The performance comparison between FSO and RF.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"554",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Bacterial Artificial Chromosomes",title:"Bacterial Artificial Chromosomes",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book focuses on the numerous applications of Bacterial Artificial Chromosomes (BACs) in a variety of studies. 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\r\n\tWith ever-increasing requirements and complex manufacturing techniques, it has now become vital to provide better thermal management and friction reduction to parts used in the manufacturing industry. Lubricants play an important role in manufacturing processes as they can considerably reduce friction which translates into less wear and tear and better life of parts. Another benefit of lubricants is to considerably reduce the temperature of processes thus keeping the required cooling that is necessary for the process. For various different processing and prevailing conditions, thus, it is very important to use reliable and durable lubricants. Therefore, it is advantageous to have advanced lubricants which have better thermophysical properties and can stay for a long run during production and manufacturing processes. New technologies are adopted now including nano lubricants, lubricants, and hybrid combinations of such lubricants to get desired conditions which ultimately improves the process quality, reducing the defect during various machining conditions such as drilling, milling, and machining.
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Dr. Ali has recently received the Highly Cited Researcher Award in the Field of Engineering 2021 by Web of Science Clarivate. He was in the top 2% of the researchers list at Stanford University in 2020 and 2021.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"187624",title:"Dr.",name:"Hafiz Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ali",slug:"hafiz-muhammad-ali",fullName:"Hafiz Muhammad Ali",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/187624/images/system/187624.png",biography:"Dr. Hafiz Muhammad Ali, currently working as an associate professor of Mechanical Engineering at King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Saudi Arabia, received his doctoral degree in mechanical engineering from School of Engineering and Materials Science, Queen Mary, University of London, United Kingdom, in 2011. He was a postdoc at Water and Energy Laboratory of University of California at Merced, United States in 2016. \r\nHis fields of research are thermal sciences and heat transfer with focus on electronics cooling, condensation, nanofluids, heat transfer devices, and thermal management. Over the span of several years, he supervised numerous undergraduate and postgraduate students and his work produced more than 250 papers featured in various reputed international journals with citations over 9000 and H-index of 50. He is author and Editor of several books in the field of thermal engineering. He has participated at several international and national conferences as an invited speaker and delivered various keynote talks. \r\nHe has recently received Highly Cited Researcher Award in the Field of Engineering 2021 by Web of Science Clarivate. He was in the top 2% researchers list of Stanford University in 2020 and 2021. He is the recipient of the “Best Young Research Scholar Award” for 2017 in the Engineering category, conferred by Higher Education Commission of Pakistan at the 7th HEC Outstanding Research Award Ceremony. He also had the honor of receiving HEC’s Best Research Paper Award (2013/2014) and Research Productivity Award by Pakistan Council of Science and Technology (2016-17). 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Kawsar Alam"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8417",title:"Recent Advances in Boron-Containing Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3737be3f785ef9d8b318571ab474f407",slug:"recent-advances-in-boron-containing-materials",bookSignature:"Metin Aydin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8417.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"27070",title:"Prof.",name:"Metin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"metin-aydin",fullName:"Metin Aydin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8812",title:"Contemporary Topics about Phosphorus in Biology and Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"86c427901f631db034a54b22dd765d6a",slug:"contemporary-topics-about-phosphorus-in-biology-and-materials",bookSignature:"David G. Churchill, Maja Dutour Sikirić, Božana Čolović and Helga Füredi Milhofer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8812.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"219335",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Churchill",slug:"david-churchill",fullName:"David Churchill"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"41879",title:"Brain Structure MR Imaging Methods: Morphometry and Tractography",doi:"10.5772/53079",slug:"brain-structure-mr-imaging-methods-morphometry-and-tractography",body:'Brain morphology is in constant change from the very beginning of the neurodevelopment in human beings. The characterization of the brain morphology and its biological implications on a specific subject is a complex task which requires efficient computational approaches. Radiology has traditionally assessed the main brain changes in different alterations from a macroscopic point of view, thus, not considering subtle changes as a results of neuronal plasticity. In conjunction with functional information, the structural neuroimaging methods have established as the key in the diagnosis of several central nervous system disorders, including tumours, neurodegenerative disorders and psychiatric diseases.
Morphometry techniques use statistical methods to detect and to quantify subtle structural abnormalities that appear when comparing different populations. Nowadays, there are several methodologies which have been designed to achieve these goals. The fast evolution in terms of spatial resolution and signal-to-noise ratio in Magnetic Resonance (MR) scanners as well as the improvements on new imaging techniques and data processing algorithms, help to developing studies that increase the knowledge over many fields of neuroimaging. This section describes the scope of these new methodologies and the main processes related with their implementation.
The first method developed in order to measure anatomical differences was based on the manual delineation of brain structures and their analysis by defining regions of interest (ROI). Although its main advantage is the anatomical accuracy of the measures, there are some assumptions that should be taken into account, including high variability, poor reproducibility, the need for previous hypotheses about the anatomical areas and regions to study and computational requirements needed to study a large number of subjects.
In order to supply these restrictions, semiautomatic methods have been developed. These methodologies perform a fully computerized treatment of different brain areas, providing a reproducible way to define exploratory analysis without
Models based on deformation fields use the spatial transformations needed to register an image to a template. In this registration process, a three-dimensional nonlinear deformation map is generated, which contains the adjusted parameters obtained by the fitting process between both, the image and the template. The deformation-based morphometry (DBM) (Gaser et al., 2001) is therefore a useful methodology to find differences at the macroscopic level.
To obtain the deformation field, the algorithm is initialized and a first mesh is generated. At each iteration, this mesh is fitted to achieve the required target varying from low to high detail by a coarse to fine minimization strategy. This registration is followed by an estimation of the nonlinear deformations which are composed by a linear combination of 3D discrete cosine (DC) transform basis functions. Displacement vectors are then smoothed with and 8 x 8 x 8 mm Full Width at Half Maximum (FWHM) filter.
The statistical analysis of these parameters helps to determine whether there are specific differences between subjects. The deformation field provides information about both volume and position differences, and can be studied by analyzing the displacement vectors for each point or by quantifying the local signal variation. Multivariate statistical models are needed in order to make inferences about the differences between groups.
Tensor-based morphometry (TBM) (Kipps et al., 2005) is a morphometric method which uses tensor magnitudes to identify regional changes in anatomical areas The estimation of these differences is based on the small variations that are generated when normalizing each voxel of an image (ia, ib, ic) to a template reference (ja, jb, jc).
By using the deformation fields, the determinants of the Jacobian matrix (J) can be estimated. This matrix is equivalent to a second-order tensor that provides univariate (point to point) information about how the brain shape varies from the original image to the template. This feature improves the use of the DBM method, because it avoids the use of the entire deformation field (multivariate approach) in order to determine if there are specific (local) differences between images.
For each voxel, the Jacobian matrix contains information about translation, rotation and shear transformations:
In order to perform the statistical analysis to detect differences between subjects, the J matrix can be decomposed into a rotation matrix (R) and symmetric positive-definite matrices (U or V), to satisfy the following axioms:
In the normalization process which applies rigid transformations, it holds that U = V = I, where I is the identity matrix. If U and V matrices are different from the matrix I, there is a change in the shape which can be encoded by the tensor E. For a given deformation, there are infinite ways to express the associated tensors in terms of an n-parameter:
When n = 0, the obtained tensor is the Hencky tensor, which is useful to express local brain volume increases or decreases relative to the template. From these calculations, a comparison between images of many subjects can be done by extracting different variables (area, length and volume) and analyzing those using statistical models.
This methodology is based on registering an image with a template using a flow field that encodes the geometric transformation required to normalize an image to another. A large deformation framework is used in order to conserve topology, obtaining a diffeomorphic and invertible deformation (Ashburner, 2007).
