding (the annual loss limit) are obtained, which in turn reveal the capability upper limit of the simulation approach.",book:{id:"6660",slug:"accounting-from-a-cross-cultural-perspective",title:"Accounting from a Cross-Cultural Perspective",fullTitle:"Accounting from a Cross-Cultural Perspective"},signatures:"Frank Xuyan Wang",authors:[{id:"227007",title:"Dr.",name:"Frank Xuyan",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"frank-xuyan-wang",fullName:"Frank Xuyan Wang"}]},{id:"61511",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77066",title:"Accounting and Measuring Well-being",slug:"accounting-and-measuring-well-being",totalDownloads:805,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The recent literature on the measurement of sustainable income has developed in two important ways for accounting of contribution of natural resource stocks. One set of studies directly addresses the problem of measuring genuine savings or extended wealth formation including changes in human resource capital and natural capital. The second set of studies uses the extended conventional national income accounting methods for accounting of changes in natural resource stocks and environmental extensions of input-output tables. This chapter describes the methodology of measuring genuine savings for a country and reviews the estimates available for different countries. It also suggests a way forward for measuring genuine saving for India.",book:{id:"6660",slug:"accounting-from-a-cross-cultural-perspective",title:"Accounting from a Cross-Cultural Perspective",fullTitle:"Accounting from a Cross-Cultural Perspective"},signatures:"M N Murty",authors:[{id:"231349",title:"Prof.",name:"M N",middleName:null,surname:"Murty",slug:"m-n-murty",fullName:"M N Murty"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"61095",title:"Ethical Awareness, Ethical Decision Making, and Transparency: A Study on Turkish CPAs in Istanbul",slug:"ethical-awareness-ethical-decision-making-and-transparency-a-study-on-turkish-cpas-in-istanbul",totalDownloads:1692,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"This research aims to reveal the connections among ethical awareness, ethical decision making, and transparency from the perspective of certified public accountants (CPAs) in Istanbul. Data are collected from Turkish CPAs’ survey responses, which are based on a seven-point Likert scale, and analyzed using explanatory factor analysis. 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The selection and application will depend on the study focus.",book:{id:"6660",slug:"accounting-from-a-cross-cultural-perspective",title:"Accounting from a Cross-Cultural Perspective",fullTitle:"Accounting from a Cross-Cultural Perspective"},signatures:"Maria da Conceição da Costa Tavares and Alcina Portugal Dias",authors:[{id:"230817",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Da Conceição",middleName:null,surname:"Da Costa Tavares",slug:"maria-da-conceicao-da-costa-tavares",fullName:"Maria Da Conceição Da Costa Tavares"},{id:"241948",title:"Prof.",name:"Alcina",middleName:null,surname:"Portugal Dias",slug:"alcina-portugal-dias",fullName:"Alcina Portugal Dias"}]},{id:"61603",title:"A Renewed Interest on the Fundamentals of Accounting: The Impact of the Matching ‘Principle’ on Earning Attributes",slug:"a-renewed-interest-on-the-fundamentals-of-accounting-the-impact-of-the-matching-principle-on-earning",totalDownloads:966,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"By adopting a ‘revenue/expense’ model, the matching principle has traditionally played a fundamental role in determining earnings. However, since the 1970s, standard setters have chosen to move to an ‘asset/liability’ approach to determine income. Some authors argue that these changes in accounting standards have caused a decline in the matching process, exercising a negative impact on the quality of earnings. A contrasting view, however, is that changes in the economic activity have caused the decline in matching. Moreover, according to Barth, there is no ‘matching principle’. Indeed, the matching process often leads to the recognition of assets/liabilities of questionable substance and, therefore, cannot be considered an end in itself. The purpose of this chapter is to perform an extensive and systematic literature review on the determinants and consequences of the matching process, examining a topic of major concern for standard setters.",book:{id:"6660",slug:"accounting-from-a-cross-cultural-perspective",title:"Accounting from a Cross-Cultural Perspective",fullTitle:"Accounting from a Cross-Cultural Perspective"},signatures:"Pietro Fera, Nicola Moscariello and Ettore Cinque",authors:[{id:"232629",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Nicola",middleName:null,surname:"Moscariello",slug:"nicola-moscariello",fullName:"Nicola Moscariello"},{id:"235222",title:"Dr.",name:"Pietro",middleName:null,surname:"Fera",slug:"pietro-fera",fullName:"Pietro Fera"},{id:"242935",title:"Prof.",name:"Ettore",middleName:null,surname:"Cinque",slug:"ettore-cinque",fullName:"Ettore Cinque"}]},{id:"60781",title:"An Inequality for Reinsurance Contract Annual Loss Standard Deviation and Its Application",slug:"an-inequality-for-reinsurance-contract-annual-loss-standard-deviation-and-its-application",totalDownloads:793,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"For reinsurance contract simulated annual losses, an inequality relating their standard deviation and mean is found, \n\n\nσ\nf\n\n≥\n\nm\nf\n\n\n\n\nμ\n\n\nA\nC\n\n\n\n\nμ\n\nA\n\n\n\n\n\n, where the coefficient