If there are two images A and B (with the same dimensions) and a function f which takes points from A and put those on B, then f can be considered as a translator; i. e. for each point of A provides the corresponding B-point. In order to maintain the diffeomorphic propriety, this function must be bijective; i. e. the relationship between A and B points must be 1 to 1 (a specific point of A only can be associated to a specific point of B and vice versa).
where the transformation is diffeomorphic if there is a smooth bijective function f that transforms A into B and vice versa. The last step is to estimate a statistical model to detect significant changes between groups.
The voxel-based morphometry (VBM) technique (Ashburner and Friston, 2000) is based on the normalization of several individual brains with to a specific template. These normalized images are voxel-by-voxel analyzed to detect variations of local tissue. Unlike other morphometric techniques, VBM is based on applying a mass univariate statistical analysis for each voxel. Typically, the brain is previously segmented into gray matter (GM), white matter (WM) and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) maps. These calculations need a prior preprocessing to normalize the data in a common stereotactic space. The purpose of these processes is the minimization of the anatomical variability between different subjects, discounting macroscopic factors and allowing a statistical analysis to obtain subtle differences that can be attributed only to the anatomical variability between groups.
2.2.4.1. Signal heterogeneity
This step aims to minimize the bias field contained in the MR images. The lack of signal homogeneity, which may result from factors such as static magnetic field inhomogeneities, sensitivity of transmit and receiving coils and dielectric effect, directly affects the voxel intensities. In order to quantitatively evaluate the data, differences in the brightness between voxels of a particular region or area can be a source of bias for the algorithms convergence criteria (figure 1).
Low-frequency bias field estimated from brain MR images
For these reasons, it is necessary to correct this inhomogeneity and there are several approaches, including modeling of field heterogeneity by DC basis functions (Ashburner and Friston, 2000), the use of Legendre polynomial basis functions (Brechbühler et al., 1996) or the Gaussian deconvolution on the histogram of the image (Sled et al., 1998). There are also methods which model the field by a linear combination of low frequency functions based on cubic B-splines adjusted by a cost function based on the intensity and the gradient of the image (Manjón et al., 2007).
2.2.4.2. Non-linear normalization
The nonlinear normalization (or warping) normalizes an image to a template by applying transformations that do not preserve the proportions of the original image. The main aim is to perform a deformation of an original image with a template to facilitate a high precise comparison within brain regions between different subjects.
The algorithm tries to reduce the difference between original and template images, using a standard least-squares minimization (Mean Square Error, MSE):
where f(xi, yi, zi) represents the value of the voxel i in the coordinate (x,y,z) of the original image f, g(xi’, yi’, zi’) is the value of the voxel i in the coordinate (x’,y’,z’) of the template g and w represents a weighting factor.
2.2.4.3. Segmentation
The segmentation process aims to classify the MR brain images into GM, WM, CSF and other cortical and subcortical areas. Although there are many algorithms for brain segmentation, there is an efficient strategy commonly used by neuroimaging applications that in practice gives good results but theoretically is slightly away from the pure concept of segmentation. This method does not obtain the real tissue-intensity extracted from the image but a probability map for each class. Each voxel in these maps has a normalized brightness value in the range [0... 1], that reflects the probability of belonging to a particular tissue.
In order to identify and classify the different tissues, the algorithm analyzes the range of the brightness values of each voxel in the original image. If n is the number of bits of the image, then the intensity values can be assigned in the range [0... 2n-1]. For example, a coded image with 8 bits, has a brightness value between 0 and 255, with 0 black (no light) and 255 white (figure 2). With this approach, it is possible to represent images using cumulative graphs (histograms) in which each point represents the number of voxels with a given brightness level.
Gray scale with 256 potential values (0 black, 255 white)
The intensities can be modeled by its mean and variance, adjusting the image histogram by a Gaussian-mixture function,. The algorithm performs a separate treatment for each tissue, assigning a different group (class) to each voxel (figure 3). Initially, these voxels are assigned to an initial value defined by
where pi,k represents the probability that the voxel i is assigned to the k-tissue, ck is the variance of the tissue k, f(xi) represents the brightness of the i-voxel in the image f and vk is the mean of the k-tissue. With the new probabilities, the algorithm continues until either the convergence criterion is achieved or the fixed number of iterations is exceeded.
Segmentation process. Top: original image. Bottom (from left to right): gray matter, white matter and cerebrospinal fluid probability maps.
2.2.4.4. Smoothing
The main purpose of the smoothing process is to increase the signal-to-noise ratio by reducing the high-frequency random noise. Additionally, smoothing involves other advantages such as increasing the normality of the data and the minimization of inter-subject anatomical differences. The smoothing kernel fixes the brightness of each voxel taking into account the Gaussian average of their adjacent voxels (neighbors). The filtered image is then blurred, mainly in edge and contour areas because the high-frequency signals are removed while the low-frequency bands are preserved (figure 4). The main parameter which defines the shape of the filter is the standard deviation (σ) expressed as the total amplitude at FWHM:
Smoothing of an image. From left to right: original image, 2D Gaussian kernel and smoothed image.
Usually, the statistical analysis that follows the application of morphometric techniques is based on the General Linear Model (GLM) (Friston et al., 1995). This model allows statistical inferences selecting specific effects of interest in the study groups and is based on an equation that defines the measured signals by a linear combination of explanatory variables plus an error whose distribution is (assumed) Gaussian:
where Y represents the measured data, X models the design matrix, β represents the estimated parameters and ε is the error.
This structure allows the definition of a measured variable Y as a linear combination of explanatory variables plus an error. It is assumed that this error is independent and follows a Gaussian distribution with zero mean. The design matrix X is a model structure which includes covariates of interest that could potentially influence the results (age, sex, clinical scales, overall tissue volume,...).
By using a voxel-by-voxel approach, multiple statistical comparisons are tested. So, it is necessary to apply additional corrections to minimize the presence of false positives (type I errors). This problem can be solved by applying specific corrections to ensure the reliability of the results. In this sense, the Bonferroni correction based on setting the significance criteria to α / number of observations or the False Discovery Rate (FDR) (Genovese et al., 2002) that controls the fraction of false positives, can be used. The obtained maps are then colored and overlaid over a high resolution T1 image showing the morphometric differences between groups (figure 5).
From left to right: original statistic map, colored statistic map and overlay over a T1 axial MR image.
The final step of the morphometric procedure is to include all the information in a structured, concise and brief report (Marti-Bonnmati L., 2011). This report lists all the variables and numerical data calculated in the different processes:
Parametric data
The report should include the parameters used in the morphometric method (type of technique, normalization, segmentation, smoothing, templates…) and statistical information (type of test, thresholds, p-values,…).
Volumetric measures
Overall volumes of GM, WM and CSF and absolute (ml) and relative (%) values must be included. Furthermore, volumetric measurements for subcortical areas (for example, basal ganglia) are desirable. These values are compared with normal values (obtained from healthy subjects) after discounting potentially relevant sources of bias (age, sex, laterality,…)
Figures, coordinates and labels for each area of interest
The final report should also incorporate the significant areas showing differences between groups and their associated values and coordinates. If any, these areas should be overlaid onto a T1 template and detailed in a table which shows statistic values, location of the affected regions (including Brodmann areas) and cluster volumes.
The diffusion tensor magnetic resonance imaging (DT-MRI, DTI) technique is widely used nowadays to explore the anatomy of white matter tracts in the human brain
The DTI technique permits the acquisition of MR diffusion images with different orientations of the magnetic field gradients, thus, obtaining a set of images with information of the water movement directionalities for each anatomical cut. The number of gradient orientations is a key parameter in the acquisition of DTI data and, although it is mathematically enough to have 6 directions in order to calculate a tensor, a higher number of directions provide a higher directional resolution.
The computational processing of the DTI data permits the calculation of the orientation and fractional anisotropy (FA) voxelwise. In fact, FA parametric maps can be generated to depict the main orientation of the white matter structure. Computational algorithms specially designed for fiber tracking can be applied to the orientation and anisotropy data in order to reconstruct the trajectory of white matter tracts.
The DTI has a unique view of the tissue architecture of neurons and changes associated with various pathophysiological alterations. There is an increase in the use of this technique for the analysis of white matter alterations produced by tumours and the corresponding surgery planning. Also, the study of congenital abnormalities of the corpus callosum and cerebellum, epilepsy, schizophrenia and early and late Alzheimer\'s disease is being widely assessed by this technique (Catani M., 2006).
The DTI can be combined with other MRI techniques, such as conventional T1 and T2 images, MR perfusion studies or the results of the concentration of metabolites composing fiber bundles obtained from MR spectroscopy.
The phenomenon of molecular thermal motion results in random movement of molecules in the three directions of space. These displacements are considered, in general, as translational motions of molecules characterized by Brownian nature. This movement or molecular diffusion in the human body takes place mostly between water molecules.
In some tissues of the human body, water molecules can present a free movement without barriers, also known as free diffusion, or a movement which is limited by the structure of the neighbouring tissues, known as restricted diffusion. The figure 6, shows both concepts.
In general, diffusion measurements express the effective displacement in space of the water molecules in a certain time interval (Le Bihan D., 1988). Although temperature modulates the molecular motion of water molecules (approximately 2.4% per degree Celsius) (Tofts PS., 2000), that thermal influence is not significant in the study of diffusion, as there are other biophysical properties that have a significant effect on the mobility of tissue water.
Schematics of diffusion of water molecules in a free environment (left) and in a restricted environment (right).
If pure water is used as a reference standard, the average displacement of the water molecules in a range of about 50ms does not exceed 20µm. Because this dimension is comparable to the cell dimensions, there is a high probability that the water molecules also interact with intracellular components, hydrophobic membranes and macromolecules that impede the movement of water. Therefore, the "apparent" diffusion is several times lower than in the case of pure water. In biological systems, diffusion comprises a complex mixture of single thermal diffusion with exchange between the intracellular and extracellular compartments through cell membranes and tortuosity of the interstitial space, which is conditioned by cell size, organization and density clustering.
To understand diffusion and its quantification, it is assumed that in the initial time we have a group of molecules concentrated at one point. If we wait a time t, without exerting any action on the molecules, they will have expanded in the three dimensions following the Einstein\'s equation of diffusion:
where t is the time interval and r is the average radius of the distribution. As can be deduced, the diffusion coefficient D is expressed as units of distance squared per unit time. For use in radiology or clinical applications, it is usually expressed in mm2/s.
In order to study the physical diffusion properties explained above, MRI is the only imaging modality that allows visualization and calculation of molecular diffusion
MR signal is sensitive to microscopic movements water molecules. During the de-phase of the spins after the radio frequency (RF) pulse, phase incoherencies appear in the spins relaxation due to thermal agitation of the water molecules, which accelerates the loss of spins synchronism and reduces the relaxation time. Moreover, the repeated movement of water molecules cause the nuclear spins displacement to other regions in which magnetic field differs from the original value, thus causing a frequency modulation of relaxation.
In order to quantify the displacement movement of the spins independently, a gradient in one direction can be applied immediately after the pulse. In this situation, the water molecules which have been moved in the direction of the gradient will be under a magnetic field be farther more of the original and therefore the signal drop faster.
The free diffusion approximation of light in the previous sections cannot be assumed in biological tissues, because sometimes, the movement of water molecules is restricted or defined to a certain direction. In the latter case, in which a molecule is most likely to move in one direction than another, one speaks of an anisotropic diffusion. The most obvious example (as will be seen below) takes place in the cerebral white matter, where the water molecules tend to move along axonal tracts of the different fascicles brain.
This anisotropy of diffusion can be characterized mathematically, considering a diffusion tensor in the following matrix form:
Since the matrix is symmetric, ie Dxy = Dyx; Dyz = Dzy and dxz = Dzx, simply calculate 6 of the 9 parameters. Therefore, we can deduce that to extract directional properties of diffusion, it will require at least 6 different gradient directions.
An example of 6 acquisitions can be appreciated in figure 7.
Diffusion images acquired in different magnetic field gradient orientations for the calculation of the diffusion tensor.
The eigenvector of the diffusion matrix provide the information about main orientation of the water molecules movement in each voxel. An example of orientation maps at different detail scales can be appreciated in figure 8:
From the diffusion matrix, the fractional anisotropy (FA) parameter can be calculated from the expression:
Being λ1, λ2 and λ3 the eigenvalues of the diffusion matrix, and the average value of the eigenvalues. An example of the combination of both orientation and FA information in a voxel-by-voxel basis may be appreciated in figure 9.
Orientation maps calculated from the diffusion matrix. From left to right: full brain map showing the vector field with the main orientations for each region. Detail of the vector field in a selected region. Voxel-by-voxel representation of the main diffusion orientation.
Combined fractional anisotropy (FA) and orientation map. The level of intensity expresses the FA value, while the color indicates the main orientation (LR: left-right, AP: anterior-posterior, FH: foot-head).
Different segmentation strategies exist for white matter tractography reconstructions of the fibers. The main segmentation techniques can be divided in seed based segmentation, regions of interest segmentation and white matter atlas segmentation.
This technique considers an initial point in a 3D space with a given orientation and FA. Thus, the algorithm will initiate a path by the neighbouring voxels showing similar orientations. This trajectory will be calculated until a too sharp angle exists between the orientation of the current voxel and the following. The fiber trajectory calculated will be reconstructed unless if it accomplishes also the condition of the minimum length, which is another parameter imposed in the segmentation to avoid the reconstruction of small fibers from random noise.
This is the technique with a higher use in clinical routine nowadays. White matter fibers are reconstructed from regions of interest (ROIs) which are placed according to the user anatomical knowledge. This technique allows for the calculation of the fibers that pass through the ROIs that have been introduced. Exclusive ROIs can also be placed in order to avoid the reconstruction of fibers bundles which are adjacent to the one of interest.
An example of this technique can be appreciated in figure 10, where the uncinate fasciculus is reconstructed. Two ROIs are placed in order to exclusively reconstruct fibers crossing both regions.
Segmentation of the uncinate fasciculus by the placement of two ROIs, in the frontal and temporal lobes.
The tracts segmentation using white matter atlas has a higher complexity. In general terms, the main basis of the method consists in the calculation of the orientation and FA maps for large series of subjects. All these data is anatomically co-registered and a final expert anatomical labelling is performed (O\'Donnell LJ., 2007).
The main white matter tracts can be segmented routinely by ROI segmentation for clinical applications. The authors suggest the segmentation of the following white matter fasciculum according to experience with pre-surgical evaluation and study of neurodegenerative disorders:
Corpus callosum
Cingulate fasciculus
Uncinate fasciculus
Corticospinal fasciculus
Inferior longitudinal fasciculus
Superior longitudinal fasciculus
In figure 11, examples of fiber reconstructions in different pathologic conditions can be appreciated.
White matter fasciculus reconstruction in different clinical cases. In a), main white matter fibers segmentation for the pre-surgical evaluation of a glioblastoma multiforme. The right superior longitudinal fasciculus, in blue, can be appreciated to be attached to the tumour periphery. In b), the reconstruction of a sectioned cingulum is observed in a patient after an emergency intervention due to an acute hydrocephaly. In c), corpus callosum fibers shortening due to advanced multiple sclerosis lesions.
In each reconstructed fiber bundle we can extract a set of parameters related to the microstructure:
Fractional anisotropy (FA): its value ranges from 0 (pure isotropic) to 1 (highly anisotropic) and shows the degree of existence of a preferential diffusion direction within the voxel.
Mean diffusivity (D): it is measured in mm2/s and expresses the degree of restriction to water molecules movement in a voxel. High D values reflect low degree of restriction to movement, while low D values show a restricted diffusion of molecules due to a higher cell density and reduced interstitial space.
Number of fibers (NF): it is the total number of fibers that have been reconstructed in a certain fasciculum.
Average length (L): it is mostly expressed in centimetres and provides the average length of the fibers of the reconstructed fasciculum.