in the inequality is the square root of the ratio of numbers of zero losses years to numbers of non-zero losses years. The largest such coefficient is also proved to be the universal upper bound. As direct application of this inequality, bounds for other risk measures of reinsurance contract, the TVaR (average of the annual losses that are larger than a given loss), the probability of attaching (greater than a given attachment loss), and the probability of exceeding (the annual loss limit) are obtained, which in turn reveal the capability upper limit of the simulation approach.",book:{id:"6660",slug:"accounting-from-a-cross-cultural-perspective",title:"Accounting from a Cross-Cultural Perspective",fullTitle:"Accounting from a Cross-Cultural Perspective"},signatures:"Frank Xuyan Wang",authors:[{id:"227007",title:"Dr.",name:"Frank Xuyan",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"frank-xuyan-wang",fullName:"Frank Xuyan Wang"}]},{id:"61511",title:"Accounting and Measuring Well-being",slug:"accounting-and-measuring-well-being",totalDownloads:805,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The recent literature on the measurement of sustainable income has developed in two important ways for accounting of contribution of natural resource stocks. One set of studies directly addresses the problem of measuring genuine savings or extended wealth formation including changes in human resource capital and natural capital. The second set of studies uses the extended conventional national income accounting methods for accounting of changes in natural resource stocks and environmental extensions of input-output tables. This chapter describes the methodology of measuring genuine savings for a country and reviews the estimates available for different countries. It also suggests a way forward for measuring genuine saving for India.",book:{id:"6660",slug:"accounting-from-a-cross-cultural-perspective",title:"Accounting from a Cross-Cultural Perspective",fullTitle:"Accounting from a Cross-Cultural Perspective"},signatures:"M N Murty",authors:[{id:"231349",title:"Prof.",name:"M N",middleName:null,surname:"Murty",slug:"m-n-murty",fullName:"M N Murty"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"431",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82425",title:"Financial Reporting and Analysis of Tesla Green Technology in the United States Market",slug:"financial-reporting-and-analysis-of-tesla-green-technology-in-the-united-states-market",totalDownloads:17,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105065",abstract:"This study aims to discuss and analyze the financial position and performance of the US Tesla green technology company in the United States. This study uses a case study approach, financial data, and website methodologies to collect and analyze the research data. The case study is Tesla, Inc., which is a US electric vehicle and clean energy company based in Austin, Texas. Tesla is a green technology company that produces and designs electric cars, battery energy storage from home to grid-scale, solar roof tiles and solar panels, and related products and services. Tesla is growing fastly by introducing new green products, and it is now one of the world’s most valuable enterprises. It has a high market capitalization of almost US$1 trillion to become the world’s most valuable automaker. This study concludes that Tesla has changed their strategy to become the most worldwide sales of purely battery electric vehicles, capturing 23% of the market and 16% of the plug-in electric battery in the market for 2020. It has also developed a significant installer of photovoltaic systems through its subsidiary Tesla Energy in the United States. One of the largest global battery energy-storage systems suppliers is Tesla Energy, with 3.99 gigawatt-hours installed in 2021.",book:{id:"11251",title:"Banking and Accounting Issues",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11251.jpg"},signatures:"Nizar Mohammad Alsharari"},{id:"81377",title:"National Adoptions of IFRS: Accounting Perspectives",slug:"national-adoptions-of-ifrs-accounting-perspectives",totalDownloads:58,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103679",abstract:"In the past few decades, there has been a global trend of international harmonization of accounting standards. The intended goal is to remove the barriers that hinder investors when comparing the accounting information of companies from different nations, while simultaneously reducing the transaction costs for firms. However, research has shown that countries adopt IFRS unequally, ranging from resistance, partial adoption to full adoption. If the IFRS are not adopted to the same extent around the world, the central purpose of international standards can be compromised. This chapter aims to explain some key terms essential in understanding current development in international accounting and lay out the development and progress of IFRS diffusion.",book:{id:"11251",title:"Banking and Accounting Issues",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11251.jpg"},signatures:"Maria Bengtsson"},{id:"81094",title:"Impact of Short-Term Management on Portuguese and Spanish Firms’ Performance",slug:"impact-of-short-term-management-on-portuguese-and-spanish-firms-performance",totalDownloads:23,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103009",abstract:"An effective and efficient working capital management ensures companies a greater ability to survive in an increasingly competitive and challenging business world and therefore plays a key role in the