An adequate tractography report should be brief and concise (Marti-Bonmati L., 2011), and include:
Parametric data: the results of the parameters presented in the anterior section (FA, D, NF, L) for each reconstructed white matter fasciculum. These values should be compared to values obtained in a large series of age-matched healthy subjects.
Figures: representative figures of the main white matter tracts superimposed on anatomical images.
The brain morphometry and tractography techniques have established as the main image processing methodologies for the characterization of brain structure in all types of central nervous system disorders. Although many centres benefit from their application to different clinical cases, large population studies have been mainly limited due to lack of standardization in the acquisition, processing and reporting techniques. The future challenges for these techniques have to be focused in multi-centre initiatives that facilitate the protocols sharing, the standardization of analysis procedures and the way this information is presented in adequate structured reports.
V2X refers to the realization of a full range of network connections among V2V, V2P, V2I, and V2N with the help of new advances in information and communication to improve the level of intelligence and autonomous driving capabilities of the vehicle. Figure 1 shows the components of V2X. On one hand, V2X will improve traffic efficiency; on the other hand, it will provide users with intelligent, comfortable, safe, energy-saving, and efficient integrated services. V2X will establish a new direction for the development of automotive technology by integrating global positioning systems, wireless communication, and remote sensing technologies [1]. At the same time, V2X will realize the compatibility of manual driving and automatic driving. In the automatic driving mode, it is possible for the automatic vehicle to randomly select the driving route with the best road conditions through the analysis of real-time traffic information. This driving mode can alleviate traffic jams. In addition, through the use of onboard sensors and cameras, vehicle can perceive the surrounding environment and make rapid adjustments to achieve “zero traffic accidents.” For example, if a pedestrian suddenly appears, the car will automatically slow down to a safe speed or stop [2].
The components of V2X.
The earliest application of V2X was shown on a Cadillac by General Motors in 2006. Since then, other auto-product suppliers have begun to study this technology. However, the application of V2X was put on the agenda because of two traffic accidents that originated in the United States.V2X is the key technology of the future intelligent transportation system (ITS). V2X makes communication between vehicles and base stations easier. A series of messages, such as real-time road conditions, traffic signals, and pedestrian information, can be obtained. These messages can improve driving safety, reduce congestion, and improve traffic efficiency. The purpose of V2X is to reduce accidents, alleviate traffic congestion, reduce environmental pollution, and provide additional information services.
If a vehicle can be illustrated as the driver’s second pair of “eyes,” it can theoretically reduce the occurrence of traffic accidents caused by driver’s distraction or low visibility. V2X is a clever technology that turns the vehicle into the driver’s eyes. V2X can see animals that suddenly run on the road before the driver notices. Generally, V2X uses neighbor cars to see traffic signal indicators and remind the driver while the driver can be hard to notice. Compared with cameras or Lidar commonly used in autonomous driving [3], V2X has the ability to break through visual blind spots and cross obstructions to obtain traffic information. At the same time, V2X shares real-time driving status with other vehicles or facilities and decides the driving state of the vehicle immediately through study and judgment algorithms information. In addition, V2X is free subject to extreme weather conditions, such as rain, fog, and strong light exposure. Therefore, V2X is being developed in transportation, especially in the field of autonomous driving.
In 2015, US launched the ITS five-year plan with the theme “change the way in which society moves forward.” The main technical goals of planning are to “To realize application of connected vehicles” and “To accelerate autonomous driving.” Six categories of projects are defined in the plan—accelerated deployment, connected vehicles, autonomous driving, emerging capabilities, interoperability, and enterprise data. Connected vehicles, autonomous driving, and emerging capabilities are the three paths of technological development, while interoperability and enterprise data are the cornerstones of ITS development. To promote the further development of V2V and to reverse the subsequent legislative decisions of US, US Department of Transportation has led the “Safety Pilot Demonstration Deployment” project based on V2V and V2I. On the basis of the test and verification of the "Safety Pilot Demonstration Deployment" project, in 2014, the US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration announced the draft of the Vehicle-to-Vehicle Communication Advance Law, and launched the NPRM process in 2016 to enforce the light-duty vehicle V2V Communication, the main content includes:
Proposed mandatory V2V communication based on IEEE 802.11p
Specified the content of the BSM message
Specified V2V communication performance requirements
Specified privacy and security requirements
Designated equipment authorization system
The period from 2022 to 2025 is the deployment and development period of C-V2X industrialization. After 2025, the rapid development of the C-V2X industry will gradually achieve national coverage of C-V2X, and China will build a nationwide multi-level data platform, achieve cross-industry data interconnection, and provide diversified travel services.
V2N refers to the connection of vehicle devices with the network. Network exchanges data with the vehicle, stores and processes the acquired data, and provides various application services required by the vehicle. V2N communication is mainly used in vehicle navigation, remote vehicle monitoring, emergency rescue, and infotainment services.
V2V refers to communication between vehicles through onboard terminals. The vehicle-mounted terminal can obtain information, such as the speed, location, and driving conditions of surrounding vehicles in real time. Vehicles can also form an interactive platform to exchange information, such as pictures and videos in real time. V2V communication is mainly used to avoid or reduce traffic accidents, vehicle supervision, and management [4].
V2V enables sensors to communicate with neighboring vehicles, and it is more accurate and energy-efficient than any onboard surround sensing system. If we study further, we will come up with autonomous driving not a solution for the transition of automated vehicles from A to B, but a network protocol that optimizes traffic parameters and allows all commuters to reach their destination quickly and safely. Wireless upgrade is another basic autonomous driving function enabled by V2N. Since autonomous driving is a life-critical application, it must be kept up to the latest status.
V2I refers to the communication between vehicle-mounted equipment and roadside infrastructures, such as traffic lights, traffic cameras, and roadside units. The roadside infrastructure can also obtain information about vehicles in nearby areas and release various real-time information. V2I communication is mainly used in real-time information services, vehicle monitoring and management, and non-stop toll collection. V2I sensors collect information about traffic, traffic light status, radar equipment, cameras, and other road signals work as shared nodes to maximize infrastructure throughput. Even object-list lane markings or road barriers will one day become “smart” and become V2I communicators. For autonomous driving, information is critical because the vehicle may rely on stationary object data specifically for certain road events. Vehicles approaching the work area can notify and slow down. The parking lot can announce the availability of the previous passenger the moment they leave the scene [4].
In addition, vehicle can collect traffic data flow and help the driver choose the best route. Due to real-time traffic updates, V2I can reduce fuel consumption. Pre-filtering through V2I and autonomous driving can increase density, which will quadruple the current infrastructure capacity, keep road accidents at zero and increase traffic speed.
V2P means vulnerable traffic groups, including pedestrians and cyclists, use user equipment to communicate with vehicle-mounted devices. V2P communication is mainly used to avoid or reduce traffic accidents. By organically linking “people, vehicles, infrastructure, network” and other elements, V2X can not only support vehicles to obtain more information than bicycles perceive, promote the innovation and application of autonomous driving, but also help build a more intelligent environment. The transportation system promotes the development of new models and business of automobiles and transportation services. V2P is of great significance for improving traffic efficiency, saving resources, reducing pollution, reducing accident rates, and improving traffic management [5]. Figure 2 shows the typical V2X scenario as follows.
Typical V2X scenario.
VLC refers to a type of communication that transmits data by modulating light waves in the visible spectrum (wavelength range from 380 nm to 750 nm). VLC is an emerging technology that realizes data communication by modulating the light intensity information emitted by light-emitting diode. Generally speaking, a system using visible light can be called VLC. VLC transmits data in a subtle way without affecting the normal lighting environment [6]. VLC is an optical communication technology, which uses optical transmission for information transmission. The spectrum is the physical threshold of light transmission, as shown in Figure 3 is the spectrum of VLC [7].
The frequency band of visible light in the electro-magnetic spectrum [
Visible light usually uses LED as a communication medium. LED equipped electroluminescence and semiconductor to generate light, which is made by conducting materials. Due to high energy efficiency, durability, and low cost, LED sales have doubled. LED has been widely used in various devices, such as smartphones, vehicles, video screens, and signs. The universe of VLC has brought many benefits to the industry. LED bulbs have become the main medium for visible light communication.