manager’s operational and financial decisions. Thus, the main objective of this chapter is to show empirically the extent to which working capital management influences the measures of business performance evaluation. To achieve the proposed objective, the ROA, ROE, and Tobin’s Q were used as measures of performance. For this study, data from Portuguese and Spanish companies were used, which are listed on Euronext Lisbon and the Madrid Stock Exchange, respectively, resulting in a final sample of 106 companies. The methodology used to test the hypotheses formulated was dynamic panel data methodology (with GMM system) for a period between 2010 and 2016. The results obtained in this research show, in a general way, that there are significant differences in the determinants of performance depending on the samples used, whether they are the Spanish Sample or the Portuguese Sample.",book:{id:"11251",title:"Banking and Accounting Issues",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11251.jpg"},signatures:"Carmem Leal, Diogo Rocha and Elisabete Neves"},{id:"81180",title:"Banking Regulation for ESG Principles and Climate Risk",slug:"banking-regulation-for-esg-principles-and-climate-risk",totalDownloads:85,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104110",abstract:"Nowadays banking activity is greatly influenced by environmental and social conditions. For this reason, regulators have been committed to defining Environment, Social, and Governance (ESG) principles. In addition, climate change has shown the relevance of climate risks that have relevant implications in the new risk management process. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development is based on the 17 SDGs that are, in the next future, the main challenge for the worldwide economy as they will be the basis for real sustainable activities. In this context, banks play a very relevant role as they have the power to lead this new challenge and are able to facilitate businesses to run toward a sustainable green economy. For this reason, banks’ activity is now oriented to increase and allocate credit and investment to more sustainable sectors. As climate risk is, at the same time, cause and effect for a socially responsible activity, regulators have been considering the role of banks for the green and ecological transition, which is necessary to face this new risk. The chapter is an overview of rules, regulations, and guidelines for banks referred to ESG principles and their adoption in a global perspective; it also refers to climate risk that, due to its components, may require further capital to preserve banks’ stability.",book:{id:"11251",title:"Banking and Accounting Issues",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11251.jpg"},signatures:"Rosaria Cerrone"},{id:"81076",title:"Pandemics and Financial Assets",slug:"pandemics-and-financial-assets",totalDownloads:26,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103972",abstract:"There have been several pandemics in the history of mankind. One of the major pandemics was the Spanish flu that took place in 1918, in which millions of lives were lost globally. Despite significant advances in science and medicine since then, the COVID-19 pandemic has still caused major impacts around the world. As evidenced, pandemics not only cause social and public health implications, but also cause effects on the economy as well. This chapter addresses the ill effects of pandemics on the economy and presents how the financial markets and financial institutions were influenced and how they responded to the pandemics. More specifically, this chapter identifies the effects of the pandemics on various assets (e.g., crude oil, gold, currencies, equity, bonds, and cryptocurrencies) around the world. In addition, the chapter also presents evidence of corporates’ characteristics relative to their responses to the ill effects of the pandemics.",book:{id:"11251",title:"Banking and Accounting Issues",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11251.jpg"},signatures:"Pattarake Sarajoti, Pattanaporn Chatjuthamard and Suwongrat Papangkorn"},{id:"80890",title:"Islamic Banking and Islamic Accounting in Indonesia: History and Recent Development",slug:"islamic-banking-and-islamic-accounting-in-indonesia-history-and-recent-development",totalDownloads:97,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103654",abstract:"Islamic banks (IBs) have distinctive characteristics compared with the conventional ones. IBs only perform permissible (halal) financial transactions viewed from Islamic perspective and avoid usury (riba) and overspeculation (gharar). Consequently, IBs require special accounting to accommodate their nature. In terms of accounting, Indonesia is unique, as it has two accounting (for business organizations) standard setters: Financial Accounting Standard Board (Dewan Standar Akuntansi Keuangan-DSAK) and Sharia Financial Accounting Standard Board (Dewan Standar Akuntansi Keuangan Syariah-DSAS). This chapter discusses the development of IBs in Indonesia, a country with majority of its citizens being Muslim. Further, it explains the development of Islamic Financial Accounting Standards (IFAS) including how the standards are developed (the due processes). 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. 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His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. 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We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. 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