So far, ITS relies on RF. However, the last decade has seen a major shift in lighting technology. With the major breakthrough of optical communication technology and the wide application of LED in indoor or outdoor lighting stimulation, VLC has become a feasible communication technology, making Vehicular VLC (V-VLC) possible in ITS [8].
A major advantage of VLC is the use of existing infrastructure to provide communication services. Data and energy can be transmitted simultaneously through LED. That is, energy transmitted does not increase the cost [9].
One advantage of visible light over radio frequencies is the size of the frequency spectrum. The allocation of frequencies in the radio frequency band of the electromagnetic spectrum is greatly limited, regulated by each country, and coordinated through international telecommunications agencies. Light, however, is a different material. The spectrum of visible light is completely free, and it will lead to different commercials and academic possibilities [9].
Because of its propagation properties, light has a security advantage over radio waves. RF for vehicle-mounted networks has nondirectional propagation, relatively long communication distances, and it can penetrate objects. RF has been well studied over the past few decades and the technology is quite mature. But due to the potential security attacks, such as jamming eavesdropping, and man-in-the-middle attacks, it will raise concerns about their use in security-critical on-board networking applications. Light, on the other hand, does not follow this behavior. Light has high directivity, and its physical properties provide a more secure environment for communication systems [10].
Finally, one of the main advantages of light is the wave’s high frequency, which allows for very high data rate communication. A large amount of bandwidth available in the visible spectrum allows for huge potential data rates. Currently, in terms of Wi-Fi, the highest data rates achieved in standard Wireless Gigabit are close to 1 Gbps [11]. Due to the high frequency of light waves, VLC searches have yielded impressive results, which speed up to 100 Gbps [12].
VLC contains an irradiance modulation with direct detection (IM/DD) to communicate data faster than the persistence of human eyes by modulating LED intensity. Compared with traditional RF, VLC has superior speed and efficiency, security, and low cost. VLC fulfills its dual purpose of lighting and high-speed data communication. According to the characteristics of different modulation schemes, VLC modulation in visible light communication is divided into single carrier modulation multi-carrier modulation and Color Gamut-based Modulation.
Single carrier modulation is the transmission of all data signals using a single signal carrier. Single carrier avoids the problem that the ratio of maximum instantaneous electric power to average electric power of a multi-carrier system at the same time of each phase is very large. This technology is more mature and the system has higher stability. For the best point-to-multipoint communication system, the single carrier modulation can make the frequency and time synchronization design easier, and improve the stability of the system. A single carrier modulation system provides a point-to-multipoint wireless communication solution with high efficiency, high flexibility, and high stability.
Common single-carrier modulation schemes include on–off Keying (OOK) and Pulse Position Modulation (PPM). OOK is a simple amplitude shift keying modulation. Because its modulation is simple and easy to implement, it is widely used in low- and medium-speed data rate demand application scenarios. Although the latest research has realized data transmission at 1250 Mbits over a distance of 1 m [13], transmission cannot be promoted due to the limitation of transmission distance.
PPM has been developed as an alternative communication technology to improve the anti-interference capability of information transmission. PPM is a good way of modulation [14]. Considering the bit error rate performance, bandwidth requirements, optical power, and optical implementation complexity, PPM modulation is a viable candidate for VLC communication. Compared to OOK, pulse position modulation has low noise interference because the amplitude and width of the pulse are constant during modulation. In pulse position modulation, noise removal and separation are very easy. Due to the constant pulse amplitude and width, the power consumption is also very low compared with other modulation methods.
In the past few decades, PPM modulation technology has received extensive attention, and research has been extended to various forms, such as differential pulse position modulation (DPPM), digital pulse interval modulation, multi-pulse position modulation, overlapping pulse position modulation (OPPM), and pulse rate modulation. DPPM is a simple improvement of PPM modulation. As long as deleting all the “0” time slots behind the “1” time of the PPM modulation, we can get the corresponding DPPM signal. Compared to PPM, DPPM symbols do not have strict symbol synchronization requirements, and more importantly, they can provide higher power utilization and bandwidth utilization. However, the bit error rate in DPPM is higher than that in PPM [15]. The main disadvantage of this scheme is that the pulse width is very short, and the high order M-element PPM modulation VLC can improve the power and bandwidth efficiency [16]. PPM modulation index can improve the power of the system from 1 dB to 2.5 dB by reducing the average bit error rate (BER) [16]. OPPM signal modulation schemes offer key advantages over other existing PPM schemes, such as greater sensitivity and smaller bandwidth expansion [17]. A priority decoding OPPM error correction scheme is proposed, which can significantly improve the system’s BER without affecting the system bandwidth [14].
But PPM still has some disadvantages, for example, synchronization between transmitter and receiver, which is not always possible; we need dedicated channels and like pulse-amplitude modulation, transmission requires high bandwidth and this modulation requires special equipment. In addition, single carrier modulation is commonly subject to inter-symbol interference (ISI) during high-speed data transmission, which means that new modulation techniques are required.
With the increase in the VLC network data rate, MCM was developed to solve ISI during high-speed data transmission. MCM divides the transmitted data stream into several different components through different sub-channels. Under ideal propagation conditions, subchannels are usually orthogonal, and the number of substrates is chosen so that the bandwidth of each subchannel is lower than the coherent bandwidth of the channel, thus making it relatively immune to flat fading. Compared with incoherent modulation, MCM has lower energy efficiency and higher bandwidth efficiency. Common multi-carrier modulation includes subcarrier intensity modulation (SIM) and orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM), which have the advantages of high spectral efficiency and recovery ability against channel damage. However, SIM modulation is mostly used in the study of FSO, and here we discuss more OFDM [18].
OFDM modulation solves the multi-user problem by dividing the parallel data stream into different narrowband channels at different frequencies. However, most VLC systems use IM/DD, which requires that the electrical signal must be a real positive signal, so baseband OFDM cannot be directly applied. The improved schemes for OFDM, VLC include direct current (DC) bias optical OFDM (DCO-OFDM) and asymmetric limiting optical OFDM (ACO-OFDM). In the DCO-OFDM system, a DC offset is added to the normal OFDM symbol to reduce signal distortion and noise caused by negative limiting. In ACO-OFDM, only odd-indexed subcarriers are modulated, and the negative signal is clipped to zero during transmission. Compared with ACO-OFDM, DCO-OFDM has a lower power efficiency, but higher spectral efficiency. With the increase of the modulation order, BER performance of ACO-OFDM is about 4.5 dB better than that of DCO-OFDM, reaching 10−3 [19]. In the case of small bias, BER of ACO-OFDM with 16 quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) format is lower than that of ADO-OFDM with 4 QAM format.
Color-shift keying (CSK) is a visible light communication intensity modulation scheme proposed in IEEE 802.15.7, which sends signals through the color intensity emitted by red, green, and blue (RGB) light-emitting diodes. CSK signal points can be represented by an intensive combination of RGB colors corresponding to the transmitted data. The flicker of the light source is reduced by keeping the total emission intensity constant. Due to its unique advantages in preventing scintillation effect and light intensity fluctuation, the research of CSK in vehicle-mounted VLC has attracted more and more attention in recent years.
RGB LED consists of three LEDs in a package and produces white light through a combination of red, green, and blue outputs. Although more costly, RGB LED light can produce any perceived lighting color and can increase VLC data throughput by acting as a separate communication band. The perceived lighting color can be modified while achieving higher spectral efficiency.
FSO is known as an optical wireless system, which uses the atmosphere between the transmitter and receiver as the propagation medium, and FSO communication link is a line of sight (LOS). It can be used on various platforms, such as satellites, ships, airplanes, and other stationary or moving space and atmosphere. Due to its unregulated spectrum, inherent security, high data rate, and wider bandwidth, FSO is considered to be a supplement to radio frequency communication [20]. Although optical communication has advantages that traditional communication links cannot match, because its propagation medium cannot be controlled or adjusted, optical communication systems will be affected by some atmospheric phenomena. The main challenges of FSO are narrow beamwidth, transmission signal scattering, and scintillation. Due to the influence of atmospheric turbulence, the received signal intensity will fluctuate, that is, flicker [21]. FSO works according to the principle of sight. For continuous data transmission, LOS generated by the light beam should be straight. FSO is a combination of wireless technology and optical technology. The main factor that needs to be considered is the optimal bandwidth of the light beam used for communication and transmission of information signal data, such as audio and video. Free-space technology is an older technology used for lower data communications. Due to the limited bandwidth, RF is limited. Using lighting to transmit data, Li-Fi technology was proposed in optical communication [22]. The wireless optical communication technology was developed by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and used for military purposes with high-speed communication links [23].
In recent years, FSO have received extensive attention in terms of ground-to-satellite transmission links and last-mile applications due to their high capacity and easy implementation. However, atmospheric turbulence can cause random fluctuations in the amplitude and phase of the received signal, which limits the application of FSO links. Multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO), adaptive optics, and fiber laser phased array (FLPA) are important ways to suppress atmospheric turbulence [24].
The performance analysis of FSO should be considered from external and internal parameters. The specifications and ratings of the components used, including operating frequency, divergence, power consumption, and transmission angle are all internal parameters. The ability of the lens and the error rate are all at the receiver end. External parameters include environmental factors, such as alignment, atmospheric attenuation, weather conditions, and scintillation.
FSO communication depends on weather conditions. If weather conditions are cloudy or visibility is lower, the formed communication link would not be sufficient for effective communication, whereas the performance of FSO relies on the weather conditions. In the FSO system, the transmitter would produce a narrow beam of light, and the narrow beam of light is straight. At the same time, the receiver should receive the narrow beam of light from the strong communication link on a straight line [25]. In the optical communication system, a straight beam with a diameter of 5–8 cm passes through and spreads to 1–5 m within 1 km.
FSO technology is changing rapidly day by day. This technology would increase and maximize signal bandwidth, at the same time, this technology transmitting data would be at high speeds. FSO technology is similar to fiber optical communication. The only conversion is signal path flow. That is to say, wireless communication between the transmitter and receiver, without cables, so it reduces costs and can be more efficient [26]. The efficiency of FSO mainly depends on the external aspects or the medium aspects between the transmitter and the receiver. Data transmission is lossless and high-speed if the transmission medium has strong visibility. The data transmission speed of the LED can reach 100 Mbps, and various experiments have been carried out to increase the data rate.
A fiber laser phased array transmitter into a FSO communication system and compared BER and optical transmit power of the two systems, which used single-aperture transmitter and FLPA transmitter. Experiments show that the power budget gap is about 8–10 dBm [24]. This shows that the FLPA transmitter provides a higher power budget. A new type of FSO switch capable of multicasting, the cost analysis of this switch shows that even if the cost of T-SE is 1.2 to 3.5 of micro-electro-mechanical system mirroring, its cost is lower than that of AD-based switches [27]. In Ref. [16], this paper uses avalanche photodiode (APD) and the positive intrinsic negative (PIN) receivers, respectively, and considers a single input multi output system with strong gas turbulence defined by
Parameters | FSO | RF |
---|---|---|
Light source characteristics | Laser communication and non-laser communication | Radio frequency identification |
Modulation rate | high | low |
Anti-interference ability | low | high |
Power | 2.00E-03(J/Mb) | 2.31E-02 (J/Mb) |
Power loss | 5–15 db/km | 108 dB/km |
Output power | 5–500 mWatt | 50 mWatt |
Range | 4 km | 4 km |
Data rate | 10 Gbps | 100 Mbps |
Capacity | Not Allowed | Allowed |
Advantage | Unlicensed band | NLOS |
Security | high | low |
Limitation | environment | spectrum |
Spectrum range | 0.8–1.2 THz | 2–6 GHz |
Wavelength | 850 nm–1550 nm | 22–2500 m |
The performance comparison between FSO and RF.
As a new invention, IRS can be called smart wall, smart reflective light, passive smart mirror, smart reflective surface, and large smart surface. IRS is composed of a large number of passive, low-cost components. It is a low-carbon and environmentally friendly smart component that can effectively control the phase, frequency, amplitude, and even polarization of the collision signal, IRS will build a real-time and reconfigurable propagation environment. The signal coverage of IRS is small, easy to deploy, and will not interfere with each other. By increasing the number of reflective elements, the quality of the received signal can be significantly improved. IRS does not require a power supply, complex algorithms, and hardware. IRS is easy to integrate into current wireless communication systems. These advantages make IRS a promising candidate for future wireless communication systems. IRS can greatly adjust the signal reflection to change the wireless channel to enhance communication performance. IRS is used to realize the intelligent and reconfigurable wireless channel propagation environment of the B5G/6G wireless communication system. Generally speaking, IRS is a plane composed of a large number of passive reflection units, and each passive reflection unit can independently produce a controllable amplitude and/or phase change of the incident signal. By densely deploying IRS units in the wireless network, the reflection of the IRS array is cleverly coordinated. The signal propagation between the transmitter and the receiver can be flexibly reconfigured to achieve the required realization and distribution, which provides a new means to fundamentally solve the problem of wireless channel fading damage and interference. It is possible to achieve a leap in wireless communication capacity and reliability.
IRS is composed of a large number of low-cost passive reflective components, which are only used to reflect signals and do not need to transmit signals. Therefore, IRS is almost passive and ideally does not require any dedicated energy.
IRS can control the scattering, reflection, and refraction characteristics of radio waves through the program, thereby overcoming the negative effects of natural wireless propagation. Therefore, IRS-assisted wireless communication can intelligently control the wave-front, such as phase, amplitude, frequency, and even polarization, which can hit the signal without complicated decoding, encoding, and radio frequency processing operations.
IRS can be integrated into the existing communication network protocol only by changing the network, without changing the hardware facilities and software of their equipment. At the same time, the IRS has a full-band response, and it can ideally work at any operating frequency.
IRS is characterized by small size, lightweight, conformal geometry, and thinner than the wavelength, so it is easier to install and disassemble. Therefore, IRS can be easily deployed on exterior walls of buildings, billboards, ceilings of factories and indoor spaces, and people’s clothes.
In the future, IRS will be everywhere. IRS can be deployed on outdoor walls, drones, and transportation equipment of smart buildings in smart cities. Self-driving vehicles can use IRS as an intermediate medium to realize free wireless optical transmission, quickly, accurately, and accurately convey various information to the vehicle, and realize V2X. Centralizing vehicles into the Internet of Things makes the vehicle and the Internet of Things closely connected. The lightweight, convenient, and flexible deployment characteristics of IRS enable IRS to play a big role in V2X.
Another promising direction is IRS-assisted RF sensing and positioning. The large aperture size of the IRS and its ability to shape the propagation environment can significantly enhance RF sensing capabilities. The channel can be changed to provide favorable conditions for RF induction, and then it can be monitored with high precision. Encouraging results were reported in Ref. [28], and these results may have applications in energy-saving monitoring, assisted living, and remote health monitoring. However, the issue of optimizing the configuration of the IRS to enhance RF sensing remains to be studied. The effective combination of radio frequency technology and IRS can also be applied in the future V2X. Vehicles can use sensors to sense the signals of surrounding vehicles and traffic signs and provide evidence of effective traffic information for real-time V2X decision analysis. The combination of RF and IRS makes the monitoring data correct.
In the past few years, wireless data traffic has seen unprecedented growth. On one hand, from 2016 to 2021, mobile data traffic is expected to increase seven times. On the other hand, video traffic is expected to triple in the same period [29]. In fact, by 2022, wireless and mobile device traffic is expected to account for 71% of total traffic. In fact, by 2030, wireless data rates will be sufficient to match wired broadband Competition [30]. The growth of use of wireless communication has led the researcher to explore appropriate radio spectrum ranges to satisfy the growing needs of individuals. For this reason, THz frequency band (0.1–10 THz) has begun to attract attention. Seamless data transmission, unlimited bandwidth, microsecond delay, and ultra-high-speed downloading of THz will completely lead the innovation of communication and change the way of communication and access information.
The term terahertz was first used in the field of microwave science in the 1970s to describe the spectral frequency of interferometers, the coverage of diode detectors, and water laser resonance [31, 32]. In 2000, terahertz was called a sub-millimeter wave, and the frequency range was between 100 GHz and 10 THz. However, the dividing line between sub-millimeter wave and far infrared was not clearly identified [33, 34]. The concept of ultra-wideband communication using THz for no line of sight signal components was first proposed as a powerful solution for extremely high data rates [35]. Since then, THz technology, especially communication technology, has captured the enthusiasm of the research community.
In fact, the rise of terahertz wireless communication started as early as 2000 when the 120 GHz wireless link produced by photonic technology started [36]. The 120 GHz signal is the first commercial terahertz communication system, and its allocated bandwidth is 18 GHz. Data rates of 10 gbps and 20 gbps are achieved through OOK or QPSK modulation, respectively [37, 38]. The terahertz frequency band guarantees a wide range of throughput, and theoretically can be extended to several terahertz to reach terabits per second (Tbps) [39]. This potential associated with terahertz technology has attracted a wider research community. In fact, the joint efforts of active research teams are producing new designs, materials, and manufacturing methods, providing unlimited opportunities for the development of terahertz. The potential benefits of the THz band are discussed [33]. THz can be applied to terahertz imaging and tomography [34]. THz wave is an electromagnetic wave between microwave and infrared, with a wavelength of 0.03–3 mm and a frequency of 0.1–10 THz. THz waves not only have the same straightness as light waves but also have similar penetrating and absorptive properties to radio waves.
Transient: The typical pulse width of a THz pulse is in the order of picoseconds.
Broadband: THz pulse source usually only contains several periods of electromagnetic oscillation, and the frequency band of a single pulse can cover the range from GHz to tens of THz.
Coherence: The coherence of THz comes from its generation mechanism.
Low energy: The energy of THz photons is only Millielectron volts. Compared with X-rays, it will not damage the detected substance due to ionization.
Penetration: THz radiation has a strong penetrating power for many nonpolar materials, such as dielectric materials and plastics, cartons, and other packaging materials. It can be used for quality inspection of packaged items or for a safety inspection.
Most polar molecules, such as water molecules and ammonia molecules, have strong absorption of THz radiation. The spectral characteristics of THz can be analyzed to study material composition or perform product quality control.
Because most biological tissues are rich in water, water absorbs THz radiation very strongly, it greatly reduces the sensitivity of imaging of biological samples, and THz cannot make a clear image for samples with a lot of water, especially thick samples. This severely limits the application of THz imaging in biomedicine.
At present, the average energy of THz waves generated by most femtosecond lasers is only on the order of Nanowatts and can reach a signal-to-noise ratio of 100,000 or higher for single-point detection, but the signal-to-noise ratio of real-time two-dimensional imaging is very low. To obtain a high signal-to-noise ratio for imaging, a higher energy source is required.
THz ultra-large MIMO frequency band can meet the needs of high data rates, but under the premise of providing a huge bandwidth, this band suffers a huge atmospheric loss. Therefore, high-gain directional antennas should be used for communication over a distance of more than a few meters. In the terahertz band, antennas are installed in the same space in a small and dense manner. Ultra Massive MIMO (UM-MIMO) channel was proposed [40, 41], the concept of UM-MIMO relies on the use of ultra-dense frequency-tunable plasma nano-antenna arrays, UM-MIMO was used for both transmitting and receiving, thereby increasing the communication distance and ultimately increasing the achievable data rate at terahertz frequencies [42]. In fact, when ensuring a two-dimensional or planar antenna array instead of a one-dimensional or linear array, the radiated signal can be adjusted in elevation and azimuth directions. This results in 3D or full-dimensional MIMO. The performance of UM-MIMO technology depends on two indicators, namely the prospect of plasmonic nano-antennas and the characteristics of the terahertz channel. Another important aspect is dynamic resource allocation, which can make full use of the UM-MIMO system and obtain maximum benefits through adaptive design schemes [43].
Facing the technical barriers of 5G communication, THz is expected to have breakthroughs in reliability and low latency. Currently, video requires extremely high bandwidth. Therefore, the terahertz frequency band is sought as a technological supplement, and THz will provide high capacity and dense coverage to meet user needs. The terahertz cellular network will enable interactive, high dynamic range video with higher resolution and higher frame rate, which actually requires 10 times the bit rate required for 4 K video. Terahertz transmission will help solve any interference problems and provide additional data to support various instructions in video transmission. In addition, the terahertz band will become an enabler of 6-degree-of-freedom (6DoF) video, providing users with the ability to move inside and interact with the environment. The results of the literature [44] absorbing the impact on the terahertz link greatly limits the communication range of small base stations. This impact can be mitigated by the densification of the network. Therefore, the terahertz can provide a rate of up to 16.4 Gbps with a delay threshold of 30 ms.
At present, 5G has been put into use worldwide, and the B5G system will be a supplement to the current 5G. Due to the low latency and high reliability of THz technology, THz can be applied to driverless vehicles. The main goals of the current B5G system are as follows:
Extremely high data rates of each device (from tens of Gbps to Tbps)
A large number of connected devices
Ultra-large data rate per region
Ultra-reliable transmission, supporting various key applications, such as V2V communication, industrial control, and medical care
The application of visible light, free optical communication and THz technology, and related technologies in V2X was described above. The following focuses on comparing related technologies.
Communication through visible light is a promising energy-sensing technology, attracting people from industry and academia to study its potential applications in different fields. VLC carries information by modulating light in the visible spectrum (390–750 nm) [45]. Recent advances in LED lighting have enabled unprecedented energy efficiency and lamp life because LEDs can be pulsed at very high speeds without significant impact on lighting output and the human eye. LED also has several attractive features, including low power consumption, small size, long life, low cost, and low heat radiation. Therefore, VLC can support many important services and applications, such as indoor positioning, human-computer interaction, device-to-device communication, vehicle networks, traffic lights, and advertising display [46]. Despite the advantages associated with deploying VLC communications, several challenges exist that may hinder the effectiveness of wireless communication links. To achieve high data rates in a VLC link, LoS channel should first be assumed, in which both the transmitter and receiver should be aligned with the field of view (FOV) to maximize channel gain. However, due to the continuous change of the movement and direction of the receiver, the field of view of the receiver may not always be aligned with the transmitter. This misalignment leads to a significant drop in received optical power [7]. When an object or man obstructs the line of sight, the optical power will drop significantly, resulting in a severe drop in the data rate. Similar to infrared waves, ambient light interference will significantly reduce the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the received signal and reduce the communication quality [45]. The current research on visible light networks also reveals downstream traffic but does not consider how the uplink runs. Since the directional beam to the receiver should be maintained in the VLC uplink communication, when the mobile device is constantly moving/rotating, a significant throughput drop may occur. Therefore, other wireless technologies should be used to transmit uplink data [46]. Contrary to the VLC system, the THz band allows NLOS to propagate when LoS is not available as a supplement [47]. In this case, NLOS propagation can reflect the beam to the receiver by strategically installing dielectric mirrors. Due to the low reflection loss of the dielectric mirror, the resulting path loss is sufficient. In fact, for a distance of up to 1 meter and a transmission power of 1 watt, only the NLOS component in the terahertz link has a capacity of about 100 Gbps [48]. In addition, the terahertz frequency band is considered a candidate frequency band for uplink communication, which is a capability lacking in VLC communication. Another specific application where terahertz has become a valuable solution is the need to turn off the lights when looking for network services. Due to the limitation of the positive signal and the real signal, the VLC system will suffer a loss of spectrum efficiency. In fact, compared with the traditional bipolar system, using the unipolar OFDM system to impose Hermitian symmetry will cause a performance loss of 3 dB [49]. Both THz and VLC can be used as communication technologies to realize V2X in the future. Realize a technological breakthrough in V2X.
VLC has become an attractive alternative to indoor RF communication to meet the growing demand for massive data services. In addition to providing a huge and unlicensed bandwidth to cope with the crowded radio spectrum, VLC has various other advantages, such as ease of use, no radiation, and no electromagnetic interference. On one hand, FSO is a line-of-sight, which has attracted great attention as a high-bandwidth last-mile transmission technology. On the other hand, FSO is a reasonable alternative to optical fiber because it requires less initial deployment [50] and it can be installed in locations where wired connection deployment is challenging.
The indoor VLC must be connected to the base station to achieve the purpose of communication. The most economical solution for connecting an indoor VLC to an outdoor base station is to use a power cord. In this case, various studies have been proposed [51, 52], involving the integration of VLC and power line communication (PLC) as a backbone network. However, PLC channels suffer from multiple damages—deep notches, high attenuation, and colored background noise that limits the data rate. To provide better data rates and improve system performance, VLC should be supplemented by high-bandwidth FSO links to achieve high-data-rate indoor multimedia services [53]. The direct FSO/VLC heterogeneous interconnection with data aggregation and distribution has been proved through experiments.
The combination of visible light and free optical communication technology can be used on V2X. Visible lights can be used on traffic signs, such as traffic lights. The combination of VLC and FSO can achieve V2I. The combination of optical communication and smart vehicles will provide better services. The combination of optical communication and smart vehicles will provide better services in the future smart vehicles.
FSO technology is an excellent candidate for high-performance secure communication due to its safety, anti-interference, high beam directivity, flexibility, and energy efficiency. However, to date, the large-scale deployment of FSO communication systems has been affected by availability and reliability issues due to flicker on sunny days, low visibility on foggy days, Mie scattering effects, and high sensitivity to beam drift effects [54]. Due to the high directivity of the beam, FSO links are more difficult to intercept than RF systems. Nevertheless, Eve can still apply beam splitting attacks on the transmitting end, and blocking attacks or beam divergence attacks on the receiving end. Judging from the number of recent papers related to physical layer security (PLS). PLS research on FSO communication systems seems to be gaining momentum, such as [55, 56]. Unfortunately, almost all PLS papers related to FSO links use the eavesdropping channel method and direct detection introduced by Wyner [57]. Fog is the most unfavorable factor affecting FSO link reliability. In contrast, terahertz signals are less affected by these problems but are affected by other weather conditions, such as rain and snow. This shows that the two transmission media (FSO and THz) can operate in a complementary manner, depending on the prevailing weather and atmospheric conditions.
The above is the comparison of related technologies. In the future research direction, these several technologies can support the related research of V2X. The combination of pairwise or the combination of several technologies can play a very important role in future research.
V-VLC is a fairly novel technology, although experimental studies in real driving scenarios have shown the feasibility of this technology in the application of vehicle networking. However, the current research on V-VLC mainly focuses on the understanding and characterization of the V-VLC channel, as well as the development of the V-VLC prototype. Although in the aspect of the physical layer, V-VLC still has many unsolved problems, especially regarding the performance and channel model of V-VLC in transportation system channels. But now the research will also focus on higher layer protocols V-VLC and IEEE 802.11p C-V2X and other different communication technologies that can make up for each other’s shortcomings and improve the overall performance of applications [8].
Vehicular networking applications V-VLC can be used alone or implemented as part of a heterogeneous vehicular networking system V-VLC can benefit these specific applications as follows:
FSO can be used in future V2V systems by using highly collimated beams for enhanced vehicle-to-everything applications. A low-rate control link with multiple Gbps-assisted FSO links running in parallel is proposed [60]. Previous a control link is used to exchange sensor data about vehicle attitude dynamics to perform FSO beam tracking and provide an ultra-reliable high data rate connection on the latter FSO link. The joint contribution of local and distributed processing guarantees continuous and precise pointing to fully support autonomous driving applications.
To counteract the adverse effects of the limited sampling frequency of onboard sensors and control link delays, the evolution of vehicle kinematics can be estimated by simultaneously predicting and fusing multiple inertial measurement unit (IMU) data, augmented by real-time information on vehicle position.
When it comes to vehicle networks, there are several additional reasons to explore higher frequency bands that can support multiple Gbps and Tbps links. Firstly, when transmitting at such a high data rate, even if a user is mobile, from a data point of view, the link actually seems to be static because the transmission is almost instantaneous. In short, although the systems change over time, they do so much slower than the actual data rate. Therefore, during the transmission of a given frame, the system appears to be static. In addition, even if the user’s connection is intermittent, the amount of information that can be transmitted per connection may be huge (1 Tb/ s). In addition, by moving to a higher carrier frequency, the influence of the Doppler effect can be reduced. Although this may not be a problem for automotive networks, it is very important for wireless data transmission between or between aircraft flying at high speeds. Therefore, there are inherent characteristics that prompt the exploration of vehicle networks in the terahertz frequency band [61]. This is undoubtedly the future trend for the realization of V2X. In the future, THz technology can shine in V2X.
Based on the results left over from the millimeter-wave band, the main attributes of terahertz communication are expected to include the following:
High frequency provides very large available bandwidth, therefore, potentially high data rate.
In response to high path loss, directional antennas will be mandatory. Highly directional antennas result in narrow beamwidths and very limited interference. Therefore, a very high data rate can be expected for each area.
If effective beam search and alignment mechanisms are in place, high rates can also lead to low delays.
THz will shine in unmanned driving. THz in V2X can be a direction and trend in the future, connecting everything. THz will deliver information quickly and efficiently in terms of high speed and high accuracy.
V2X is the key technology of the Internet of Vehicles. The Internet of Vehicles in the true sense consists of the network platform, the vehicle, and the driving environment. This chapter focuses on the investigation and review of the important research results and forward-looking technologies of optical wireless communication in the application of V2X. VLC communication technology maximizes the use of existing traffic infrastructure to build a multi-user communication network structure for people-vehicle-traffic lights; the unique high-speed communication speed of THz and FSO communication technology provides strong communication speed support for V2X; IRS equipment research provides the possibility for long-distance NLOS communication. In addition, these aforementioned technologies and their key features are summarized, and their emerging future research and engineering directions are given. It is anticipated that, in building a smart city, optic-/THz-based technology will play an important role in a future highly developed V2X networking era.
IntechOpen celebrates Open Access academic research of women scientists: Call Opens on February 11, 2018 and closes on March 8th, 2018.
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\\n\\nAPPLYING FOR THE “INTECHOPEN WOMEN IN SCIENCE 2018” OPEN ACCESS BOOK COLLECTION
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\\n\\nThe submissions are now closed. All applicants will be notified on the results in due time. Thank you for participating!
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"On February 9th, 2018, which marks the official celebration of UNESCO’s International Day of Women and Girls in Science, we have announced we are seeking contributors for the upcoming “IntechOpen Women in Science 2018” Book Collection. The program aims to support women scientists worldwide whose academic needs include quality assurance, peer-review, fast publishing, collaboration among complementary authors, immediate exposure, and post-publishing citations reporting.
\n\nAPPLYING FOR THE “INTECHOPEN WOMEN IN SCIENCE 2018” OPEN ACCESS BOOK COLLECTION
\n\nWomen scientists can apply for one book topic, either as an editor or with co-editors, for a publication of an OA book in any of the scientific categories that will be evaluated by The Women in Science Book Collection Committee, led by IntechOpen’s Editorial Board. Submitted proposals will be sent to designated members of the IntechOpen Editorial Advisory Board who will evaluate proposals based on the following parameters: the proposal’s originality, the topic’s relation to recent trends in the corresponding scientific field, and significance to the scientific community.
\n\nThe submissions are now closed. All applicants will be notified on the results in due time. Thank you for participating!
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He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. 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He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"3",type:"subseries",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Antibiotics, Biofilm, Antibiotic Resistance, Host-microbiota Relationship, Treatment, Diagnostic Tools",scope:"